Submitted for publication in TEMA

Introduction to Yemenite Jewish silversmiths (sayegh) in Yemen before

Operation “Magic Carpet”.
Part 1: Jeweler, used techniques and styles.

Esther van Praag, Ph.D.

5B, chemin du Marais-Long
CH- 1217 Meyrin
Switzerland

esther_vp@medirabbit.com

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 Introduction to Yemenite Jewish silversmiths (sayegh) in Yemen before
Operation “Magic Carpet”. Part 1: Jeweler, used techniques and styles.

“At that time Jewish skill in the silversmith’s art was famous and
unequaled. So the pagan went to a silversmith, bringing him some bars of
silver, and asked him to make a pendant out of them. Before his eyes the
silversmith weighed up the bars and set to work. When the pagan came
back to collect the pendant, the silversmith wanted to weigh the ornament in
order to show the customer that not one ounce had been lost. But he said,
“who will doubt the honor of a Jew ?” Subsequently all the pagan did as he
had done; they never allowed the ornaments to be weighed, and asked no
questions about the unused silver.”

Extract from “The Land of Sheba”: Tales of the Jews of

Yemen, by S. D. Goiten, Schocken Books, 1947.

Yemenite legends tell that the first jewelers were goldsmiths. Their origin may date back
some 3000 years, when King Solomon started commercial exchanges with the Queen of
Sheba. Tradesmen and silversmiths from Judea moved to Yemen, where they continued
to work in their professions, e.g. the production of jewelry. Others attribute the origin of
Yemenite jewelry to the Jewish tribe of Banu Kainuka, whose members were famous
goldsmiths in Medina (formerly Yathrib). During Mohamed’s conquest of the city in 622
C.E, the population was
cruelly treated; men
were massacred, while
women and children
were sold into slavery.
The few survivors, who
had to leave their
property in the hands of
the Moslems, fled to
nearby Jewish villages
or southwards to
Yemen.

The Koranic laws

imposed on the
population forbade the
Muslim population to
work with precious
Photo: H. Burchardt, early 20th century
metals. Consequently,
silversmithing became
Silversmith El Abjad, in his atelier in Sana’a. Note the dark
clothing, a rule imposed on the lower class populations. restricted to 2nd class
citizens and was

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essentially done by Jewish craftsmen. Even in remote regions of Yemen like the
Hadrama’ut Valley (southeast of Yemen), most Muslim silversmiths are the descendants
of Jewish families that converted to Islam.

The profession of silversmith was highly regarded among the Jewish population. It was
mainly carried out by members of rich families, erudite men (e.g. the poet Jiḥja al-
Ṣahiri), and mori (rabbi), who passed the knowledge of century-old techniques, and the
composition of soldering solutions from father to son, safeguarding the secrets within
their families.

“This is in truth what our wise men have said: “The Thora is good,
combined with work”
(...)
Once I came into his smithy early in the morning. (...) When I came into the
vaulted room, he greeted me with a friendly smile because he well knew
that the picture, which greeted me, must have seemed strange. “Come, let
me take this hammer and I’ll help you,” I said. But he refused by remarking,
laughingly, “Do you want to give up being a rabbit and become my
workman ?” I sighed deeply and said, “All hail to you, Mori Joseph, who
are a smith, and alas for us who make the rabbinate a profession !”.

Extract from “The Land of Sheba”: Tales of the Jews of

Yemen, by S. D. Goiten, Schocken Books, 1947.

The demand for jewelry or other silver objects was enormous, and silversmiths did not
suffer from competition. In Sana’a alone, up to 300 silversmiths co-habited, each
developing its own niche, making solely one type of decorative ornament for many
years, e.g. beads, finials for Torah scrolls, decorative parts for dagger hilts, horse bridles
or saddles, parts of water-pipes, etc. In Dhamar (south-western Yemen), one third of
the Jewish male population was involved in jewelry making, while in Habban (South-East

According to the marks found in these granulated wheel beads, they were a niche product of
a jeweler called Salem ... (family name unknown) (left). Others specialized in the silver inlay
of black coral beads (right).

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of Yemen), the whole male population worked as silversmiths. They manufactured
ornaments for their own Jewish people, as well as for the Muslim urban, rural or
nomadic populations.

