Study Guide

Physics Final Exam

Chapter 1.1 – Skating

Concepts
• Inertia
• Force
• Velocity
• Acceleration
• Mass
• Net Force
• Newton’s 1st Law
• Newton’s 2nd Law

Chapter 1.2 – Falling Balls

Concepts
• Weight
• Constant Acceleration
• Projectile Motion
• Vector Components

Chapter 1.3 – Ramps

Concepts
• Support Forces
• Newton’s Third Law
• Energy & Work
• Energy Conservation
• Potential Energy
• Ramps
• Mechanical Advantage

Chapter 2.1 – Wind Turbines

Concepts
• Rotational Inertia
• Torque
• Angular Velocity
• Angular Acceleration
• Center of Gravity
• Center of Mass
• Rotational Work
• Levers
• Balance
Chapter 2.2 – Wheels
Concepts
• Static Friction
o Acts to prevent objects from starting to slide
o Forces can vary from zero to an upper limit
• Sliding Friction
o Acts to stop objects that are already sliding
o Forces have mixed magnitudes
• Forms of Energy
o Kinetic: energy of motion
o Potential: energy stored in forces between objects
 Gravitational, magnetic, electrochemical, nuclear, elastic,
electric, and chemical
• Rollers, Wheels, and Bearings
o Sliding friction disorders energy
o Converts work into thermal energy
o Eliminate sliding friction at roadway
• Summary
o Sliding friction wastes energy
o Wheels eliminate sliding friction
o A vehicle with wheels coasts well
o Free wheels are turned by static friction with the ground
o Powered wheels use static friction with the group to propel
vehicle

Chapter 2.3 – Angular Momentum

Concepts
• Newton’s Third Law of Rotational Motion
o Definition: for every torque that one object exerts on a second
object, there is an equal but oppositely directed torque that the
second object exerts on the first object
• Angular Momentum
o Definition: a conserved vector quantity that measures an
object’s rotational motion.
 Angular Momentum = (rotational mass)(angular velocity)
• Angular Impulse
o Definition: the mechanical means for transferring angular
momentum. One object gives an angular impulse to another by
exerting a certain torque on the second for a certain amount of
time. In return, it gives an equal but opposite angular impulse to
the first object.
 Angular Impulse = (torque)(time)
• How do they work?
o During collisions, bumper cars exchange momentum through
impulses and angular momentum through angular impulses
o Collisions have less effect on cars with large masses and those
with large moments of inertia; the total momentum remains
unchanged
 o The car with the smallest moment of inertia about that chosen
point experiences the largest change in angular velocity
 Mass can’t change, so the only way an object’s velocity
can is if its momentum changes
 Moment of inertia can change, so an object that changes
shape can change its angular velocity without changing
momentum
• Angular Momentum Conservation
o Demo: Twisting a Wheel
 Each time you flip the wheel, you exert a torque on it
 Its angular momentum reverses and the student ends up
with twice the wheel’s original angular momentum
 Overall, it remains the same, but it’s distributed
differently
o Conservation of angular momentum is a quantity of motion and
you can acquire it as you turn, and then give it away
o A spinning object that reduces its rotational mass must spin
faster
o Decreasing your rotational mass causes your angular velocity to
increase
• Summary
o An object accelerates in the direction that reduces its total
potential energy as rapidly as possible; forces and potential
energies are related!

Chapter 3.1 – Springs

Concepts
• Weight vs. Mass
o Mass (m)
 Independent of measuring location
 Can be measured by measuring a as a function of F
• F=mxa
 Measured in kilogram (kg)
o Weight (m x g)
 Weight is a force!
• F=mxg
 Can be measured with a spring balance
 Measured in Newtons (N)
• Restoring Force
o Definition: a force that acts to return an object to its equilibrium
shape. It is directed toward the position the object occupies
when it’s in its equilibrium shape.

