YooJin Jang

AP BIOLOGY

Chapter 1 Introduction: Themes in the study of life

1. Cells are the basic unit of life because cells make up the smallest level of
a living organism such as yourself and other living things. The cellular
level of an organism is where the metabolic processes occur that keep the
organism alive.
2. The highest level of organization for living things is the biosphere; it
encompasses all other levels.
3. The properties of life are cellular organization, homeostasis, metabolism,
reproduction, responsiveness, reproduction, heredity, and growth.
4. The basic differences between Prokaryotic cells and Eukaryotic cells are
that Eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound organelles, such as the
nucleus, while prokaryotic cells do not. Prokaryotic cells are found in
single celled organisms such as bacteria; where as Eukaryotic cells are
found multicellular organisms such as fungi, animals, and people.
5. The phrase form fit function, also referred to as FFF, is used in
manufacturing to describe the identifying characteristics of a part. Fit
refers to the ability for the part to interconnect, mate with, join, or link to
another part or an assembly. Function refers to the purpose of the part by
how the part should perform and operate.
6. An open system is a material system in which mass or energy can be lost
to or gained from the environment.
7. Evolution is a central theme in biology. Understanding evolution helps us
solve biological problems that impact our lives. There are examples of this
in the field of medicine. To stay one step ahead of pathogenic diseases,
researchers must understand the evolutionary patterns of disease-causing
organisms. To control hereditary diseases in people, researchers study
the evolutionary histories of the disease-causing genes. In these ways,
knowledge of evolution can improve the quality of human life. Diversity is
important as well. The number of species of plants, animals, and
microorganisms, the enormous diversity of genes in these species, the
different ecosystems on the planet, such as deserts, rainforests and coral
reefs are all part of a biologically diverse Earth.
8. The hypothetico-deductive model or method is a proposed description of
scientific method. According to it, scientific inquiry proceeds by formulating
a hypothesis in a form that could be falsified by a test on observable data.
Chapter 51: Behavioral Biology

1. Behavior has a genetic and environmental basis. Genes capture the

evolutionary responses of prior populations to selection on behavior.
Environmental flexibility gives animals the opportunity to adjust to changes
during their own lifetime.
2. Behaviors that are closely controlled by genes with little or no
environmental influence are called innate behaviors. Ethology is the study
of animal behaviors in a natural environment. Fixed action pattern is a
series or sequence of acts that occur behaviorally in animals. This
sequence is unchangeable and will be carried out to completion once
started, regardless of changes in the original stimulus. A type of stimulus
called a sign stimulus triggers fixed action patterns. The job of the sign
stimulus is to start off the fixed action pattern of a particular organism.
3. Adult female digger wasps, Philanthus triangulum, built nests in sand. The
nest consisted of an entrance tunnel leading to several “rooms” each
containing a developing larva. The wasp catches bees on hunting trips
and stores this food in each room occupied by a larva. Tinbergen found
out by the results that when the wasp emerged from the nest she made
several flights around the nest before flying off to hunt for bees. Returning
with prey, the wasp flew to the circle of pinecones even though it had been
moved during her absence.
4. Behavioral ecology is the study of the evolutionary basis for animal
behavior due to ecological pressures. It looks at how competition and
cooperation between and within species affects evolutionary fitness.
5. Search image is when a predator develops knowledge of a prey type,
such as what it looks, smells like etc. and is "switched on" for that type.
Optimal foraging theory is a model that helps predict how an animal
behaves when searching for food. Although obtaining food provides the
animal with energy, searching for and capturing the food require both
energy and time.
6. Learning can be simply defined as knowledge gained through study.
Maturation can be defined as the act of maturing. This not only refers to
the physical growth that an individual comes across as he ages, but also
the ability to behave, act, and react in an appropriate manner.
7. Habituation is a simple form of learning, in which an animal, after a period
of exposure to a stimulus, stops responding. Imprinting is a process
 whereby a young animal follows the characteristics of his/her mother after
hatching. Critical Period is a limited period of development in which many
animals develop species-specific patterns of behavior.
8. Associative learning any learning process in which a new response
becomes associated with a particular stimulus. Classical conditioning is a
kind of learning in which a person or animal comes to associate two kinds
of stimuli, one that naturally prompts a given behavior and one that does
not. Operant conditioning is a type of learning where behavior is controlled
by consequences.
9. Animals play because when playing, they usually tries to manipulate
objects or maybe to make new combinations of movements always in a
controlled environment. They want to learn about their own limits and
abilities.
10. Taxis have a specific and directed motion while kinesis has a random and
undirected motion.
11. The three mechanisms of migration are mutation, genetic drift, and
natural selection. Mutations give rise to new alleles. Therefore, they are a
source of genetic variation in a population. Genetic drift, which can occur
when a small group of individuals leaves a population and establishes a
new one in a geographically isolated region.
12. The mating systems: Monogamy is when one male and one female have
an exclusive mating relationship, serially or for a lifetime. Promiscuity is
when any male mates with any female in a population or social group.
Polygamy is when one or more males have a relationship with one or
more females. Polygyny is when one male has a relationship with two or
more females. Polyandry is when one female has a relationship with two
or more males.
13. Pheromone is a chemical substance that an animal or insect produces in
order to attract other animals or insects and especially a mate.
14. Inclusive fitness is an assessment of evolutionary fitness that includes an
individual's contributions to the evolutionary success of close genetic
relatives and their offspring. Altruism is any behavior that seems to reduce
the individual's fitness while conferring increased fitness to another
individual. Kin selection is the idea that evolution has selected altruism
toward one's close relatives to enhance the survival of mutually shared
genes.