The work was done squatting or sitting cross-legged on the floor, using a limited
amount of tools, to make or repair jewelry. In cities, silversmiths worked at home, in a
small atelier, where they would receive their clients. The style and aim of the new piece
would be discussed with the client. Jewelers also sold their products on markets.
Silversmiths from Habban used to travel from village to village for several months,
reaching as far as the Tihama (narrow, extremely arid lowland region along the Red
Sea), or would join temporarily Bedouin tribes, to repair jewelry or make new pieces.

Origin of the silver

The demand for silver was enormous, but there are only a few silver mines in Yemen.
Silversmiths thus had to rely on silver imports via the maritime trade routes, or on the
existent material, by recasting it. Indeed, daughters considered unacceptable to take
over jewels damaged by daily usage under hard environmental conditions and therefore
refused to inherit jewels of their deceased mother. Exceptionally, amulets that had
proven successful where kept. Instead, the jewelry was brought to the silversmith, in
order to make new jewels in the traditional style. If the amount of material was
insufficient, metal or silver would be added. This tradition has unfortunately led to the
loss of older pieces.

In the middle of the 18th century, jewelers started to use Maria Teresa thalers (minted in
the Austro-Hungarian Empire) due to it high degree of silver purity (84%). This coin
reached the Arabic world through trade relations and became a national currency in
several countries, including Yemen. Minting of thalers continued long after the death of
the Empress with the date of 1780.

Working the silver

In Yemen, silver was usually alloyed with copper. The ratio of silver to copper was 950
parts silver to 50 parts copper. In the first stage, the silver was heated till it gets dull red
(480-650°C), after which it is quenched (cooled by immersion in water), in order to
make it soft and malleable (annealing). Subsequent hammering enabled one to obtain
hardened sheets of uniform thickness. Those sheets serve as a basis for jewelry making
or to make small decorative elements. The later would be placed on the piece of
jewelry, and be held together by the “glue of the silversmith”. The formula of this
solution was kept secret; it is basically borax, or tinkar in the Yemenite Arabic dialect,
mixed with solder particles of the silver alloy. The preparation of the glue is a long and
difficult process of heating and cooking, after which it is dried, ground into a powder,
before it can be used. Intense heat enabled the tinkar-glued decorative elements to fuse
onto their base.

Wire making started by pouring molted silver into finger-length tube-shaped molds
made of special earth. The obtained ingots were rather thick. A drawplate with holes of
various sizes was used to obtain different gauge silver threads. The silver would be
annealed and inserted in a hole, using a slightly smaller diameter than that of the wire.
Pliers were used to pull it through. The silver wire can be thinned about 3 times in a

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row, after which it becomes hard and brittle. If the thread was not yet thin enough, the
silver was re-annealed, and the procedure repeated. The obtained wire would be used
for decorative purposed, e.g. braided for filigree, or to form different types of links for
chains. Some chains are made of crude wire links; more elaborate types combine
different links and spacers, using filigree and granulation techniques. To make the
chains strong, an alloy with a low silver content was sometimes used. The chains enable
a person to wear an additional ornament, which can be part of its decoration, or link
several pieces together (e.g. headdress).

Various types of chains found on Yemenite jewelry.

Since old times, the jewelers in Yemen have incorporated techniques and styles from
other civilizations in their jewelry making. The techniques used include:
Appliqué - allows decorating an ornament with small decorations, made by cutting
pieces of one material and applying them to the surface of another.

Decoration of the silver surface with lozenges, granules, wire rosettes and braided wire.

Chasing – is a technique that dates back to Antiquity, which allows tracing of a

design on a silver sheet, marking geometrical pattern on the front surface with a
punch. Repeated or geometric patterns are obtained. This technique has been used
mainly by silversmiths of the Hadrama’ut region, giving a characteristic trait to their
jewelry.

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 Bracelet and amulet decorated with symmetric patterns, using a punch

Engraving - is a technique closely related to chasing that dates back to Biblical

times (seal of Judah – Genesis 38:18). It uses a hard pointed tool (burin) on a hard
silver surface, so that a very fine design can be drawn, or names, sacred texts or
kabbalistic formulae inscribed on amulets.