• Hooke’s Law
o Definition: the restoring force exerted by an elastic object is
proportional to how far it has been distorted from its equilibrium
shape.
  Restoring Force = (-spring constant)(distortion)
• F = (-k)(x)
• Spring Scales & Acceleration
o Weight measurement requires equilibrium (net force is zero)
o Without it, spring force doesn’t balance weight
o The more weight (force) you put on the scale, the spring
stretches
o You must not bounce on a scale!
• Spring Constant
o Definition: as a measure of the stiffness of an elastic object, it
relates the object’s distortion to the restoring force it exerts. The
larger the spring constant, the stiffer the spring.
• Oscillation
o Definition: a repetitive and rhythmic movement or process that
usually takes place about an equilibrium situation.
• Calibration
o Definition: the process of comparing a local reference object to a
generally accepted standard.
• Summary
o The spring stretches while being weighed
o This stretch is proportional to the weight
o The scale measures the spring’s stretch
o The scale reports weight based on stretch

Chapter 3.3 – Rotational Motion

Concepts
• Experience of Weight
o Equilibrium:
 A support force balances your weight
 It acts on your lower surface
 Your weight is spread throughout your body
 You feel internal supporting stresses
 You identify these stresses as weight
• Experience of Acceleration
o Accelerating:
 A support force causes acceleration
 It acts on your surface
 Your mass is spread throughout your body
 You feel internal supporting stresses
 You misidentify these stresses as weight
• Acceleration vs. Weight
o Definition: a vector quantity that measures how quickly an
object’s velocity is changing. The greater the acceleration, the
more the object’s velocity changes each second. The direction is
identical to the direction of the force causing the acceleration.
 It produces fictitious “force”
  Gives rise to “apparent weight”
• Center of Mass
o Definition: the natural pivot point for a free object. In the
absence of outside forces or torques, a rigid object’s center of
mass travels at constant velocity while the object rotates at
constant angular velocity about its center of mass.
• Centripetal Force
o Definition: a centrally directed force on an object. It is not an
independent force but rather the sum of other forces, such as
gravity, that are acting on the object.
• Centripetal Acceleration
o Definition: an acceleration that is always directed toward the
center of a circular trajectory.
 Acceleration points toward the circle’s center
 Depends on speed and circle size
 Requires force directed toward circle’s center
 A fictitious “force” called “centrifugal force” is directed
away from the circle’s center
 Experience inertia, not real force
• Acceleration of an Object in Uniform Circular Motion
o Definition: an object in uniform circular motion has a centripetal
acceleration equal to the square of its speed divided by the
radius of its circular trajectory, which is equal to the square of its
angular speed times the radius of its circular trajectory
• Roller Coasters
o Hills
 Top
• Acceleration is downhill
• Fictitious “force” is uphill
• Apparent weight is weak/into track
 Bottom
• Acceleration is upward
• Fictitious “force” is downward
• Apparent weight is very strong/downward
o Loops
 Top
• Acceleration is very strong/downward
• Fictitious “force” is strongly upward
• Apparent weight is weak but upward
• Summary
o You are often accelerating on these rides
o Feel fictitious “force” that is opposite acceleration
o Your apparent weight isn’t always down, it can become smaller,
and it can even point upwards