Chapter 25: Tracing Phylogeny

1. Systematic is a discipline focused on classifying organisms and
determining their evolutionary relationships. It is used to develop
phylogenetic trees because it uses data ranging from fossils and
molecules to infer.
2. Taxonomy the science of defining groups of biological organisms on the
basis of shared characteristics and giving names to those groups.
3. My binomial is Homo Saipan and it means “wise man”
4.
Panthera Pandus
Species

Panthera
Genus

Felidae
Family

Carnivora
Order

Class Mammalia

Phylum Chordata (spine)

Animalia
Kingdom

Eukarya
Domain

5. Those in the same order are more closely related.

6. Cladistic analysis is used to reconstruct cladograms summarizing the
(assumed) phylogenetic relations and evolutionary history of groups of
 organisms. A clade is a group of species that includes an ancestral
species and all of its descendants.
7. Parsimony argues that the simplest of competing explanations is the most
likely to be correct
8. Node 1, a hole in the hip socket, is an adaption associated with the erect
posture of the dinosaur. Node 2 represents the common ancestor of all
four dinosaurs whose phylogeny is the focus of this example. The defining
character of node 2, a backward-pointing extension of the pelvis bone, is a
shared derived character that distinguishes all dinosaurs above node 2.

Chapter 26: Early Earth and the Origin of life

1. Canyon Diablo meteorites include the many fragments of the asteroid that
created Barringer Crater, Arizona, United States
2. Life originated between 3.5 and 4.0 billion years ago.
3. Scientists named the Hadean Eon after the Greek god Hades, who ruled
the underworld, because during most of the Hadean period the surface of
the Earth must have been like our image of Hell. The Hadean Eon began
when the planet Earth first began to form, about 4.5 billion years ago.
4. Stromatolites are banded domes of sedimentary rock that are strikingly
similar to layered mats formed today in salt marshes and some warm-
ocean lagoons by colonies of bacteria and cyanobacteria.
5. Prokaryotic cells came first.
6. Once we had photosynthesis, we start pumping O2 into the atmosphere.
7. The type of atmosphere that started developing was an oxidizing
atmosphere.
8. Eukaryotic like then show life.
9. The evidence comes from geologic evidence. We used geologic evidence
such as looking at rocks and using absolute dating and relative dating to
look at how old those rocks are.
10. Miller-Urey is a conducted an experiment which demonstrated that
several organic compounds could be formed spontaneously by simulating
the conditions of Earth's early atmosphere.
11. Jeffery Bada looked through what Miller did in the 1950’s and found about
25 amino acids created in the experiment. There were also OLD amino
acids found in this experiment.
12. Characteristics that are shared by all life on our planet are cell and
organization, energy use and metabolism, response to environmental
change, regulation and homeostasis, growth and development,
reproduction, and biological evolution.
13. The name of the common ancestor that has all of these characteristics is
DNA, RNA intermediates, Proteins, ATP, Lipid membrane, and cell
division.
14. 50% of our DNA is shared with a banana.
15. 25% would be shared if it were just random chance.
 16. The universe is becoming more and more random over time and less
ordered.
17. We find life becoming more and more complex, spreading out and
evolving over time.
18. Culture separates us from all the other organisms on the planet?
19. RNA was thought to be the first genetic material because it evolved all the
essential methods for storing and expressing genetic information before
DNA came onto the scene.
20. The 5 kingdom systems are animalia, plantae, fungi, protista, and
monera. Animalia includes organisms that are invertebrates, and
vertebrates, multicellular organisms, contains no cell wall, and obtains
energy from respiration. Plantae are multicellular, have cell walls, and
obtain energy through photosynthesis. Fungi are multicellular, with a cell
wall, organelles including a nucleus, but no chloroplasts. Protista are
single-celled and usually moved by cilia, flagella, or by amoeboid
mechanisms. There is usually no cell wall. They have organelles including
a nucleus and may have chloroplasts, so some will be green and others
won't be. They are small, although many are big enough to be recognized
in a dissecting microscope or even with a magnifying glass. Monera are
one -celled organisms and do not have a nucleus. The three domain
systems are bacteria, archaea, and eukaryota. Archaea domain contains
single-celled organisms known as Archaebacateria. Bacteria are classified
under the Bacteria Domain. Bacteria have a unique cell wall composition
and rRNA type. The Eukarya domain includes eukaryotes, or organisms
that have a membrane bound nucleus. This domain is further subdivided
into the kingdoms Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia.