Engraved text on the back of a hanger

Embossing - is another technique dating back to Antiquity that enables to shape a

piece of malleable silver by hammering or punching it on the reverse side. A mold is
used, in order to obtain a certain form, or a raised pattern. Most smaller and larger
bead spheres were made, using this technique. Two half-spheres were made, that
were soldered together. It kept them light, saved material and had them tinkle
nicely. Their surfaces could be decorated with appliqué or filigree decorations.

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 Various types of beads adorn the jewelry, all made with the same techniques: two half spheres
are made, which are soldered together on the middle line. This can be seen clearly on the
broken bead (left).

Wrought silver - enables to shape silver by bending, twisting and hammering it

with tools, after heating it.

If decorated with open (lattice) or applied filigree, granulation, silver threads of various
diameters were prepared.

Open or applied filigree, whose origin is unknown, probably dating back to the
early Egyptian culture. Fine pliable threads of different thicknesses are twisted,
braided, bent or folded to obtain fine interlaced patterns. The finest and most
difficult process is open or lattice filigree, which can be looked through. A lattice
framework is formed with strong wire. In it, sub-lattices made of thinner silver
threads are added. In the spaces left open, fine filigree is inserted. Small-flattened
granules are added on the filigree, in order to “anchor” the sub-lattice framework
and the fine filigree pattern, to the basic framework. The second type is filigree

Two early examples of open lattice (left) and applied (right) filigree

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 applied on a sheet of silver. A basic frame is formed, and soldered to the surface of
the silver. In a second stage, decorative pattern, made with silver wire, is laid inside
this frame, glued with tinkar-based solution and fused to the ornament under
intense heat.

Granulation, a difficult and challenging technique that has been perfected by

Greek and Etruscan jewelers, is used to produce a three dimensional effect. Small
granules were prepared by dropping tiny amounts of melted silver into cold water.
This enabled to obtain perfectly round granules. Another technique used to make
granules is the use of small jump rings. Those were spread on a block of wood and
molten with a blowtorch. The wood is heated to the point of imperfect burning, so
that a film of soft charcoal is formed. This layer will serve as a cushion, which
enables to form silver granules. Different sized jump rings will lead to a range of
differently sized granules. When used for decorative purposes, the granules were
arranged in a certain shape, held together with the tinkar-based solution, before
being fused.

Various ways to apply small granules on jewelry

The more expensive high-grade silver pieces were furthermore often decorated with
stones (e.g. cornelian quartz) or coral, or were gilded (covered with a thin layer of gold).
Older preserved jewelry pieces testify that silversmiths like David Qafih (Sana’a,
beginning of the 20th century) mastered the technique of niello, which consists of
ornamenting an incised high-quality silver surface with a black metallic alloy, containing
sulfur, copper, silver and lead. The contrasting black against the shiny silver produces a
highly decorative effect.
The amount of work invested in the making of jewelry is remarkable, knowing that
clients paid only for the silver material and the weight of the pieces, not for the time
invested in making them. They would make the pieces according to the wealth of their
clients.

Marks of the silversmiths

Few pieces have a personal small (about 5 X 11 mm) stamp of the silversmith, written in

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 Marks on pieces of jewelry (top) and details (bottom)
Marks that are stamped directly into the piece of jewelry, or pieces of silver soldered onto other
pieces of jewelry are occasionally legible. Most are worn out, and difficult to decipher.
Occasionally Hebrew insignia are found. Note also the different alloys of silver used on one and
the same piece (top right), the background made of a high degree of silver, a hanger made of
copper and beads made with an alloy rich in copper, conferring the yellowish color.

Arabic. It was usually prepared on a separate silver sheet, cut out, and soldered onto
the jewelry piece. In rare cases the mark is stamped directly onto a piece of jewelry. It
usually indicates the first name and surname of its maker, sometimes the city where he
lives, the percentage of silver or a date. Occasionally Hebrew letters are engraved,
which may refer to the name of the jeweler, the owner, or have a kabbalistic meaning.
The presence or the absence of a stamp does not relate to the quality of the piece of
jewelry.

After 1920, the Imam ruling over Yemen forbade the signing of the jewelry.