Demos & Objects

• Carousel
• Roller Coasters
 • Swinging Bucket

Chapter 5.1 – Balloons

Concepts
• Characteristics of Air
o Air is a gas
o Air is compressible
o Air does have mass
o Air does have weight
o Consists of individual atoms and molecules
o Particles kept separate by their thermal energy
o Particles bound around in free fall
• Air & Temperature
o Air has temperature
o Particles have thermal kinetic energy
o Average thermal kinetic energy is proportional to absolute
temperature
o SI absolute temperature scale: kelvins or K
 0K is absolute zero (no thermal energy left)
 1K is equivalent to 1 degree Celsius
 Room Temperature ~ 293K = 20C = 68F
• Air & Air Pressure
o Air has pressure
o Particles bounce around (higher the temperature)
o Particles exert forces on container walls
o Average force is proportional to surface area
o Average force per unit is called “pressure”
o Pressure = force / surface area
 P=F/A
• Air & Density
o Air has density
o Particles have mass
o Average mass per unit volume is called “density”
o Density = mass / volume
 p=m/V
• Air Pressure & Density
o Air pressure is proportional to density
 Denser airmore pressure
 Denser particlesmore bounce
• Ideal Gas Law
o Definition: the law relating the pressure, temperature, and
particle density of an ideal gas. An ideal gas is one that is
composed of perfectly independent particles. The particles don’t
stick and bounce perfectly from one another.
 Pressure = (Boltzmann constant)(particle density)
(absolute temperature)
 • p = (kB)(pparticle)(T)
• Earth’s Atmosphere
o Air pressure increases near the ground
o Air density increases near the ground
o Air pressure decreases with altitude
o Force imbalance yields an upward buoyant force
• Pressure Imbalances
o Balanced pressure exerts no overall force
 Forces on opposite sides of object cancel
o Unbalances pressure exerts overall force
 Forces on opposite sides of object don’t cancel
• Archimedes’ Principle
o Definition: the observation that an object partially or wholly
immersed in a fluid is acted on by an upward buoyant force
equal to the weight of the fluid it’s displacing.
 An object that has a higher density than the fluid it is in,
will sink (slower than free fall)
 An object that has a lower density than the fluid it is in,
will rise
• Buoyant Force (in liquids and gases)
o Definition: the upward force exerted by a fluid on an object
immersed in that liquid. The force is actually caused by pressure
from the liquid and it is highest below the object, so the force
exerted upward is greater than the force exerted downward on
the object’s top.
 B = mfluid x g = pfluid x Vfluid x g
• Air & Hot-Air Balloon
o Floats in cold air
o Weighs less than the cold air it displaces
o Experiences an upward net force in cold air
o Hot air contains fewer molecules than cold air
o Hot air has an average density smaller than cold air
• Air vs. Helium
o Replacing air particles with helium atoms reduces the gas’
density
 Helium atoms are less massive than air particles
o It leaves the gas’ pressure unchanged
 Helium atoms travel faster and more often
• How Balloons Work
o It’s total weight is less than that of the cooler air it displaces
o By heating the air, the pilot reduces its density
o By filling a balloon with helium, it’s weight is reduced
o The buoyant force exerted on the balloon by the surrounding air
exceeds its weight, causing the balloon to accelerate upward
• Summary
o Air pressure structures and supports the atmosphere
o Increased pressure beneath an object produces upward buoyant
force
 o Buoyant forces can float objects, such as hot-air and helium
balloons (objects that are less dense than the surrounding air)

Demos & Objects

1. Magdeburg Hemispheres
- Atmospheric pressure exerts enormous forces on large surfaces
2. Plastic Bottle + Altitude
- Atmospheric pressure and density decrease with altitude
- Higher air pressure collapses the bottle so the density of air
increases
3. Balloon + Vacuum
- A balloon’s size depends on a balance of forces
- When the pressure around it is reduced, it’s size increases
4. Marshmallows + Vacuum
- A bubble’s size depends on a balance of forces
- When the pressure around it is reduced, it’s size increases
- It opposes the outward pressure of the gas inside until it bursts
5. Cylindrical Weight + Spring Scale
- The buoyant force experienced by an object immersed in water
is equal in magnitude to the weight of the water it displaces

