Gen Ed 2

ATOMS
CONCEPT
Our world is made up of atoms, yet the atomic model of the universe is nonetheless considered a "theory." When scientists know beyond
all reasonable doubt that a particular principle is the case, then it is dubbed a law. Laws address the fact that certain things happen, as well
as how they happen. A theory, on the other hand, attempts to explain why things happen. By definition, an idea that is dubbed a theory has
yet to be fully proven, and such is the case with the atomic theory of matter. After all, the atom cannot be seen, even with electron
microscopes—yet its behavior can be studied in terms of its effects. Atomic theory explains a great deal about the universe, including the
relationship between chemical elements, and therefore (as with Darwin's theory concerning biological evolution), it is generally accepted as
fact. The particulars of this theory, including the means by which it evolved over the centuries, are as dramatic as any detective story.
Nonetheless, much still remains to be explained about the atom—particularly with regard to the smallest items it contains.
HOW IT WORKS
Why Study Atoms?
Many accounts of the atom begin with a history of the growth in scientists' understanding of its structure, but here we will take the opposite
approach, first discussing the atom in terms of what physicists and chemists today understand. Only then will we examine the many
challenges scientists faced in developing the current atomic model: false starts, wrong theories, right roads not taken, incomplete models.
In addition, we will explore the many insights added along the way as, piece by piece, the evidence concerning atomic behavior began to
accumulate.
People who are not scientifically trained tend to associate studies of the atom with physics, not chemistry. While it is true that physicists
study atomic structure, and that much of what scientists know today about atoms comes from the work of physicists, atomic studies are
even more integral to chemistry than to physics. At heart, chemistry is about the interaction of different atomic and molecular structures:
their properties, their reactions, and the ways in which they bond .
WHAT THE ATOM MEANS TO CHEMISTRY.

Just as a writer in English works with the 26 letters of the alphabet, a chemist works with the 100-plus known elements, the fundamental
and indivisible substances of all matter. And what differentiates the elements, ultimately, from one another is not their color or texture, or
even the phase of matter—solid, gas, or liquid—in which they are normally found. Rather, the defining characteristic of an element is the
atom that forms its basic structure.
The number of protons in an atom is the critical factor in differentiating between elements, while the number of neutrons alongside the
protons in the nucleus serves to distinguish one isotope from another. However, as important as elements and even isotopes are to the
work of a chemist, the components of the atom's nucleus have little direct bearing on the atomic activity that brings about chemical
reactions and chemical bonding. All the chemical "work" of an atom is done by particles vastly smaller in mass than either the protons or
neutrons—fast-moving little bundles of energy called electrons.
Moving rapidly through the space between the nucleus and the edge of the atom, electrons sometimes become dislodged, causing the
atom to become a positively charged ion. Conversely, sometimes an atom takes on one or more electrons, thus acquiring a negative
charge. Ions are critical to the formation of some kinds of chemical bonds, but the chemical role of the electron is not limited to ionic bonds.
In fact, what defines an atom's ability to bond with another atom, and therefore to form a molecule, is the specific configuration of its
electrons. Furthermore, chemical reactions are the result of changes in the arrangement of electrons, not of any activity involving protons or
neutrons. So important are electrons to the interactions studied in chemistry that a separate essay has been devoted to them.
What an Atom Is
BASIC ATOMIC STRUCTURE.
The definitions of atoms and elements seems, at first glance, almost circular: an element is a substance made up of only one kind of atom,
and an atom is the smallest particle of an element that retains all the chemical and physical properties of the element. In fact, these two
definitions do not form a closed loop, as they would if it were stated that an element is something made up of atoms. Every item of matter
that exists, except for the subatomic particles discussed in this essay, is made up of atoms. An element, on the other hand, is—as stated in
its definition—made up of only one kind of atom. "Kind of atom" in this context refers to the number of protons in its nucleus.
Protons are one of three basic subatomic particles, the other two being electrons and neutrons. As we shall see, there appear to be
particles even smaller than these, but before approaching these "sub-subatomic" particles, it is necessary to address the three most
significant components of an atom. These are distinguished from one another in terms of electric charge: protons are positively charged,
electrons are negative in charge, and neutrons have no electrical charge. As with the north and south poles of magnets, positive and
negative charges attract one another, whereas like charges repel. Atoms have no net charge, meaning that the protons and electrons
cancel out one another.
EVOLVING MODELS OF THE ATOM.

Scientists originally thought of an atom as a sort of closed sphere with a relatively hard shell, rather like a ball bearing. Nor did they initially
understand that atoms themselves are divisible, consisting of the parts named above. Even as awareness of these three parts emerged in
the last years of the nineteenth century and the first part of the twentieth, it was not at all clear how they fit together.
At one point, scientists believed that electrons floated in a cloud of positive charges. This was before the discovery of the nucleus, where
the protons and neutrons reside at the heart of the atom. It then became clear that electrons were moving around the nucleus, but how?
For a time, a planetary model seemed appropriate: in other words, electrons revolved around the nucleus much as planets orbit the Sun.
Eventually, however—as is often the case with scientific discovery—this model became unworkable, and had to be replaced by another.
The model of electron behavior accepted today depicts the electrons as forming a cloud around the nucleus—almost exactly the opposite
of what physicists believed a century ago. The use of the term "cloud" may perhaps be a bit misleading, implying as it does something that
simply hovers. In fact, the electron, under normal circumstances, is constantly moving. The paths of its movement around the nucleus are
nothing like that of a planet's orbit, except inasmuch as both models describe a relatively small object moving around a relatively large one.
The furthest edges of the electron's movement define the outer perimeters of the atom. Rather than being a hard-shelled little nugget of
matter, an atom—to restate the metaphor mentioned above—is a cloud of electrons surrounding a nucleus. Its perimeters are thus not
sharply delineated, just as there is no distinct barrier between Earth's atmosphere and space itself. Just as the air gets thinner the higher
one goes, so it is with an atom: the further a point is from the nucleus, the less the likelihood that an electron will pass that point on a given
orbital path.
Nucleons
MASS NUMBER AND ATOMIC NUMBER.
The term nucleon is used generically to describe the relatively heavy particles that make up an atomic nucleus. Just as "sport" can refer to
football, basketball, or baseball, or any other item in a similar class, such as soccer or tennis, "nucleon" refers to protons and neutrons. The
sum of protons and neutrons is sometimes called the nucleon number, although a more commonly used term is mass number.
Though the electron is the agent of chemical reactions and bonding, it is the number of protons in the nucleus that defines an atom as to its
element. Atoms of the same element always have the same number of protons, and since this figure is unique for a given element, each
element is assigned an atomic number equal to the number of protons in its nucleus. The atoms are listed in order of atomic number on the
periodic table of elements.
ATOMIC MASS AND ISOTOPES.

A proton has a mass of 1.673 · 10−24 g, which is very close to the established figure for measuring atomic mass, the atomic mass unit. At
one time, the basic unit of atomic mass was equal to the mass of one hydrogen atom, but hydrogen is so reactive—that is, it tends to
combine readily with other atoms to form a molecule, and hence a compound—that it is difficult to isolate. Instead, the atomic mass unit is
today defined as 1/12 of the mass of a carbon-12 atom. That figure is exactly 1.66053873 · 10−24 grams.
The mention of carbon-12, a substance found in all living things, brings up the subject of isotopes. The "12" in carbon-12 refers to its mass
number, or the sum of protons and neutrons. Two atoms may be of the same element, and thus have the same number of protons, yet
differ in their number of neutrons—which means a difference both in mass number and atomic mass. Such differing atoms of the same
element are called isotopes. Isotopes are often designated by symbols showing mass number to the upper left of the chemical symbol or
element symbol—for instance, 12C for carbon-12.
ELECTRIC CHARGE.
Protons have a positive electric charge of 1, designated either as 1+ or +1. Neutrons, on the other hand, have no electric charge. It appears
that the 1+ charge of a proton and the 0 charge of a neutron are the products of electric charges on the part of even smaller particles called
quarks. A quark may either have a positive electric charge of less than 1+, in which case it is called an "up quark"; or a negative charge of
less than 1−, in which case it is called a "down quark."
Research indicates that a proton contains two up quarks, each with a charge of 2/3+, and one down quark with a charge of 1/3−. This
results in a net charge of 1+. On the other hand, a neutron is believed to hold one up quark with a charge of 2/3+, and two down quarks
with charges of 1/3− each. Thus, in the neutron, the up and down quarks cancel out one another, and the net charge is zero.
A neutron has about the same mass as a proton, but other than its role in forming isotopes, the neutron's function is not exactly clear.
Perhaps, it has been speculated, it binds protons—which, due to their positive charges, tend to repel one another—together at the nucleus.
Electrons
An electron is much smaller than a proton or neutron, and has much less mass; in fact, its mass is equal to 1/1836 that of a proton, and
1/1839 that of a neutron. Yet the area occupied by electrons—the region through which they move—constitutes most of the atom's volume.
If the nucleus of an atom were the size of a BB (which, in fact, is billions of times larger than a nucleus), the furthest edge of the atom
would be equivalent to the highest ring of seats around an indoor sports arena. Imagine the electrons as incredibly fast-moving insects
buzzing constantly through the arena, passing by the BB but then flitting to the edges or points in between, and you have something
approaching an image of the atom's interior.
How fast does an electron move? Speeds vary depending on a number of factors, but it can move nearly as fast as light: 186,000 mi
(299,339 km) per second. On the other hand, for an item of matter near absolute zero in temperature, the velocity of the electron is much,
much less. In any case, given the fact that an electron has enough negative charge to cancel out that of the proton, it must be highly
energized. After all, this would be like an electric generator weighing 1 lb having as much power as a generator that weighed 1 ton.
According to what modern scientists know or hypothesize concerning the inner structure of the atom, electrons are not made up of quarks;
rather, they are part of a class of particles called leptons. It appears that leptons, along with quarks and what are called exchange particles,
constitute the elementary particles of atoms—particles on a much more fundamental level than that of the proton and neutron.
Electrons are perhaps the most intriguing parts of an atom. Their mass is tiny, even in atomic terms, yet they possess enough charge to
counteract a "huge" proton. They are capable, in certain situations, of moving from one atom to another, thus creating ions, and depending
on their highly complex configuration and ability to rearrange their configuration, they facilitate or prevent chemical reactions.
REAL-LIFE APPLICATIONS
Ancient Greek Theories of Matter
The first of the Greek philosophers, and the first individual in Western history who deserves to be called a scientist, was Thales (c. 625-c.
547 b.c.) of Miletus. (Miletus is in Greek Asia Minor, now part of Turkey.) Among his many achievements were the correct prediction of a
solar eclipse, and one of the first-ever observations of electricity, when he noted the electrification of amber by friction.
But perhaps the greatest of Thales's legacies was his statement that "Everything is water." This represented the first attempt to
characterize the nature of all physical reality. It set off a debate concerning the fundamental nature of matter that consumed Greek
philosophers for two centuries. Later, philosophers attempted to characterize matter in terms of fire or air. In time, however, there emerged
a school of thought concerned not with identifying matter as one particular thing or another, but with recognizing a structural consistency in
all of matter. Among these were the philosophers Leucippus (c. 480-c. 420 b.c.) and his student Democritus (c. 460-370 b.c.)
DEMOCRITUS'S "ATOMS".
Leucippus and Democritus proposed a new and highly advanced model for the tiniest point of physical space. Democritus, who ac tually
articulated these ideas (far less is known about Leucippus) began with a "thought experiment," imagining what would happen if an item of
matter were subdivided down to its smallest piece. This tiniest fragment, representing an item of matter that could not be cut into smaller
pieces, he called by a Greek term meaning "no cut": atomos.
Democritus was not necessarily describing matter in a concrete, scientific way: his "atoms" were idealized philosophical constructs rather
than purely physical units. Yet, he came amazingly close, and indeed much closer than any thinker for the next 22 centuries, to identifying
the fundamental structure of physical reality. Why did it take so long for scientists to come back around to the atomic model? The principal
culprit, who advanced an erroneous theory of matter, also happened to be one of the greatest thinkers of all time:Aristotle (384-322 b.c..)
ARISTOTLE'S "ELEMENTS".
Aristotle made numerous contributions to science, including his studies in botany and zoology, as well as his explanation of the four
causes, a significant attempt to explain events by means other than myth or superstition. In the area of the physical sciences, however,
Aristotle's impact was less than beneficial. Most notably, in explaining why objects fall when dropped, he claimed that the ground was their
"natural" destination—a fallacy later overturned with the gravitational model developed by Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) and Sir Isaac
Newton (1642-1727).
The ideas Aristotle put forward concerning what he called "natural motion" were a product of his equally faulty theories with regard to what
today's scientists refer to as chemistry. In ancient times, chemistry, as such, did not exist. Long before Aristotle's time, Egyptian embalmers
and metallurgists used chemical processes, but they did so in a practical, applied manner, exerting little effort toward what could be
described as scientific theory. Philosophers such as Aristotle, who were some of the first scientists, made little distinction between physical
and chemical processes. Thus, whereas physics is understood today as an important background for chemistry, Aristotle's "physics" was
actually an outgrowth of his "chemistry."
Rejecting Democritus's atomic model, Aristotle put forward his own view of matter. Like Democritus, he believed that matter was composed
of very small components, but these he identified not as atoms, but as "elements": earth, air, fire, and water. He maintained that all objects
consisted, in varying degrees, of one or more of these, and based his explanation of gravity on the relative weights of each element. Water
sits on top of the earth, he explained, because it is lighter, yet air floats above the water because it is lighter still—and fire, lightest of all,
rises highest. Furthermore, he claimed that the planets beyond Earth were made up of a "fifth element," or quintessence, of which little
could be known.
In fairness to Aristotle, it should be pointed out that it was not his fault that science all but died out in the Western world during the period
from about a.d. 200 to about 1200. Furthermore, he did offer an accurate definition of an element, in a general sense, as "one of those
simple bodies into which other bodies can be decomposed, and which itself is not capable of being divided into others." As we shall see,
the definition used today is not very different from Aristotle's. However, to define an element scientifically, as modern chemists do, it is
necessary to refer to something Aristotle rejected: the atom. So great was his opposition to Democritus's atomic theory, and so enormous
was Aristotle's influence on learning for more than 1,500 years following his death, that scientists only began to reconsider atomic theory in
the late eighteenth century.
A Maturing Concept of Elements

BOYLE'S IDEA OF ELEMENTS.
One of the first steps toward an understanding of the chemical elements came with the work of English physicist and chemist Robert Boyle
(1627-1691). Building on the usable definition of an element provided by Aristotle, Boyle maintained no substance was an element if it
could be broken down into other substances. Thus, air could be eliminated from the list of "elements," because, clearly, it could be
separated into more than one elemental substance. (In fact, none of the four "elements" identified by Aristotle even remotely qualifies as an
element in modern chemistry.)
Boyle, nonetheless, still clung to aspects of alchemy, a pseudo-science based on the transformation of "base metals," for example, the
metamorphosis of iron into gold. Though true chemistry grew out of alchemy, the fundamental proposition of alchemy was faulty: if one
metal can be turned into another, then that means that metals are not elements, which, in fact, they are. Nonetheless, Boyle's studies led to
the identification of numerous elements—that is, items that really are elements—in the years that followed.
LAVOISIER AND PROUST: CONSTANT COMPOSITION.
A few years after Boyle came two French chemists who extended scientific understanding of the elements. Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794)
affirmed the definition of an element as a simple substance that could not be broken down into a simpler substance, and noted that
elements always react with one another in the same proportions.
Joseph-Louis Proust (1754-1826) put forward the law of constant composition, which holds that a given compound always contains the
same proportions of mass between elements. Another chemist of the era had claimed that the composition of a compound varies in
accordance with the reactants used to produce it. Proust's law of constant composition made it clear that any particular compound will
always have the same composition.
Early Modern Understanding of the Atom

DALTON AND AVOGADRO: ATOMS AND MOLECULES.
The work of Lavoisier and Proust influenced a critical figure in the development of the atomic model: English chemist John Dalton (1766-
1844). In A New System of Chemical Philosophy (1808), Dalton put forward the idea that nature is composed of tiny particles, and in so
doing he adopted Democritus's word "atom" to describe these basic units. This idea, which Dalton had formulated five years earlier,
marked the starting-point of modern atomic theory.
Dalton recognized that the structure of atoms in a particular element or compound is uniform, but maintained that compounds are made up
of compound atoms: in other words, water, for instance, is a compound of "water atoms." However, water is not an element, and thus, it
was necessary to think of its atomic composition in a different way—in terms of molecules rather than atoms. Dalton's contemporary
Amedeo Avogadro (1776-1856), an Italian physicist, became the first scientist to clarify the distinction between atoms and molecules.
The later development of the mole, which provided a means whereby equal numbers of molecules could be compared, paid tribute to
Avogadro by designating the number of molecules in a mole as "Avogadro's number." Another contemporary, Swedish chemist Jons
Berzelius (1779-1848), maintained that equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure contained equal numbers of atoms.
Using this idea, he compared the mass of various reacting gases, and developed a system of comparing the mass of various atoms in
relation to the lightest one, hydrogen. Berzelius also introduced the system of chemical symbols—H for hydrogen, O for oxygen, and so
on—in use today.
BROWNIAN MOTION AND KINETIC THEORY.
Yet another figure whose dates overlapped with those of Dalton, Avogadro, and Berzelius was Scottish botanist Robert Brown (1773-
1858). In 1827, Brown noted a phenomenon that later had an enormous impact on the understanding of the atom. While studying pollen
grains under a microscope, Brown noticed that the grains underwent a curious zigzagging motion in the water. The pollen assumed the
shape of a colloid, a pattern that occurs when particles of one substance are dispersed—but not dissolved—in another substance. At first,
Brown assumed that the motion had a biological explanation—that is, it resulted from life processes within the pollen—but later, he
discovered that even pollen from long-dead plants behaved in the same way.
Brown never understood what he was witnessing. Nor did a number of other scientists, who began noticing other examples of what came
to be known as Brownian motion: the constant but irregular zigzagging of colloidal particles, which can be seen clearly through a
microscope. Later, however, Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) and others were able to explain this phenomenon by
what came to be known as the kinetic theory of matter.
Kinetic theory is based on the idea that molecules are constantly in motion: hence, the water molecules were moving the pollen grains
Brown observed. Pollen grains are many thousands of times as large as water molecules, but since there are so many molecules in even a
drop of water, and their motion is so constant but apparently random, they are bound to move a pollen grain once every few thousand
collisions.
Mendeleev and the Periodic Table

In 1869, Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev (1834-1907) introduced a highly useful system for organizing the elements, the periodic table.
Mendeleev's table is far more than just a handy chart listing elements: at once simple and highly complex, it shows elements in order of
increasing atomic mass, and groups together those exhibiting similar forms of chemical behavior and structure.
Reading from right to left and top to bottom, the periodic table, as it is configured today, lists atoms in order of atomic number, generally
reflected by a corresponding increase in average atomic mass. As Mendeleev observed, every eighth element on the chart exhibits similar
characteristics, and thus the chart is organized in columns representing specific groups of elements.
The patterns Mendeleev observed were so regular that for any "hole" in his table, he predicted that an element would be discovered that
would fill that space. For instance, at one point there was a gap between atomic numbers 71 and 73 (lutetium and tantalum, respectively).
Mendeleev indicated that an atom would be found for the space, and 15 years after this prediction, the element germanium was isolated.
However, much of what defines an element's place on the chart today relates to subatomic particles—protons, which determine atomic
number, and electrons, whose configurations explain certain chemical similarities. Mendeleev was unaware of these particles: from the
time he created his table, it was another three decades before the discovery of the first of these particles, the electron. Instead, he listed
the elements in an order reflecting outward characteristics now understood to be the result of the quantity and distribution of protons and
electrons.
Electromagnetism and Radiation
The contribution of Mendeleev's contemporary, Maxwell, to the understanding of the atom was not limited to his kinetic theory. Building on
the work of British physicist and chemist Michael Faraday (1791-1867) and others, in 1865 he published a paper outlining a theory of a
fundamental interaction between electricity and magnetism. The electromagnetic interaction, as it later turned out, explained something that
gravitation, the only other form of fundamental interaction known at the time, could not: the force that held together particles in an atom.
The idea of subatomic particles was still a long time in coming, but the model of electromagnetism helped make it possible. In the long run,
electromagnetism was understood to encompass a whole spectrum of energy radiation, including radio waves; infrared, visible, and
ultraviolet light; x rays; and gamma rays. But this, too, was the product of work on the part of numerous individuals, among whom was
English physicist William Crookes (1832-1919).
In the 1870s, Crookes developed an apparatus later termed a Crookes tube, with which he sought to analyze the "rays"—that is,
radiation—emitted by metals. The tube consisted of a glass bulb, from which most of the air had been removed, encased between two
metal plates or electrodes, referred to as a cathode and an anode. A wire led outside the bulb to an electric source, and when electricity
was applied to the electrodes, the cathodes emitted rays. Crookes concluded that the cathode rays were particles with a negative electric
charge that came from the metal in the cathode plate.
RADIATION.
In 1895, German physicist Wilhelm Röntgen (1845-1923) noticed that photographic plates held near a Crookes tube became fogged, and
dubbed the rays that had caused the fogging "x rays." A year after Röntgen's discovery, French physicist Henri Becquerel (1852-1908) left
some photographic plates in a drawer with a sample of uranium. Uranium had been discovered more than a century before; however, there
were few uses for it until Becquerel discovered that the uranium likewise caused a fogging of the photographic plates.
Thus radioactivity, a type of radiation brought about by atoms that experience radioactive decay was discovered. The term was coined by
Polish-French physicist and chemist Marie Curie (1867-1934), who with her husband Pierre (1859-1906), a French physicist, was
responsible for the discovery of several radioactive elements.
The Rise and Fall of the Plum Pudding Model

Working with a Crookes tube, English physicist J. J. Thomson (1856-1940) hypothesized that the negatively charged particles Crookes had
observed were being emitted by atoms, and in 1897, he gave a name to these particles: electrons. The discovery of the electron raised a
new question: if Thomson's particles exerted a negative charge, from whence did the counterbalancing positive charge come?
An answer, of sorts, came from William Thomson, not related to the other Thomson and, in any case, better known by his title as Lord
Kelvin (1824-1907). Kelvin compared the structure of an atom to an English plum pudding: the electrons were like raisins, floating in a
positively charged "pudding"—that is, an undifferentiated cloud of positive charges.
Kelvin's temperature scale contributed greatly to the understanding of molecular motion as encompassed in the kinetic theory of matter.
However, his model for the distribution of charges in an atom—charming as it may have been—was incorrect. Nonetheless, for several
decades, the "plum pudding model," as it came to be known, remained the most widely accepted depiction of the way that electric charges
were distributed in an atom. The overturning of the plum pudding model was the work of English physicist Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937), a
student of J. J. Thomson.
RUTHERFORD IDENTIFIES THE NUCLEUS.
Rutherford did not set out to disprove the plum pudding model; rather, he was conducting tests to find materials that would block radiation
from reaching a photographic plate. The two materials he identified, which were, respectively, positive and negative in electric charge, he
dubbed alpha and beta particles. (An alpha particle is a helium nucleus stripped of its electrons, such that it has a positive charge of 2; beta
particles are either electrons or positively charged subatomic particles called positrons. The beta particle Rutherford studied was an
electron emitted during radioactive decay.)
Using a piece of thin gold foil with photographic plates encircling it, Rutherford bombarded the foil with alpha particles. Most of the alpha
particles went straight through the foil—as they should, according to the plum pudding model. However, a few particles were deflected from
their course, and some even bounced back. Rutherford later said it was as though he had fired a gun at a piece of tissue paper, only to see
the tissue deflect the bullets. Analyzing these results, Rutherford concluded that there was no "pudding" of positive charges: instead, the
atom had a positively charged nucleus at its center.
The Nucleus Emerges
PROTONS AND ISOTOPES.
In addition to defining the nucleus, Rutherford also gave a name to the particles that imparted its positive charge: protons. But just as the
identification of the electron had raised new questions that, in being answered, led to the discovery of the proton, Rutherford's achievement
only brought up new anomalies concerning the behavior of the nucleus.
Together with English chemist Frederick Soddy (1877-1956), Rutherford discovered that when an atom emitted alpha or beta particles, its
atomic mass changed. Soddy had a name for atoms that displayed this type of behavior: isotopes. Certain types of isotopes, Soddy and
Rutherford went on to conclude, had a tendency to decay, moving toward stabilization, and this decay explained radioactivity.
CLARIFYING THE PERIODIC TABLE.

