‘Lately apprehended in the first Maryland regiment …’

African American Women with the Continental Army

John U. Rees

Rachel (previously called Sarah) and her son Bob, were with the 1st Maryland Regiment in 1778.
Image based on an October 28 1778 New Jersey Gazette runaway advertisement.
Artwork by Bryant White (Image courtesy of the artist, https://whitehistoricart.com/)
 Contents

1. Forward: Overview of Women with the Armies of the Revolution

2. Return of Women with the Rhode Island Regiment, September 1781
3. Regimental Followers: Rachael, formerly called Sarah, and a “Negro Woman named SUE”
4. With the Regiment, on the Homefront, and a Letter Home: Judith Lines
5. And Enslaved Woman in General Washington’s Military Household: Hannah Till, cook/servant
Appendix: Miscellaneous Information on General Washington’s Wartime Household:
Supervisors and Servants (with images of some of Washington’s campaign equipage.)

Links to:
a. General George Washington’s Field Headquarters Complex (Images of tents and equipment,
original and recreations), https://www.scribd.com/document/452774430/General-George-
Washington-s-Field-Headquarters-Images-of-tents-and-equipment-original-and-
recreations

b. Research File: George Washington’s Wartime Household, Staff, Food, and Equipment
Washington Papers (Library of Congress), Revolutionary War Accounts Vouchers and Receipted
Accounts (Compiled by John U. Rees and Neal T. Hurst),
https://www.scribd.com/document/452773583/George-Washington-s-Wartime-Household-Staff-
Food-and-Equipment-Washington-Papers-Library-of-Congress-Revolutionary-War-Accounts-
Vouchers-and-Rec
From 1778 to the end of 1780 the 1st Rhode Island had black enlisted men with white commissioned
and non-commissioned officers, while the 2d Rhode Island Regiment consisted solely of white
soldiers). In 1781 those two units were combined into a single corps, the Rhode Island Regiment.
The companies were segregated, and the 6th and 8th companies were the "black" companies; each
had one man serving as a wagoner and each contained two women. Those two companies were also
the largest in the regiment. 54 privates in each, 108 total. (32% of privates in the regiment were
black.) “Return of Officers, Ncommissd. Officers & Soldiers, Waggoners, Teamsters & Women
present in the Rhode Island Regiment,” 4 September 1781 (Collections of the Rhode Island
Historical Society)
_____________
Forward. Hundreds of women followed the Continental Army, some African American. Women
of color differed from their white counterparts in that their decision to join the army may not
have been of their own free will. Another point must be made, correcting the popular idea of
army women, black and white. They were, by and large, respectable and respected; any women
who were not, were not long tolerated.
_____________

As with all the armies that preceded it the Continental Army was not just a community of men.
Numbers of women and their accompanying children followed the troops throughout the war,
performing tasks that contributed to the soldiers’ welfare.
From the war’s beginning women’s numbers fluctuated greatly between regiments, and from
company to company within each regiment. In December 1777 a return for the main army at
Valley Forge showed a total of 400 women present, or one woman for each forty-four enlisted
men (though it is possible there were more women with the army during the previous summer).
In January 1783, a return for the army at New Windsor gave an average of one woman for every
twenty-six enlisted men. During the intervening years the average ratio may have been within the
range of one-to-thirty and one-to-thirty-five, or approximately three percent of the total number
of troops. From available information, it seems that early in the war it was not at all remarkable
for an individual company to contain no women. This situation had changed by 1783 when the
average was two women for each company in the main army. And, as a rule, some organizations,
such as Washington’s Life Guard, the Corps of Sappers and Miners, artillery units, and
regiments or companies from occupied areas of New York, had greater than average proportions
of women.1
Information we have concerning American female followers is particularly interesting when
compared to numbers accompanying Crown forces’ regiments. In February 1783, Robert Morris
referred to "the british Prisoners of War who have Herds of Women with them." This comment
is borne out by returns of British camp followers throughout the war. In May 1777 the ratio of
women with British forces in New York was about one for every eight men, while German units
contained approximately one woman for every thirty men. In August 1781 the troops in New
York and its outposts were shown to have a ratio of one woman to every four and one-half
British troops, and one to fifteen for the Germans.2
Regardless of numbers, the women who followed the Continental Army were important in
various ways. Unlike some of their British counterparts, most could not support themselves
unless the army sustained them. In their own words they "could earn their Rations, but the
Soldier, nay the Officer, for whom they Wash has naught to pay them." They did, however,

1
"Account of Rations drawn by the Infantry of ye Standing Army" December 1777, The Papers of the Continental
Congress 1774-1789, National Archives Microfilm Publications M247, (Washington, D.C., 1958), reel 38, 459.
Though undated the numbers of the "Privates fit for Duty" in this account agree with "A General Return of the Army
under the command of his Excellency General Washington ... December 3, 1777," Charles H. Lesser, Ed., The
Sinews of Independence: Monthly Strength Reports of the Continental Army (Chicago, Il., 1976), 53.
2
Washington to a Board of Officers, 12 June 1781, John C. Fitzpatrick, ed., The Writings of George Washington from
the Original Manuscript Sources 1745-1799, vol. 22 (Washington, DC, 1937), 203. "Return of the number of Women
and Children in the several regiments and Corps stationed at, and in the vicinity of West Point and New Windsor, that
drew Rations under the late Regulation, shewing also the Number of Rations allowed for Women and Children by the
present system," 24 January 1783, Revolutionary War Rolls, 1775-1783, National Archives Microfilm Publication
M246, Record Group 93, reel 136, 259-260.
perform duties such as washing, and sometimes cooking, for those men to whom they were
related or otherwise associated with. As the war progressed these dual duties (most particularly
laundering) were increasingly required of them in return for their continued presence with the
army. Importantly, besides performing practical tasks, they provided some semblance of home
life for the men. This seemingly minor service was extremely important considering that the War
for Independence continued for eight years and soldiers fought tedium more often than they did
the enemy.3
The best description of a woman of color known to have accompanied the troops is as follows:

[New Jersey Gazette, 28 October 1778]

Fifty Dollars Reward.
Ran away on the evening of the 7th inst. from Trenton ferry, a likely Mulatto slave, named Sarah,
but since calls herself Rachael; She took her son with her, a Mulatto boy named Bob, about six
years old, has a remarkable fair complexion, with flaxen hair: She is a lusty wench, about 34
years of age, big with child; had on a striped linsey petticoat, linen jacket, flat shoes, a large white
cloth cloak, and a blanket, but may change her dress, as she has other cloathes with her. She was
lately apprehended in the first Maryland regiment, where she pretends to have a husband, with
whom she has been the principal part of this campaign, and passed herself as a free woman.
Whoever apprehends said woman and boy, and will secure them in any gaol, so that their master
may get them again, shall receive the above reward, by applying to Mr. Blair M’Clenachan, of
Philadephia, Capt. Benjamin Brooks, of the third Maryland regiment, at camp, or to Mr. James
Sterret, in Baltimore. Mordecai Gist [colonel, 3rd Maryland Regiment].

Another woman was purported to have gone to the army:

[The Pennsylvania Packet, July 15 1779]

One Hundred Dollars Reward.
RAN AWAY from the subscriber, on the 16th day of June last, a Negro Woman named SUE; she
is about thirty years of age, about five feet two or three inches high, is big with child; she is more
darkly coloured than a Mulatto, though not so black as Negroes are in general. She wears high
caps, and was dressed in a blue and white short gown and petticoat. It is suspected she went to
camp with a white woman commonly called Captain Molly, who has a husband in the 4th
regiment of Light Dragoons. Whoever apprehends the said Negro woman and secures her that the
owner may have her again, shall have the above reward and reasonable charges, paid by
EDWARD HAND”

In both these cases (if Sue did indeed join the army), we see enslaved women seeking at least
temporary refuge by attaching themselves to Continental regiments. At the very least they could
count on food and lodging (even if the latter was overnighting underneath a baggage wagon);
perhaps, too, the conglomeration of people in and around a military organization would also
shelter them from any pursuers seeking to return them to bondage.

3
Robert Morris to Washington, 5 February 1783, George Washington Papers, Presidential Papers Microfilm
(Washington, D.C., 1961), series 4, reel 90. Walter Hart Blumenthal, Women Camp Followers of the American
Revolution (New York, 1974), 15-21, 19, 24-26, 28-29, 32, 33-34, 38-39. Paul E. Kopperman, "The British High
Command and Soldiers' Wives In America, 1755-1783," Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, no. 60
(1982), 19-20, 26-28. Washington to the Superintendent of Finance, 29 January 1783, Fitzpatrick, WGW, vol. 26
(1938), 78-79.
 (Photo courtesy of Nastassia Parker)

John Lines’ wife Judith also spent some time with her husband in the service. Lines enlisted in
the 5th Connecticut Regiment in March 1781 for three years; part of his time was spent at West
Point and other Hudson Highland posts. By Judith Lines’ own testimony, she married her
husband John in 1780. She recalled, ‘the next summer after I married … he sent for me to come
to him I think the place was called the Highlands / at that time my … husband was a waiter for
Col. Sherman & while at the camp I had the small Pox. I think I staid about 3 or 4 months.’ Peres
Tracy deposed that he knew ‘John Lines a black man’ for over forty years. Tracy’s father ‘was
acquainted with Lines in the Army … & … for a considerable time during one Campaign Lines
wife was with him in Camp & used to work for [Colonel] Sherman and others.’ Mrs. Lines also
noted, ‘my sd. husband used to write to me when he was in the Army & I have one of his letters
now & which I give to the magistrate who takes this my Deposition it is dated November 11,
1781 & is in the hand writing of … John Lines my husband.’ Appended is a partial transcription
of the letter, the only known surviving missive home by a Revolutionary soldier of color,
published in full in They Were Good Soldiers.4

4
National Archives (United States), Revolutionary War Pension and Bounty-Land Warrant Application Files
(National Archives Microfilm Publication M804), Records of the Department of Veterans Affairs, Record Group 15,
 i take this Opper tuna ty to send to you my deer and loveing wife to let you now that i am well
and hopeing these lines may find you and the Children Well … this is the six letter of [mine] and
I haven’t receved one … [I] belong to Carnol [Isaac] Shermans Rg ment Capting [Rice’s] Compy
ny we lay at fishkill now / i should be ver[y] glad if you would … Send me a letter how you have
lived this sum mer and [whether?] the house is dun and [whether?] you kill that cow or
[whether?] you have got a nother / i want to [k]now all these things very much i in tend to Come
home this winter if I Can but dont [k]now if i can … if I Could se you my self then I Could talk
with you my deer wife as I like / i have seen hard times … I have lived a-11-day With Bread
[only] … I re mane your loveing husband un tel death John lines.5

When with an army on the move, regimental women and children were ordered to march
with the baggage train, a directive that was not always obeyed. Illustration from William Tatham,
Historical and Practical Essay of the Culitivation and Commerce of Tobacco (London, 1800).