Styles of jewelry

Women of different ethnic origins, whether in cities or in rural regions, wore different
styles of ornaments. Muslim women preferred pieces with applied decorations, while
Bedouin women favored more robust silver ornaments with geometrical designs,
decorated with coral, glass paste, amber or cornelian stones. Jewish women in Sana’a
preferred fine filigree pieces. Serpent bracelets (region of Badar), “tomb” bracelets or
multi-stranded chocker necklaces (manague) were typically made for Jewish women.
Depending on the regions, amber beads were worn by Muslim women only, or by both
Muslim and Jewish women. Sometimes the only difference was the size of the jewelry
piece. Finally, Jewish women wore a special headdress (gargush), which differed
according to the marital status of the woman (e.g. single, married), and the occasion it
was worn (daily or festive). The gargush would be decorated with brooches, coins and
chains with filigree pendants at their ends. The front part was decorated with small
pendants in the form of wheat grains (agrat). Married Muslim women wore a veil and

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pins would hold it in place.

A typical feature of Yemenite jewelry is the avoidance of figurative elements and the use
of geometric shapes arranged symmetrically on the ornament, using pattern and designs
dating back to ancient (pre-Islamic) times. Interestingly, similarities can be found
between the stained glass pattern of windows and the decoration of the jewelry. One
recurrent theme is the wheat ear and grains, stylized on gypsum window sashes, on
filigree jewelry, or in the form of little wheat grains hanging over the forehead of the
women’s gargush. Silversmiths furthermore knew the symbolism of different shapes,
and integrated them into the jewelry. The wearer, on her side, would attribute magical
powers to these pieces, in relation to tradition, sacred texts, and to “berakha” (‫ – ברכה‬a
blessing that empowers a person with good qualities) or the belief that jewels made by
a “foreigner” possesses a special blessing and protective powers.

Windows decorated with stained colored glass and gypsum sash a source of inspiration for
jewelry design ?

Often dangles were added to the pieces, to produce noise and to chase evil spirits.
Those include:
• Tiny hollow spheres hanging under an amulet or pomegranate shaped granules at
the ends of an amulet to promote fertility,
• Bigger ovoid balls promote health and prosperity,
• Hands of Fatima, for protection, power and strength,
• Peanut shaped dangles, for prosperity.

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 Photo: courtesy of Arie van Praag

Photo: courtesy of Yosef Tobi

Example of dangles and bells found on ornaments that are supposed to symbolize fertility,
health or prosperity

In general, pieces produced by silversmiths of rural regions were rougher and bigger
than those produced in cities, e.g. Sana’a. This does not take away from their beauty.

Four distinctive styles have been described:

• Mansury style refers to one of the oldest families of Jewish jewelers. The
ornaments are characterized by a moderate use of decorations, embossing,
engraving, and relief imprint. Often ornaments are of low silver; rarely they were
made in a silver/gold alloy.

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 Top of a Mansury style head ornament (left) and unusual bracelets, showing a combination of
Mansury style and filigree rosettes

• Zaydi style jewelry is characterized by embossing and engraving, sometimes by

fretwork.
• Baddihy style ornaments are characterized by filigree elements applied on a silver
surface. Decorative elements, like small silver rhomboids, or small granules shaped
as "flowers" are often added over the filigree.

• Bawsani style ornaments are characterized by fine open silver filigree work and
were manufactured with the greatest of precision. It was produced by the best
craftsmen of Yemen. Jewelers belonging to other families have produced similar
pieces. Today, this style is commonly named Bawsani.

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Typical Bawsani style jewelry, using open filigree and wire rosettes. Has this style spread to the
Netherlands, through maritime trade relations ?
On the extreme right an antique brooch typical of Province of Zeeland (located in the
southwestern Netherlands), using the same technique of wire rosettes and granules. In both
cases, the central sphere could be replaced by a piece of coral or a stone.

• Hadrami style ornaments are characteristic, with simple forms and decorations.
The surface of the silver is stamped or engraved, and is occasionally enriched with
decorative elements in silver.

Typical jewelry from the Hadama’ut region

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These styles can sometimes be recognized from an ornament, or retraced from the
silversmith’s mark. More often, a mixture of styles is found on one piece.