Soddy concluded that atomic mass, as measured by Berzelius, was actually an average of the mass figures for all isotopes within that
element. This explained a problem with Mendeleev's periodic table, in which there seemed to be irregularities in the increase of atomic
mass from element to element. The answer to these variations in mass, it turned out, related to the number of isotopes associated with a
given element: the greater the number of isotopes, the more these affected the overall measure of the element's mass.
By this point, physicists and chemists had come to understand that various levels of energy in matter emitted specific electromagnetic
wavelengths. Welsh physicist Henry Moseley (1887-1915) experimented with x rays, bombarding atoms of different elements with high
levels of energy and observing the light they gave off as they cooled. In the course of these tests, he uncovered an astounding
mathematical relationship: the amount of energy a given element emitted was related to its atomic number.
Furthermore, the atomic number corresponded to the number of positive charges—this was in 1913, before Rutherford had named the
proton—in the nucleus. Mendeleev had been able to predict the discovery of new elements, but such predictions had remained
problematic. When scientists understood the idea of atomic number, however, it became possible to predict the existence of undiscovered
elements with much greater accuracy.
NEUTRONS.
Yet again, discoveries—the nucleus, protons, and the relationship between these and atomic number—only created new questions. (This,
indeed, is one of the hallmarks of an active scientific theory. Rather than settling questions, science is about raising new ones, and thus
improving the quality of the questions that are asked.) Once Rutherford had identified the proton, and Moseley had established the number
of protons, the mystery at the heart of the atom only grew deeper.
Scientists had found that the measured mass of atoms could not be accounted for by the number of protons they contained. Certainly, the
electrons had little to do with atomic mass: by then it had been shown that the electron weighed about 0.06% as much as a proton. Yet for
all elements other than protium (the first of three hydrogen isotopes), there was a discrepancy between atomic mass and atomic number.
Clearly, there had to be something else inside the nucleus.
In 1932, English physicist James Chadwick (1891-1974) identified that "something else." Working with radioactive material, he found that a
certain type of subatomic particle could penetrate lead. All other known types of radiation were stopped by the lead, and therefore,
Chadwick reasoned that this particle must be neutral in charge. In 1932, he won the Nobel Prize in Physics for his discovery of the neutron.
The Nuclear Explosion
ISOTOPES AND RADIOACTIVITY.
Chadwick's discovery clarified another mystery, that of the isotope, which had been raised by Rutherford and Soddy several
decades earlier. Obviously, the number of protons in a nucleus did not change, but until the identification of the neutron, it had not been
clear what it was that did change. At that point, it was understood that two atoms may have the same atomic number—and hence be of the
same element—yet they may differ in number of neutrons, and thus be isotopes.
As the image of what an isotope was became clearer, so too did scientists' comprehension of radioactivity. Radioactivity, it was discovered,
was most intense where an isotope was the most unstable—that is, in cases where an isotope had the greatest tendency to experience
decay. Uranium had a number of radioactive isotopes, such as
235U,and these found application in the burgeoning realm of nuclear power—both the destructive power of atomic bombs, and later the
constructive power of nuclear energy plants.
FISSION VS. FUSION.
In nuclear fission, or the splitting of atoms, uranium isotopes (or other radioactive isotopes) are bombarded with neutrons, splitting the
uranium nucleus in half and releasing huge amounts of energy. As the nucleus is halved, it emits several extra neutrons, which spin off and
split more uranium nuclei, creating still more energy and setting off a chain reaction. This explains the destructive power in an atomic
bomb, as well as the constructive power—providing energy to homes and businesses—in a nuclear power plant. Whereas the chain
reaction in an atomic bomb becomes an uncontrolled explosion, in a nuclear plant the reaction is slowed and controlled.
Yet nuclear fission is not the most powerful form of atomic reaction. As soon as scientists realized that it was possible to force particles out
of a nucleus, they began to wonder if particles could be forced into the nucleus. This type of reaction, known as fusion, puts even nuclear
fission, with its awesome capabilities, to shame: nuclear fusion is, after all, the power of the Sun. On the surface of that great star,
hydrogen atoms reach incredible temperatures, and their nuclei fuse to create helium. In other words, one element actually transforms into
another, releasing enormous amounts of energy in the process.
NUCLEAR ENERGY IN WAR AND PEACE.

The atomic bombs dropped by the United States on Japan in 1945 were fission bombs. These were the creation of a group of scientists—
legendary figures such as American physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer (1904-1967), American mathematician John von Neumann (1903-
1957), American physicist Edward Teller (1908-), and Italian physicist Enrico Fermi (1901-1954)—involved in the Manhattan Project at Las
Alamos,New Mexico.
Some of these geniuses, particularly Oppenheimer, were ambivalent about the moral implications of the enormous destructive power they
created. However, most military historians believe that far more lives—both Japanese and American—would have been lost if America had
been forced to conduct a land invasion of Japan. As it was, the Japanese surrendered shortly after the cities
of Hiroshima and Nagasaki suffered the devastating effects of fission-based explosions.
By 1952, U.S. scientists had developed a "hydrogen," or fusion bomb, thus raising the stakes greatly. This was a bomb that possessed far
more destructive capability than the ones dropped over Japan. Fortunately, the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombs were the only ones
dropped in wartime, and a ban on atmospheric nuclear testing has greatly reduced the chances of human exposure to nuclear fallout of any
kind. With the end of the arms race between the United States and the Soviet Union, the threat of nuclear destruction has receded
somewhat—though it will perhaps always be a part of human life.
Nonetheless, fear of nuclear power, spawned as a result of the arms race, continues to cloud the future of nuclear plants that generate
electricity—even though these, in fact, emit less radioactive pollution than coalor gas-burning power plants. At the same time, scientists
continue to work on developing a process of power generation by means of nuclear fusion, which, if and when it is achieved, will be one of
the great miracles of science.
PARTICLE ACCELERATORS.
One of the tools used by scientists researching nuclear fusion is the particle accelerator, which moves streams of charged particles—
protons, for instance—faster and faster. These fast particles are then aimed at a thin plate composed of a light element, such as lithium. If
the proton manages to be "captured" in the nucleus of a lithium atom, the resulting nucleus is unstable, and breaks into alpha particles.
This method of induced radioactivity is among the most oft-used means of studying nuclear structure and subatomic particles. In 1932, the
same year that Chadwick discovered the neutron, English physicist John D. Cockcroft (1897-1967) and Irish physicist Ernest Walton (1903-
1995) built the first particle accelerator. Some particle accelerators today race the particles in long straight lines or, to save space, in ringed
paths several miles in diameter.
Quantum Theory and Beyond

THE CONTRIBUTION OF RELATIVITY.
It may seem strange that in this lengthy (though, in fact, quite abbreviated!) overview of developments in understanding of the atom, no
mention has been made of the figure most associated with the atom in the popular mind: German-American physicist Albert Einstein (1879-
1955). The reasons for this are several. Einstein's relativity theory addresses physical, rather than chemical, processes, and did not directly
contribute to enhanced understanding of atomic structure or elements. The heart of relativity theory is the famous formula E = mc2, which
means that every item of matter possesses energy proportional to its mass multiplied by the squared speed of light.
The value of mc2, of course, is an enormous amount of energy, and in order to be released in significant quantities, an article of matter
must experience the kinetic energy associated with very, very high speeds—speeds close to that of light. Obviously, the easiest thing to
accelerate to such a speed is an atom, and hence, nuclear energy is a result of Einstein's famous equation. Nonetheless, it should be
stressed that although Einstein is associated with unlocking the power of the atom, he did little to explain what atoms are.
However, in the course of developing his relativity theory in 1905, Einstein put to rest a question about atoms and molecules that still
remained unsettled after more than a century. Einstein's analysis of Brownian motion, combined with the confirmation of his results by
French physicist Jean Baptiste Perrin (1870-1942), showed conclusively that yes, atoms and molecules do exist. It may seem amazing that
as recently as 1905, this was still in doubt; however, this only serves to illustrate the arduous path scientists must tread in developing a
theory that accurately explains the world.
PLANCK'S QUANTUM THEORY.

A figure whose name deserves to be as much a household word as Einstein's—though it is not—is German physicist Max Planck (1858-
1947). It was Planck who initiated the quantum theory that Einstein developed further, a theory that prevails today in the physical sciences.
At the atomic level, Planck showed, energy is emitted in tiny packets or "quanta." Each of these energy packets is indivisible, and the
behavior of quanta redefine the old rules of physics handed down from Newton and Maxwell. Thus, it is Planck's quantum theory, rather
than Einstein's relativity, that truly marks the watershed, or "before and after," between classical physics and modern physics.
Quantum theory is important not only to physics, but to chemistry as well. It helps to explain the energy levels of electrons, which are not
continuous, as in a spectrum, but jump between certain discrete points. The quantum model is now also applied to the overall behavior of
the electron; but before this could be fully achieved, scientists had to develop a new understanding of the way electrons move around the
nucleus.
BOHR'S PLANETARY MODEL OF THE ATOM.

As was often the case in the history of the atom, a man otherwise respected as a great scientist put forward a theory of atomic structure
that at first seemed convincing, but ultimately turned out to be inaccurate. In this case, it was Danish physicist Niels Bohr (1885-1962), a
seminal figure in the development of nuclear fission.
Using the observation, derived from quantum theory, that electrons only occupied specific energy levels, Bohr hypothesized that electrons
orbited around a nucleus in the same way that planets orbit the Sun. There is no reason to believe that Bohr formed this hypothesis for any
sentimental reasons—though, of course, scientists are just as capable of prejudice as anyone. His work was based on his studies;
nonetheless, it is easy to see how this model seemed appealing, showing as it did an order at the subatomic level reflecting an order in the
heavens.
ELECTRON CLOUDS.
Many people today who are not scientifically trained continue to think that an atom is structured much like the Solar System. This image is
reinforced by symbolism, inherited from the 1950s, that represents "nuclear power" by showing a dot (the nucleus) surrounded by ovals at
angles to one another, representing the orbital paths of electrons. However, by the 1950s, this model of the atom had already been
overturned.
In 1923, French physicist Louis de Broglie (1892-1987) introduced the particle-wave hypothesis, which indicated that electrons could
sometimes have the properties of waves—an eventuality not encompassed in the Bohr model. It became clear that though Bohr was
correct in maintaining that electrons occupy specific energy levels, his planetary model was inadequate for explaining the behavior of
electrons.
Two years later, in 1925, German physicist Werner Heisenberg (1901-1976) introduced what came to be known as the Heisenberg
Uncertainty Principle, showing that the precise position and speed of an electron cannot be known at the same time. Austrian physicist
Erwin Schrödinger (1887-1961) developed an equation for calculating how an electron with a certain energy moves, identifying regions in
an atom where an electron possessing a certain energy level is likely to be. Schrödinger's equation cannot, however, identify the location
exactly.
Rather than being called orbits, which suggest the orderly pattern of Bohr's model, Schrödinger's regions of probability are called orbitals.
Moving within these orbitals, electrons describe the shape of a cloud, as discussed much earlier in this essay; as a result, the "electron
cloud" theory prevails today. This theory incorporates aspects of Bohr's model, inasmuch as electrons move from one orbital to another by
absorbing or emitting a quantum of energy.
KEY TERMS
ATOM:
The smallest particle of an element that retains all the chemical and physical properties of the element. Anatom can exist
either alone or in combination with other atoms in a molecule. Atoms are made up of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
ATOMIC MASS UNIT:

An SI unit (abbreviated amu), equal to 1.66 · 10−24 g, for measuring the mass of atoms.
ATOMIC NUMBER:
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. Since this number is different for each element, elements are listed on the
periodic table of elements in order of atomic number.
AVERAGE ATOMIC MASS:

A figure used by chemists to specify the mass—in atomic mass units—of the average atom in a large sample.
CHEMICAL SYMBOL:
A one-or two-letter abbreviation for the name of an element.
COMPOUND:
A substance made up of atoms of more than one element. These atoms are usually joined in molecules.
ELECTRON:
Negatively charged particles in an atom. Electrons, which spin around the protons and neutrons that make up the atom's
nucleus, constitute a very small portion of the atom's mass. The number of electrons and protons is the same, thus canceling
out one another; on the other hand, if an atom loses or gainselectrons, it becomes an ion.
ELEMENT SYMBOL:
Another term for chemical symbol.
ION:
An atom or atoms that has lost or gained one or more electrons, and thus has a net electric charge.
ISOTOPES:
Atoms that have an equal number of protons, and hence are of the same element, but differ in their number of neutrons.
MASS NUMBER:
The sum of protons and neutrons in an atom's nucleus.
MOLECULE:
A group of atoms, usually (but not always) representing more than one element, joined in a structure. Compounds are
typically made up of molecules.
NEUTRON:
A subatomic particle that has no electric charge. Neutrons are found at the nucleus of an atom, alongside protons.
NUCLEON:
A generic term for the heavy particles—protons and neutrons—that make up the nucleus of an atom.
NUCLEON NUMBER:
Another term for mass number.
NUCLEUS:
The center of an atom, a region where protons and neutrons are located, and around which electrons spin.
PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS:

A chart that shows the elements arranged in order of atomic number, along with chemical symbol and the average atomic
mass (in atomic mass units) for that particular element. Vertical columns within the periodic table indicate groups or "families"
of elements with similar chemical characteristics.
PROTON:
A positively charged particle in an atom. Protons and neutrons, which together form the nucleus around which electrons spin,
have approximately the same mass—a mass that is many times greater than that of an electron.
QUARK:
A particle believed to be a component of protons and neutrons. A quarkmay either have a positive electric charge of less than
1+, in which case it is called an "up quark"; or a negative charge of less than 1−, in which case it is called a "down quark."
RADIATION:
In a general sense, radiation can refer to anything that travels in astream, whether that stream be composed of subatomic
particles or electromagnetic waves. In a more specific sense, the term relates to the radiation from radio active materials,
which can be harmful to humanbeings.
RADIOACTIVITY:
A term describing a phenomenon whereby certain isotopes are subject to a form of decay brought about by the emission of
high-energy particles or radiation, such as alpha particles, beta particles, or gamma rays.
The Basics of General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry,v. 1.0
by David W. Ball, John W. Hill, and Rhonda J. Scott
3.3 Formulas for Ionic Compounds
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Write the chemical formula for a simple ionic compound.
2. Recognize polyatomic ions in chemical formulas.
We have already encountered some chemical formulas for simple ionic compounds. A chemical formula is a concise list of the elements in a
compound and the ratios of these elements. To better understand what a chemical formula means, we must consider how an ionic
compound is constructed from its ions.
Ionic compounds exist as alternating positive and negative ions in regular, three-dimensional arrays called crystals (Figure 3.6 "A Sodium
Chloride Crystal"). As you can see, there are no individual NaCl “particles” in the array; instead, there is a continuous lattice of alternating
sodium and chloride ions. However, we can use the ratio of sodium ions to chloride ions, expressed in the lowest possible whole numbers,
as a way of describing the compound. In the case of sodium chloride, the ratio of sodium ions to chloride ions, expressed in lowest whole
numbers, is 1:1, so we use NaCl (one Na symbol and one Cl symbol) to represent the compound. Thus, NaCl is the chemical formula for
sodium chloride, which is a concise way of describing the relative number of different ions in the compound. A macroscopic sample is
composed of myriads of NaCl pairs; each pair called a formula unit. Although it is convenient to think that NaCl crystals are composed of
individual NaCl units, Figure 3.6 "A Sodium Chloride Crystal" shows that no single ion is exclusively associated with any other single ion. Each
ion is surrounded by ions of opposite charge.
Figure 3.6 A Sodium Chloride Crystal

A crystal contains a three-dimensional array of alternating positive and negative ions. The
precise pattern depends on the compound. A crystal of sodium chloride, shown here, is a
collection of alternating sodium and chlorine ions.
Note
In Chapter 3, Section 2 "Ions", we encountered LiBr and MgO, which are formulas for other ionic
compounds.
The formula for an ionic compound follows several conventions. First, the cation is written before the anion. Because most metals form
cations and most nonmetals form anions, formulas typically list the metal first and then the nonmetal. Second, charges are not written in a
formula. Remember that in an ionic compound, the component species are ions, not neutral atoms, even though the formula does not
contain charges. Finally, the proper formula for an ionic compound always obeys the following rule: the total positive charge must equal the
total negative charge. To determine the proper formula of any combination of ions, determine how many of each ion is needed to balance
the total positive and negative charges in the compound.
Note
This rule is ultimately based on the fact that matter is, overall, electrically neutral.
Note
By convention, assume that there is only one atom if a subscript is not present. We do not use 1 as a subscript.
If we look at the ionic compound consisting of lithium ions and bromide ions, we see that the lithium ion has a 1+ charge and the bromide
ion has a 1− charge. Only one ion of each is needed to balance these charges. The formula for lithium bromide is LiBr.
When an ionic compound is formed from magnesium and oxygen, the magnesium ion has a 2+ charge, and the oxygen atom has a 2−
charge. Although both of these ions have higher charges than the ions in lithium bromide, they still balance each other in a one-to-one ratio.
Therefore, the proper formula for this ionic compound is MgO.
Now consider the ionic compound formed by magnesium and chlorine. A magnesium ion has a 2+ charge, while a chlorine ion has a 1−
charge:
Mg2+ Cl−
Combining one ion of each does not completely balance the positive and negative charges. The easiest way to balance these charges is to
assume the presence oftwo chloride ions for each magnesium ion:
Mg2+ Cl− Cl−
Now the positive and negative charges are balanced. We could write the chemical formula for this ionic compound as MgClCl, but the
convention is to use a numerical subscript when there is more than one ion of a given type—MgCl2. This chemical formula says that there
are one magnesium ion and two chloride ions in this formula. (Do not read the “Cl2” part of the formula as a molecule of the diatomic
elemental chlorine. Chlorine does not exist as a diatomic element in this compound. Rather, it exists as two individual chloride ions.) By
convention, the lowest whole number ratio is used in the formulas of ionic compounds. The formula Mg 2Cl4 has balanced charges with the
ions in a 1:2 ratio, but it is not the lowest whole number ratio.
Note
By convention, the lowest whole-number ratio of the ions is used in ionic formulas. There are exceptions for certain ions, such as Hg22+.
EXAMPLE 3
Write the chemical formula for an ionic compound composed of each pair of ions.
1. the sodium ion and the sulfur ion
2. the aluminum ion and the fluoride ion
3. the 3+ iron ion and the oxygen ion
Solution
1. To obtain a valence shell octet, sodium forms an ion with a 1+ charge, while the sulfur ion has a 2− charge. Two sodium 1+ ions are needed to
balance the 2− charge on the sulfur ion. Rather than writing the formula as NaNaS, we shorten it by convention to Na 2S.
2. The aluminum ion has a 3+ charge, while the fluoride ion formed by fluorine has a 1− charge. Three fluorine 1− ions are needed to balance the
3+ charge on the aluminum ion. This combination is written as AlF 3.
3. Iron can form two possible ions, but the ion with a 3+ charge is specified here. The oxygen atom has a 2− charge as an ion. To balance the
positive and negative charges, we look to the least common multiple—6: two iron 3+ ions will give 6+, while three 2− oxygen ions will give
6−, thereby balancing the overall positive and negative charges. Thus, the formula for this ionic compound is Fe2O3.
SKILL-BUILDING EXERCISE
1. the calcium ion and the oxygen ion
2. the 2+ copper ion and the sulfur ion
3. the 1+ copper ion and the sulfur ion
Polyatomic Ions
Some ions consist of groups of atoms bonded together and have an overall electric charge. Because these ions contain more than one atom,
they are calledpolyatomic ions. Polyatomic ions have characteristic formulas, names, and charges that should be memorized. For example,
NO3− is the nitrate ion; it has one nitrogen atom and three oxygen atoms and an overall 1− charge. Table 3.1 "Some Polyatomic Ions" lists the
most common polyatomic ions.
Table 3.1 Some Polyatomic Ions
Name Formula
ammonium ion NH4+
acetate ion C2H3O2− (also written CH3CO2−)
carbonate ion CO32−
chromate ion CrO42−
dichromate ion Cr2O72−
hydrogen carbonate ion (bicarbonate ion) HCO3−
cyanide ion CN−
hydroxide ion OH−
nitrate ion NO3−
nitrite ion NO2−