Washington, D.C., Pension, reel 1567, John Lines, ‘a black man’ (W26775), depositions of Judith Lines and Peres
Tracey. Ibid., Compiled Service Records, (Connecticut), John Lines.
5
NA (US), Pension, reel 1567, John Lines (W26775), 11 November 1781 (letter). John Lines’ letter is faint and hard
to transcribe. I reached out for help and Philip Mead, Chief Historian and Director of Interpretation at the Museum
of the American Revolution in Philadelphia, took up the challenge and produced a comprehensive transcription.
With that in hand, I was able to fill in some of the missing parts, contribute some amendments, and add some
judicious editing. My heartfelt thanks to Phil for his kind help.
 Another woman with the army was Hannah Till, an enslaved cook/servant from June 1776
until at least March 1780 in General Washington’s military household. She was married to Isaac
Till, also employed with the commander-in-chief. She and Isaac are known to have had seven

(Photo courtesy of Cheyney McKnight)

Children: Andrew Till, born circa 1761; John Till, born circa 1765; Sarah Till, born circa 1771;
Daniel Till, born between 1775-1795; Philip Till, born 1775-1795; Isaac Worley Till, born 1778,
and William Till, born 1780-1790.6 One son was born at camp in the winter of 1778; the
baptismal record, from the 2nd Presbyterian Church in Philadelphia reads, “Isaac Worley Till
son to Hannah a free Nigroe woman in full Communion with the Church was born in Gen:

6
Cole, C.R. (with Charles L Blockson), “Hannah Till Mother of Isaac Woorley Till,” (Daughters of the American
Revolution, commemorative marker research, 2015), https://tinyurl.com/MotherofIsaacTill.
Washingtons Camp Valey forge nineteen months ago and baptized in this 4th Sabbath of Augt.
1779.” Isaac’s birth would have occurred in January or February 1778, at which time Hannah
was likely about 40 to 45 years of age. Hannah purchased her freedom in December 1778, eight
months prior to her son’s baptism.7

Isaac Worley Till, baptismal record, 2nd Presbyterian Church, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

7
Cole and Blockson, “Hannah Till Mother of Isaac Woorley Till,” Isaac Worley Till baptismal record, 2nd
Presbyterian Church, Arch and 3rd Streets, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, https://tinyurl.com/MotherofIsaacTill.
The Isaac Potts house, Gen. George Washington’s headquarters during the Valley Forge winter,
December 1777 to June 1778. Hannah Till likely gave birth to her son in or near this house.
__________________
_______________________
Washington’s wartime financial records, largely compiled for reimbursement of expenses (the
trade-off for his refusal to accept payment for his services), are the best source of information on
the commander-in-chief’s headquarters household, both supervisors and servants.
The appended entries and receipts follow Hannah and Isaac through their wartime service,
with occasional mentions of their owners (respectively), Rev. John Mason and John Johnson:8

8
John Mason was a Presbyterian minister born in Scotland. In 1761 he was sent by the Associate Synod of Scotland
to be pastor of the Scotch Presbyterian Church on Cedar Street in New York City. Rev. Mason was married to
Catherine Van Wyck. He died in 1792. (DAB); John Johnson, New York, 2nd lieutenant, 1st New York, July 1775;
1st lieutenant, 24 February 1776; captain, 21 November 1776, which he declined and retired from service, 7
December 1776. (Heitman); “I certify that John Johnson formerly an officer in the Continental army whom I have
for a long time known has always sustained the character of an honest man, a good citizen, a firm and zealous friend
to the cause of America, a brave officer and as such I recommend him to all whom it may concern. He is hereby
permitted to pass and repass where his business may call him.
Alx. Hamilton Aide DeCamp
Head Quarters Preakness July 17, 1780
Permit a wagon and horses to pass with him.
A Hamilton ADC”
Dumas Malone, ed., Dictionary of American Biography, vol. VI (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1933).
Francis B. Heitman, Historical Register of Officers of the Continental Army During the War of the Revolution –
April 1775 to December 1783 (Washington, D.C.: The Rare Book Publishing Shop, Inc., 1914), 320. Alexander
Hamilton to John Johnson, 17 July 1780, Pass, George Washington Papers, Presidential Papers Microfilm
(Washington: Library of Congress, 1961), series 4 (General Correspondence. 1697–1799).
 July 15, 1776 – Cash paid Negro Hannah 16 shillings
July 25, 1776 - To Cash paid Negro Hannah 3 pounds – 4 shillings
Aug. 14, 1776 – Cash paid to Negro Isaac’s wife 3 pounds 9

“If you can pay Isaac two months wages Per to Cloth[e] him self with, give him As much as you
think he deserves & you will oblige your humble servt.
John Johnson
To Capt. Gibbs Aug 28 1776” 10

Sept. 3, 1776 - To Cash paid Capt. Johnson’s servant Isaac according to his order of Aug. 28 –
2 pounds
Oct. 15, 1776 - To Cash paid Negro Hannah 2 pounds
Oct. 19, 1776 - To Cash paid Servant Isaac 7 [or 9] dollars 3 pounds 12 shillings
Nov. 19, 1776 - To Cash paid Isaac 3 pounds 12 shillings
Nov. 27, 1776 – To Cash paid Isaac, Servant 3 dollars 1 pound 4 shillings
Dec. 18, 1776 - Cash paid servant Isaac for what he laid out when at White Plains 15 shillings
Dec. 28, 1776 - Cash paid Servant Isaac 3 dollars 1 pound 2 shillings 6 pence
Feb. 17, 1777 - To Cash paid Negro Hannah 4 dollars 1 pound 14 shillings
Feb. 17, 1777 - To Cash paid Servant Isaac 16 dollars 6 pounds
April 20, 1777 – To Cash Mrs. Thompson paid Isaac 5 shillings 4 pence”
April 20, 1777 - To cash paid servant Isaac 16 dollars 6 pounds 11

“Headquarters Middle Brook 3rd June 1777

Received of Captain Caleb Gibbs forty seven pounds, eighteen shillings New York Currency in
full for my Servant Isaac’s wages as Cook to His Excellency General Washington from 1st day
of July 1776 to the last day of May 1777 which makes eleven months at the rate of 6 pounds per
month.
47 pounds 18 shillings N York Currency John Johnson” 12

“Headquarters Middle Brook 3rd June 1777

Received of Captain Caleb Gibbs Sixteen Pounds, ten shillings N York Currency in full for behalf
of John Mason for his Servant hannah’s wages she being in the service of His Excellency
General Washington’s family from the 26th of June 1776 to the 26th of May 1777 making eleven
months at 30 shillings per month.
16 pounds 10 shillings N York Currency In behalf of the Rev. Mr. John Mason of N York
John Johnson” 13