Chapter 7.1 – Woodstoves

Concepts
• Thermal Energy
o Definition: a disordered form of energy contained in the kinetic
and potential energies of the individual atoms and molecules
that make up that substance. Because of its random distribution,
this disordered energy can’t be converted directly into useful
work.
 Its disordered energy measured in joules (J)
 Kinetic and potential energies of atoms
 Gives rise to temperature (hotter objectmore thermal
energy)
 Does not include ordered energies:
• Kinetic energy of whole object moving or rotating
• Potential energy of outside interactions
• Thermal Expansion (of solids and liquids)
o Objects expand when heated up due to increased motion of
molecules at elevated temperatures
• Transfer Thermal Energy
o Heat ∆Q
 Temperature of an object is raised by change in
temperature
 Object has mass m
 Object has specific heat c
o Change in Thermal Energy = (mass)(specific heat)(change in
temp.)
  ∆Q = (m)(c)(∆T)
o Change in Thermal Energy = (heat capacity)(change in temp.)
 ∆Q = (C)(∆T)
• Latent Heat
o Heat required to change phase of a given mass m of a pure
substance is:
 Q = (m)(L)
• Phase Transitions
o LiquidSolid
 Freezing, solidification
o SolidLiquid
 Melting, fusion
o LiquidGas
 Boiling, vaporization
o GasLiquid
 Condensation
o SolidGas
 Sublimation
o GasSolid
 Sublimation
• Temperature Scales
o Definition: the measure of the average internal kinetic energy
per particle in a material. In a gas, temperature measures the
average kinetic energy of each atom or molecule.
 Fahrenheit (1686-1736)
• 0 degrees: temperature of an ice, water, or salt mix
• 32 degrees: water-ice combination
• 96 degrees: healthy human being
 Celsius (1701-1704)
• 0 C: freezing point of water
• 100 C: boiling point of water
 Kelvin (1834-1907)
• Zero point: absolute zero (no molecular motion)
• Heat
o Definition: the energy that flows from one object to another as a
result of a difference in temperature between those two objects.
o Temperature
 Touching objects exchange thermal energy
 Temperature is the average thermal kinetic energy per
particle
 Temperature predicts energy flow direction
• HotterColder
• No flowthermal equilibriumsame temperature
• Heat Transfer Mechanisms
o Conduction – heat flow through materials
 Definition: the transmission of heat through a material by
a transfer of energy from one atom or molecule to the
 next. The atoms themselves don’t move with the heat. In
metals, mobile electrons also contribute.
• Insulator
o Adjacent atoms jiggle one another
o Microscopic exchanges of energy; atoms do
work
o Heat flows from hot to cold atoms
• Conductor
o Mobile electrons carry heat long distances
o Heat flows quickly from hot to cold via
electrons
o Convection – heat flow through moving fluids (air)
 Definition: the transmission of heat by the movement of a
fluid; it normally entails the natural circulation of the fluid
that accompanies differences in temperatures and
densities.
• Fluid transports heat stored in its atoms:
o Fluid warms up near a hot object
o Fluid flows away, carrying thermal energy
with it
o Fluid cools down near a cold object
o Heat flows from hot to cold
• Natural buoyancy drives convection:
o Warmed fluid rises away from hot object
o Cooled fluid descends away from cold object
o Radiation – heat flow through light waves
 Definition: the transmission of heat through the passage
of electromagnetic radiating between objects.
• Heat transferred by electromagnetic waves
• Wave types depend on temperature:
o Cold – radio wave, microwave, infrared light
o Hot – infrared, visible, and ultraviolet light
• Higher temperaturemore radiated heat
• Black emits + absorbs light best
• Thermal Conductivity
o Definition: the measure of a material’s capacity to transport
heat by conduction from its hotter end to its colder end.
 Depends on the material:
• Best: metals (aluminum, copper, gold, iron)
• Middle: insulators (concrete, glass, ice, rubber)
• Lowest: gases (air, helium, hydrogen, oxygen)
 Occurs only in connected or touching materials
 The heat moves, not the atoms!
• Stefan-Boltzmann Law
o Definition: the amount of heat a surface radiates
 P = (e)(o)(T4)(A)
• A: surface area
• T: temperature in Kelvin
 • O: Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67 x 10-8
• E: emissivity (ranges from 0 to 1)
• P: radiated power (energy per time)
o Emissivity:
 Worst efficiency: 0, white, shiny, or clear
 Best efficiency: 1, black
• Woodstove Features
o Benefits:
 Heat flows from hot fire to cold room
 All the smoke goes up chimney pipe
 Burns wood to release thermal energy
o Heat Exchanger
 Separates air used by the fire from room air
 Transfers heat without transferring smoke
• Conduction
o Moves heat through the stove’s metal walls
• Convection
o Circulates hot air around the room
• Radiation
o Transfers heat directly to your skin as light

Chapter 9.1 – Harmonic Oscillators

Concepts
• Repetitive Motion
o An object with a stable equilibrium tends to oscillate about it
o This oscillation entails at least two types of energy: kinetic and
potential
o Once the motion begins, it repeats many times without help
• Terminology
o Period – time of one full repetitive motion cycle
o Frequency – number of cycles completed per unit of time
o Amplitude – peak extent of repetitive motion
• Harmonic Oscillator
o Definition: an oscillator in which the restoring force on an object
is proportional to its displacement from a stable equilibrium. The
period of a harmonic oscillator does not depend on amplitude of
its motion.
 Examples: pendulum or mass on a spring, diving board,
tensional spring, anything that obeys Hooke’s law: F = (-
k)(x)
• Features of Oscillators: T and f do depend on mass!
o Period: T = 2π (square root) of m (mass)/ k (spring constant)
o Frequency: f = (1/T) = (1/2π)(square root of k/m)
• Pendulum: T and f do not depend on mass!
o Period: T = 2π (square root) of L (length of string)/ g
(acceleration gravity)
o Frequency: f = (1/T) = (1/2π)(square root of g/L)
 • Natural Resonance
o Definition: a mechanical process in which an isolated object’s
energy causes it to perform a certain motion over and over
again. The rate at which this motion occurs is determined by its
physical characteristics.