Name Formula
permanganate ion MnO4−
phosphate ion PO43−
hydrogen phosphate ion HPO42−
dihydrogen phosphate ion H2PO4−
sulfate ion SO42−
hydrogen sulfate ion (bisulfate ion) HSO4−
sulfite ion SO32−
The rule for constructing formulas for ionic compounds containing polyatomic ions is the same as for formulas containing monatomic
(single-atom) ions: the positive and negative charges must balance. If more than one of a particular polyatomic ion is needed to balance the
charge, the entire formula for the polyatomic ion must be enclosed in parentheses, and the numerical subscript is placed outside the
parentheses. This is to show that the subscript applies to the entire polyatomic ion. An example is Ba(NO3)2.
EXAMPLE 4
1. the potassium ion and the sulfate ion
2. the calcium ion and the nitrate ion
Solution
1. Potassium ions have a charge of 1+, while sulfate ions have a charge of 2−. We will need two potassium ions to balance the charge on the
sulfate ion, so the proper chemical formula is K2SO4.
2. Calcium ions have a charge of 2+, while nitrate ions have a charge of 1−. We will need two nitrate ions to balance the charge on each calcium
ion. The formula for nitrate must be enclosed in parentheses. Thus, we write Ca(NO3)2 as the formula for this ionic compound.
1. the magnesium ion and the carbonate ion
2. the aluminum ion and the acetate ion
Recognizing Ionic Compounds
There are two ways to recognize ionic compounds. First, compounds between metal and nonmetal elements are usually ionic. For example,
CaBr2 contains a metallic element (calcium, a group 2A metal) and a nonmetallic element (bromine, a group 7A nonmetal). Therefore, it is
most likely an ionic compound. (In fact, it is ionic.) In contrast, the compound NO2 contains two elements that are both nonmetals
(nitrogen, from group 5A, and oxygen, from group 6A). It is not an ionic compound; it belongs to the category of covalent compounds that
we will study in Chapter 4 "Covalent Bonding and Simple Molecular Compounds". Also note that this combination of nitrogen and oxygen has no
electric charge specified, so it is not the nitrite ion.
Second, if you recognize the formula of a polyatomic ion in a compound, the compound is ionic. For example, if you see the formula
Ba(NO3)2, you may recognize the “NO3” part as the nitrate ion, NO3−. (Remember that the convention for writing formulas for ionic
compounds is not to include the ionic charge.) This is a clue that the other part of the formula, Ba, is actually the Ba2+ ion, with the 2+
charge balancing the overall 2− charge from the two nitrate ions. Thus, this compound is also ionic.
EXAMPLE 5
Identify each compound as ionic or not ionic.
1. Na2O
2. PCl3
3. NH4Cl
4. OF2
Solution
1. Sodium is a metal, and oxygen is a nonmetal; therefore, Na2O is expected to be ionic.
2. Both phosphorus and chlorine are nonmetals. Therefore, PCl3 is not ionic.
3. The NH4 in the formula represents the ammonium ion, NH4+, which indicates that this compound is ionic.
4. Both oxygen and fluorine are nonmetals. Therefore, OF2 is not ionic.
Identify each compound as ionic or not ionic.
1. N2O
2. FeCl3
3. (NH4)3PO4
4. SOCl2
Looking Closer: Blood and Seawater
Science has long recognized that blood and seawater have similar compositions. After all, both liquids have ionic compounds dissolved in
them. The similarity may be more than mere coincidence; many scientists think that the first forms of life on Earth arose in the oceans.
A closer look, however, shows that blood and seawater are quite different. A 0.9% solution of sodium chloride approximates the salt
concentration found in blood. In contrast, seawater is principally a 3% sodium chloride solution, over three times the concentration in
blood. Here is a comparison of the amounts of ions in blood and seawater:
Ion Percent in Seawater Percent in Blood
Na+ 2.36 0.322
Cl− 1.94 0.366
Mg2+ 0.13 0.002
SO42− 0.09 —
K+ 0.04 0.016
Ca2+ 0.04 0.0096
HCO3− 0.002 0.165
HPO42−, H2PO4− — 0.01
Most ions are more abundant in seawater than they are in blood, with some important exceptions. There are far more hydrogen carbonate
ions (HCO3−) in blood than in seawater. This difference is significant because the hydrogen carbonate ion and some related ions have a
crucial role in controlling the acid-base properties of blood. (For more information on the acid-base properties of blood, see Chapter 10
"Acids and Bases", Chapter 10, Section 5 "Buffers".) The amount of hydrogen phosphate ions—HPO42− and H2PO4−—in seawater is very low, but
they are present in higher amounts in blood, where they also affect acid-base properties. Another notable difference is that blood does not
have significant amounts of the sulfate ion (SO42−), but this ion is present in seawater.
CONCEPT REVIEW EXERCISES

1. What information is contained in the formula of an ionic compound?
2. Why do the chemical formulas for some ionic compounds contain subscripts, while others do not?
3. Write the chemical formula for the ionic compound formed by each pair of ions.
a. Mg2+ and I−
b. Na+ and O2−
ANSWERS
1. the ratio of each kind of ion in the compound
2. Sometimes more than one ion is needed to balance the charge on the other ion in an ionic compound.
3.
a. MgI2
b. Na2O
KEY TAKEAWAYS
 Proper chemical formulas for ionic compounds balance the total positive charge with the total negative charge.
 Groups of atoms with an overall charge, called polyatomic ions, also exist.
EXERCISES
a. Na+ and Br−
b. Mg2+ and Br−
c. Mg2+ and S2−
a. K+ and Cl−
b. Mg2+ and Cl−
c. Mg2+ and Se2−
a. Na+ and N3−
b. Mg2+ and N3−
c. Al3+ and S2−
a. Li+ and N3−
b. Mg2+ and P3−
c. Li+ and P3−
a. Fe3+ and Br−
b. Fe2+ and Br−
c. Au3+ and S2−
d. Au+ and S2−
a. Cr3+ and O2−
b. Cr2+ and O2−
c. Pb2+ and Cl−
d. Pb4+ and Cl−
a. Cr3+ and NO3−
b. Fe2+ and PO43−
c. Ca2+ and CrO42−
d. Al3+ and OH−
a. NH4+ and NO3−
b. H+ and Cr2O72−
c. Cu+ and CO32−
d. Na+ and HCO3−
9. For each pair of elements, determine the charge for their ions and write the proper formula for the resulting ionic compound between them.
a. Ba and S
b. Cs and I
10. For each pair of elements, determine the charge for their ions and write the proper formula for the resulting ionic compound between them.
a. K and S
b. Sc and Br
11. Which compounds would you predict to be ionic?

a. Li2O
b. (NH4)2O
c. CO2
d. FeSO3
e. C6H6
f. C2H6O
12. Which compounds would you predict to be ionic?

a. Ba(OH)2
b. CH2O
c. NH2CONH2
d. (NH4)2CrO4
e. C8H18
f. NH3
ANSWERS
1.
a. NaBr
b. MgBr2
c. MgS
2.
3.
a. Na3N
b. Mg3N2
c. Al2S3
4.
5.
a. FeBr3
b. FeBr2
c. Au2S3
d. Au2S
6.
7.
a. Cr(NO3)3
b. Fe3 (PO4)2
c. CaCrO4
d. Al(OH)3
8.
9.
a. Ba2+, S2−, BaS
b. Cs+, I−, CsI
10.
11.
a. ionic
b. ionic
c. not ionic
d. ionic
e. not ionic
f. not ionic
Famous Mathematicians
Learn about the famous mathematicians whose incredible work has helped change both the field of mathematics and the
world we live in today.
Enjoy a range of facts and information about brilliant mathematicians such as Pythagoras, Euclid, Pierre Fermat, Blaise
Pascal, Leonhard Euler, Carl Friedrich Gauss, Alan Turing and more. Read what they did, when they did it and enjoy learning
about the most famous mathematicians of all time.
 Greek philosopher and mathematician Pythagoras lived around the year 500 BC and is known for his Pythagorean
theorem relating to the three sides of a right angle triangle: a² + b² = c²
 Greek mathematician Euclid is often referred to as the ‘Father of Geometry’ for his revolutionary ideas and influential
textbook called ‘Elements’ that he wrote around the year 300 BC.
 Archimedes of Syracuse lived around the year 250 BC and among other things, developed a method for determining
the volume of objects with irregular shapes.
 Italian mathematician Leonardo of Pisa (better known as Fibonacci) lived between the years 1170 and 1250 and is
best known today for Fibonacci numbers, the number sequence named after him. Fibonacci introduced the number
sequence to Western Europe in his book ‘Liber Abaci’ after they had been described earlier by Indian
mathematicians.
 The Fibonacci sequence: 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, 610, 987, ....
 In the 17th century Galileo Galilei and Johannes Kepler made important discoveries relating to planetary motion and
orbits.
 German mathematician Gottfried Leibniz lived between 1646 and 1716, developing important calculus concepts and
mathematical notation practices.
 Isaac Newton discovered the laws of physics and brought together many important concepts of infinitesimal calculus.
 Much of the work done by Leibniz and Newton is based on theories by French philosopher Rene Descartes. As well
as his many contributions to philosophy, Descartes also had a huge impact on mathematics, creating analytical
geometry, developing a system that describes geometry using algebra, contributing to optics and much more.
 Born in France, Pierre de Fermat was an amateur mathematician who is best known for Fermat’s Last Theorem.
 In 1642 French mathematician Blaise Pascal invented the mechanical calculator.
 Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler was probably the most influential mathematician of the 18th century, making
discoveries in graph theory and introducing many modern mathematical words and notations among other things.
 Born in 1777, German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss contributed brilliant work in geometry, statistics, number
theories, algebra and much more.
 Bernhard Riemann was an influential German mathematician who contributed to differential geometry and analysis,
paving the way for the development of general relativity by Albert Einstein.
 Born in 1882, Emmy Noether was a German mathematician who made important contributions to abstract algebra
and theoretical physics, described by Einstein as the most important woman in the history of mathematics.
 Alan Turing was a British mathematician and computer scientist who cracked German ciphers (codes) in the Second
World War, contributed to mathematical logic and played an important role in the development of algorithms, artificial
intelligence and the modern computer.
 Born in 1953, British mathematician Andrew Wiles is most famous for proving Fermat’s Last Theorem.
Nuclear Structure
.
An atom consists of an extremely small, positively charged nucleus surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons. Although
typically the nucleus is less than one ten-thousandth the size of the atom, the nucleus contains more than 99.9% of the mass of the atom!
Nuclei consist of positively charged protons and electrically neutral neutrons held together by the so-called strong or nuclear force. This
force is much stronger than the familiar electrostatic force that binds the electrons to the nucleus, but its range is limited to distances on the
order of a few x10-15 meters.
The number of protons in the nucleus, Z, is called the atomic number. This determines what chemical element the atom is. The number
of neutrons in the nucleus is denoted by N. The atomic mass of the nucleus, A, is equal to Z + N. A given element can have many different
isotopes, which differ from one another by the number of neutrons contained in the nuclei. In a neutral atom, the number of electrons
orbiting the nucleus equals the number of protons in the nucleus. Since the electric charges of the proton and the electron are +1 and -1
respectively (in units of the proton charge), the net charge of the atom is zero. At present, there are 112 known elements which range from
the lightest, hydrogen, to the recently discovered and yet to-be-named element 112. All of the elements heavier than uranium are man
made. Among the elements are approximately 270 stable isotopes, and more than 2000 unstable isotopes.
Radioactivity
In 1896, Henri Becquerel was working with compounds containing the element uranium. To his surprise, he found that photographic
plates covered to keep out light became fogged, or partially exposed, when these uranium compounds were anywhere near the plates. This
fogging suggested that some kind of ray had passed through the plate coverings. Several materials other than uranium were also found to
emit these penetrating rays. Materials that emit this kind of radiation are said to be radioactive and to undergo radioactive decay.
In 1899, Ernest Rutherford discovered that uranium compounds produce three different kinds of radiation. He separated the radiations
according to their penetrating abilities and named them a alpha, b beta, and g gamma radiation, after the first three letters of the Greek
alphabet. The a radiation can be stopped by a sheet of paper. Rutherford later showed that an alpha particle is the nucleus of a He
atom, 4He. Beta particles were later identified as high speed electrons. Six millimeters of aluminum are needed to stop mostb particles.
Several millimeters of lead are needed to stop g rays , which proved to be high energy photons. Alpha particles and g rays are emitted with a
specific energy that depends on the radioactive isotope. Beta particles, however, are emitted with a continuous range of energies from zero
up to the maximum allowed for by the particular isotope.
α decay
The emission of an a particle, or 4He nucleus, is a process called a decay. Since a particles contain protons and neutrons, they must come
from the nucleus of an atom. The nucleus that results from a decay will have a mass and charge different from those of the original nucleus.
A change in nuclear charge means that the element has been changed into a different element. Only through such radioactive decays or
nuclear reactions can transmutation, the age-old dream of the alchemists, actually occur. The mass number, A, of an a particle is four, so
the mass number, A, of the decaying nucleus is reduced by four. The atomic number, Z, of 4He is two, and therefore the atomic number of
the nucleus, the number of protons, is reduced by two. This can be written as an equation analogous to a chemical reaction. For example,
for the decay of an isotope of the element seaborgium, 263Sg:
263Sg ----> 259Rf + 4He
The atomic number of the nucleus changes from 106 to 104, giving rutherfordium an atomic mass of 263-4=259. a decay typically occurs in
heavy nuclei where the electrostatic repulsion between the protons in the nucleus is large. Energy is released in the process of a decay.
Careful measurements show that the sum of the masses of the daughternucleus and the a particle is a bit less than the mass of
the parent isotope. Einstein's famous equation, E=mc2, which says that mass is proportional to energy, explains this fact by saying that the
mass that is lost in such decay is converted into the kinetic energy carried away by the decay products.
β Decay
Beta particles are negatively charged electrons emitted by the nucleus. Since the mass of an electron is a tiny fraction of an atomic mass
unit, the mass of a nucleus that undergoes b decay is changed by only a tiny amount. The mass number is unchanged. The nucleus contains
no electrons. Rather, b decay occurs when a neutron is changed into a proton within the nucleus. An unseen neutrino, , accompanies
each b decay. The number of protons, and thus the atomic number, is increased by one. For example, the isotope 14C is unstable and emits a
β particle, becoming the stable isotope 14N:
14C ----> 14N + e- +
In a stable nucleus, the neutron does not decay. A free neutron, or one bound in a nucleus that has an excess of neutrons, can decay by
emitting a b particle. Sharing the energy with the b particle is a neutrino. The neutrino has little or no mass and is uncharged, but, like the
photon, it carries momentum and energy. The source of the energy released in b decay is explained by the fact that the mass of the parent
isotope is larger than the sum of the masses of the decay products. Mass is converted into energy just as Einstein predicted.
γ Decay
Gamma rays are a type of electromagnetic radiation that results from a redistribution of electric charge within a nucleus. A g ray is a high
energy photon. The only thing which distinguishes a g ray from the visible photons emitted by a light bulb is its wavelength; the g ray's
wavelength is much shorter. For complex nuclei there are many different possible ways in which the neutrons and protons can be arranged
within the nucleus. Gamma rays can be emitted when a nucleus undergoes a transition from one such configuration to another. For
example, this can occur when the shape of the nucleus undergoes a change. Neither the mass number nor the atomic number is changed
when a nucleus emits a g ray in the reaction
152Dy* ----> 152Dy + γ
Half-life
The time required for half of the atoms in any given quantity of a radioactive isotope to decay is the half-life of that isotope. Each
particular isotope has its own half-life. For example, the half-life of 238U is 4.5 billion years. That is, in 4.5 billion years, half of the 238U on
Earth will have decayed into other elements. In another 4.5 billion years, half of the remaining 238U will have decayed. One fourth of the
original material will remain on Earth after 9 billion years. The half-life of 14C is 5730 years, thus it is useful for datingarchaeological
material. Nuclear half-lives range from tiny fractions of a second to many, many times the age of the universe.
For more information on half-life and isotopes, please refer to the Isotopes Project at LBNL where you can also find the Table of
Isotopes online.
Reactions
If nuclei come close enough together, they can interact with one another through the strong nuclear force, and reactions between the
nuclei can occur. As in chemical reactions, nuclear reactions can either be exothermic (i.e. release energy) or endothermic (i.e. require
energy input). Two major classes of nuclear reactions are of importance: fusion and fission.
Fusion
Fusion is a nuclear process in which two light nuclei combine to form a single heavier nucleus. An example of a fusion reaction important
in thermonuclear weapons and in future nuclear reactors is the reaction between two different hydrogen isotopes to form an isotope of
helium:
2H + 3H ----> 4He + n
This reaction liberates an amount of energy more than a million times greater than one gets from a typical chemical reaction. Such a
large amount of energy is released in fusion reactions because when two light nuclei fuse, the sum of the masses of the product nuclei is less
than the sum of the masses of the initial fusing nuclei. Once again, Einstein's equation, E=mc2, explains that the mass that is lost it
converted into energy carried away by the fusion products.
Even though fusion n is an energetically favorable reaction for light nuclei, it does not occur under standard conditions here on Earth
because of the large energy investment that is required. Because the reacting nuclei are both positively charged, there is a large electrostatic
repulsion between them as they come together. Only when they are squeezed very close to one another do they feel the strong nuclear force,
which can overcome the electrostatic repulsion and cause them to fuse.
Fusion reactions have been going on for billions of years in our universe. In fact, nuclear fusion reactions are responsible for the energy
output of most stars, including our own Sun. Scientists on Earth have been able to produce fusion reactions for only about the last sixty
years. At first, there were small scale studies in which only a few fusion reactions actually occurred. However, these first experiments later
lead to the development of thermonuclear fusion weapons (hydrogen bombs).
Fusion is the process that takes place in stars like our Sun. Whenever we feel the warmth of the Sun and see by its light, we are observing
the products of fusion. We know that all life on Earth exists because the light generated by the Sun produces food and warms our planet.
Therefore, we can say that fusion is the basis for our life.
When a star is formed, it initially consists of hydrogen and helium created in the Big Bang, the
process that created our universe. Hydrogen isotopes collide in a star and fuse forming a helium
nucleus. Later, the helium nuclei collide and form heavier elements. Fusion is a nuclear reaction in
which nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus. It is the basic reaction which drives the Sun.
Lighter elements fuse and form heavier elements. These reactions continue until the nuclei reach
iron (around mass sixty), the nucleus with the most binding energy. When a nucleus reaches mass
sixty, no more fusion occurs in a star because it is energetically unfavorable to produce higher
masses. Once a star has converted a large fraction of its core's mass to iron, it has almost reached
the end of its life.
The fusion chain cannot continue so its fuel is reduced. Some stars keep shrinking until they
become a cooling ember made up of iron. However, if a star is sufficiently massive, a tremendous,
violent, brilliant explosion can happen. A star will suddenly expand and produce, in a very short
time, more energy than our Sun will produce in a lifetime. When this happens, we say that a star has
become a supernova.
While a star is in the supernova phase, many important reactions occur. The nuclei are accelerated to much higher velocities than can
occur in a fusing star. With the added energy caused by their speed, nuclei can fuse and produce elements higher in mass than iron. The
extra energy in the explosion is necessary to over come the energy barrier of a higher mass element. Elements such as lead, gold, and silver
found on Earth were once the debris of a supernova explosion. The element iron that we find all
through the Earth and in its center is directly derived from both super novae and dead stars.
More peaceful uses of fusion are being researched today with the hope that soon we will be able to
control fusion reactions to generate clean, inexpensive power.
Fission
Fission is a nuclear process in which a heavy nucleus splits into two smaller nuclei. An example of a fission reaction that was used in the
first atomic bomb and is still used in nuclear reactors is
235U + n ----> 134Xe + 100Sr + 2n
The products shown in the above equation are only one set of many possible product nuclei. Fission reactions can produce any
combination of lighter nuclei so long as the number of protons and neutrons in the products sum up to those in the initial fissioning
nucleus. As with fusion, a great amount of energy can be released in fission because for heavy nuclei, the summed masses of the lighter
product nuclei is less than the mass of the fissioning nucleus.
Fission occurs because of the electrostatic repulsion created by the large number of positively charged protons contained in a heavy
nucleus. Two smaller nuclei have less internal electrostatic repulsion than one larger nucleus. So, once the larger nucleus can overcome the
strong nuclear force which holds it together, it can fission. Fission can be seen as a "tug-of-war" between the strong attractive nuclear force
and the repulsive electrostatic force. In fission reactions, electrostatic repulsion wins.
Fission is a process that has been occurring in the universe for billions of years. As mentioned above, we have not only used fission to
produce energy for nuclear bombs, but we also use fission peacefully everyday to produce energy in nuclear power plants. Interestingly,
although the first man-made nuclear reactor was produced only about fifty years ago, the Earth operated a natural fission reactor in a
uranium deposit in West Africa about two billion years ago!
Cosmic Rays
High energy electrons, protons, and complex nuclei can be produced in a number of
astronomical environments. Such particles travel throughout the universe and are called
cosmic rays. Some of these particles reach our Earth. As these objects hit our atmosphere,
other particles called pions and muons are produced. These particles then slow down or
crash into other atoms in the atmosphere. Since the atmosphere slows down these
particles, the higher we travel, the more cosmic radiation we see. When you visit the
mountains or take an airplane ride, you will encounter more cosmic radiation than if you
stayed at sea level.
Most cosmic radiation is very energetic. It can easily pass through an inch of lead.
Since cosmic radiation can cause genetic changes, some scientists believe that this
radiation has been important in driving the evolution of life on our planet. While cosmic
radiation can cause some damage to individuals, it also has played an important role in
creating humans. Our atmosphere is naturally shielding us from harmful effects.
However, if we were to leave the earth and travel to some planet, we could be subjected to
very high levels of radiation. Future space travelers will have to find some way to minimize exposure to cosmic rays.
To find out more information, please take a look at experiments (10-14).
Cosmic Ray Exercise
Turn on the Geiger counter. Use the most sensitive scale. Make sure that no radioactive material is nearby. What do you hear? Every few
seconds, you will hear some beeps from the counter. Some of these counts are caused by cosmic rays. Surround the counter by some
concrete or iron. Do the counts go away? Take the Geiger counter to a mountain such as Mount Diablo or Mount Tamalpias. Can you
measure an increase in rate? It might be necessary to make measurements for five to ten minutes or more to achieve sufficient statistical
accuracy.
Basic Energy Principles

Energy is the driving force for the universe. Energy is a quantitative property of a system which may be
kinetic, potential, or other in form. There are many different forms of energy. One form of energy can be
transferred to another form. The laws of thermodynamics govern how and why energy is transferred.
Before the different types of energy resources and their uses are discussed, it is important to understand
a little about the basic laws of energy.
The Three Laws of Thermodynamics

- The first law of thermodynamics, also called conservation of energy, states that the total amount of
energy in the universe is constant. This means that all of the energy has to end up somewhere, either in
the original form or in a different from. We can use this knowledge to determine the amount of energy in
a system, the amount lost as waste heat, and the efficiency of the system.
-The second law of thermodynamics states that the disorder in the universe always increases. After
cleaning your room, it always has a tendency to become messy again. This is a result of the second law.
As the disorder in the universe increases, the energy is transformed into less usable forms. Thus, the
efficiency of any process will always be less than 100%.
- The third law of thermodynamics tells us that all molecular movement stops at a temperature we call
absolute zero, or 0 Kelvin (-273oC). Since temperature is a measure of molecular movement, there can be
no temperature lower than absolute zero. At this temperature, a perfect crystal has no disorder.
When put together, these laws state that a concentrated energy supply must be used to accomplish
useful work.
Work
Many of us commonly think of energy as the ability of a system to do work. Work is a force applied to an
object over a certain distance, such as pulling or pushing a wooden block across your desk. Your muscles
do work when they facilitate body movement. Units of work and energy are joules (J). One joule equals
one Newton meter (N*m).
By definition, work is an energy requiring process. So, how do you describe energy? Energy is not a
substance that can be held, seen, or felt as a separate entity. We cannot create new energy that is not
already present in the universe. We can only take different types materials in which energy is stored,
change their state, and harness the energy that escapes from the system in order to use it to do work for
us. If the released energy is not used, it will escape and be "wasted" usually as heat.
Thermodynamics is the field of physics that deals with the relationship between heat and other properties (such as pressure, density,
temperature, etc.) in a substance. Thermodynamics focuses on how a heat transfer is related to various energy changes within a physical
system.
The laws of thermodynamics dictate the specifics for the movement of heat and work. These laws have become some of the most
important laws of all science.
Zeroth law
It's about thermal equilibrium. Thermal Equilibrium is when two substances in thermal contact no longer transfer heat.
The zeroth law says:
When two objects or systems are in thermal equilibrium with each other, the heat energy flowing from the first object to the second is the
same as that flowing from the second object to the first. Hence they are at the same temperature.
That means if you have cold and hot objects (with different temperature) and put them into a contact, after a few time their temperature
will be equal.
If two thermodynamic systems (named A and B) are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third one (named C), they are also in
The law is analogous to the basic rule in algebra, where A=C and B=C, then A=B.
A is in equilibrium with B. B is in equilibrium with C.
Therefore A and C are in thermal equilibrium.
So if we put into contact A and C, there wouldn't be net heat transfer.
First law
It's about the conservation of energy.
The first law says:
Energy can be changed from one form to another, but it cannot be created or destroyed. The total amount of energy and matter in the
Universe remains constant.
The law states that the energy input for a system equals the total energy output, which is the sum of the useful work and the waste heat
energy.
The change in internal energy (U) of a system is equal to the heat added to the system (Q), minus the work done by the system (W):
U=Q-W
Examples:
Second law
It's about entropy. The entropy is a measure of a system's energy that is unavailable for work, or of the degree of a system's disorder. The
change in entropy is related to the change in energy, pressure, temperature, and in volume.
The second law of thermodynamics states that the disorder in the universe always increases.
R. Clausius (1822–88) stated the law in a way: "heat cannot be transferred from one body to a second body at a higher temperature without
producing some other effect".
For example: Imagine that your room is universe. After cleaning your room, it always has a tendency to become messy again. As the
disorder in the universe (your room) increases, the energy is transformed into less usable forms. Because of that, the efficiency of any
process will always be less than 100%.
Heat machines and refrigerators are constructed to operate base on the second law of thermodynamics.
Third law
It's about absolute zero of temperature. Absolute zero (about -273 C) is the lowest possible temperature.
The third law of thermodynamics says:

It is not possible to reach a temperature of absolute zero.
Since temperature is a measure of molecular movement, there can be no temperature lower than absolute zero.
Ohm's Law
One of the most important and basic laws of electrical circuits is Ohm's law which states that the current passing through a conductor is
proportional to the voltage over the resistance.
Equation
Ohm's law may sound a bit confusing when written in words, but it can be described by the simple formula:
where I = current in amps, V = voltage in volts, and R = resistance in ohms
Resistors in Series and Parallel

When resistors are used in electronic circuits they can be used in different configurations. You can calculate the resistance for the circuit, or
a portion of the circuit, by determining which resistors are in series and which are in parallel. We'll describe how to do this below. Note that
the total resistance of a circuit is often called the equivalent resistance.
Series Resistors
When resistors are connected end-to-end in a circuit (like shown in the picture below) they are said to be in "series." In order to find the
total resistance of resistors in series you just add up the value of each resistor. In the example below the total resistance would be R1 + R2.
Here is another example of a number of resistors in series. The total value of the resistance
across the voltage V is R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + R5.
Sample problem:
Using the circuit diagram below, solve for the value of the missing resistance R.
Answer:
First we'll figure out the equivalent resistance of the entire circuit. From Ohm's law we
know that Resistance = Voltage/current, therefore
Resistance = 50volts/2amps
Resistance = 25
We can also figure out the resistance by adding up the resistors in series:
Resistance = 5 + 3 + 4 + 7 + R
Resistance = 19 + R
Now we plug in 25 for resistance and we get
25 = 19 + R
R = 6 ohms
Parallel Resistors
Parallel resistors are resistors that are connected across from each other in an electric circuit. See the picture below. In this picture R1, R2,
and R3 are all connected in parallel to each other.
When we calculated the series resistance, we totaled the resistance of each resistor to get
the value. This makes sense because the current of a voltage across the resistors will travel
evenly across each resistor. When the resistors are in parallel this is not the case. Some of
the current will travel through R1, some through R2, and some through R3. Each resistor
provides an additional path for the current to travel.
In order to calculate the total resistance "R" across the voltage V we use the following formula:
You can see that the reciprocal of the total resistance is the sum of the reciprocal of each resistance in parallel.
Example problem:
What is the total resistance "R" across the voltage V in the circuit below?
Answer:
Since these resistors are in parallel we know from the equation above that
1/R = ¼ + 1/5 + 1/20
1/R = 5/20 + 4/20 + 1/20
1/R = 10/20 = ½
R = 2 Ohms
Note that the total resistance is less than any of the resistors in parallel. This will always be the case. The equivalent resistance will always
be less than the smallest resistor in parallel.
Series and Parallel
What do you do when you have a circuit with both parallel and series resistors?
The idea for solving these types of circuits is to break down smaller parts of the circuit into series and parallel sections. First do any sections
that have only series resistors. Then replace those with the equivalent resistance. Next solve the parallel sections. Now replace those with
equivalent resistors. Continue through these steps until you reach the solution.
Example problem:
Solve for the equivalent resistance across the voltage V in the electrical circuit below:
First we will total the two series resistors on the right (1 + 5 = 6) and on the left (3 + 7 = 10). Now we have
reduced the circuit.
We see on the right that the total resistance 6 and the resistor 12 are now in parallel. We can solve
for these parallel resistors to get the equivalent resistance of 4.
1/R = 1/6 + 1/12

1/R = 2/12 + 1/12
1/R = 3/12 = ¼
R=4
The new circuit diagram is shown below.
From this circuit we solve for the series resistors 4 and 11 to get 4 + 11 = 15. Now we have two parallel resistors, 15 and 10.
1/R = 1/15 + 1/10

1/R = 2/30 + 3/30
1/R = 5/30 = 1/6
R=6
The equivalent resistance across V is 6 ohms.
Cell Mitochondria
What are mitochondria?
Mitochondria are important parts of our cells because they take food and make energy that the
rest of the cell can use.
Organelle
Animals and plants are made up of many complex cells called eukaryotic cells. Inside these
cells are structures that perform special functions for the cell called organelles. The organelle
that is responsible for producing energy for the cell is the mitochondria.
How many mitochondria are in a cell?
Different types of cells have different numbers of mitochondria. Some simple cells contain only one or two mitochondria. However,
complex animal cells that need a lot of energy, like muscle cells, can have thousands of mitochondria.
Energy Factory
The main function of mitochondria is to produce energy for the cell. Cells use a special molecule for energy called ATP. ATP stands for
adenosine triphosphate. The ATP for the cell is made within the mitochondria. You can think of the mitochondria as the energy factory or
power plant of the cell.
Respiration
Mitochondria produce energy through the process of cellular respiration. Respiration is another word for breathing. The mitochondria take
food molecules in the form of carbohydrates and combine them with oxygen to produce the ATP. They use proteins called enzymes to
produce the correct chemical reaction.
Mitochondrion Structure
Mitochondria have a distinct structure that helps them to generate energy.

 Outer membrane - The outside is protected by an outer membrane that is smooth and varies in shape from a round blob to a long
rod.
 Inner membrane - Unlike other organelles in the cell, mitochondria also have an inner membrane. The inner membrane is
wrinkled with lots of folds and performs a number of functions to help make energy.
 Cristae - The folds on the inner membrane are called cristae. Having all these folds helps to increase the surface area of the inner
membrane.
 Matrix - The matrix is the space inside the inner membrane. Most of the proteins of the mitochondria are in the matrix. The matrix
also holdsribosomes and DNA that is unique to the mitochondria.
Other Functions
In addition to producing energy, mitochondria perform some other functions for the cell including cellular metabolism, the citric acid cycle,
producing heat, controlling the concentration of calcium, and producing certain steroids.
Interesting Facts about Mitochondria

 They can quickly change shape and move around the cell when needed.
 When the cell needs more energy, the mitochondria can reproduce by growing larger and then dividing. If the cell needs less
energy, some mitochondria will die or become inactive.
 Mitochondria are very similar to some bacteria. For this reason, some scientists think that they originally were bacteria that were
absorbed by more complex cells.
 Different mitochondria produce different proteins. Some mitochondria can produce hundreds of different proteins used for
various functions.
 In addition to energy in the form of ATP, they also produce small amounts of carbon dioxide.
Plant Cell Chloroplasts

What are chloroplasts?
Chloroplasts are unique structures found in plant cells that specialize in converting sunlight into energy that plants can use. This process is
called photosynthesis.
Organelle
Chloroplasts are considered organelles in plant cells. Organelles are special structures in cells that perform specific functions. The main
function of the chloroplast is photosynthesis.
Chloroplast Structure
Most chloroplasts are oval-shaped blobs, but they can come in all sorts of shapes such as stars, cups, and ribbons. Some chloroplasts are
relatively small compared to the cell, while others may take up the majority of the space inside the cell.
 Outer membrane - The outside of the chloroplast is protected by a smooth outer membrane.
 Inner membrane - Just inside the outer membrane is the inner membrane which controls which molecules can pass in and out of
the chloroplast. The outer membrane, the inner membrane, and the fluid between them make up the chloroplast envelope.
 Stroma - The stroma is the liquid inside the chloroplast where other structures such as the thylakoids float.
 Thylakoids - Floating in the stroma is a collection of sacks containing chlorophyll called the thylakoids. The thylakoids are often
arranged into stacks called granum as shown in the picture below. The granum are connected by disc-like structures called
lamella.
 Pigments - Pigments give the chloroplast and the plant its color. The most common pigment is chlorophyll which gives plants their
green color. Chlorophyll helps to absorb energy from sunlight.
 Other - Chloroplasts have their own DNA and ribosomes for making proteins from RNA.
Photosynthesis
Chloroplasts use photosynthesis to turn sunlight into food. The

chlorophyll captures energy from light and stores it in a special
molecule called ATP (which stands for adenosine triphosphate). Later,
the ATP is combined with carbon dioxide and water to make sugars
such as glucose that the plant can use as food.
Other Functions
Other functions of chloroplasts include fighting off diseases as part of

the cell's immune system, storing energy for the cell, and making amino acids for the cell.
Interesting Facts about Chloroplasts

 Simple cells, like those found in algae, may only have one or two chloroplasts. More complex plant cells, however, may contain
hundreds.
 Chloroplasts will sometimes move around within the cell in order to position themselves to where they can best absorb sunlight.
 The "chloro" in chloroplast comes from the Greek word chloros (meaning green).
 The most abundant protein in chloroplasts is the protein Rubisco. Rubisco is likely the most abundant protein in the world.
 Human and animal cells do not need chloroplasts because we get our energy from eating and digesting food rather than through
photosynthesis.
 Scientists estimate that there are around 500,000 chloroplasts in a single square millimeter of a leaf.
 There are actually different colors of chlorophyll. Chlorophyll A is the most common type and is green. Chlorophyll C is a golden or
brownish color.
Proteins and Amino Acids

What are amino acids?
Amino acids are special organic molecules used by living organisms to make proteins. The main elements in amino acids are carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. There are twenty different kinds of amino acids that combine to make proteins in our bodies. Our bodies
can actually make some amino acids, but the rest we must get from our food.
What are proteins?
Proteins are long chains of amino acids. There are thousands of different proteins in
the human body. They provide all sorts of functions to help us survive.
Structure of a protein
Why are they important?

Proteins are essential for life. Around 20% of our body is made up of proteins. Every cell in our body uses proteins to perform functions.
How are they made?
Proteins are made inside cells. When a cell makes a protein it is called protein synthesis. The instructions for how to make a protein are
held inside the DNA molecule. The two major stages in making a protein are called transcription and translation.
Transcription
The first step in making a protein is called transcription. This is when the cell makes a copy (or "transcript") of the DNA. The copy of DNA
is called RNA because it uses a different type of nucleic acid called ribonucleic acid. The RNA is used in the next step, which is called
translation.
Translation
The next step in making a protein is called translation. This is when the RNA is converted (or "translated") into a sequence of amino acids
that makes up the protein.
The translation process of making the new protein from the RNA instructions takes place in a complex machine in the cell called the
ribosome. The following steps take place in the ribosome.
 The RNA moves to the ribosome. This type of RNA is called the "messenger" RNA. It is abbreviated as mRNA where the "m" is for
messenger.
 The mRNA attaches itself to the ribosome.
 The ribosome figures out where to start on the mRNA by finding a special three letter "begin" sequence called a codon.
 The ribosome then moves down the strand of mRNA. Every three letters represents another amino acid molecule. The ribosome
builds a string of amino acids based on the codes in the mRNA.
 When the ribosome sees the "stop" code, it ends the translation and the protein is complete.
How a ribosome makes a

protein
Different Types of
Proteins
There are literally

thousands of different
types of proteins in our
bodies. Here are a few of
the major groups and
functions of proteins:
 Structural -
Many proteins provide
structure for our bodies.
This includes collagen
which is found in cartilage
and tendons.
 Defensive -
Proteins help protect us
from diseases. They make up antibodies that fight off foreign invaders such as bacteria and other toxic substances.
 Transport - Proteins can help to carry essential nutrients around our bodies. One example is hemoglobin which carries oxygen in
our red blood cells.
 Catalysts - Some proteins, such as enzymes, act as catalysts to assist in chemical reactions. They help us to break up and digest our
food so it can be used by our cells.
Interesting Facts about Proteins and Amino Acids
 We get amino acids from basic foods such as chicken, bread, milk, nuts, fish, and eggs.
 Hair is made up of a protein called keratin.
 A special kind of RNA called transfer RNA moves the amino acids to the ribosome. It is abbreviated as tRNA where the "t" stands
for transfer.
 The bonds that link the amino acids in a protein together are called peptide bonds.
 The arrangement and type of different amino acids along the protein strand determines the function of the protein.
Enzymes
What are enzymes?
Enzymes are special types of proteins. Like all proteins, enzymes are made from strings of amino acids. The function of the enzyme is
determined by the sequence of amino acids, types of amino acids, and the shape of the string.
What do enzymes do?
Enzymes are responsible for a lot of the work that is going on in cells. They act as catalysts in order to help produce and speed up chemical
reactions. When a cell needs to get something done, it almost always uses an enzyme to speed things along.
Enzymes are Specific
Enzymes are very specific. This means that each type of enzyme only reacts with the specific type of substance that it was made for. This is
important so enzymes don't go around doing the wrong thing and causing chemical reactions where they are aren't supposed to.
How Enzymes Work
Enzymes have a special pocket on their surface called an "active site." The molecule that they are supposed to react with fits neatly right into
that pocket. The molecule or substance that the enzyme reacts with is called the "substrate."
The reaction takes place between the enzyme and the substrate at the active site. After the reaction is complete, the new molecule or
substance is released by the enzyme. This new substance is called the "product."
Things that Affect Enzyme Activity
The environment of the enzyme and the

substrate can affect the speed of the reaction. In
some cases the environment can cause the
enzyme to stop working or even unravel. When
an enzyme stops working we call it "denatured."
Here are some things that can affect enzyme activity:
 Temperature - The temperature can affect the reaction rate. The higher the temperature, the faster the reaction will occur.
However, at some point the temperature will become so high that the enzyme will denature and stop working.
 pH - In many cases the pH level, or acidity, of the environment around the enzyme and substrate can affect the reaction rate. An
extreme pH (high or low) will typically slow the reaction or even stop the reaction altogether.
 Concentration - A higher concentration of substrate or enzyme can increase the reaction rate.
 Inhibitors - Inhibitors are molecules that are specially made to stop the activity of enzymes. They may just slow down the
reaction or stop it altogether. Some inhibitors bond with the enzyme causing it to change shape and not work correctly. The
opposite of an inhibitor is an activator which can help to speed up the reaction.
Interesting Facts about Enzymes
 Enzymes don't get used up after they do their job. They can be used over and over.
 Many drugs and poisons act as inhibitors to enzymes. Some snake venoms are inhibitors.
 Enzymes are often used in industrial applications such as food processing, paper manufacturing, and detergents.
 There is an enzyme in your saliva called amylase that helps to break down starches as you chew.
 Enzymes play an important role in breaking down our food so our bodies can use it. There are special enzymes to break down
different types of foods. They are found in our saliva, stomach, pancreas, and small intestine.
Vitamins and Minerals
We learned on the nutrition page that proper nutrition means eating the right foods so our body will get the vitamins and minerals it needs.
Our bodies need vitamins and minerals to function. Different parts of our bodies like our eyes, brains, muscles, and bones need different
nutrients to grow and be healthy.
Here is a list of vitamins and minerals that our bodies need:

Vitamins
Vitamin A
 Eyes, immune system, skin
 Milk, eggs, orange and green vegetables
Vitamin C
 Bones, blood vessels, teeth, gums, healing, brain
 Berries, bell peppers, oranges, spinach, tomatoes
Vitamin D
 Bones
 Sunlight, milk, fish oil, eggs
Vitamin E
 Blood, cells
 Nuts, green leafy vegetables, whole grains
Vitamin B12
 Red blood cells, nerves
 Fish, milk, cheese, red meat, chicken
Vitamin B6
 Brain, nerves, proteins
 Bananas, nuts, red meat, chicken, fish, eggs, beans
Thiamin (B1)
 Muscles, nervous system, heart
 Meat, fish, beans, peas
Niacin (B3)
 Skin, nerves
 Chicken, red meat, peanuts, fish
Riboflavin (B2)
 Energy, red blood cells, eyes
 Meat, eggs, peas, nuts, milk, green vegetables
Folate (B9, folic acid)
 Red blood cells, DNA
 Green vegetables, beans, liver, oranges
Minerals
Calcium
 Bones and teeth
 Milk, yogurt, cheese, green vegetables
Iron
 Blood
 Red meat, poultry, soy, green leafy vegetables, fish, pork
Magnesium
 Muscles, nerves, bones, energy
 Nuts, whole grains, breads, bananas, milk
Phosphorus
 Bones, teeth, energy, cells
 Milk, meat, fish
Potassium
 Muscles, nervous system
 Potatoes, broccoli, bananas, fruits
Zinc
 Growth, immune system, healing
 Red meat, seafood, nuts, milk, whole grains, poultry
Carbohydrates
What are carbohydrates?
When most people refer to carbohydrates they are talking about foods that are starchy (like bread, pasta, and rice) or are sugary (like candy,
cookies, and cake). In science, when we talk about carbohydrates we are talking about specific types of molecules.
Carbohydrates are one of the four major groups of organic molecules; the other three being proteins, nucleic acids (DNA), and lipids (fats).
Carbohydrates are made up of three elements: carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
What do they do?
Carbohydrates are important to the daily lives of living organisms. They store energy (starches), provide energy for cells (glucose), and
provide structure to plants and some animals.
Types of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are sometimes referred to as saccharides. The different types of carbohydrates all have the word "saccharide" in them.
 Monosaccharides - Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates. They include sugars such as glucose and fructose.
Monosaccharides often taste sweet and dissolve in water. Glucose is a common carbohydrate found in plants and is the main
product of photosynthesis.
 Disaccharides - Disaccharides are formed from two Monosaccharides. They are also known as sugars such as sucrose and lactose.
Lactose is the carbohydrate found in milk.
 Oligosaccharides - Oligosaccharides are formed from a small number (usually three to six) of monosaccharides.
 Polysaccharides - Polysaccharides are long carbohydrate molecules. They are often called complex carbohydrates.
More about Complex Carbohydrates (Polysaccharides)
There are four important types of complex carbohydrates:

 Starches - Starches are a way that many plants store energy. We can then eat starches and our bodies will use the energy.
 Glycogen - Animals use glycogen to store energy. It is stored in the liver and the muscles to be used when needed.
 Cellulose - Cellulose is used in plants as a structural molecule. It can't be digested by animals.
 Chitin - Chitin is used as a structural molecule in fungi and arthropods.
What happens to left over carbohydrates?
When you eat carbohydrates your body uses them for energy. However, if you eat more than your body needs, it will convert them into fat.
Fat is the way that the body stores energy for later use. The body is trying to save up energy for a later time when you don't have any
carbohydrates to eat.
Interesting Facts about Carbohydrates

 Most of the time, the hydrogen to oxygen atom ratio of a carbohydrate is 2 hydrogen atoms for every 1 oxygen atom. This is the
same ratio as in water (H2O).
 The word "saccharide" comes from the Greek word "sakkharon" which means "sugar."
 Carbohydrates make up between 2 and 3 percent of the average person's body mass.
 Some carbs help our bodies to absorb calcium.
 Many people try using a low carb diet to lose weight, but we all need some carbohydrates to survive.
 Carbohydrates help to insure that our cells get the energy they need to perform well.
Chromosomes
What are chromosomes?
Chromosomes are tiny structures inside cells made from DNA, RNA, and protein. The information inside chromosomes act like a recipe
that tells cells how to function and replicate. Every form of life has its own unique set of instructions, including you. Your chromosomes
describe what color eyes you have, how tall you are, and whether you're a boy or a girl.
Inside the Cell
Chromosomes are found in the nucleus of every cell. Different forms of life have a different number of chromosomes in each cell. Humans
have 23 pairs of chromosomes for a total of 46 chromosomes in each cell.
Can we see them?
Normally we can't see chromosomes. They are so small and thin, we can't see them even with a powerful microscope. However, when a cell
gets ready to divide, the chromosomes wind themselves up and become tightly packed. With a high powered microscope, scientists can see
chromosomes. They are usually in pairs and look like short little worms.
What do they look like?
When a cell is not dividing (called the

interphase of the cell cycle), the
chromosome is in its chromatin form. In
this form it is a long, very thin, strand.
When the cell begins to divide, that strand
replicates itself and winds up into shorter
tubes. Before the split, the two tubes are
pinched together at a point called the
centromere. The shorter arms of the tubes
are called the "p arms" and the longer
arms are called the "q arms."
Different Chromosomes
Different chromosomes carry different types of information. For example, one chromosome may contain information on eye color and
height while another chromosome may determine blood type.
Genes
Within each chromosome are specific sections of DNA called genes. Each gene contains the code or recipe to make a specific protein. These
proteins determine how we grow and what traits we inherit from our parents. The gene is sometimes called a unit of heredity.
Allele
When we talk about a gene we are referring to a section of DNA. One example of this would be the gene that determines the color of your
hair. When we talk about the specific sequence of a gene (like the sequence that gives you black hair versus the sequence that gives you
blonde hair), this is called an allele. So everyone has a gene that determines their hair color, only blondes have the allele that makes the hair
blonde.
Human Chromosomes
As we mentioned above, humans have 23 different pairs of chromosomes for a total of 46 chromosomes. We all get 23 chromosomes from
our mother and 23 from our father. Scientists number these pairs from 1 to 22 and then an extra pair called the "X/Y" pair. The X/Y pair
determines if you are a boy or a girl. Girls have two X chromosomes called the XX, while boys have an X and a Y chromosome called the
XY.
Chromosomes in Different Animals
Different organisms have different numbers of chromosomes: a horse has 64, a rabbit 44, and a fruit fly has 8.
Interesting Facts about Chromosomes

 Some animals have lots of chromosomes, but much of the DNA is blank. This blank DNA is called "junk DNA."
 Nearly every cell in your body carries a complete set of chromosomes.
 Some chromosomes are longer than others because they contain more DNA.
 Humans have about 30,000 genes in their 46 chromosomes.
 The word "chromosome" comes from the Greek words "chroma", meaning color, and "soma", meaning body.
DNA and Genes