Jewels as a social symbol and status for women

In the Yemenite traditional society, silver jewelry plays an important social role. Apart
from enhancing the features and allure of the women who wear it, it also had inherent
magical powers, and represented economic and social status to the woman. As a result,
Yemenite women tried to posses as much (silver) jewels as possible. Jewelry is part of
the dowry (Mahr) and is a precondition for a wedding. The amount given to the bride
reflects the financial standing of the groom’s family. This part of the dowry becomes
sole property of the bride and she will decide what to do with it. Muslim and Bedouin
women would wear them on a daily basis, as it shows their social status, the generosity
of their husband’s families, the social achievements of their own families, etc, while
Jewish women would only wear ornaments on festive occasions, to avoid arousing envy
from the Muslim population.

Jewelry also represented a social security for the women and their families that was
easily transportable. Women would only part reluctantly from their jewels. Only extreme
distress could bring them about to sell the jewels – and to suffer the disgrace brought to
her family by the selling.

Independently of their ethnical origins, men would not wear jewelry. They would prefer
finely crafted dagger hilts instead, or ornaments for their horses and camels. As for
women, these decorative elements brought protection against the malevolent spirits and
showed the social and financial status of the owner.

Conclusion

Operation “Magic Carpet” brought most members of the Jewish community from Yemen
to Israel. Craftsmen left with their families and the millenary-old tradition of
silversmithery died in Yemen. Today, only 2 or 3 Jewish jewelers are known to work in
Sana’a according to the traditional methods. After settling in Israel, most kept working in
the field of jewelry making and passed this tradition over to their sons. The used
techniques have modernized, and the basic materials (granules, wires, silver plates) are
pre-manufactured and not prepared by the silversmith himself anymore. Unfortunately,
the continuation of Yemenite jewelry is condemned in Israel too. Teaching of filigree art
at the Bezalel Academy of Art and Design (Jerusalem) came to an end after the
instructor passed away some 30 years ago already. The old generation of jewelers,
working with traditional methods, is slowly dying and their children engage in more
lucrative occupations. Yemenite jewelry is slowly turning into a “lost art” here too.

Acknowledgements

I am deeply indebted to all the persons who offered their spontaneous help.
Many thanks go to my father Arie van Praag, MFIAP, for taking the time to photograph
the pieces of jewelry and work them out digitally; and to my mother Louise van Praag,
who introduced me to the world of Yemenite filigree jewelry many years ago.
Many thanks to David Ben-Abraham (Moshav Mata, Israel), for his help and useful
suggestions, to the jewelers Dr. Yehuda Tassa (Palo Alto, USA), Hayim Tzadok

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(Jerusalem, Israel), and to those who chose to remain anonymous.
Finally, many thanks to Prof. Yosef Tobi (University of Haifa, Israel), for sending me
pictures of his collection of Yemenite jewelry and allowing me to use them in the article.

References

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Universitätsbuchhandlung, Heidelberg, Germany.
Del Mare C. (2003) Il Corallo negli Ornamenti Tradizionali e nel Costume dello Yemen,
by and Alessandro de Maigret. Electa Napoli, Italy.
Garner R. (2003) The Maker's Mark in Yemeni Jewelry, Ornament, vol. 26 (4).
Lewis S. L. (1989) After the Eagles landed. The Yemenites of Israel. Waveland Press,
Inc. Prospect Heights, USA
Muchawsky-Schapper E., (2000) The Yemenites. Two thousands Years of Jewish
Culture. The Israel Museum, Jerusalem, Israel.
Rathjens C., (1957) Jewish Domestic Architecture in San`a Yemen. With an Introduction
and an Appendix on Seventeenth Century Documents relating to Jewish Houses in
San`a, by Goitein S. D. Hadassah Apprentice School of Printing, Jerusalem, Israel.
Ross H.C., (1978) Bedouin Jewellery in Saudi-Arabia, Stacey International, London, UK.
Ross H.C., (1981) The Art of Bedouin Jewellery, a Saudi-Arabian Profile. Empire
Publishing Service/Players Press, Arabesque, Switzerland.
Weir S. (1995) Palestinian Costum. British Museum Publications Ltd, UK.

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