June 3, 1777 – “Capt. Johnson Master to Isaac now living with Gen. Washington is to let Isaac
receive 40 shillings per month of his wages – they being [illegible] per month NY Currency.” 14

9
LOC, Washington Papers, series 5, Revolutionary War Household Expenses, Caleb Gibbs, and Mary Smith and
Elizabeth Thompson (housekeepers), 1776 to 1780.
10
Ibid., series 5, Revolutionary War Accounts, Vouchers, and Receipted Accounts 1.
11
Ibid., series 5, Revolutionary War Household Expenses, Caleb Gibbs, and Mary Smith and Elizabeth Thompson,
1776 to 1780.
12
Ibid., series 5, Revolutionary War Accounts, Vouchers, and Receipted Accounts 1.
13
Ibid., series 5, Revolutionary War Accounts, Vouchers, and Receipted Accounts 1.
14
Ibid., series 5, Revolutionary War Receipt Book, Caleb Gibbs, 1776-80.
 June 3, 1777 – “Servant Hannah by the desire of her Master is to have 40 shillings NY Currency
per month. The wages to be left in Capt. Gibbs hands till she makes up 53 pounds after which she
is to receive her wages herself - & will redeem her freedom.” 15

Aug 4th 1777 – To cash paid Servant Isaac 15 dollars 5 pounds 12 shillings 6 pence
Sept. 28, 1777 - To cash paid Servant Isaac 2 dollars – 15 shillings
Oct. 2, 1777 - To cash paid Servant Isaac 7 shillings 6 pence
Oct. 10, 1777 - To cash paid Servant Isaac 2 pounds 2 shillings 6 pence
Oct. 13, 1777 - To cash paid Servant Isaac 45 shillings
Feb. 14, 1778 - To cash paid Servant Isaac the cook 20 dollars – 7 pounds 10 shillings
Oct. 29, 1778 – Servant Hannah for Crockerry
Oct. 30, 1778 - To cash paid Servant Isaac in full for his part of wages to this day according to
agreement 4 pounds 5 shillings 4 pence 16

“1778 30th October – Left in Major Gibbs hands for my master Mr. John Mason to receive thirty
two pounds N. York money & have settled all accounts with the Major.
Hannah Mason her mark.” 17

“1778 30th October – Received of Major Gibbs thirty two pounds in full for my part of wages at
40 shillings per month as was all owed by my master for my clothes & there remains now in
Major Gibbs hands Eighty pounds N. York Currency for my master to receive.” (Note: this is
attributed to Isaac Till, though no name is given on the receipt.) 18

“Headquarters Rariton 19th December 1778

Received of Major Gibbs thirty two pounds New York Currency in full for my servant
Hannah’s wages who was in the service of His Excellency General Washington.
32 pounds New York Currency equal to 80 dollars John Mason” 19

“Morristown 23rd June 1780

Received of Major Gibbs eighty six dollars in full for two months wages at His Excellency
General Washington’s family.
86 dollars Hannah Till her mark” 20

“Received Bergen County State of New Jersey July 13th 1780 of Major Gibbs one hundred
pounds New York currency according to its ancient value in full for the hire of my servant Isaac
as a cook to His Excellency General Washington from June 17th 1777 to June 17th 1780.
John Johnson
Attest Richd. Varick” 21

To place Hannah Tills' service in context, here is an excerpt from a draft article on
Revolutionary general officers' servants, including General Washington's household:

15
Ibid., series 5, Revolutionary War Receipt Book, Caleb Gibbs, 1776-80.
16
Ibid., series 5, Revolutionary War Household Expenses, Caleb Gibbs, and Mary Smith and Elizabeth Thompson,
1776 to 1780.
17
Ibid., series 5, Revolutionary War Receipt Book, Caleb Gibbs, 1776-80.
18
Ibid., series 5, Revolutionary War Receipt Book, Caleb Gibbs, 1776-80.
19
Ibid., series 5, Revolutionary War Accounts, Vouchers, and Receipted Accounts 1.
20
Ibid., series 5, Revolutionary War Accounts, Vouchers, and Receipted Accounts 1.
21
Ibid., series 5, Revolutionary War Accounts, Vouchers, and Receipted Accounts 1.
 Washington needed supervisors for his large household. Ebenezer Austin was the first steward
in 1775 until late spring 1776; Mrs. Mary Smith served as housekeeper from mid-April to July
1776; Mrs. Elizabeth Thompson succeeded her in July 1776, serving as housekeeper until the
end of the war. Caleb Gibbs, captain of the Commander-in-Chief’s Guard, took over the
steward’s duties and supervised household activities and expenses from 1776 until he left the
Guard in 1781. William Colfax succeeded Gibbs as commander of the Guard, but did not have
any other role in the household.22
Likely due to Gibbs’ departure, in summer 1781 the commander-in-chief was trying to find, “a
trusty person” to serve as his steward, and asked the Board of War for assistance, stipulating, “A
Man who has served with reputation as Butler to a Gentleman[‘s] family, or as principal Waiter
and Caterer to a genteel Tavern would answer better than one unused to such offices, as setting
out a table ought to be part of his business as well as providing for it.” (Patrick McGuire had
served as steward from May 1776 to March 1778.) On August 9, while the allied armies were
preparing to march south to Yorktown, the Board replied that it had appointed “Mr. [John]
Loveday for Steward."23
As for servants, modern annotations to George Washington’s expense account (he recorded all
his service-related expenditures and was reimbursed after the war), provide names gleaned from
those records. Having been given command of the New England army investing Boston, George
Washington reached Cambridge on July 2, 1775. A note to the August 5, 1775 account entry
states, “A complete list of the names of the servants at Headquarters in 1775 is difficult to give.
Those we know were Edward Hunt, a cook; Mrs. Morrison, kitchen-woman; Mary Kettel,
washerwoman; Eliza Chapman, Timothy Austin, James Munro, Dinah, a negro woman, and
Peter, a negro man; William Lee, Washington's enslaved body-servant as ‘Billy,’ was there, of
course.”24 A supporting annotation to the September 1 1776 entry is even more expansive,
providing some insights into a relatively large retinue:

The record of servants at Headquarters for the year 1776, while probably not entirely complete,
furnishes us with the following names in addition to those mentioned in the preceding year:
Patrick McGuire, who came from Philadelphia to act as steward and served from May, 1776, until
March, 1778; Hannah [Till], the negro servant of Rev. John Mason; she was to receive 40s. a
month which were to be left in the hands of Captain Gibbs until £58 had accumulated, after which
she was to receive her wages herself to be applied to the purchase of her freedom; Servant Jack
and Sailor Jack [these two appear to be different individuals]; Margaret Thomas, who did sewing
in February, 1776, and washing from October, 1776, to February, 1778; Negro James; Stephen
Sims; Negroes Lydia, Jenny, Cato, and Isaac [Till, husband of Hannah], the latter a servant of
Captain John Johnson, of Bergen county, New Jersey. He was to receive 40s. a month of his

22
Arthur S. Lefkowitz, George Washington’s Indispensable Men: The 32 Aides-de-Camp Who Helped Win
American Independence (Mechanicsburg, Pa.: Stackpole Books, 2003), 70-71. General George Washington’s
Accounts of Expenses, 1775-1783 (While Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army 1775-1783, Reproduced in
Facsimile with Annotations by John C. Fitzpatrick) (Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1917), 35,
73.
23
Washington to the Board of War, 16 July 1781, John C. Fitzpatrick, ed., The Writings of George Washington
from the Original Manuscript Sources 1745–1799, vol. 22 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1937), 388.
Board of War to Washington, 9 August 1781, George Washington Papers, Presidential Papers Microfilm (Washington:
Library of Congress, 1961), series 4, General Correspondence, 1697-1799.
24
General George Washington’s Accounts of Expenses, 11.
 wages of £7; he also cooked for Washington from June, 1777, to June, 1780; John and Frank,
hostlers; a Mrs. Lake and Peggy. John Whitehead also served at Headquarters from April, 1776,
for one year at a wage of $5 per month.25

The difficulties of running such a large household may be imagined, but Washington provides
a few inklings. In one missive to James Mease on April 17, 1778 concerning apparel for the
army, he writes, “I hear, by report, of great quantities of Cloathing purchased on continental
account in every quarter. But where are they? I cannot get as much cloth as will make Cloaths
for my Servants, notwithstanding one of them, that attends my person and Table, is indecently,
and most shamefully naked, and my frequent applications to Mr. Kemper [assistant clothier
general] (which he says he has as often transmitted to you) in the course of the last two Months.”
And during his residence at the Ford house in Morristown, New Jersey the commander-in-chief
complained to Maj. Gen. Nathanael Greene on January 22, “I have been at my prest. quarters
since the 1st. day of Decr. and have not a Kitchen to Cook a Dinner in, altho' the Logs have been
put together some considerable time by my own Guard; nor is there a place at this moment in
which a servant can lodge with the smallest degree of comfort. Eighteen belonging to my family
and all Mrs. Fords are crouded together in her Kitchen and scarce one of them able to speak for
the colds they have caught. I have repeatedly taken notice of this inconveniency to Majr. Gibbs,
and have as often been told, that boards were not to be had. I acquiesced, and believe you will do
me the justice to acknowledge that it never has been my practice to involve the public in any
expence I could possibly avoid, or derive benefits which would be inconvenient or prejudicial to
others.” He goes on to acknowledge the problems involved, given that his army was building
huts to live in at the same time. Eventually, a separate kitchen was constructed for the general’s
staff to use.26
In the field General Washington was generally quartered in his mobile headquarters complex,
consisting of a sleeping marquee (which also doubled as his office), and larger dining marquee.
Even when claiming a local home as headquarters, one or both marquees were still erected, to
provide privacy for interviews and correspondence, and to entertain large groups. Most likely
Washington also slept under canvas and relegated the house and outbuildings to his staff and
servants. The number of servants may have been reduced when the commander-in-chief was on
campaign and tasks such as meal preparation made more difficult by weather and other
conditions. The financial records indicate that both Hannah and Isaac served at least occasionally
with the moving army, serving as cooks in addition to their other tasks. (See Appendix for
additional information on Washington’s military household.)

25
Ibid., 35-36.
26
George Washington to James Mease, 17 April 1778, Fitzpatrick, The Writings of George Washington, vol. 11
(1934), 269-270. Washington to Nathanael Greene, 22 January 1780, ibid., vol. 17 (1937), 423-424. Lefkowitz,
George Washington’s Indispensable Men, 196-197.
 Gen. George Washington’s headquarters tents, reproduced by craftspeople at Colonial
Williamsburg, in conjunction with the Museum of the American Revolution. The large dining
marquee in on the left; the sleeping marquee to the right. The storage tent (a horseman’s or wall
tent) is just visible behind and to the left of the dining marquee.
(Photo courtesy of the Museum of the American Revolution, Philadelphia, Pa.)

Hannah Till’s life was documented by John Fanning Watson, as follows.