DNA is an essential molecule for life. It acts like a recipe holding the instructions telling our bodies how to develop and function.
What does DNA stand for?
DNA is short for deoxyribonucleic acid.
What is DNA made of?
DNA is a long thin molecule made up of something called nucleotides. There are four different types of nucleotides: adenine, thymine,
cytosine, and guanine. They are usually represented by their first letter:
 A- adenine
 T- thymine
 C - cytosine
 G - guanine
Holding the nucleotides together is a backbone made of phosphate and deoxyribose. The nucleotides are sometimes referred to as "bases".
The basic structure of the DNA molecule
Different Cells in the Body
Our bodies have around 210 different types of cells. Each cell
does a different job to help our body to function. There are
blood cells, bone cells, and cells that make our muscles.
How do cells know what to do?
Cells get their instructions on what do to from DNA. DNA

acts sort of like a computer program. The cell is the computer
or the hardware and the DNA is the program or code.
The DNA Code
The DNA code is held by the different letters of the

nucleotides. As the cell "reads" the instructions on the DNA
the different letters represent instructions. Every three letters makes up a word called a codon. A string of codons may look like this:
ATC TGA GGA AAT GAC CAG
Even though there are only four different letters, DNA molecules are thousands of letters long. This allows for billions and billions of
different combinations.
Genes
Within each string of DNA are sets of instructions called genes. A gene tells a cell how to make a specific protein. Proteins are used by the
cell to perform certain functions, to grow, and to survive.
Shape of the DNA Molecule
Although DNA looks like very thin long strings under a microscope, it turns out that DNA has a specific shape. This shape is called a double
helix. On the outside of the double helix is the backbone which holds the DNA together. There are two sets of backbones that twist together.
Between the backbones are the nucleotides represented by the letters A, T, C, and G. A different nucleotide connects to each backbone and
then connects to another nucleotide in the center.
Only certain sets of nucleotides can fit together. You can think of them like puzzle pieces: A only connects with T and G only connects with
C.
Interesting Facts about DNA

 About 99.9 percent of the DNA of every person on the planet is exactly the same. It's that 0.1 percent that is different that makes
us all unique.
 The double helix structure of DNA was discovered by Dr. James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953.
 If you unraveled all the DNA molecules in your body and placed them end to end, it would stretch to the Sun and back several
times.
 DNA is organized into structures called chromosomes within the cell.
 DNA was first isolated and identified by Swiss biologist Friedrich Meischer in 1869.
Hereditary Patterns
We all have heard how we get certain traits from our parents such as the color of our eyes or how tall we are. These traits are passed on by
genes in our DNA. Half of our DNA comes from our mother and half from our father.
Scientists have discovered that genes are inherited in certain patterns. What genes your parents and grandparents have, affects what genes
you have. On this page we will learn how those patterns work.
We learned some of the basics about inheritance on the Mendel and Inheritance page. You can also go to our DNA page and
our chromosome page to learn more.
The Basics
A few things you should know about genes and inheritance:
Gene - Inside the DNA molecule are sections of information called genes. Each gene tells the cell how to make a certain protein which may
determine a trait such as the color of the eyes.
Allele - While the section of DNA is called a gene, a specific pattern in a gene is called an allele. For example, the gene would determine the
hair color. The specific pattern of the hair color gene that causes the hair to be black would be the allele.
Dominant and Recessive Genes
Each child inherits two genes for each trait from their parents. Some genes are more dominant than others. For example, brown eyes are
dominant over blue eyes. If someone has a brown eyed gene and a blue eye gene, they will have brown eyes. They will only have blue eyes if
both genes are blue.
The brown eyed gene is called the dominant gene and the blue eyed gene is the recessive gene.
Writing out the Genes
In order to write out the specific allele a person has for a gene, you write a letter representing the gene from the mother and a letter for the
gene from the father. Dominant genes are written with capital letters and recessive genes with lower case letters. Here is an example:
We use the capital letter "B" to represent the dominant brown-eyed gene and a lower case "b" to represent the recessive blue-eyed gene.
 Bb - one brown gene, one blue gene (this person will have brown eyes)
 BB - both brown genes (this person will have brown eyes)
 bb - both blue genes (this person will have blue eyes)
Punnet Square
The main way to figure out the pattern of inheritance that could come from two parents is using a Punnet square. A Punnet square shows all
the possible combinations of genes from the parents.
We will use the example of a plant that could have a purple flower or a white flower. The purple gene is dominant and we write it "P." The
white gene is recessive, so we write it "w." Here is an example of a Punnet square where one parent has two purple genes "P" and the other
parent has two white "w" genes.
P P
w Pw Pw
w Pw Pw
Each child has the same gene pattern "Pw". They all have the dominant P gene and will all have purple flowers.
Here is another example where each parent has a purple gene and a white gene (Pw):
P w
P PP Pw
w Pw ww
In this case, you can see that 75% of the children will have a dominant "P" gene and will have a purple flower. However, 25% of the children
have "ww" genes and will have a white flower.
More Punnet Square Examples
In this example, one parent is PP and the other Pw.
P P
P PP PP
w Pw Pw
All of the children will have purple flowers, but because one parent has a recessive "w" gene, 50% of the children will pass on the "w" gene.
Now look at what happens if only one parent has a single dominant P gene where one parent is "Pw" and the other "ww".
P w
w Pw ww
w Pw ww
You can see that 50% of the children will have white flowers and 50% purple.
Interesting Facts about Hereditary Patterns

 All of an individual's genes together are called the genotype.
 The physical appearance that results from the alleles (for example, the actual purple flower) is called the phenotype.
 If the two genes are the same (for example, ww or PP), this is called homozygous.
 If the two genes are different (for example Pw), this is called heterozygous.
 Sometimes gene types have "codominance" meaning that neither gene is dominant over the other. One example of this is blood
type where one parent has type A and the other has type B. The child will have blood type AB.
 Some traits are determined by multiple genes.
Bacteria
What are bacteria?
Bacteria are tiny little organisms that are everywhere around us. We can't see them without a microscope because they are so small, but
they are in the air, on our skin, in our bodies, in the ground, and all throughout nature.
Bacteria are single-celled microorganisms. Their cell structure is unique in that they don't have a nucleus and most bacteria have cell walls
similar to plant cells. They come in all sorts of shapes including rods, spirals, and spheres. Some bacteria can "swim" around using long tails
called flagella. Others just hang out or glide along.
Are bacteria dangerous?
Most bacteria aren't dangerous, but some are and can make us sick. These bacteria are called pathogens. Pathogens can cause diseases in
animals and plants. Some examples of pathogens are leprosy, food poisoning, pneumonia, tetanus, and typhoid fever.
Fortunately, we have antibiotics we can take which help to fight off the bad pathogens. We also have antiseptics to help us keep wounds
clean of bacteria and antibiotic soap we use to wash to help keep off bad pathogens. Remember to wash your hands!
Are bacteria all bad?
Not at all. Actually most bacteria are very helpful to us. They play an important role in the planet's ecosystem as well as in human survival.
Bacteria in the soil
Bacteria work hard in the soil for us. One type of bacteria, called decomposers, break down material from dead plants and animals. This
might sound kind of gross, but it's an important function that helps to create soil and get rid of dead tissue. Another type of bacteria in the
soil is Rhizobium bacteria. Rhizobium bacteria helps to fertilize the soil with nitrogen for plants to use when growing.
Bacteria in food
Yep, there's bacteria in our food. Yuck! Well, they aren't really that bad and bacteria is used when making foods like yogurt, cheese, pickles,
and soy sauce.
Bacteria in our bodies
There are many good bacteria in our bodies. A primary use of bacteria is to help us digest and breakdown our food. Some bacteria can also
help assist our immune system in protecting us from certain organisms that can make us sick.
Parts of the Bacteria Cell (see picture)

1. Capsula
2. Outer membrane
3. Periplasm and Cell wall
4. Cytoplasmic (inner) membrane
5. Cytoplasm
6. Ribosome
7. Reserve food supplies
8. Chromosome
9. Mesosome
Fungi
Fungi are a group of living organisms which are classified
in their own kingdom. This means they are
not animals, plants, orbacteria. Unlike bacteria, which
have simple prokaryotic cells, fungi have complex
eukaryotic cells like animals and plants.
Fungi are found throughout the Earth including on land,

in the water, in the air, and even in plants and animals.
They vary widely in size from microscopically small to the
largest organisms on Earth at several square miles large.
There are more than 100,000 different identified species
of fungi.
How are fungi different from plants?
Fungi were once classified as plants. However, they are different from plants in two important ways: 1) fungi cell walls are composed of
chitin rather than cellulose (plants) and 2) fungi do not make their own food like plants do through photosynthesis.
Characteristics of Fungi
 They are eukaryotic.
 They get their food by decomposing matter or eating off their hosts as parasites.
 They do not possess chlorophyll like plants.
 They reproduce through numerous spores rather than pollen, fruit, or seeds.
 They are usually not motile, meaning they cannot actively move around.
Roles of Fungi
 Food - Many fungi are used as food such as mushrooms and truffles. Yeast, a type of fungi, is used when baking bread to help it
rise and to ferment beverages.
 Decomposition - Fungi play an important role in the decomposition of organic matter. This decomposition is necessary for many
of the cycles of life such as the carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen cycles. By breaking down organic matter, fungi release carbon,
nitrogen, and oxygen into the soil and the atmosphere.
 Medicine - Some fungi are used to killed bacteria that can cause infections and disease in humans. They make antibiotics like
penicillin and cephalosporin.
Types of Fungi
Scientists often divide fungi into four groups: club fungi, molds, sac fungi, and imperfect fungi. Some of the more common fungi that you
are likely to see or use everyday are described below.
 Mushrooms - Mushrooms are part of the club fungi group. Mushrooms are the fruiting body of a fungus. Some mushrooms are
good to eat and are used as food, while others are very poisonous. Never eat a mushroom you find in the woods!
 Mold - Molds are formed by filaments called hyphae. Molds tend to form on old fruit, bread, and cheese. They sometimes look
furry as the hyphae grow upward and release more mold spores from their tips.
 Yeast - Yeasts are small round single-celled organisms. Yeasts are important in making bread rise.
Interesting Facts about Fungi
 Scientists who specialize in the study of fungi are called mycologists.
 The fungi kingdom is more similar to the animal kingdom than the plant kingdom.
 The word "fungus" is a Latin word meaning "mushroom".
 It is estimated that there are at least 1.5 million different species of fungi.
 The top of a mushroom is called the cap. The small plates under the cap are called gills.
 The fungus Trichoderma is sometimes used in the process when making stone-washed jeans.
Viruses
What are viruses?
Viruses are very small particles that can infect animals and plants and make them sick. Viruses are made up of genetic materials like DNA
and are protected by a coating of protein.
Viruses hijack the cells of living organisms. They inject their genetic material right into the cell and take over. They then use the cell to make
more viruses and take over more cells.
Are viruses alive?
Scientists differ on whether viruses are actually alive or not. Many people say they are non-living because they cannot reproduce without
the aid of a host. Viruses also do not metabolize food into energy or have organized cells, which are usually characteristics of living things.
Characteristics of Viruses
 They do not have an organized cell structure.
 They have no cell nucleus.
 They typically have one or two strands of DNA or RNA.
 They are covered with a protective coat of protein called the CAPSID.
 They are inactive when not inside a living cell, but are active when inside another living cell.
Why are viruses bad?
When viruses invade a body's cells and begin to multiply, they make the host sick. They cause all sorts of diseases.
How do viruses spread?
Viruses are very small and lightweight. They can float through the air, survive in water, or even on the surface of your skin. Viruses can be
passed from one person to another by shaking hands, touching food, through water, or through the air when a person coughs or sneezes.
Viruses can also be passed on by insect bites, animals, or through bad food.
Examples of Viruses
There are many viruses that can infect people and make them sick. One of the most common is influenza which causes people to get the flu.
Other diseases caused by viruses include the common cold, measles, mumps, yellow fever, and hepatitis.
How to Avoid Getting Infected
There are things you can do to help reduce your chance of getting infected by a virus. Here are a few examples:
 Wash your hands (probably one of the most important ones).
 Don't put your hands or fingers in your mouth, nose, or eyes. Rubbing your nose or eyes can cause a virus on your hands to infect
your body.
 Make sure your food is well-cooked, especially meat.
 Take your vitamins each day.
 Get plenty of sleep and exercise. This helps to strengthen your immune system to fight off viruses.
How are viruses treated?
There is little that doctors can do to treat viruses. In most cases our body's immune system fights off the virus. Scientists have developed
vaccines that help our bodies to build up immunity to a specific virus. One example of a vaccine is the flu shot. The flu shot helps the body
to develop its own defenses against the flu called antibodies.
Interesting Facts about Viruses

 Viruses are not classified in any of the five kingdoms of living things. This means they are not bacteria, fungi, protists, plants, or
animals.
 Most viruses are so small they cannot be seen with an optical microscope.
 The word "virus" comes from the Latin word "virulentus" meaning "poisonous."
 Viruses can sometimes attack and kill bacteria.
 The first human virus discovered was the yellow fever virus in 1901 by Walter Reed.
 A virus that contains RNA instead of DNA is sometimes called a retrovirus.
 There are two main types of reproductive cycles for viruses: the lytic cycle and the lysogenic cycle.
 Diseases that are caused by a virus with a lytic cycle show symptoms much faster than viruses with a lysogenic cycle.
Infectious Disease
What is an infectious disease?
An infectious disease is any disease caused by a pathogen (germ) such as a virus, bacteria, parasite, or fungus. Although we will mostly
discuss infectious diseases in people on this page, other living organisms such as animals, plants, and microorganisms can all be made ill by
an infectious disease.
Pathogens
"Pathogen" is the scientific name for "germ." Infectious diseases are caused by pathogens. When your mom says to wash your hands
because of germs, she wants you to get all the pathogens off your hands so they won't go into your mouth and body. Maybe after reading
this, you will wash your hands a bit more!
Pathogens are tiny organisms (called microorganisms) that invade the body and make it sick. Examples of pathogens are viruses, bacteria,
parasites, and fungi. Click on the word to learn more.
Examples
Different kinds of pathogens cause different kinds of diseases. Here are some example diseases caused by each type of pathogen:
 Viruses - Viruses are extremely small and consists of DNA with a protective coating of protein. Diseases caused by viruses include
influenza, the common cold, measles, yellow fever, and hepatitis.
 Bacteria - Bacteria are small microorganisms. They can cause diseases such as tuberculosis, cholera, typhoid fever, and tetanus.
 Parasites - Parasites are organisms that live off their hosts. Some parasitic diseases include malaria, sleeping sickness, and scabies.
 Fungi - Fungi are microorganisms such as yeasts and molds. They can cause diseases such as fungal meningitis, ringworm, and
thrush.
Transmission
Infectious diseases can be transmitted in several ways including:

 Food and water contamination - Some diseases are passed on by contaminated food or water. This can occur in undercooked food
or when sewage gets into the water supply. Examples of diseases that are transmitted this way include E. coli, cholera, and
salmonella.
 Insect bites - Insects such as fleas, mosquitoes, and ticks can carry pathogens that get passed on when they make contact with
humans. Diseases from insects include malaria (mosquitoes), Lyme disease (ticks), and the bubonic plague (fleas).
 Direct contact - Diseases are often passed from person to person by direct contact. This could include shaking hands, sneezing
(airborne), and kissing. Examples include influenza, the common cold, and chickenpox.
 Indirect contact - Some pathogens can survive for a while outside the host. They may be on objects such as doorknobs and
telephones. Many of the same diseases, but not all, that can spread through direct contact can also be spread through indirect
contact.
Other Types of Diseases
Not all diseases are infectious. Some other types of diseases include:
 Autoimmune - An autoimmune disease occurs when the immune system attacks the body. Examples include Type I diabetes and
multiple sclerosis.
 Lifestyle - Lifestyle diseases are caused by the way people live. They can also be a result of people living longer. Examples include
Type 2 diabetes, alcoholism, and Alzheimer's disease.
 Disorder - A disease is sometimes called a disorder when some part of the body isn't functioning normally. Often disorders are
associated with the brain and are called mental disorders. Examples include eating disorders such as bulimia and mental disorders
such as depression.
 Heart disease - Heart disease is used to describe anything that is wrong with the cardiovascular system. This includes diseases
such as coronary artery disease, high blood pressure, and congenital heart disease.
 Medical condition - The term medical condition is used to describe everything from injuries to infectious diseases to disorders. An
injury such as a concussion would be considered a medical condition.
Interesting Facts about Infectious Disease
 A Zoonotic disease is an infectious disease that can be transmitted between animals to humans.
 Not all infections are considered diseases as some infections don't make a person sick.
 Not all viruses, bacteria, parasites, and fungi are bad for humans, but the ones that do cause disease are called pathogens.
 Over 160,000 people die each year in the United States from infectious diseases.
 A "contagious" disease is an infectious disease that is very easily transmitted.
The Human Brain
The brain is where we do our thinking. All our senses are tied into our brain allowing us to experience the outside world. We remember,
have emotions, solve problems, worry about stuff, dream about the future, and control our bodies in our brain.
For such an awesome organ, the brain doesn't look like much. It's a ball of gray looking wrinkled tissue about the size of two of your fists
put together. The brain sits in our hard, thick skull with membranes and fluid around it to protect it.
How the Brain Communicates
The brain is part of the nervous system. Together with the spinal cord, it makes up the central nervous system. The brain connects to nerves
that travel throughout the body. Nerves from our senses (hearing, seeing, touch, etc.) send signals to the brain to let the brain know what is
going on in the outside world. The brain also sends signals using nerves to muscles in order to make our body move.
Parts of the Brain
Cerebrum - The cerebrum is the biggest part of the brain. It's the gray wrinkly upper part. The surface of the cerebrum is called
the cerebral cortex. Different parts of the cerebrum deal with different parts of the body. The back part deals with vision while other parts
deal with other functions like movement, hearing, language, and touch. Smart or thinking people are sometimes called cerebral.
 Cerebellum - At the back and bottom of the brain is the cerebellum. This part of brain deals with motor movement. It processes
all the incoming motor messages from the nerves and figures out what to do with them. The cerebellum can learn motor
movements with practice allowing us to do stuff like riding a bike or typing without even thinking about it. Hey, I didn't think
about typing this once!
 Brain Stem or Medulla - This is where the brain connects to the spinal cord. Also, many automatic functions are controlled
here like keeping the heart beating, breathing, and digesting food.
Memory
The brain has two kinds of memory, short term memory and long term memory.
Scientists are still learning exactly how memory works, but they know that short
term memory allows us to remember something for a very short time without
rehearsing or practicing it. We can't remember a lot of things in short term memory
though, and, like its name suggests, these memories don't last very long.
The Brain Needs Energy
The brain may not move, but it needs lots of energy. Energy is sent to the brain by
our blood. There are lots of blood vessels and blood flowing through the brain at all
times. The brain actually uses around twenty percent of the body's energy.
The Brain Has Two Halves
The brain is divided into two halves. Since the nerves cross when they enter the brain, the left side of our brain controls the right half of our
body and the right side controls the left. Each half also controls specialized functions. What each half does depends on whether you are left
or right handed. In a right handed person the left side of the brain is used for language and numbers while the right side is the more artistic
side and is also used for recognizing objects.
x-intercept = 2, m = -2/3.
You can start by writing the general slope-intercept form of a linear equation:
y = mx + b where: m is the slope and b is the y-intercept. You have been given the slope, m = -2/3, so you can write:
So far, so good! But now you need to find the value of b, the y-intercept. You can do this because you
have been given the x-intercept, x = 2 and because you know that the x-intercept is where the line intersects (crosses)
the x-axis and the y-coordinate at this point is y = 0.
So the x-intercept has the coordinates: (2, 0). This allows you to find b,in the equation because you can substitute the x-
and y-coordinates of this point into the equation and solve for b.
Solving this for b, you get:
So now you can write the final equation of the line in the slope-intercept form: y = mx + b
1. Teacher D plays soft classical music while her class is asked to meditate on the beauty of creation
because she believes that meditative music can help them reflect better. On which theory is this
practice founded?
A. Humanistic psychology
B. Psychoanalysis
C. Gestalt psychology
D. Behaviorism
2. Teacher E’s sideline is selling “Encyclopedias for Children” on weekends. Her usual clientele are
the parents of pupils who are on the verge of failing or those vying for the Top Ten. In fact, she
always succeeded in selling encyclopedias to these parents. Is there anything unethical with the way
Teacher E does her sideline?
A. Yes, there is. She may become less objective in her evaluation of the work of these pupils
concerned.
B. No, there isn’t. Books and teachers mix. Teachers are supposed to promote reading.
C. No, there isn’t. A teacher’s salary is meager and selling books is respectable way of augmenting
Teacher
E’s income.
D. Yes, there is. She is not supposed to engage in any form of sideline.
3. To build a sense of pride among Filipino youth, which should be done?

A. Re-study our history and stress on our achievements as a people.
B. Re-study our history from the perspective of our colonizers.
C. Replace the study of folklores and myths with technical subjects that make youths globally
competitive.
D. Set aside the study of local history.
4. Teacher Rodel discovered that his students are very good in dramatizing. Which tool must have
helped him discover his pupils’ strength?
A. Product assessment B. Performance test C. Journal entry D. Portfolio assessment
5. Here is a performance objective: “WITH THE AID OF A PERIODIC CHART, the students will list the
atomic weights of the first ten elements.” The words in capital letters are referred to as the
___________.
A. minimum acceptable performance
B. behavior
C. condition
D. Performance statement
6. Even if the situation allowed her to cheat, Bianca chose not to because she believes it is not the
right thing to do. In what moral developmental stage is Bianca?
A. Conventional
B. Post- conventional
C. Pre-conventional
D. Universal
7. Which assessment tool will be most authentic?

A. Short answer test
B. Alternate-response test
C. Essay test
D. Portfolio
8. Which of the following is a “fact” question?

A. What are some of the ways in which you have used the word ancient?
B. What are the effects of the invention of electricity on the life of people?
C. What is the function of a CPU in a microcomputer?
D. What would be one of the first things we have to do to clean the air we breathe?
9. Which holds true to norm-referenced testing

A. Constructing test items in terms of instructional objectives
B. Identifying an acceptable level of mastery in advance
C. Determining tasks that reflect instructional objectives
D. Identifying average performance of a group
10. I like to teach subtraction by engaging my pupils in a “sari-sari store business”. Which technique
is this?
A. Contrived incident B. Game C. Dramatization D. Simulation
11. According to Bandura’s learning theory, the four factors that are necessary for a person to learn
through observation are attention, retention, reproduction and ______.
A. metacognition B. reflection C. discrimination D. motivation
12. In one of the pages of her printed reference material, Teacher Irene finds an illustrative life cycle
of a frog. Assuming that the following are available to her, which is the quickest way for her to
effectively present the life cycle of a frog to her class? By _______________.
A. the use of an overhead projector C. describing the life cycle
B. the use of an opaque projector D. drawing on the chalkboard
13. HERE ARE TWO SETS OF SCORES: SET A- 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 SET B- 3,4,4,5,5,6,6,7,9
Which statement correctly applies to the two sets of score distribution?
A. The scores in Set A are more spread out than those in Set B.
B. The range for Set B is 6
C. The range for Set A is 5
D. The scores in Set B are more spread out than those in Set A.
14. I like my students to master the skill of multiplying 2-digit numbers. Which method is most
appropriate?
A. Drill B. Expository C. Discovery D. Unit
15. Which educational issue can be clarified by understanding Maslow’s Needs Theory?
A. The effects of different classroom structures
B. Delinquency in the public schools
C. The effect of poverty on academic achievement
D. Sex education issues in school
16. Teacher Alvin wants to teach the class the rules in playing basketball. Which method is most
appropriate?
A. Discovery
B. Inductive reasoning
C. Problem solving
D. Direct instruction
17. From which educational philosophy does Back to the Basics movement spring?
A. Essentialism B. Perennialism C. Progressivism D. Existentialism
18. Which does NOT belong to the group?