Chapter 29&30

1. The four groups or divisions of terrestrial plants are Bryophytes, Ferns,

Gymnosperms, and Angiosperms.
2. The closest relative to the plants is green algae, which is called
charophytes.
3. The characteristics of land plants are eukaryotic, autotrophs, contains cell
wall, terrestrial, alternation of generations, and are emryophytes
4. “Alternation of Generations”: means that there are two lifecycles in plants.
a) Gametophyte is haploid which means there is only one set of
chromosomes
b) Sporophyte is diploid which means it contains two complete sets of
chromosomes, one from each parent.
c) Relate this to humans: The sporophyte is the diploid stage in the
life cycle. In comparison, with humans, you and I would be
sporophytes. The Gametophyte is the haploid stage in the life
cycle. In comparison, with humans, sperm and ovules are
gametophytes.
d) In plants the gametophyte can be multicellular.
 e) When you look at a moss, you are looking at a conifer.
5. The Four Groups and their evolutionary developments.
a) Bryophytes- they’re similar to what some of the first plants in our
planet had. They’re green, however they couldn’t be very tall because in
order to move water around, they could only move it around through
diffusion. They didn’t have vessels inside them that could move the water.
They are found in areas that have a lot of rainwater, so they could get
water that way.
b) Ferns- they’re a member of a group of vascular plants that
reproduce via spores and have neither seeds nor flowers. They differ from
mosses by being vascular, i.e., having certain tissue that conducts water
and nutrients, and having branched stems.
c) Gymnosperms (Conifers)- are seed-bearing vascular plants, such as
cycads, ginkgo, yews and conifers, in which the ovules or seeds are not
enclosed in an ovary. The word "gymnosperm" comes from the Greek
word gymnospermos, meaning "naked seeds". Gymnosperm seeds
develop either on the surface of scale or a leaf-like appendage of cones.
d) Angiosperms- they are vascular seed plants in which the ovule (egg)
is fertilized and develops into a seed in an enclosed hollow ovary. The
ovary itself is usually enclosed in a flower, that part of the angiospermous
plant that contains the male or female reproductive organs or both.
Angiosperms are found in almost every habitat from forests and
grasslands to sea margins and deserts.
7. Some species interact so intimately that they can cause evolutionary
changes in each other over time. This is called coevolution. In coevolution,
when one species develops an evolutionary advantage, it triggers a change in
a closely associated species. This change may then cause another
evolutionary change in the first species. Flowering plants (angiosperms) and
their pollinators are often used as the classic example of this evolutionary
phenomenon. The plant and the pollinator place evolutionary pressure on
each other for changes in morphology, physiology, or habits that benefit both.