Hannah Till … a black woman whom I saw in March, 1824 … served her seven years … to General
Washington and La Fayette, as cook, &c. I saw her in her own small frame house, No. 182, south
Fourth street, a little below Pine street [Philadelphia, Pennsylvania] … She was born in Kent County,
Delaware. Her master, John Brinkly, Esq. sold her at the age of 15 years, when she was brought to
Pennsylvania. At 25 years of age she was sold to Parson Henderson, and went with him to
Northumberland. At 35 years of age she was sold to Parson Mason, of New York, with whom she
dwelt there until the war of the Revolution; she then bought her freedom, and with her husband was
 hired into General Washington’s military family as cooks – serving with him in all his campaigns for
six and a half years, and for half a year she was lent into the service of General La Fayette. With one
or the other of these she was present in all the celebrated battles in which they were engaged … I
inquired regarding the domestic habits of Washington and others: she said he was very positive in
requiring compliance with his orders; but was a moderate and indulgent master. He was sometimes
familiar among his equals and guests, and would indulge a moderate laugh. He always had his lady
with him in the winter campaigns, and on such occasions, was pleased when freed from mixed
company and to be alone in his family. He was moderate in eating and drinking. I asked if she knew
that he prayed. She answered that she expected he did, but she did not know that he practiced it … I
asked her if he ever swore; she answered, that ideas about religion were not very strict, and that she
thought that he did not strictly guard against it in times of high excitements, and that she well
remembered that on one provocation with her, he called her c—d [colored] fool. General La Fayette
she praised greatly – said he was very handsome, tall, slender, and genteel, having a fair white and
red face, with reddish hair – that he spoke English plain enough – was always very kind. Her words
were very emphatic: - “Truly he was a gentleman to meet and to follow!”27

Watson’s sister visited occasionally with Mrs. Till:

She says she received from her questions, such answers as these – ‘I well remember the arrival of the
specie to pay the French army, for the house was so crowded that day that my pastry room was used
to lodge the specie in, even while she still used the room. She continued with Washington till after
Andre the spy was hung. On that day she saw many tears shed by our officers.’ General La Fayette
called on her with Messrs. [Tench] Tilghman and [Clement or Nicholas] Biddle [in 1825]. To his
question, Where was you when General Washington left Morristown? she answered, I remained more
than six months with you, Sir, in the same house. He left her, promising to send her money by his
son. The sequel was, that her house was embarrassed for arrear groundrents, and she was soon after
informed to make herself easy, for La Fayette had cleared it off!28
____________

At war’s end, Continental Army veterans, both male and female, returned home to a changed
and changing nation. Despite the waning of Northern slavery, with the ratification of the 1789
United States Constitution, and boosted by the 1794 cotton gin patent, black bondage was
cemented as a political and economic fact, and detrimental racial attitudes hardened before, but
more especially after, 1800. Thirty-five years after the war black Revolutionary veterans, along
with their white comrades, were eligible for service pensions, but, even in that system, some
experienced the effect of increasing bias. When all is said and done, African American military
service was a direct challenge to slavery and the racial construct, and an affront to many white
citizens. Still, black Americans continued to fight for their nation, as eighty-one-year-old Judith
Lines related in 1837, ‘my youngest son died of a wound recd in the last war [War of 1812], his
name was Benjamin, the wound was recd. at the Battle of Chippewa [July 5 1814]’.29
______________

27
Watson, John F., Annals of Philadelphia, being a collection of memoirs, anecdotes, & incidents of the city and its
inhabitants (Philadelphia: For Sale by Uriah Hunt, 1830), 352-353.
28
Watson, Annals of Philadelphia, 352-353.
29
NA (US), Pension, reel 1567, John Lines, ‘a black man’ (W26775), deposition of Judith Lines.
For more on Continental Army female followers and Washington’s military household see:

"The Mystery of Hannah Till & Isaac" (Courtesy of Jennifer Bolton and Dave Lawrence)
https://www.academia.edu/42120342/_The_Mystery_of_Hannah_Till_and_Isaac_Courtesy_of_Jenn
ifer_Bolton_and_Dave_Lawrence_

John U. Rees, ‘”The proportion of Women which ought to be allowed...’’: An Overview of Continental
Army Female Followers,’ ALHFAM Bulletin (Association of Living History, Farm and Agricultural
Museums), vol. XXVIII, no. 4 (Winter 1999), pp. 18-21, https://tinyurl.com/women-proportion.

Rees, ‘”The multitude of women”: An Examination of the Numbers of Female Followers with the
Continental Army,”’ The Brigade Dispatch (Journal of the Brigade of the American Revolution), three
parts: vol. XXIII, no. 4 (Autumn 1992), pp. 5-17; vol. XXIV, no. 1 (Winter 1993), pp. 6-16; vol. XXIV,
no. 2 (Spring 1993), pp. 2-6 . Reprinted in Minerva: Quarterly Report on Women and the Military, vol.
XIV, no. 2 (Summer 1996), https://tinyurl.com/women-multitude.

Rees, ‘“Spent the winter at Jockey Hollow, and … washed together while there …”: American
Revolution Army Women Names Project - Continental Army,’ https://tinyurl.com/names-project.

R. Scott Stephenson, Philip C. Mead, Mark A. Turdo, Matthew Skic, Among His Troops: Washington’s
War Tent in a Newly Discovered Watercolor (Philadelphia, Pa.: Museum of the American Revolution,
2019)
 Appendix

Miscellaneous Information on General Washington’s Wartime Household:

Supervisors and Servants

(Note: Images of Gen. Washington’s camp equipage are interspersed with the appended
material. These items were handled and/or utilized by his servants, both free and enslaved.)

One of George Washington’s folding camp stools. Wooden frame and leather seat. Made circa 1776.
Dimensions: 17" H x 26" W x 15" D. Catalog Number: 79371M; Accession Number: 319870.
National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution. https://tinyurl.com/Mount-Vernon

George Washington Papers, Series 5, Financial Papers: Revolutionary War Vouchers and
Receipted Accounts, 1776 -1780

Caleb Gibbs and Mary Smith 1776 to 80 Revolutionary War Household Expenses

Image 416
“Cash Paid to Servants Belonging to Genll. Washington’s Family”
1776
July: 15 Negro Hannah;
25 Sailor Jack, Negro Hannah
August: 14 Servant Lydia, Molatto
September: 3 Negro Isaac
13 Servant Jenny
October: 7 “Servant Girl – Dismiss by Mr. Thompson”
15 Negro Hannah, Negro Isaac – servant
November: 19 Isaac, Servant Jack
27 “Isaac; Servant”
December: 26 Servant Isaac, Servant Jenny
29 “Cash paid Jack when at Mr. Barclay’s”