A. Completion
B. Alternate response
C. Multiple choice
D. Matching type
19. Teacher F helps the pupils remember that stalaCtite grows from the Ceiling and the stalaGmites
grow from the Ground. What device does Teacher F use?
A. Memory device
B. Drill device
C. Coding device
D. Mnemonic device
20. Which basic guidance service is concerned with the gathering and dissemination of information
about students to appropriate professional staff to aid them in their job to help students?
A. Counseling service C. Individual inventory service
B. Placement service D. Research service
21. Which of the following best illustrates the balance of responsibility and accountability?
A. A teacher allows a below average child to find out for himself how to manipulate a simple
machine.
B. A teacher advises the parents of a below average child to get their child a tutor to teach him how
to manipulate a simple machine.
C. A teacher asks a brighter child to teach a below average pupil how to manipulate a simple
machine.
D. A teacher diligently explains to a below average child how to manipulate a simple machine.
22. “What is most likely to happen in our economy when export continuously surpasses import?” is
a thought question on______.
A. generalizing B. predicting C. synthesizing D. creating
23. Teacher Y says: “Perfection must be real. While we cannot attain it here on earth, we aspire for it.
It must be real.” Teacher Y leans towards which philosophy?
A. idealism
B. Realism
C. Philosophical analysis
D. Pragmatism
24. How do cognitive psychologists see the learner?

A. With empty minds C. Full of experiences
B. uninterested to learn D. Totally conditioned by environment
25. A Grade I pupil has difficulty writing letter A. Which prompt/s is/are most appropriate?
A. Gestural B. Physical C. Verbal & Gestural D. Verbal
26. Which primary criterion should guide a teacher in the choice of instructional devices?
A. Novelty
B. Attractiveness
C. Ability of the students
D. Appropriateness
27. With which is true authority equated?

A. Suppression B. Power C. Coercion D. Service
28. Mitos was first asked to compare identical amounts of liquids in two short glasses. The liquid
from one of the two short glasses was poured into a taller, skinnier glass of the same capacity. Mitos
indicated that the amounts of liquid in the two different glasses are still the same. What is Mitos that
capable of ?
A. Assimilation B. Accomodation C. Conservation D. Reversibility
29. Which is most implied by a negatively skewed score distribution?

A. Several of the pupils are in middle of the distribution
B. Most of the scores are high
C. Most of the scores are low
D. The scores are evenly distributed from left to right of the normal curve.
30. Q1 is to 25th percentile as median is to ________.

A. 25th percentile B. 40th percentile C. 50th percentile D. 75th percentile
31. Which quotation goes with a proactive approach to discipline?

A. “An ounce of prevention is better than a pound of cure.”
B. Do not make a mountain out of a mole.”
C. “Walk your talk.”
D. “Do not smile until Christmas.”
32. Each teacher is said to be a trustee of the cultural and educational heritage of the nation and is
obliged to transmit to learners such heritage. Which practice helps him fulfill such obligation?
A. Observe continuing professional education to be the best Filipino teacher.
B. Teach the latest instructional technology to Filipino children.
C. Study the life of Filipino heroes and pass on their deeds worth emulating to students.
D. Supplant indigenous culture with foreign culture claimed to be superior.
33. “All men are pretty much alike. It is only by custom that they are set apart.”, said an Oriental
philosopher. Where is this thought most inspiring?
A. In multi-cultural group of learners
B. In multi-cultural, heterogenous and indigenous peoples’ groups
C. In a heterogenous class of learners
D. In a class composed of indigenous people
34. Principal A tells his teachers to employ more cooperative learning to help students develop
social virtues like cooperation. Which philosophy governs Principal A’s thinking?
A. Essentialism
B. Perennialism
C. Existentialism
D. Progressivism
35. What is the mode of the following score distribution: 96, 97, 98, 97, 93, 90, 89, 97, 81, 80?
A. 97 B. 96 C. 98 D. 83
36. What an individual has learned in the formative years tend to persist, but they are not
unchangeable according to Hurlock. Change is most likely to occur under the following conditions
EXCEPT when _______.
A. the individual himself/herself is strongly motivated to make the change
B. significant people treat the individual in new and different ways
C. needs to be changed are in the genes
D. the individual receives help and guidance in making the change
37. You have presented a lesson on animal protective coloration. At the end, you ask if there are any
questions. There are none. You can take this to mean that ________.
A. the students are not interested in the lesson
B. the students did not understand what you were talking about
C. the students understood everything you presented
D. you need to ask specific questions to elicit response
38. English and Filipino are the official languages of the Philippines according to the Philippine
Constitution. This means that they are the prescribed media of ______.
I. communication in government III. Communication in public fora
II. instruction in educational institutions IV. Lectures in teacher’s seminars
A. I, II B. I, III C. II, III D. I, IV
39. What measure/s of central tendency does the number 16 represent in the following score
distribution? 14, 15, 17, 16, 19, 20, 16, 14, 16?
A. Mode only C. Mode and median
B. Median only D. Mean and mode
40. Teacher Jhonna is convinced that she should teach her students to appreciate themselves for
who they are and to accept the responsibility for their thoughts, feeling and actions. Which
philosophy governs Teacher Jhonna’s thought?
A. Existentialism B. Realism C. Perennialism D. Naturalism
41. Who is NOT covered by the Code of Ethics of Professional Teachers?

A. Teachers of academic, vocational, specific, technical, or non-formal institutions
B. Teachers in all educational institutions at the preschool, elementary, and secondary levels
C. Teachers in the tertiary level
D. All full time or part time public and private school teachers and administrators
42. Which group of philosophers has opposite views from the rationalists?
A. Empiricists B. Existentialists C. Naturalists D. Idealists
43. What does the principle of individual differences require teachers to do?
A. Give less attention to gifted learners
B. Provide for a variety of learning activities
C.Treat all learners alike while teaching
D. Prepare modules for slow learners in class
44. Which one does NOT illustrate the principle that rights and duties are correlative?
A. The right of an unmarried pregnant teacher to abort her baby is in relation to her duty to protect
her name.
B. The right to a living wage involves the duty of the employer to give the salary agreed upon and the
duty of the employee to give a fair amount of work.
C. The right to life on the part of one person corresponds to the obligation on the part of other
persons to respect such a right.
D. The right of the state to compel citizens to military service is reciprocated by the duty of the state
to protect citizens.
45. For maximum interaction, which type of questions must a teacher avoid?
A. Rhetorical B. Informational C. Leading D. Divergent
46. A caregiver working with infants aims to maximize their cognitive development by having an
environment that provides multi-sensorial stimulation. This is guided by the theory of _______.
A. Erikson B. Piaget C. Gardner D. Goleman
47. What is/are important to state when explaining percentile-ranked tests to parents?
I. What group took the test
II. That the scores show how students performed in relation to other students
III. That the scores show how students performed in relation to an absolute measure
A. I & II B. II only C. I & III D. III only
48. Which is the true end of a teacher’s authority in the classroom?

A. To sow fear in every child for order’s sake
B. To coerce the child to do what is good
C. To motivate the child to internalize self-discipline
D. To make the child obey orders
49. I started my lesson with a graphic presentation of data then asked my students to analyze and
interpret them and draw implications from them. How did my lesson development proceed?
A. Deductively
B. Transductively
C. Inductively
D. Inductively then deductively
50. I want to have small group discussions in my class. Which topics will be best for group
discussion? Those topics_____.
A. that are formally structured by texts
B. that are factual
C. where a high degree of consensus among students does not yet exist
D. where a high degree of consensus among students already exists.
51. Which questioning behavior is appropriate?
A. Repeating students’ responses.
B. Allowing choral responses.
C. Cutting a student who gives a long response.
D. Asking the question then calling on a student to answer.
52. Standard deviation is to variability as mode is to ________.

A. correlation B. level of difficulty C. discrimination D. central tendency
53. You regard the classroom as a small democracy where you help your children live the democratic
way of life. To which educational philosophy do you adhere?
A. Reconstructivism B. Progressivism C. Existentialism D. Realism
54. Marking on a normative basis means that _______.

A. the normal curve of distribution should be followed
B. the symbols used in grading indicate how a student achieved relative to other students
C. some get high marks
D. some are expected to fail
55. In Krathwohl’s taxonomy of objectives in the affective domain, which is the highest level of
affective behavior?
A. Responding B. Valuing C. Organization D. Characterization
56. The cultivation of reflective and meditative skills in teaching is an influence of _____.
A. Taoism B. Shintoism C. Confucianism D. Zen Buddhism
57. A teacher should take the obligation upon himself to study the customs and traditions of the
community where she works in order to __________.
A. change the culture of the community
B. have a sympathetic attribute for the people of the community
C. please the people of the community
D. identify the weakness of the culture of the community
58. Which of the following group activities provides an open environment in which group members
can discuss their opinions without being judged as wrong?
A. Buzz session B. Forum C. Philips 66 D. Panel
59.To teach the democratic process to the pupils, School T decided to pattern the election of class
and school officers after the local election process. There were qualifications set for candidates,
limited period of campaign and rules for posting campaign materials, etc. Which of the following did
the school employ?
A. Symposium B. Simulation C. Philips 66 D. Role playing
60. If a child is bitten by a large, black dog, the child may fear not only that black dog but also other
large dogs. Which conditioning process is illustrated?
A. Generalization B. Acquisition C. Discrimination D. Extinction
61. Here is a question on the knowledge level: “WHAT IS THE DEFINITION OF CAPITALISM” Which
one is a corresponding question in the application level?
A. In your own words, explain the concept of capitalism
B. What should an economic system be like that combines the main features of capitalism and
socialism?
C. What countries from among those listed do have a capitalist economic system?
D. What factors distinguish capitalism from socialism?
62. To believe in the basic goodness of every learner is in line with the thought on the innate
goodness of man as taught by _______.
A. Lao tsu B. Kung-fu-tsu C. Mohammad D. Mencius
63. Cristy, a Grade 3 pupil, is happy when she wins in a game but sulks when she doesn’t. Which
does Cristy’s behavior indicate?
A. Egotism B. Egocentrism C. Rigidity of thought D. Autonomy
64.World War II has caused too much destruction to life and property and the Allied Forces which
composed of the United States, Great Britain and France wanted to end it. But Japan adamantly
refused. To force Japan’s surrender, the Allied Forces dropped the first atomic bomb on Hiroshima
and Nagasaki on August 9, 1945. Which basic principle of morality applies to this case?
A. Always do what is right C. The end does not justify the means
B. Principle of double of effect D. Between the two evils, do the lesser evil.
65. To arouse in them the spirit of nationalism, Teacher Ima plays Philippine folk music as pupils
enter the classroom after flag ceremony. To what theory does Teacher Ima adhere?
A. Humanistic psychology
B. Gestalt psychology
C. Behaviorism
D. Psychoanalysis
66. Research found that children learn visual discrimination tasks more rapidly if they talk to
themselves. This shows that _________.
A. visual discrimination may be learned without vocalization
B. vocalization does not enhance visual discrimination
C. vocalization assists visual discrimination
D. visual discrimination cannot be learned without vocalization
67. In which lesson can you use the indirect instruction method?
A. Using a microscope properly C. Solving an equation with two unknowns
B. Distinguishing war from aggression D. Cooking pinakbet
68. The authoritarian setting in the Filipino home is reinforced by a classroom teacher who _______.
A. prescribes what pupils should do C. asks open-ended questions
B. encourages pupils to ask questions D. is open to suggestions
69. Belen enjoys games like scrabble, anagrams, and password. Which type of intelligence is strong
in Belen?
A. Interpersonal intelligence C. Spatial intelligence
B. Linguistic intelligence D. logical and mathematical intelligence
70. To test if values have really been imbibed, which measurement instruments should a teacher
use?
A. Rating scales and conflict stories
B. Projective techniques and moral dilemmas
C. Unobtrusive observation and anecdotal records
D. Likert scales and rating scales
71. The following are trends in marking and reporting systems EXCEPT
A. raising the passing grade from 75 to 80
B. conducting parent-teacher conferences as often as needed
C. indicating strong points as well as those needing improvement.
D. supplementing subject grades with checklist on traits.
72. Here is a lesson objective in a Language lesson: “From memory, the pupils must be able to recite
the poem”. Applying Robert Mager’s principle which does this objective lack?
A. Location B. Condition C. Criterion measure D. Performance
73. Teacher Jenny subscribes to the mental discipline approach. Which is she convinced of?
A. The more difficult the subject, the more the student exercises his mind, the greater the value of
the subject.
B. The more bodily exercises, the better for the student.
C. The less the student engages himself in mental exercise, the better for the student.
D. The easier the subject, the greater the value of the subject
74. The students of Teacher Sophie scan an electronic encyclopedia, view a film on a subject, or look
at related topics at the touch of a button right there in the classroom. Which device does Teacher
Sophie’s class have?
A. Videodisc B. Videotaped lesson C. CD D. Teaching machines
75. A class is composed of academically poor students. The distribution would be most likely to be
_____.
A skewed to the right B. leptokurtic C. a bell curve D. skewed to the left
76. A good classroom manager has “eyes on the back of his head.” This means that the effective
teacher ___.
A. has eye contact with his students
B. gives penetrating looks to his students
C. looks at his students from head to toe when he expresses
legitimate anger
D. is aware of all actions and activities in his classroom
77. In Krathwohl’s affective domain of objectives, which of the following is the LEAST authentic?
A. Responding B. Receiving C. Valuing D. Organization
78. I want to measure students’ awareness of values. Which tool will I use?
A. Likert scales B. Projective technique C. Moral dilemma D. Observation
79. Which theory backs up the use of computer-assisted instruction?

A. Classical conditioning
B. Insight learning
C. Associative shifting
D. Operant conditioning
80. Which characteristic of a good test is threatened when a significantly greater number from the
lower group gets a test item correctly?
A. Objectivity B. Scorability C. Administrability D. Reliability
81. Cognitive is to knowledge as affective is to ____.

A. rights B. skills C. obligations D. values
82. To develop higher-level thinking skill among students, which type of questions should be
discouraged?
A. Sequential questions C. Stimulating questions
B. Overload questions D. Clear questions
83. You want to generate as many ideas as you can as your class is about to embark on a class
project for senior citizens. Which of the following will you employ?
A. Brainstorming B. Role playing C. Brainwashing D. Simulation
84. Regular medical check-up required of teachers is done in the interest of _______.
A. School officials C. the state and of every teacher
B. Filipino medical doctors D. parents
85. In which competency did my students find the greatest difficulty? In the item with a difficulty
index of _____.
A. 0.1 B. 1.0 C. 0.9 D. 0.5
86. You made use of an “I message” to communicate your anger to Venus. Which is a characteristic
of that “ I message.”? Focus on _____.
A. what in Venus’s behavior made you angry
B. your feelings about Venus’s misbehavior
C. why you cannot control Ruth’s behavior
D. your thinking about Venus’s misbehavior
87. What kind of social environment prevails in your class if you, as the teacher, are the primary
provider of information, opinions, and instructions?
A. In between democratic and Laissez faire C. Authoritarian
B. Laissez faire D. Democratic
88. “ Knowledge is innate in the soul. Provoke people into thinking for themselves rather than teach
them they did not already know, said one Greek philosopher. What is the application of this in the
classroom today? Use of _____.
A. cooperative learning C. questioning method
B. role playing D. concept mapping
89. Because the pupils are hungry, they ignore the instruction to line up for their snacks and are
therefore unruly. On what level(s) are the students acting?
A. Ego and Superego B. Ego C. Id D. Superego
Learning styles is a term that refers to different ways in which we learn, process, and retain information. All young children learn through
meaningful hands-on experiences—through touching, doing, and moving. And children also learn through seeing and hearing. As you
observe your child, you will begin to identify strengths and preferences that tell you something about your child’s preferred learning style.
You want to foster your child’s strengths, but remember that it helps to challenge him to grow as well. Your child can excel in a variety of
areas. Therefore, offer a variety of experiences to help your child develop new strengths and interests that will broaden his or her
understanding of the world.
Types of Learning Styles

These are the four main types of learning styles:
 Visual (learn through seeing)
 Auditory (learn through hearing)
 Tactile (learn through touch)
 Kinesthetic (learn through doing and moving)
Visual learners learn through seeing.Children who are visual processors tend to observe a parent’s or teacher’s body language and facial
expressions for content and learn through demonstrations and descriptions. They tend to have well-developed imaginations and often think
in pictures. Too much movement or action in a classroom may cause distraction for them. For older children who read, written instructions
may help clarify verbal directions.
Auditory learners learn through listening.Children who are auditory processors learn through participating in discussions and talking
things through. Verbal directions may help clarify instructions or written information. Too much noise may be distracting and children with
this strength may learn best in a quiet environment.
Tactile learners learn through touch. Children who are more tactile prefer activities or projects that allow them to use their hands. Your
child may prefer doodling or drawing to aid memory.
Kinesthetic learners learn through moving and doing.Children who are more kinesthetic learn through physical sensations and may
have trouble sitting still for long periods. A hands-on approach that allows your child to actively explore her physical world helps her learn
best.
How Can You Determine Your Child’s Learning Style?

The best way to learn about your child’s learning style is to observe what he or she is doing. Actions, interests, and preferences will provide
information about how he or she is processing information.
If your child has developmental delays, you may find that you often focus on what your child isn’t yet doing. Instead, try to focus on his
strengths and favorite activities. All children, even the most challenged, have interests and preferences. Identifying these helps increase a
child’s motivation for learning.
Speak with family members and your child’s team to develop an inventory of toys, objects, and activities that are meaningful for your child.
Ask yourself questions like these:
 What types of toys does she prefer? Does she prefer quiet activities or lots of movement?
 Does he like to read books and draw pictures? Does he prefer to be shown how to do something rather than being told verbally?
 Is she active? Does she like to move and participate in more active activities?
 Is he drawn to numbers and patterns?
How Can You Support Your Child’s Learning Style?

Parents and teachers have a tremendous influence on children. Understanding how a child learns can improve how we teach them. Early
childhood programs are often organized in a way that supports the range of children’s strengths and needs.
This includes having:
 Adequate periods for movement
 Group circle and music time
 Learning centers in the classroom that include a myriad of experiences (for example, reading corner, block area,
manipulatives/fine motor area, outdoor play, and art)
This supports participation of children with a wide range of learning styles, while also exposing children to experiences they may not
typically seek out.
As adults, we can help children better understand their strengths and individual differences, while supporting challenges. You can seek out
real-world experiences that extend your child’s learning. For example, if your child is interested in fish and aquatic life, visit an aquarium.
Your child will retain more information and develop a broader understanding of the world if information is meaningful and presented in a
way that meets his or her individual learning style.
Ang tayutay ay isang sinadyang paglayo sa karaniwang paggamit ng mga salita upang madaling maunawaan, mabisa at kaakit-akit ang
pagpapahayag. Nakadaragdag ito sa kalinawan, kapamagitan at kagandahan ng isang katha, pasalita man o pasulat.
Mga iba’t ibang uri ng Tayutay
A. PAG-UUGNAY O PAGHAHAMBING
1. Simili o Pagtutulad (Simile) – nagpapakita ng pagtutulad ng dalawang magkaibang bagay sa pamamagitan ng paggamit ng mga
katagang kagaya, katulad, para, parang, para ng, anaki’y, animo, kawangis ng, gaya ng, tila, kasing-, sing-, ga-, at iba pang mga kauring
kataga.
Halimbawa:
1. Tila yelo sa lamig ang kamay na nenenerbyos ng mang-aawit.
2. Si Menandro'y lobong nagugutom ang kahalintulad.
3. Ang kanyang kagandahan ay mistulang bituing nagninigning.
4. Ang mga tumakas ay ikinulong na parang mga sardines sa piitan.
5. Si maria na animo'y bagong pitas na rosas ay hindi napa-ibig ng mayamang dayuhan.
6. Gaya ng maamong tupa si Jun kapag nakagalitan.
7. Tila porselana ang kutis ni Celia.
8. Ang tao ay kawangis ng Diyos.
2. Metapora o Pagwawangis (Metaphor) – tiyak na paghahambing ngunit hindi na ginagamitan ng pangatnig. Nagpapahayag ito ng
paghahambing na nakalapat sa mga pangalan, gawain, tawag o katangian ng bagay na inihahambing. Hindi na rin ito ginagamitan ng mga
katagang kagaya, katulad at mga kauri.
Halimbawa:
1. Siya'y langit na di kayang abutin nino man.
2. Ang kanyang mga kamay ay yelong dumampi sa aking pisngi.
3. Matigas na bakal ang kamao ng boksingero.
4. Ikaw na bulaklak niring dilidili.
5. Ahas siya sa grupong iyan.
6. Ikaw ang apoy na sumusunog sa aking puso.
3. Alusyon - nagbibigay – saanggunian mula sa kasaysayan, panitikan, pulitika, bibliya at iba pang aspekto ng buhay ng tao.
Halimbawa:
1. Pinaniwala niya ang mga tao na siya ang kanilang tagapagligtas mula sa delubyo.
4. Metonimya o Pagpapalit-tawag (Metonimy) - ang isang salita o grupo ng mga salita ay pinapalitan ng isa pang salita o grupo ng
mga salita na may kaugnayan sa nais ipahayag.
Halimbawa:
1. Ang kapalaran mo ay handog sa iyo na langit sa itaas na tinitingala ko
2. Siya ang timbangan, lakas tagahusga sa buti at sama mag-aanalisa.
3. “Sa ngalan ng Hari ay isinambulat gayong ordeng mula sa dibdib ng sukab.
4. Ang ikalawang tahanan ng mga kabataan
5. Sinekdoke – nagbabaggit sa isang bahagi, konsepto kaisipan, upang sakupin o tukuyin ang kabuuan.
Halimbawa:
1. Isinambulat ang order sa dibdib ng taksil.
2. Isang Rizal ang nagbuwis ng buhay alang-alang sa Inang Bayan.
3. Walang bibig ang umasa kay Romeo.
4. Hingin mo ang kaniyang kamay.
5. Hanggang sa malibing ang mga buto ko.
B. PAGLALARAWAN
1. Pagmamalabis o Eksaherasyon (Hyperbole) – Ito ay lagpalagpasang pagpapasidhi ng kalabisan o kakulangan ng isang tao, bagay,
pangyayari, kaisipan, damdamin at iba pang katangian, kalagayan o katayuan. Ito rin ay gumagamit ng eksaherasyon
Halimbawa:
1. Pilit na binuhat ang sandaigdigan upang ang tagumpay ay kanyang makamtan.
2. Bumaha ng dugo sa kapaligiran ako ang nagwagi sa aming labanan
3. Yumuko sa akin ang sangkatauhan nang masaliksik ko ang katotohanan.
4. Namuti ang kaniyang buhok kakahintay sayo.
5. Abot langit ng pagmamahal niya sa aking kaibigan.
6. Bumabaha ng dugo sa lansangan.
7. Umuulan ng dolyar kina Pilar nang dumating si Seman.
8. Umulan ng pera sa pagtama ko sa lotto.
2. Apostrope o Pagtawag (Apostrophe) - pakikipag-usap sa karaniwang bagay na para bang nakikipag-usap sa isang buhay na tao na
malayo o isang taong parang naroon at kaharap gayong wala naman.
Halimbawa:
1. O tukso! Layuan mo ako!
2. Kamatayan nasaan ka na? wakasan mo na ang aking kapighatian.
3. Araw, sumikat ka na at tuyuin ang luhang dala ng kapighatian.
4. Ulan, ulan kami'y lubayan na.
5. Diyos ko, iligtas po ninyo ang aming bayan sa masamang elemento.
6. Buhay, bakit naging maramot ka sa akin.
7. Kalayaan, kay tagal kitang inasam mahawakan sa aking mga kamay.
8. Diyos Ama, ituro nyo po sa amin ang tamang daan.
3. Eksklamasyon o Pagdaramdam (Exclamation) - isang paglalabas o papahayag ng matinding damdamin
Halimbawa:
1. Aking nadarama ang kapighatian sa pinapasan kong sobrang kalungkutan!
2. Lubos ang tuwa ko sa pagdating ninyo Mabuhay! Mabuhay! Lalaya na ako!
3. Ibigay mo sana ang pagpapala Mo, sagipin Mo Poon, malulunod ako!
4. Isa kang hanggal!
4. Paradoks – naglalahad ng salungat sa likas (o karaniwan) na kalagayan o pangyayari.
Halimbawa:
1. Malayo ma’y malapit pa rin.