Demos & Objects

• Pendulum
• Mass on Spring
• Tuning Forks
• Oscillating Bridges

Chapter 9.2 – Musical Instruments

Concepts
• Basic Variables of Wave Motion
o Crest – highest point of a wave
o Period T – time between the arrival of two adjacent waves
o Frequency f – number of crests that pass per unit of time
• Wavelength
o Definition: a structural characteristic of a wave, corresponding to
the distance separating adjacent crests or troughs.
 Crests: a peak positive excursion of a system
experiencing a wave
 Troughs: a peak negative excursion experiencing a wave
• Wave Velocity
o Definition: the speed and direction of the moving crests of a
wave.
 Speed = (wavelength)(frequency)
• Superposition
o Definition: the overlapping of two or more waves so that their
amplitudes add together and form a combined wave.
• Sound
o Definition: in air, sound consists of density waves, patterns of
compressions and rarefactions that travel outward from their
source at the speed of sound.
 Sound waves are longitudinal waves
 Air molecules move back and forth
 Compressed and rarified regions of gas
• Infrasonic “sound” waves: below ~20 Hz
• Ultrasonic “sound” waves: above ~15,000 Hz
• Speed of sound in air: 0.2 mi/sec.
• Standing Wave
o Definition: a wave in which all the nodes and antinodes remain
in place.
 Two waves are traveling back and forth, under the right
conditions and right frequency, we can create them
 Ex.) Standing waves on a string or in a pipe
 • Traveling Wave
o Definition: a wave that moves steadily through space in a
particular direction.
• Transverse Wave
o Definition: a wave in which the underlying oscillation is
perpendicular to the wave itself.
• Longitudinal Wave
o Definition: a wave in which the underlying oscillation is parallel
to the wave itself.
• Mechanical Wave
o Definition: a natural and often rhythmic motion of an extended
object about its stable equilibrium shape or situation.
• The Doppler Effect
o Definition: a difference between the frequency at which a wave
is sent and at which that wave is received caused by relative
motion.

Vibrations
• Pitch
o Definition: the measure of the frequency of vibration that is
proportional to the tension and inversely proportional to the
string’s length and mass per length.
• Fundamental Vibration
o Definition: a basic pattern of distortion or oscillation. It is the
slowest and often broadest vibration that an extended object
can support.
• String vibrates as a single arc, up and down
• Velocity antinode occurs at the center of the string
• Velocity nodes occur at the ends of the string
 Open-Open Column
• Air columns vibrate as a single object
• The pitch is proportional to the air pressure and
inversely proportional to the column length and the
air density
 Open-Closed Column
• Air column vibrates as a single object
• Air column in open-closed pipe vibrates as half the
column in an open-open pipe and at half the
frequency
• Vibrational Node
o Definition: a region of a vibrating object that is not moving at all.
• Vibrational Anti-Node
o Definition: a region of a vibrating object that is experiencing
max motion.
• Overtone Vibration: Higher-Order Modes
o Definition: a vibrational mode in which different parts of the
extended system move in opposite directions.
 String can also vibrate as:
 • Two half-strings (one extra)
• Three third-strings (two extra)
 Higher pitches
 Higher-order vibrational modes
o Called “overtones”
o A string can also vibrate as two half-strings; they have higher
pitches
Harmonic Oscillators
• String Instruments (primary oscillator)
o A string is a harmonic oscillator:
 Mass gives it inertia
 Tension gives it a restoring force
 Has a stable equilibrium
o Restoring forces proportional to displacement
o Pitch independent of amplitude (volume)
o Overtone Pitches
• String’s Inertia & Restoring Forces
o A string’s restoring force stiffness is set by:
 Tension
 Curvature (length)
o A string’s inertial characteristics are set by the string’s mass per
length
• String Harmonics
o In a string, the overtone pitches are at:
 Twice fundamental frequency
 Three times fundamental frequency
• Wind Instruments (secondary oscillator)
o A column of air is a harmonic oscillator:
 Mass gives it inertia
 Pressure gives it a restoring force
 Has a stable equilibrium
 Restoring forces proportional to displacement
o Pitch independent of amplitude (volume)
• Air’s Inertia & Restoring Forces
o Air’s restoring force stiffness is set by:
 Pressure
 Pressure gradient (length)
o Air’s inertial characteristics are set by:
 Air’s mass per length (density)
• Air Harmonics
o Open-open pipe, the overtones are at:
 Twice fundamental (two pressure antinodes)
 Three times fundamental (three antinodes)
o Open-closed pipe, the overtones are at:
 Three times fundamental (two antinodes)
 Five times fundamental (three antinodes)
• Producing Sound
 o Thin objects don’t project sound well
 Air flows around objects
 Compression and rarefaction is minimal
o Surfaces project sound better
 Air can’t flow around surfaces easily
 Compression and rarefaction are substantial
o Many instruments use surfaces for sound
 Plucking: transfers energy instantly
 Bowing: transfers energy gradually