1777
Image 466
January: 7 Servant Jenny
8 “To pair breeches @ Servant Jack”
February: 17 Servant Jenny, Negro Hannah, Servant Isaac

Images 467, 468

April: 20 “To Cash Mr. Thompson paid Isaac”
23 “To Cash paid Mr. Thompson for his services,” “To Cash paid Servant Jane for Balance of
Acct.,” “To Cash paid Sailor Jack on balance for wages”

Image 470
June: 3 “To Servant Isaac & Hannah pay up to this day paid”
8 “To Cash paid Servant John as hostler for 2 months”

Image 474
July: 29 “To Cash paid Frank the Hostler”

[A hostler or ostler is a groom or stableman, who is employed in a stable to take care of horses,
usually at an inn.]

Images 475, 478

August: 4 Servant Isaac, “Frank the Genll. Hostler”
31 Frank

Image 481
September: 28 Servant Isaac

Image 482
October: 2 Servant Isaac
October: 10 Servant Isaac
13 Servant Isaac

Image 488
1778
Image 486
February: 14 “Frank the hostler,” Servant Isaac

Image 489
April: 6 “To Cash paid Margret Thomas for washing from 20th. October to the 20th Feby. 78”
Image 501
October: 30 “To Cash paid Servant Isaac in full for his part of wages according to agreement”

Image 503
November: 17 “To Cash paid Francis Merryman the hostler”

Image 504
December: 19 “To Cash paid the Revrd. John Mason for Servant Hannah’s wages in full as pr. receipt”

1779
Image 516
September: 19 Francis Merryman “Hostler to the General,” Elnathan Sanderson “Extra pay as hostler to
His Excelly.,” William McIntire “Extra pay in full as Acting Stewart to His Excellency Family”

1780
Image 520
January: 1 Daniel Dyer “extra wages as cook”

Image 521
March: 12 “To Cash pd. Bilded Edwards as stewart (extra …”

Image 522
April: 1 Elnathan Sanderson “hostler to the Genl.”
One of General Washington’s canteens, made to be carried on a packhorse. “To supplement their
often bland military rations, officers of means invested in canteens: small, lidded cases divided into
lined compartments harboring glass bottles filled with wine, liquor, and condiments. George
Washington is believed to have owned the three canteens featured here. Heavily worn, they may
have been acquired during his military service during the French and Indian War or the American
Revolution. They were among the handful of original Washington objects left at Mount Vernon
when the Association purchased the property in 1860.“ Dimensions: Overall (C.1: canteen), 14 1/8
in. x 12 in. x 15 1/2 in. (35.89 cm x 30.48 cm x 39.37 cm); Overall (C.2: liner), 6 1/4 in. x 11 3/4 in. x 8
1/4 in. (15.88 cm x 29.85 cm x 20.96 cm). Object Number: W-350/C.1-C.2. Collections of Mount
Vernon. https://tinyurl.com/Mount-Vernon
Washington’s mess chest and utensils. “George Washington's well-appointed personal camp chest
… enabled him to dine in a manner reflecting his position as commander of the Continental Army.
Two sets of leather covered canteens, or camp chests, were bought by General Washington, on May
3, 1776. Another set of ‘canteens’ captured on a British prize ship were sent for Washington's use in
October 1778. By 1782, General Washington's camp equipage which included canteens, tents,
tables, traveling beds, and various other field equipment, was so extensive that he had to request
that two horses, ‘natural pacers,’ be selected by the Quartermaster General, Timothy Pickering,
just to carry the General's camp chests. We do not know which of the several camp chests
belonging to Washington is in our collections; however, this example is complete with all original
utensils. It contains tin plates and platters, tin pots with detachable wooden handles, glass
containers for condiments such as salt, pepper, and sugar, as well as knives and forks with dyed
black ivory handles. The chest also contains a tinder box, candle stand, and folding gridiron.” Made
1775-1776. Dimensions: overall, 10 3/4 in x 21 1/4 in x 14 in; 27.305 cm x 53.975 cm x 35.56 cm.
ID Number: AF.016111; Accession Number: 13152. National Museum of American History,
Smithsonian Institution. https://tinyurl.com/Mount-Vernon
George Washington Papers, Series 5, Financial Papers: Revolutionary War Vouchers and
Receipted Accounts, 1776 -1780 (All below)

“Mrs. Smith’s & Majr Gibb’s Accounts”

(55) Mary Smith to George Washington, July 10, 1776, Revolutionary War Accounts,
Vouchers, and Receipted Accounts 1
“Hi Excellency G. Washington to Mary Smith
To 3 months wages for the cook at 40/ £ 6 - -
To 1 month & 5 weeks wages for Hanah a 20/ 1-5-
To 2 months for black polly a 18/ 1–16–
To 1 month for Mary 20/ 1--
To 1 month for Mrs Wilson 16/ -16–
To 3 months for White Polly 16/ 2–8–
To 4 Pigs 9/ 1–14
To cash paid for the freight of the Camp kettles 15–1
To Cash paid Sailor John 17
New York 10th July. 1776 £ 16–9–1
Received ye Above account in full Mary Smith”

George Washington Papers at the Library of Congress, 1741-1799: Series 5 Financial

Papers
Mary Smith to George Washington, July 10, 1776, Revolutionary War Accounts, Vouchers, and
Receipted Accounts 1 (item 55) image 603

(145) Jane Irwin to Caleb Gibbs, April 23, 1777, Revolutionary War Accounts, Vouchers,
and Receipted Accounts 1
“Newtown 23d. April 1777
Received of Capt. Caleb Gibbs ten Shillings Pensylvania money in full for my wages as a Maid
servant in His Excellency General Washington’s family from the 13th July 1776 to the 23d. April
1777 at the Rate of 20s New York money P Month – her
Jane X Irwin
Mark”