2. Kung magbangis ka ma’t magsukab sa akin mahal ka ring lubha dini sa panimdim
5. Oksimoron o Pagtatambis (Oxymoron) - nagtataglay ng mga salitang nagsasalungatan upang lalong mapatingkad ang bisa ng
pagpapahayag.
Halimbawa:
1. Magsaya na kayo’t ililibing ako di na makikita ng lahat sa mundo
2. Nalulungkot ako sa pananalo mo sa pagwawagi mo, hustisya’y natalo.
3. Banal na demonyo
4. Batang matanda
C. PAGSASALIN NG KATANGIAN
1. Personipikasyon o Pagsasatao (Personification) - Ginagamit ito upang bigyang-buhay, pagtaglayin ng mga katangiang pantao -
talino, gawi, kilos ang mga bagay na walang buhay sa pamamagitan ng mga pananalitang nagsasaad ng kilos tulad ng pandiwa, pandiwari,
at pangngalang-diwa.
Halimbawa:
1. Hinalikan ako ng malamig na hangin.
2. Ang mga bituin sa langit ay kumikindat sa atin.
3. Nahiya ang buwan at nagkanlong sa ulap.
4. Sumasayaw ang mga dahon sa pag-ihip ng hangin.
5. Nagtago ang buwan sa likod ng ulap.
6. Tik-tak ng orasan ay naghahabulan
7. Masayang umihip ang hanging amihan
8. Nagalit ang buwan sa haba ng gabi.
.
D. PAGSASATUNOG
1. Panghihimig o Onomatopeya (Onomatopoeia) - ito ang paggamit ng mga salitang kung ano ang tunog ay siyang kahulugan.
Halimbawa:
1. Ang lagaslas nitong batis, alatiit nitong kawayan, halumigmig nitong hangin, ay bulong ng kalikasan.
2. Himutok na umaalingawngaw sa buong gubat.
3. Humalinghing siya sa sakit ng hagupit na tinanggap.
4. Grr-ggrrrrr!!Aww-aww! Ang galit na si Bantay ay nakatingin sa akin.
7. Kinakabog ang mga dibdib ng mga kalahok.
8. Tinataghuy-taghoy na kasindak-sindak.
2. Aliterasyon o Pag-uulit (Alliteration) - magkakasintunog ang unang patinig o katinig ng mga kakalapit na mga salita o taludtod o
saknong na nagbibigay ritmo sa pagbigkas ng tula.
Halimbawa:
1. Magagandang maya sa puno ng mangga Makikita silang masayang-masaya
2. Dinggin mo ang Diyos na dinadakila Dibdibin ang tinig ng Poong Bathala
3. “At sa mga sulong dito’y nakasabog, nangalat, napunla, Nagsipanahan, nangagsipamuhay, nagbato’t nagkuta.”
4. Gumagalang gutay-gutay na gagamba
3. Repitasyon – pag-uulit ng mga salita o parirala upang bigyang – diin ang isang aspekto ng akda.
Halimbawa:
1. Ito nga! Ito nga! Itong nganga.
2. Saan, saan, ay saan makikita ang bayani ng bayan?
Ang tayutay ay salita o isang pahayag na ginamiy upang bigyang-diin ang isang kaisipan o damdamin. Sinasadya ng pagpapahayag na
gumamit ng talinghaga o di karaniwang salita o paraan ng pagpapahayag upang bigyang diin ang kaniyang saloobin.
1. Simili o Pagtutulad - di tiyak na paghahambing ng dalawang magkaibang bagay. Ginagamitan ito ng mga salitang: tulad ng, paris ng,
kawangis ng, tila, sing-, sim-, magkasing-, magkasim-, at iba pa. Ito ay tinatawag naSimile sa Ingles.
Halimbawa:
1. Tila yelo sa lamig ang kamay na nenenerbyos na mang-aawit.
2. Si Menandro'y lobong nagugutom ang kahalintulad.
3. Ang kanyang kagandahan ay mistulang bituing nagninigning.
4. Ang mga tumakas ay ikinulong na parang mga sardines sa piitan.
5. Si maria na animo'y bagong pitas na rosas ay hindi napa-ibig ng mayamang dayuhan.
6. Gaya ng maamong tupa si Jun kapag nakagalitan.
2. Metapora o Pagwawangis - tiyak na paghahambing ngunit hindi na ginagamitan ng pangatnig.Nagpapahayag ito ng paghahambing
na nakalapat sa mga pangalan, gawain, tawag o katangian ng bagay na inihahambing. Ito ay tinatawag na METAPHOR sa Ingles.
Halimbawa:
1. Siya'y langit na di kayang abutin nino man.
2. Ang kanyang mga kamay ay yelong dumampi sa aking pisngi.
4. Ikaw na bulaklak niring dilidili.
5. Ahas siya sa grupong iyan.
3. Personipikasyon o Pagsasatao - Ginagamit ito upang bigyang-buhay, pagtaglayin ng mga katangiang pantao - talino, gawi, kilos ang
mga bagay na walang buhay sa pamamagitan ng mga pananalitang nagsasaad ng kilos tulad ng pandiwa, pandiwari, at pangngalang-diwa.
'PERSONIFICATION' sa Ingles.
Halimbawa:
1. Hinalikan ako ng malamig na hangin.
2. Ang mga bituin sa langit ay kumikindat sa atin.
3. Nahiya ang buwan at nagkanlong sa ulap.
4. Sumasayaw ang mga dahon sa pag-ihip ng hangin.
5. Nagtago ang buwan sa likod ng ulap.
4. Apostrope o Pagtawag - isang panawagan o pakiusap sa isang bagay na tila ito ay isang tao.
Halimbawa:
1. O tukso! Layuan mo ako!
2. Kamatayan nasaan ka na? wakasan mo na ang aking kapighatian.
3. Araw, sumikat ka na at tuyuin ang luhang dala ng kapighatian.
4. Ulan, ulan kami'y lubayan na.
5. Oh, birheng kaibig-ibig ina naming nasa langit, Liwanagin yaring isip, nang sa layon di malihis.
6. Pagmamalabis o Hayperbole - Ito ay lagpalagpasang pagpapasidhi ng kalabisan o kakulangan ng isang tao, bagay, pangyayari,
kaisipan, damdamin at iba pang katangian, kalagayan o katayuan.
Halimbawa:
1. Namuti ang kaniyang buhok kakahintay sayo.

2. Abot langit ng pagmamahal niya sa aking kaibigan.
3. BUmabaha ng dugo sa lansangan.
4. Umuulan ng dolyar kina Pilar nang dumating si Seman.
7. Panghihimig o Onomatopeya - ito ang paggamit ng mga salitang kung ano ang tunog ay siyang kahulugan.ONOMATOPOEIA sa
Ingles
Halimbawa:
1. Ang lagaslas nitong batis, alatiit nitong kawayan, halumigmig nitong hangin, ay bulong ng kalikasan.
3. Humalinghing siya sa sakit ng hagupit na tinanggap.
9. Pagpapalit-saklaw o Senekdoke - isang bagay, konsepto kaisipan, isang bahagi ng kabuuan ang binabanggit.
Halimbawa:
1. Isinambulat ang order sa dibdib ng taksil.
2. Isang Rizal ang nagbuwis ng buhay alang-alang sa Inang Bayan.
3. Walang bibig ang umasa kay Romeo.
4. Hingin mo ang kaniyang kamay.
10. Paglilipat-wika o Transferred Epithet- tulad ng pagbibigay-katauhan na pinasasabagay ang mga katangiang pantao, na ginagamit
ang pang-uri.
Halimbawa:
1. Patay tayo dun.
Ang tayutay ay isang sinadyang paglayo sa karaniwang paggamit ng mga salita upang madaling maunawaan, mabisa at kaakit-akit ang
pagpapahayag. Nakadaragdag ito sa kalinawan, kapamagitan at kagandahan ng isang katha, pasalita man o pasulat.
Ilang Uri ng Tayutay

1. Pagtutulad (simile) - isang payak at lantad na paghahambing at karaniwang ginagamitan ng mga salita't pariralang: katulad ng, tulad
ng, para ng, anaki'y, kawangis ng, gaya ng, kasing-, sing-, ga-, atbp.
Hal. Para ng halamang lumaki sa tubig,
Dahon ay nalalanta munting di madilig
-Francisco Baltazar, Florante at Laura
2. Paghahalintulad (Analohiya) - isang uring tambalan ng pagtutulad. Ipinahahayag ng paghahalintulad ang pagkamagkatulad ng
isang kaugnayan sa ibang kaugnayan.
Hal. Ang tingin ng bubuyog sa bulaklak ay katulad ng damdamin ng binata sa dalaga.
3. Pagwawangis (Metapora) - isang tuwirang paghahambing na di gumagamit ng mga salitang katulad ng at iba pa, ngunit
nagpapahayag ng hambingan sa pamamagitan ng paglalapat ng pangalan, tawag, katangian, o gawain ng isang bagay na inihahambing.
Hal. Ang awa ng Panginoon ay aking kuta laban sa mga dalita ng buhay.
4. Pagtatao (Personipikasyon) - tinatawag din itong pagbibigay katauhan at personipikasyon. Pahayag ito na ang mga katangian, gawi
at talinong sadyang angkin lamang ng tao ay isinasalin sa mga karaniwang bagay. Nagagawa ang pagsasalin sa paggamit ng pandiwa o
pangngalan.
Hal. Lumuha ang langit nang pumanaw si Ninoy Aquino.
5. Pamamalabis (Eksaherasyon) - isang pagpapahayag na lampas sa mahinahong larawan ng katotohanan sa hangaring magbigay-diin
sa katotohanang pinagmamalabisan.
Hal. Bumaha ang dugo sa awayan ng mga magsasaka.
6. Pagpapalit-tawag (Metonymy) - isang pansamantalang pagpapalit ng mga pangalan ng mga bagay na magkakaugnay.
Hal. Ang anhel sa kanilang tahanan ay isang malusog na sanggol.
7. Pagpapalit-saklaw (Synecdoche) - pagbanggit sa bahagi bilang katapay ng kabuuan, o ng kabuuan bilang katapat ng bahagi.
Hal. Ang panahong ito (Mayo) ay mabulaklak.
8. Panawagan (Apostrophe) - ginagawa rito ang pakikipag-usap sa karaniwang bagay na para bang nakikipag-usap sa isang buhay na
tao o isang taong parang naroon at kaharap gayong wala naman.
Hal. Diyos ko, iligtas po ninyo ang aming bayan sa masamang elemento.
9. Tanong Retorikal - hindi ito naghihintay ng kasagutan at hindi rin nagpapahayag ng pag-aalinlangan.
Hal. May magulang bang nagtakwil sa kanyang anak?
10. Pag-uyam - mga pananalitang nangungutya sa tao o bagay sa pamamagitan ng mga salitang kapag kukunin sa tiyakan ay tila kapuri-
puring mga pananalita ngunit sa tunay na kahulugan ay may bahid na pang-uyam.
Hal. Ubod siya ng gara kung lumalabas! Napakagulo naman ng bahay.
11. Talinghaga (Allegory) - isa itong salaysay ng mga kinathang pangyayari na ang hangarin ay magbigay-kahulugan sa nga
mahahalagang katunayan. Ang talinghaga ay "salaysay" at kauri nito ang tinatawag na parabula (na ang karamihan ay galling kay Kristo).
Isa ittong kinathang salaysay na may mga pangyayaring maaaring nangyari sa katutubong buhay ng tao, ngunit kinatha upang maglarawan
ng isang aral hinggil sa kalinisan ng pamumuhay at mabuting pakikipagkapwa.
Hal. "Ang Mabuting Samaritano"
"Ang Alibughang Anak"
TAYUTAY - ang tayutay ay salita o isang pahayag na ginagamit upang bigyan diin ang isang kaisipan o damdamin.Sinasadya ng
pagpapahayag upang bigyan diin ang kanyang saloobin...",
MGA URI NG TAYUTAY

1. SIMILI o Pagtutulad - Di tiyak na paghahambing ng dalawang magkaibang bagay.Ginagamitan ito ng mga salitang:tulad,paris
ng,kawangis ng,sing-,sim-,magkasing- at iba pa.
=halimbawa=
1.sasakyang parang ipu-ipo sa bilis
2.babaeng parang pagong sa bagal
3.lalakeng tila hari kung mag-utos
4.batang mukhang higante sa laki
5.aleng parang reyna kung mag-kumpas
2. METAPORA o pagwawangis - tiyak na paghahambing hindi na ginagamitan ng pangatnig.Nagpapahayag ito ng paghahabing na

nakalapat sa mga pangalan,gawain,tawag o katangian ng bagay na inihahambing.
=halimbawa=
1.ipu-ipong sasakyan
2.babaeng pagong
3.batang higante
4.perlas na ngipin
5.ting-ting n balerina
6.palasyong bahay
7.kutis porselana
8.paraisong lugar
3. PERSONIPIKASYON o pagtatao - Ginagamit i2 upang bigyang-buhay,pagtaglayin ng mga katangiang pantaong-tilino,gawi,kilos ang

mga bagay na walang buhay sa pamamagitan ng mga pananalitang nagsasaad ng kilos tulad ng pandiwa at pangngalang-diwa.
=halimbawa=
1.tik-tak ng orasan ay nag hahabulan
2.masayang umihip ang hanging amihan
3.hayu't nagagalit ang araw sa silanga
4.ang nagtatampong aso,tingnan mo't malungkot
5.batong nagkalat sa mga lansangan ay mgasasaktan kung tinatapakan
Mga Uri ng Tayutay
 Simili o Pagtutulad - di tiyak na paghahambing ng dalawang magkaibang bagay. Ginagamitan ito ng mga salitang: tulad ng,
paris ng, kawangis ng, tila, sing-, sim-, magkasing-, magkasim-, at iba pa. Ito ay tinatawag na Simile sa Ingles.
 Metapora o Pagwawangis - tiyak na paghahambing ngunit hindi na ginagamitan ng pangatnig.Nagpapahayag ito ng
paghahambing na nakalapat sa mga pangalan, gawain, tawag o katangian ng bagay na inihahambing. Ito ay tinatawag
na METAPHOR sa Ingles.
 Personipikasyon o Pagtatao - Ginagamit ito upang bigyang-buhay, pagtaglayin ng mga katangiang pantao - talino, gawi, kilos
ang mga bagay na walang buhay sa pamamagitan ng mga pananalitang nagsasaad ng kilos tulad ng pandiwa, pandiwari, at
pangngalang-diwa. 'PERSONIFICATION' sa Ingles.
 Apostrope o Pagtawag - isang panawagan o pakiusap sa isang bagay na tila ito ay isang tao.
 Pag-uulit
 ** Aliterasyon - Ang unang titik o unang pantig ay pare-pareho.

o Anapora - Pag-uulit ng isang salitang nasa unahan ng isang pahayag o ng isang sugnay.
o Anadiplosis - Paggamit ng salita sa unahan at sa hulihan ng pahayag o sugnay.
o Epipora - Pag-uulit naman ito ng isang salita sa hulihan ng sunud-sunod na taludtod.
o Empanodos o Pabalik na Pag-uulit - Pag-uulit nang pagbaliktad ng mga pahayag.
o Katapora - Paggamit ng isang salita na kadalasang panghalip na tumutukoy sa isang salita o parirala na binanggit sa
hulihan.
 Pagmamalabis o Hayperbole - Ito ay lagpalagpasang pagpapasidhi ng kalabisan o kakulangan ng isang tao, bagay, pangyayari,
kaisipan, damdamin at iba pang katangian, kalagayan o katayuan.
 Panghihimig o Onomatopeya - ito ang paggamit ng mga salitang kung ano ang tunog ay siyang
kahulugan.ONOMATOPOEIA sa Ingles.
 Pag-uyam - Isang uri ng ironya na ipinapahiwatig ang nais iparating sa huli. Madalas itong nakakasakit ng damdamin.
 Senekdoke o Pagpapalit-saklaw - isang bagay, konsepto kaisipan, isang bahagi ng kabuuan ang binabanggit.
 Paglilipat-wika - tulad ng pagbibigay-katauhan na pinasasabagay ang mga katangiang pantao, na ginagamit ang pang-uri.
 Balintuna - isang uri ng ironya na hindi ipinapahiwatig ang nais sabihin sa huli.
 Pasukdol - pataas na paghahanay ng mga salita o kaisipan ayon sa kahalagahan nito mula sa pinakamababa patungo sa
pinakamataas na antas.
 Pagtanggi o Litotes - gumagamit ng katagang "hindi" na nagbabadya ng pagsalungat o di-pagsang-ayon. Ito'y may himig na
pagkukunwari, isang kabaligtaran ng ibig sabihin.
Mga Pokus ng Pandiwa

Pokus ang tawag sa relasyong pansemantika ng pandiwa sa simuno o paksa ng pangungusap. Naipapakita ito sa pamamagitan ng taglay na
panlapi ng pandiwa.
1. aktor-pokus o pokus sa tagaganap
-Ang paksa ang tagaganap ng kilos na isinasaad ng pandiwa sa pangungusap; sumasagot sa tanong na "sino?".
(mag- , um- , mang- , ma- , maka- , makapag- , maki- , magpa-)
Halimbawa:
Naglunsad ng proyekto ang mga kabataan.
Nagluto ng masarap na ulam si nanay para sa amin.
Bumili si Rosa ng bulaklak.
Si Ian ay humingi ng payo sa kanyang kapatid tungkol sa kanyang suliranin.
2. pokus sa layon
Ang paksa ang layon ng pandiwa sa pangungusap; sumasagot sa tanong na "ano?".

(-in- , -i- , -ipa- , ma- , -an)
Sa Ingles, ito ay ang direct object.
Halimbawa:
Nasira mo ang mga props para sa play.
Ang ulam na masarap ay niluto ni nanay para sa amin.
Binili ni Rosa ang bulaklak.
3. lokatibong pokus o pokus sa ganapan
Ang paksa ang lugar na ginaganapan ng pandiwa sa pangungusap; sumasagot sa tanong na "saan?".
(pag-/-an , -an/-han , ma-/-an , pang-/-an , mapag-/-an)
Halimbawa:
Pinagtaniman namin ang bukiran ng maraming gulay.
Pinuntahan ni nanay ang kusina ng bahay para magluto ng masarap na ulam.
Ang tindahan ang pinagbilhan ni Rosa ng bulaklak.
Pinadausan ng paligsahan ang bagong tayong entablado.
4. benepaktibong pokus o pokus sa tagatanggap
Ang paksa ang tumatanggap sa kilos ng pandiwa sa pangungusap; sumasagot sa tanong na "para kanino?".
(i- , -in , ipang- , ipag-)
Sa Ingles, ito ay ang indirect object.
Halimbawa:
Kami ay ipinagluto ni nanay ng masarap na ulam.
Ibinili ni Rosa ng bulaklak ang Mahal na Birhen.
5. instrumentong pokus o pokus sa gamit
Ang paksa ang kasangkapan o bagay na ginagamit upang maisagawa ang kilos ng pandiwa sa pangungusap; sumasagot sa tanong na "sa
pamamagitan ng ano?".
(ipang- , maipang-)
Halimbawa:
Ang kaldero ang ipinangluto ni nanay ng masarap na ulam para sa amin.
Ipinampunas ni Marco ang basahan sa mesa.
Ipinanghambalos niya ang hawak na tungkod sa magnanakaw.
6. kosatibong pokus o pokus sa sanhi
Ang paksa ang nagpapahayag ng sanhi ng kilos ng pandiwa sa pangungusap; sumasagot sa tanong na "bakit?".
(i- , ika- , ikina-)
Halimbawa:
Ikinatuwa namin ang pagluluto ng masarap na ulam ng aming nanay.
Ikinatuwa ni Ynez ang pagbili ng rosas ng kanyang nobyo para sa kanya.
Ikinalungkot ng bata ang hindi nila pagkikitang mag-anak.
7. pokus sa direksyon
Ang paksa ang nagsasaad ng direksyon ng kilos ng pandiwa sa pangungusap; sumasagot sa tanong na "tungo saan/kanino?".
(-an , -han , -in , -hin)
Halimbawa:
Sinulatan niya ang kanyang mga magulang.
Pinuntahan ni Henry ang tindahan para mamili ng kagamitan.
Philippine Government
The Philippine government takes place in an organized framework of a presidential, representative, and democratic republic whereby the
president is both the head of state and the head of government. This system revolves around three separate and sovereign yet
interdependent branches: the legislative branch (the law-making body), the executive branch (the law-enforcing body), and the judicial
branch (the law-interpreting body). Executive power is exercised by the government under the leadership of the president. Legislative
power is vested in both the government and the two-chamber congress—the Senate (the upper chamber) and the House of Representatives
(the lower chamber). Judicial power is vested in the courts with the Supreme Court of the Philippines as the highest judicial body.
Executive Branch
The executive branch is headed by the President who functions as both the head of state and the head of government. The president is also
the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of the Philippines. The president is elected by popular vote to a term of six years. The
president, then, appoints (and may dismiss) his/her cabinet members whom he/she presides over. The executive seat of government is
administered officially from Malacañang Palace—also the official residence of the president—in Manila. The President may no longer
run for re-election, unless he/she becomes president through constitutional succession and has served for no more than four years as
president.
The second highest official, the vice-president is first in line to succession should the president resign, be impeached or die in office. The
vice-president usually, though not always, may be a member of the president's cabinet. If there is a vacancy in the position of Vice
President, the President will appoint any member of Congress (usually a party member) as new Vice President. The appointment will be
validated by a three-fourths vote of Congress voting separately.
Legislative Branch
The remainder of the House seats are designated for sectoral representatives elected at large through a complex "party list" system,
hinging on the party receiving at least 2% to 6% of the national vote total. The upper house is located in Pasay City, while the lower house
is located in Quezon City. The district and sectoral representatives are elected with a term of three years. They can be reelected but they
are no longer eligible to run for a fourth consecutive term. The senators are elected to a term of six years. They can be reelected but they
are no longer eligible to run for a third consecutive term. The House of Representatives may opt to pass a resolution for a vacancy of a
legislative seat that will pave way for a special election. The winner of the special election will serve the unfinished term of the previous
district representative; this will be considered as one elective term. The same rule applies in the Senate however it only applies if the seat
is vacated before a regular legislative election.
Judiciary Branch
The judiciary branch of the government is headed by the Supreme Court, which has a Chief Justice as its head and 14 Associate Justices,
all appointed by the president on the recommendation of the Judicial and Bar Council. Other court types of courts, of varying jurisdiction
around the archipelago, are the:
Lower Collegiate Courts