Animal Diversity: Chapters 32-34

1. The characteristics of animals are that they are eukaryotic, meaning they
have a nuclei, they are multicellular, meaning they consist of more than one
cell, they are motile, meaning they are able to move around, they are
heterotrophs, meaning cannot manufacture its own food and instead obtains
its food and energy by taking in organic substances, usually plant or animal
matte, contains no cell walls, and they go through a blastula which is an
animal embryo at the early stage of development when it is a hollow ball of
cells.
2. Between 620 and 550 million years ago animals first arise
3. The four initial stages of embryonic development are the morula stage, the
blastula stage, the gastrula stage and the neurula stage.
4. In bilateral symmetry, the body can be divided into two equal halves through
the central plane. In radial symmetry, there are identical body parts that are
distributed in a circular arrangement around a central axis. These organisms
have a top and bottom, but they don't have a left and right side or a front and
backside. Bilateral symmetry has a symmetric plane while radial symmetry
has a symmetric axis. This form of symmetry promotes active mobility and
increases sophistication of resource-seeking and predator-prey relationships.
Radial symmetry enables these sea creatures, which may be sedentary or
only capable of slow movement or floating, to experience the environment
equally from all directions.
5. Cephalization means having a head. Because of the development of a brain,
the concentration of the sense organs at the front of the body, and the close
proximity of the mouth to the sense organs can help organisms adapt the
their environment.
6. A germ layer is a group of cells in an embryo that interact with each other as
the embryo develops and contribute to the formation of all organs and tissues.
The 3 germ layers are the ectoderm, the mesoderm, and the endoderm.
Germ layers eventually give rise to all organs of the body. Ectodermal organs
are mainly skin and nervous system. Endodermal organs are lungs,
gastrointestinal tract, liver, and pancreas. Mesodermal tissues are muscles,
bones, blood, and cartilage.
7. A coelom is a fluid-filled body cavity that is completely lined by tissue created
from the mesoderm, the middle layer of the primary cells found in an embryo.
Acoelomate does not have a body cavity. Pseudocoelomates have a body
cavity from the blastocoel. Coelomates have true coeloms that are formed in
the mesoderm tissue.
8. In protostome development, there is spiral radical and indeterminate
cleavage. The blastopore becomes the mouth and the coelom forms from the
mesoderm. In deuterostome development, radial and indeterminate cleavage
takes place. The blastopore is the new anus and the coelom forms from
budding off the wall of the archenteron. In protostomes, no archenteron
development is found. However, in deuterostomes, early development of the
gut found, which is called the archenteron. In protostomes, the gut is tunneled
into the embryo to form the anus. In deuterostomes, the gut is tunneled into
the embryo to form the mouth.
9. Cactus plant in the desert of North America and cactus plants in the desert of
Africa that are unrelated species, have evolved to have similar fleshy bodies
with no leaves because of similar habitats and pressures. This is an example
of convergent evolution.
10. The "Cambrian Explosion" refers to the sudden appearance in the fossil
record of complex animals with mineralized skeletal remains. It may represent
the most important evolutionary event in the history of life on Earth.
11. The main characteristics of the big groups of vertebrates are that they have
the same common features: a notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord,
pharyngeal slits, and a post-anal tail.
Virtual Transpiration Lab

1. Transpiration is the process by which moisture is carried through plants from

roots to small pores on the underside of leaves, where it changes to vapor and is
released to the atmosphere. Transpiration is essentially evaporation of water
from plant leaves.
2. The control for this experiment was recording each plants rate of transpiration
without any environmental factors influencing the test.
3. The environmental factors that are being tested in this lab are: the amount of
wind, heat (temperature), and light. During the lab, all the factors increased the
rate of transpiration at different levels. The amount of wind increased the
transpiration rate of all plants the most. However, the amount of light did not
increase the rate of transpiration for all plants tested. Also, the amount of light is
the factor that affected the overall transpiration rate the least. The amount of light
did not affect the rate of transpiration of dieffenbachia, rubber plant, weeping wig
and zebra plant.
4. Overall, the increasing amount of wind led to the greatest increase in the rate
of transpiration for all plants tested. Wind accelerates the movement of water
from the leaf surface while reducing the boundary layer of water vapor. Also,
wind would accelerate the speed of evaporating. Besides the wind, heat is
another factor that increases the rate of transpiration. Higher temperature would
cause water molecules to move faster; thus, the rate of transpiration would
increase.
5. The species of plants with the highest transpiration rates are rubber plant,
zebra plant, and dieffenbachia (from highest to lowest). Since different species of
plants live in different environment; thus, they have different rates of
transpiration. Also, different rates of transpiration are caused by different species
of plants' abilities to adapt to different environments through evolution.
6. Since the leaves of a plant are covered with petroleum jelly, the rate of
transpiration would decrease. The jelly would close up the stomata on the leaves
and prevent water from evaporating. Also, light could not penetrate through
stomata.
7. It is essential for plants to lose water because of the ability of cohesion (the
water). Evaporating water does not only help carry nutrients up from the roots
through xylem (allowing the plants to absorb nutrients), but also helps moderate
the surrounding temperature of the plant and the air humidity. Furthermore,
losing water through transpiration helps the plant operate metabolism and keep
balance of homeostasis.