(151) Mease & Caldwell to Caleb Gibbs, May 5, 1777, Revolutionary War Accounts,
Vouchers, and Receipted Accounts 1
Servants livery
May 5, 1777
Captain Caleb Gibbs – to the United States of American
3 ½ yards drab broadcloth for General Washington’s servants
3 yards red Durant
2 ¼ yards French linen
4 pages drilling breeches
4 drilling vests
 Emanuel Dabney in Washington livery suit.
(Apparel made by Neal T. Hurst)

(161) John Johnson to Caleb Gibbs, June 3, 1777, Revolutionary War Accounts, Vouchers,
and Receipted Accounts 1
“Head Quarters Middle Brook 3d June 1777
Received of Captain Caleb Gibbs forty seven pounds Eighteen shillings New York Currency in
full for my servant Isaac as wages as Cook to His Excellency General Washington – from the
1st day of July 1776 to the last day of May 1777 which makes Eleven months at the rate of six
pounds Pr Month John Johnson”

““Head Quarters Middle Brook 3d June 1777

Received of Captain Caleb Gibbs sixteen Pounds ten shillings N-York Currency in full in behalf
of Mr. John [Mason?] for his servant Hannah as wage, she being in the service of His
Excellency General Washington’s family from the 26th day of June 1776 to the 26th of May 1777
making Eleven months at 30s N.York Currency Pr Month.
In behalf of
John Johnson”
(227) Patrick Maguire to Caleb Gibbs, March 6, 1778, Revolutionary War Accounts,
Vouchers, and Receipted Accounts 1
“Received of Capt. Caleb Gibbs Sixty two pounds
sixteen shillings & five pence Pennsylvania Currency
in full for wages as Steward to His Excellency the
Commander in Chief
£ 62.16.5 Patt. Maguire
Head Quarters
Valley Forge 6th. March 1778”

(235) Margaret Thomas to Caleb Gibbs, April 4, 1778, Revolutionary War Accounts,
Vouchers, and Receipted Accounts 1
“Head Quarters Valley Forge
4th April 1778
Received of Captain Gibbs Twenty Eight pounds
Seventeen shillings, & six pence Pennsylvania
Currency in full for Washington [sic, should be washing] done for
His Excellency General Washington from the
20th. day of Octobr. 1776 – to the 20th day of Feby.
1778 – including servants &c. belonging to the General –
Margaret Thomas”

(297) William Riley to Caleb Gibbs, November 21, 1777, Revolutionary War Accounts,
Vouchers, and Receipted Accounts 1
“An Account of Cloathing Made £ s
For His Excellency the Commander
and Chief Servants

Will – Two Coats Two wescoats

And One pair of Breeches 3 0 0

For Robert Preston

One Coat one Wescoat 1 0 0

Francis Meriman one Coat

One wescoat 1 0 0

the Cost of Trimming for

Wills Cloathes 1 2 6

To one wescoat for [His?]

Excellency 0 10 0

21st. Novr. 1778 £ s d

Received of Major Gibbs the
Above in full William Kelly”
George Washington’s folding bed, made in 1775 to use while serving as Continental Army
commander-in-chief. Dimensions: Overall (Folded H x W x D), 11 in. × 8 in. × 36 in. (27.94 cm ×
20.32 cm × 91.44 cm); Overall (Standing H x W x D): 48 in. × 36 in. × 72 in. (121.92 cm × 91.44 cm ×
182.88 cm). Object Number: W-473. Collections of Mount Vernon. https://tinyurl.com/Mount-
Vernon

(313) William McIntire to Caleb Gibbs, September 19, 1779, Revolutionary War Accounts,
Vouchers, and Receipted Accounts 1
“Head Quarters West-
point 19th: Septr. 1779
Received of Major Gibbs one hundred &
twenty dollars in full for 12 months Extra
pay @ 10 dollars pr. month. allowed by
His Excellency for my acting as Stewart to His family
Wm. McIntire”
(325) Daniel Dyer to Caleb Gibbs, January 1, 1780, Revolutionary War Accounts,
Vouchers, and Receipted Accounts 1
“Received of Major Caleb Gibbs
one hundred & tenty dollars being for
15/ months extra pay at 8 dollars pr. month
for assisting in the Coocking in His
Excellency General Washington’s family
Daniel Dyer”

(331) Bildad Edwards to Caleb Gibbs, March 14, 1780, Revolutionary War Accounts,
Vouchers, and Receipted Accounts 1
“Head Quarters Morris Town
14th: March 1780
Received of Major Gibbs sixty dollars in full
for six months Extra pay @ 10 dollars pr. month
Allowed by His Excellency for my acting as Stewart
to His family Bildad Edwards”

(349) John Johnson to Caleb Gibbs, July 13, 1780, Revolutionary War Accounts, Vouchers,
and Receipted Accounts 1
“Received Bergen County State of New Jersey
July 13th: 1780 of Major Gibbs one hundred
pounds New York currency (according to its ancient
Value) in full for the hire of my servant Isaac
as a Cook to His Excellency General Washington
from June 1st. 1777 to June 1st. 1780
John Johnson”
One of Washington’s wartime travelling trunks. “Throughout the Revolutionary War, the security
of his official correspondence and orders was a perpetual concern for General George Washington.
In the intervening weeks between the British evacuation of Boston and his departure to defend
Manhattan, Washington obtained this hair travelling trunk to contain the increasing number of
official papers in his possession. It was likely the first of the many he would purchase for this
purpose. A copper plate engraved "Genl Washington" is nailed to the lid over the initials of the
trunk's original owner, John Head, the Boston merchant from whom it was purchased on April 4,
1776.” Dimensions: Overall, 14 3/8 in. x 36 1/2 in. x 15 3/4 in. (36.53 cm x 92.71 cm x 40.01 cm).
Object Number: W-366. Collections of Mount Vernon. https://tinyurl.com/Mount-Vernon
__________________________________________