 Court of Appeals
 Court of Tax Appeals
 Sandiganbayan
Regular Courts
 Regional Trial Courts
 Metropolitan Trial Courts
 Municipal Trial Courts
 Municipal Trial Courts in Cities
 Municipal Circuit Trial Courts
Muslim Courts
 Sharia District Courts
 Sharia Circuit Courts
Legislative Process
Preliminary Procedures
The procedures for introducing legislation and seeing it through committees are similar in both the House of Representatives and the
Senate.
Legislative proposals originate in a number of different ways. Members of the Senate, of course, develop ideas for legislation. Technical
assistance in research and drafting legislative language is available at the Senate Legislative Technical Affairs Bureau. Special interest
groups—business, religious, labor, urban and rural poor, consumers, trade association, and the like—are other fertile sources of legislation.
Constituents, either as individuals or groups, also may propose legislation. Frequently, a member of the Senate will introduce such a bill by
request, whether or not he supports its purposes.
It must be noted also that much of the needed legislation of the country today considered by Congress originates from the executive branch.
Each year after the President of the Philippines outlines his legislative program in his State-of-the-Nation Address, executive departments
and agencies transmit to the House and the Senate drafts of proposed legislations to carry out the President’s program.
Introduction of Bills
No matter where a legislative proposal originates, it can be introduced only by a member of Congress. In the Senate, a member may
introduce any of several types of bills and resolutions by filing it with the Office of the Secretary.
There is no limit to the number of bills a member may introduce. House and Senate bills may have joint sponsorship and carry several
members' names.
Major legislation is often introduced in both houses in the form of companion (identical) bills, the purpose of which is to speed up the
legislative process by encouraging both chambers to consider the measure simultaneously. Sponsors of companion bills may also hope to
dramatize the importance or urgency of the issue and show broad support for the legislation.
Types of Legislation
The type of measures that Congress may consider and act upon (in addition to treaties in the Senate) include bills and three kinds of
resolutions. They are:
1. Bills
These are general measures, which if passed upon, may become laws. A bill is prefixed with S., followed by a number assigned the measure
based on the order in which it is introduced. The vast majority of legislative proposals––recommendations dealing with the economy,
increasing penalties for certain crimes, regulation on commerce and trade, etc., are drafted in the form of bills. They also include budgetary
appropriation of the government and many others. When passed by both chambers in identical form and signed by the President or
repassed by Congress over a presidential veto, they become laws.
2. Joint Resolutions
A joint resolution, like a bill, requires the approval of both houses and the signature of the President. It has the force and effect of a law if
approved. There is no real difference between a bill and a joint resolution. The latter generally is used when dealing with a single item or
issue, such as a continuing or emergency appropriations bill. Joint resolutions are also used for proposing amendments to the Constitution.
3. Concurrent Resolutions
A concurrent resolution is usually designated in the Senate as S. Ct. Res. It is used for matters affecting the operations of both houses and
must be passed in the same form by both of them. However, they are not referred to the President for his signature, and they do not have
the force of law. Concurrent resolutions are used to fix the time of adjournment of a Congress and to express the “sense of Congress” on an
issue.
4. Simple Resolutions
It is usually designated with P. S. Res. A simple resolution deals with matters entirely within the prerogative of one house of Congress, such
as adopting or receiving its own rules. A simple resolution is not considered by the other chamber and is not sent to the President for his
signature. Like a concurrent resolution, it has no effect and force of a law. Simple resolutions are used occasionally to express the opinion of
a single house on a current issue. Oftentimes, it is also used to call for a congressional action on an issue affecting national interest.
Bill Referrals
Once a measure has been introduced and given a number, it is read and referred to an appropriate committee. It must be noted that during
the reading of the bill, only the title and the author is read on the floor. The Senate President is responsible for referring bills introduced to
appropriate committees.
The jurisdictions of the Standing Committees are spelled out in Rule X, Section 13 of the Rules of the Senate. For example, if a bill involves
matters relating to agriculture, food production and agri-business, it must be referred to the Committee on Agriculture and Food.
In Committee
The standing committees of the Senate, operating as “little legislatures,” determine the fate of most proposals. There are committee
hearings scheduled to discuss the bills referred. Committee members and staff frequently are experts in the subjects under their
jurisdiction, and it is at the committee stage that a bill comes under the sharpest scrutiny. If a measure is to be substantially revised, the
revision usually occurs at the committee level.
A committee may dispose of a bill in one of several ways: it may approve, or reject, the legislation with or without amendments; rewrite the
bill entirely; reject it, which essentially kills the bill; report it favorably or without recommendation, which allows the chamber to consider
the bill at all. It must be noted that under Section 29, Rule XI of the Rules of the Senate, if the reports submitted are unfavorable, they shall
be transmitted to the archives of the Senate, unless five Senators shall, in the following session, move for their inclusion in the Calendar for
Ordinary Business, in which case the President shall so order.
Committee Reports
A committee report describes the purpose and scope of the bill, explains any committee amendments, indicates proposed changes in
existing law and such other materials that are relevant. Moreover, reports are numbered in the order in which they are filed and printed.
Calendaring for Floor Debates: Consideration of, and Debates on Bills
Under Section 45 of Rule XVI of the Rules of the Senate, the Senate shall have three calendars, to wit:
A “Calendar for Ordinary Business," in which shall be included the bills reported out by the committees in the order in which they were
received by the Office of the Secretary; the bills whose consideration has been agreed upon by the Senate without setting the dates on
which to effect it; and also the bills whose consideration has been postponed indefinitely;
A “Calendar for Special Orders,” in which the bills and resolutions shall be arranged successively and chronologically, according to the
order in which they were assigned for consideration; and
A “Calendar for Third Reading,” in which shall be included all bills and joint resolutions approved on second reading.
Thus, a bill which has a committee report can be referred to the “Calendar for Ordinary Business.” It may again be moved to its “Special
Order of Business” for priority action.
On the other hand, the consideration and debate of bills and resolutions are spelled out in Rule XXV, Section 71 of the Rules of the Senate.
It provides as follows:
Sec. 71. The Senate shall adopt the following procedure in the consideration of bills and joint resolutions:
(a) Second reading of the bill.
(b) Sponsorship by the committee chairman, or by any member designated by the committee.
(c) If a debate ensues, turns for and against the bill shall be taken alternately: Provided, however, That any committee member who fails
to enter his objection or to make of record his dissenting vote after it shall have been included in the Order of Business and read to the
Senate in accordance with the second paragraph of Section 24 hereof, shall not be allowed to speak against the bill during the period of
general debate although he may propose and speak or vote on amendments thereto.
(d) The sponsor of the bill or author of the motion shall have the right to close the debate.
(e) With the debate closed, the consideration of amendments, if any, shall be in order.
(f) After the period of amendments, the voting of the bill on Second Reading.
(g) Bills shall be submitted to final vote by yeas and nays after printed copies thereof in final form have been distributed to the Members
at least three (3) days prior to their passage, except when the President of the Philippines certifies to the necessity of their immediate
enactment to meet a public calamity or emergency, in which case the voting on Third Reading may take place immediately after second
reading.
After the bill is approved on Third Reading, it will be submitted to the House of Representatives for consideration. A bill passed by the
Senate and transmitted to the House usually goes to a committee, unless a House bill on the same subject has already been reported out by
the appropriate committee and placed on the calendar.
Under normal procedures, therefore, a bill passed by one chamber and transmitted to the other is referred to the appropriate committee,
from which it must follow the same route to passage as a bill originating from that chamber.
Amendments may be offered at both the committee and floor action stages, and the bill as it emerges from the second chamber may differ
significantly from the version passed by the first. A frequently used procedure when this occurs is for the chamber that acts last to bring up
the other chamber’s bill and substitute its own version, then retaining only the latter’s bill number. That numbered bill, containing the
Senate and House version, is then sent to a conference committee to resolve all differences.
Conference Committee Action
Calling a Conference
Either chamber can request a conference once both have considered the same legislation. Generally, the chamber that approved the
legislation first will disagree to the amendments made by the second body and will make a request that a conference be convened.
Sometimes, however, the second body will ask for a conference immediately after it has passed the legislation, assuming that the other
chamber will not accept its amendments.
Selection of Conferees
Under the Rules of the Senate (Rule XII, Section 34), the Senate President shall designate the members of the Senate panel in the
conference committee with the approval of the Senate. The Senate delegation to a conference can range in size from three to a larger
number, depending on the length and complexity of the legislation involved.
Authority of Conferees
The authority given to the Senate conferees theoretically is limited to matters in disagreement between the two chambers. They are not
authorized to delete provisions or language agreed to by both the House and the Senate as to draft entirely new provisions.
In practice, however, the conferees have wide latitude, except where the matters in disagreement are very specific. Moreover, conferees
attempt to reconcile their differences, but generally they try to grant concession only insofar as they remain confident that the chamber they
represent will accept the compromise.
The Conference Report
When the conferees have reached agreement on a bill, the conference committee staff writes a conference report indicating changes made
in the bill and explaining each side’s actions.
Once a conference committee completes its works, it can now be submitted to the floor for its approval. Debate on conference reports is
highly privileged and can interrupt most other business.
Approval of the conference report by both houses, along with any amendments on disagreement, constitutes final approval of the bill.
Final Legislative Action
After both houses have given final approval to a bill, a final copy of the bill, known as the “enrolled bill,” shall be printed, and certified as
correct by the Secretary of the Senate and the Secretary General of the House of Representatives. After which, it will be signed by the
Speaker of the House and the Senate President.
A bill may become a law, even without the President’s signature, if the President does not sign a bill within 30 days from receipt in his
office. A bill may also become a law without the President’s signature if Congress overrides a presidential veto by two-thirds vote.
Summary
The following is a summary of how a bill becomes a law:
Filing/Calendaring for First Reading
A bill is filed in the Office of the Secretary where it is given a corresponding number and calendared for First Reading.
First Reading
Its title, bill number, and author’s name are read on the floor, after which it is referred to the proper committee.
Committee Hearings/Report
Committee conducts hearings and consultation meetings. It then either approves the proposed bill without an amendment, approves it with
changes, or recommends substitution or consolidation with similar bills filed.
Calendaring for Second Reading
The Committee Report with its approved bill version is submitted to the Committee on Rules for calendaring for Second Reading.
Second Reading
Bill author delivers sponsorship speech on the floor. Senators engage in debate, interpellation, turno en contra, and rebuttal to highlight the
pros and cons of the bill. A period of amendments incorporates necessary changes in the bill proposed by the committee or introduced by
the Senators themselves on the floor.
Voting on Second Reading
Senators vote on the second reading version of the bill. If approved, the bill is calendared for third reading.
Voting on Third Reading
Printed copies of the bill’s final version are distributed to the Senators. This time, only the title of the bill is read on the floor. Nominal
voting is held. If passed, the approved Senate bill is referred to the House of Representatives for concurrence.
At the House of Representatives
The Lower Chamber follows the same procedures (First Reading, Second Reading and Third Reading).
Back to the Senate
If the House-approved version is compatible with that of the Senate’s, the final version’s enrolled form is printed. If there are certain
differences, a Bicameral Conference Committee is called to reconcile conflicting provisions of both versions of the Senate and of the House
of Representatives. Conference committee submits report on the reconciled version of the bill, duly approved by both chambers. The Senate
prints the reconciled version in its enrolled form.
Submission to Malacañang
Final enrolled form is submitted to Malacañang. The President either signs it into law, or vetoes and sends it back to the Senate with veto
message.
How A Bill Becomes Law In The Philippines
Ever wondered how a bill becomes law in the Philippines?
First things first, we need to understand what a bill is and the role of Congress in enacting laws.
The Congress of the Philippines is the branch of government tasked with creating laws in the Philippines. It is made up of two Houses: a)
the Lower House, or the House of Representatives; and, b) the Upper House, or the Senate. Its members are the congressmen and senators
you voted for.
As part of the law-making process, individual members of Congress propose bills for approval by the majority of Congress. If the bill gets
approved, it will constitute part of the law of the Philippines. In this article, we will give you a step-by-step guide as to how a bill becomes
law (or more specifically, a statute) in the Philippines.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
1. To initiate the law-making process, the proposed bill is signed by its author and filed with the Secretary of the either the
Lower House (for congressmen) or the Senate (for senators).
2. The bill will go through three readings. On the First Reading, the number and title of the bill is read, followed by its referral to the
appropriate committee for study.
3. On the Second Reading, the bill is read in full along with amendments proposed by the committee who studied it. The bill is then
subjected to debates and discussion by the members of the House where it was filed. After extensive discussion, the bill will be
voted on. If approved, it would go through a third reading.
4. On Third Reading, the bill will be submitted for a final vote. If approved again, it shall be transmitted to the other House for
concurrence. The other House will go through the same process of having three readings.
5. If the other House introduces amendments and the House from which the bill originated does not approve of the
amendments, the differences will be settled by a meeting of the Conference Committees of both Houses, whose
recommendations will have to be approved by both Houses.
6. Once the bill is approved, it is transmitted to the President of the Philippines for signature. The President may then either
sign the bill to indicate approval, or veto the bill to indicate disapproval. If approved, the bill officially becomes a law.
7. If the President decides to exercise his veto powers, the Congress may re-pass the vetoed bill if two-thirds of both
Houses, voting separately, approve its enactment. In this case, the bill also officially becomes a law.
A hidden curriculum is a side effect of an education, "[lessons] which are learned but not openly intended"[1] such as the transmission of
norms, values, and beliefs conveyed in the classroom and the social environment.[2]
Any learning experience may teach unintended lessons.[1] Hidden curriculum often refers to knowledge gained in primary and secondary
school settings, usually with a negative connotation where the school strives for equal intellectual development.[3] In this sense, a hidden
curriculum reinforces existing social inequalities by educating students according to their class and social status. The unequal distribution
of cultural capital in a society mirrors a corresponding distribution of knowledge among its students.[4]
Definition
A hidden curriculum can be defined as the lessons that are taught informally, and usually unintentionally, in a school system. These
include behaviors, perspectives and attitudes that students pick up while they're at school. This is contrasted with the formal curriculum,
such as the courses and activities students participate in.
Test expectations become identified at an early age
Since the passage of Title IX, girls and boys sports opportunities have become more equal in schools
Hidden curriculum is often found within the formal curriculum of a school; this may be partially in what is not taught. For example, if an
English class only assigns reading material with Caucasian main characters or with stories set in the United States, this may teach students,
including English learners, that our school systems don't appreciate other cultures and languages. The influence of this can lead to a
negative self-image or a hatred for reading.
Examples of Commensalism
Cattle Egrets and Livestock

One of the popular examples of commensalism is the relationship between cattle egrets and livestock. The cattle egret is a common species
of heron that is found in most regions of the world, and is mostly seen moving along with herds of cattle. This bird moves about in the
pastures, and follows livestock such as cattle and horses. The cattle egret eats up the insects hiding under vegetation close to the grounds,
which get stirred up when the cattle walk through them. In this example of commensalism, the cattle egret benefits by eating up the insects,
but the livestock remains totally unaffected.
Orchids Growing on Branches of Trees

Orchids belong to a family of flowering plants that form a commensal relationship with the trees. It is a well-known epiphytic plant that
grows on the branches or trunks of other trees. Orchids are usually found in dense tropical forests. They form their base of attachment on
the branches of trees, and benefit by getting adequate sunlight and nutrition that flows down the branches. The orchids do not grow to a
large size, and thus the host tree is not harmed in any way.
Remora Fish and Sharks

The remora, also called the suckerfish, belongs to a family of ray-finned fish. It is a small fish growing up to a size of 1 to 3 feet. The remora
forms a special relationship with sharks and other sea organisms like whales and turtles. The remora has special suckers attached to its fins.
It attaches itself to the bodies of sharks, and uses the shark for transportation as well as protection from its predators. It also eats up the
scraps of food that are left over when the shark eats its prey. In this manner, the remora fish forms a commensal relationship with sharks,
and does not in any manner harm or benefit them.
Pseudoscorpions and Beetles

Pseudoscorpions are scorpion-like insects that usually grow to less than one centimeter in length. They are different from other types of
scorpions in the way that they do not have stingers. Some species of the pseudoscorpions hide themselves under the wing covers of large
insects like beetles. This gives them protection from their predators, and also provides them a means of transportation over a larger area.
Because of its small size and lack of sting, it does not harm the beetle in any way.
Monarch Butterfly and Milkweed

The Monarch butterfly is a well-known type of butterfly that is found very commonly in the North American region. At their larval stage, the
Monarch forms a commensal relationship with certain species of milkweeds. The milkweeds contain a poisonous chemical known as
cardiac glycoside, which is harmful to almost all vertebrates. The Monarch stores these poisonous chemicals in its body throughout its
lifespan. When a bird eats a Monarch butterfly, it finds it distasteful, and gets sick. Thus, birds and other predators avoid eating the
Monarch. In this way, the Monarch butterfly benefits from the milkweeds without affecting them.
Birds Following Army Ants

Many birds form a commensal relationship with some species of ants like the army ants. A great number of army ants trail on the forest
floor, and while moving, stir up many insects lying in their path. The birds follow these army ants and eat up the insects that try to escape
from them. The birds benefit by catching their prey easily, while the army ants are totally unaffected.
Burdock Seeds on the Fur of Passing Animals

Many plant species have adapted themselves by developing curved spines on their seeds or seedpods in order to disperse them over a larger
area. The burdocks are a common type of weed that are mostly found along roadsides, and on barren land and fields. The burdock seeds
have long, curved spines attached to them. They easily catch onto the fur of passing animals, which carry and drop off these seeds to other
regions. In this way, this commensal relationship ensures the proper dispersal of burdock seeds, while the animals remain unharmed.
Barnacles and Whales

The barnacles are a type of crustaceans that are sedentary, i.e. they cannot move on their own. At their larval stage, they stick to the bodies
of other organisms like whales, and other places like shells, rocks, or even ships, and grow on their surface. As the whales move about, the
barnacles find new habitats where food might be available. While the whales are on the move, the barnacles catch hold of floating plankton
and other food material using their feather-like feet. This way, they get the nutrition and transportation they need, and the whale is not
harmed or benefited in any manner.
Emperor Shrimp and Sea Cucumbers

Emperor shrimp is a small crustacean that is usually found in the Indo-Pacific region. It can be seen hitching a ride on sea cucumbers.
These shrimp get protection as well as a mode of transportation to move about in larger areas in search of food, without spending any
energy on their own. They get off from their host sea cucumber to feed, and get back on for a ride when they want to move to other areas.
Decorator Crabs and Sea Sponges

Decorator crabs have undergone a very unique adaptation for concealing and camouflaging themselves. As the name suggests, the
decorator crabs snip off material available in their surrounding environment, and decorate their shell using them. In forming a commensal
relationship with the sea sponges, they carve out small pieces of sponges and camouflage themselves using them. This adaption of the
decorator crab provides protection to it without harming or benefiting the sea sponges, thus forming a commensal relationship.
One of the examples of commensalism in the tundra biome is between the caribou and the arctic fox, wherein the fox tends to follow the
caribou while it is on the prowl. The caribou digs in the snow to get its food, which is in the form of lichen plants. Once it digs up the soil,
the arctic fox comes and hunts some of the subnivean mammals that have come closer to the surface due to the digging action of the
caribou. Thus, the caribou remains unaffected, whereas the arctic fox benefits from its actions.
The above examples are evidence of the extent to which some living organisms can evolve, or adapt in order to survive. Many more
examples of commensalism are being discovered each year, as man delves deeper in the quest of solving the still-unsolved mysteries of
nature.
Read more at Buzzle: http://www.buzzle.com/articles/examples-of-commensalism.html
Here are three other examples of mutualistic relationships:
1. The bee and the flower. Bees fly from flower to flower gathering nectar, which they make into food, benefiting the bees. When they land in
a flower, the bees get some pollen on their hairy bodies, and when they land in the next flower, some of the pollen from the first one rubs
off, pollinating* the plant. This benefits the plants. In this mutualistic relationship, the bees get to eat, and the flowering plants get to
reproduce.
2. The spider crab and the algae. Spider crabs live in shallow areas of the ocean floor, and greenish-brown algae lives on the crabs' backs,
making the crabs blend in with their environment, and unnoticeable to predators. The algae gets a good place to live, and the crab gets
camouflage.**
3. The bacteria and the human. A certain kind of bacteria lives in the intestines of humans and many other animals. The human cannot
digest all of the food that it eats. The bacteria eat the food that the human cannot digest and partially digest it, allowing the human to finish
the job. The bacteria benefit by getting food, and the human benefits by being able to digest the food it eats.

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ATOMS

WHAT THE ATOM MEANS TO CHEMISTRY.

EVOLVING MODELS OF THE ATOM.

ATOMIC MASS AND ISOTOPES.

A Maturing Concept of Elements

Early Modern Understanding of the Atom

Mendeleev and the Periodic Table

The Rise and Fall of the Plum Pudding Model

CLARIFYING THE PERIODIC TABLE.

NUCLEAR ENERGY IN WAR AND PEACE.

Quantum Theory and Beyond

PLANCK'S QUANTUM THEORY.

BOHR'S PLANETARY MODEL OF THE ATOM.

ATOMIC MASS UNIT:

AVERAGE ATOMIC MASS:

PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS:

The Basics of General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry,v. 1.0

by David W. Ball, John W. Hill, and Rhonda J. Scott

3.3 Formulas for Ionic Compounds

compound is constructed from its ions.

ion is surrounded by ions of opposite charge.

Figure 3.6 A Sodium Chloride Crystal

collection of alternating sodium and chlorine ions.

the total positive and negative charges in the compound.

Therefore, the proper formula for this ionic compound is MgO.

1. the calcium ion and the oxygen ion

2. the 2+ copper ion and the sulfur ion

3. the 1+ copper ion and the sulfur ion

most common polyatomic ions.

Table 3.1 Some Polyatomic Ions

ammonium ion NH4+

acetate ion C2H3O2− (also written CH3CO2−)

carbonate ion CO32−

chromate ion CrO42−

dichromate ion Cr2O72−

hydrogen carbonate ion (bicarbonate ion) HCO3−

cyanide ion CN−

hydroxide ion OH−

nitrate ion NO3−

nitrite ion NO2−

permanganate ion MnO4−

phosphate ion PO43−

hydrogen phosphate ion HPO42−

dihydrogen phosphate ion H2PO4−

sulfate ion SO42−

hydrogen sulfate ion (bisulfate ion) HSO4−

sulfite ion SO32−

1. the magnesium ion and the carbonate ion

2. the aluminum ion and the acetate ion

Recognizing Ionic Compounds

electric charge specified, so it is not the nitrite ion.

Identify each compound as ionic or not ionic.

Looking Closer: Blood and Seawater

blood. Here is a comparison of the amounts of ions in blood and seawater:

Ion Percent in Seawater Percent in Blood

Na+ 2.36 0.322

Cl− 1.94 0.366