Summary of Instruments
o Use strings and air as harmonic oscillators
o Pitches independent of amplitude and volume
o Tuned by tension, pressure, length, and density
o Harmonic overtones project vibrations into the air as sound
o Blowing across air column tends to excite a mixture of
fundamental and harmonic vibrations

Summary
o Clocks: natural resonances in pendulums (harmonic oscillators)
o Musical Instruments: vibration of strings and air columns
(harmonic oscillators)

Chapter 10.3 – Musical Instruments

Concepts
• Electric Current
o Definition: the movement or flow of electric charge.
• Electrical Resistance
o Definition: the measure of how much can object impedes the
flow of electric current.
• Voltage
o Definition: the electrostatic potential energy of each unit of
positive electric charge at a particular location.
• Voltage Rise
o Definition: the amount of electrostatic potential energy that
each coulomb of positive charge receives in passing through a
device. It’s equal to the voltage of the charges leaving the
device minus the voltage of the charges entering that device.
• Voltage Drop
o Definition: the amount of electrostatic potential energy that
each coulomb of positive charge loses in passing through a
device. It’s equal to the voltage of the charges entering the
device minus the voltage of the charges leaving that device.
• Electric Circuit
o Definition: a complete loop of conductors, loads, and power
sources through which an electric current can flow continuously.
o Steady current requires a circuit path (loop)
  Charge must not accumulate anywhere
 Closed conducting loop avoids accumulation
o Steady current flow requires energy
 Currents lose energy (and voltage) in conductors
 Missing energy becomes thermal energy
 Lost energy must be replaced
o Can transport energy
 Obtains energy from a batter
 Delivers energy to a light bulb
 Starts the trip over again
• Light Bulb
o Filament barely lets charge flow through it
o Electrostatic potential energy is consumed
o Thermal energy is produced
o Electric current undergoes a drop in voltage
 Two-cell alkaline flashlight: 3.0 volt drop
• Batteries
o Recharging a Battery
 Forward (discharging) current flow
• Battery pumps charge from negative to positive
end
• Current undergoes voltage rise
• Battery’s chemical potential energy is consumed
 Reverse (recharging) current flow
• Circuit pushes charge from positive to negative end
• Current undergoes voltage drop
• Battery’s chemical potential energy is replenished
o Positive Charge
 Electric current points in the direction of positive flow
 Flow is really negative charges (electrons)
o Short Circuits
 If a conducting path bridges the load, electric current
bypasses it
 Circuit is abbreviated for short
 No appropriate energy destination
 Energy loss and heating occurs in the wiresfire!
• Power
o Definition: the measure of energy per unit of time
(joules/second).
 Battery Power
• Current: units of charge pumped per second
• Voltage rise: energy given per unit of charge
 Load Power
• Current: units of charge passed per second
• Voltage drop: energy taken per unit of charge
• Force Exerted on a Charge by an Electric Field
o Force = (charge)(electric field)
 • Electric Field Due to a Voltage Drop
o Electric Field = voltage gradient = (voltage drop/distance)
• Power Production
o Power Produced = (current)(voltage rise)
• Power Consumption
o Power Received = (current)(voltage drop)
• Ohm’s Law
o Definition: the observation that the voltage drop across an
ordinary electrical conductor is proportional to both the electric
current passing through it and to its electrical resistance
 Voltage Drop = (current)(electrical resistance)

Demos & Objects

• Flashlight + Batteries
• Build Electric Circuit