SCHOOL OF APPLIED NATURAL SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED GEOLOGY

MAPPING SEDIMENTARY TERRAIN (Geol 3201)

TITLE: MAPPING SEDIMENTARY TERRAIN AROUND MUGHER AREA, OROMIA,

ETHIOPIA

NAME ID

1. DEREJE TEGANU R/01886/07

2. DEREJE PAULOS R/01885/07
3. ADISALEM SALOMON R/01829/07
4. MEBRATU MENU R/01954/07
5. SAMUEL GIRMA R/01988/07
6. WENDIMAGEGN SAHLE R/02019/07
7. GIRUM YITAFERU R/01925/07
8. DANIEL G/YOHANNES R/01875/07
9. MAHER HAJI R/01950/07
10. MULUGETA TAYE R/01973/07

SUBMITTED TO: Mrs. YONATAN G

SUB DATE 5/2/2017

Table of Contents
Abstract i
Acknowledgement _______________________________________________________________________________________________ ii
Chapter One _______________________________________________________________________________________________________ 1
1. Introduction ___________________________________________________________________________________________ 1
1.1. Geological setting ____________________________________________________________ 1
1.2. Description of study area ______________________________________________________ 2
1.2.1. Location ________________________________________________________________________ 2
1.2.2. Topography and Relief _____________________________________________________________ 3
1.2.3. Population density (settlement) _____________________________________________________ 3
1.2.4. Drainage pattern _________________________________________________________________ 3
1.2.5. Vegetation coverage ______________________________________________________________ 3
1.2.6. Climate condition _________________________________________________________________ 4
1.2.7. Accessibility and land use __________________________________________________________ 4

1.3. Previous Work ______________________________________________________________ 4

1.4. Objective of Present Studies ___________________________________________________ 5
1.4.1. Main Objective ___________________________________________________________________ 5
1.4.2. Specific Objective _________________________________________________________________ 5

1.5. Methodology and Materials ___________________________________________________ 5

1.5.1. Methodology ____________________________________________________________________ 5
1.5.2. Materials ________________________________________________________________________ 5

Chapter Two ______________________________________________________________________________________________________ 7

Regional Geology and Tectonics ______________________________________________________________________________ 7
2. Introduction to regional geology and tectonics ________________________________________________ 7
2.1. Major rock units _____________________________________________________________ 8
2.1.1. Adigrat sandstone/lower sandstone __________________________________________________ 8
2.1.2. Gohatsion Formation ______________________________________________________________ 8
2.1.3. Antalo Limestone (Laga Jima Limestone) ______________________________________________ 9
2.1.4. Mugher Mudstone Unit ___________________________________________________________ 10
2.1.5. Debre-libanos Sandstone __________________________________________________________ 11

2.2. Geological structure _________________________________________________________ 11

2.3. General Stratigraphy ________________________________________________________ 12
2.4. Stratigraphic column of the main rock unit_______________________________________ 13
Chapter Three ___________________________________________________________________________________________________ 15

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Local Geology ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 15
Local Geology of the study area ______________________________________________________________________________ 15
3. Description of Local Geology ______________________________________________________________________ 15
3.1. Gohatsion Formation (Intercalation of Gypsum- Shale and Dolostone units)____________ 15
3.1.1. Gypsum unit ____________________________________________________________________ 15
3.1.2. Shale unit ______________________________________________________________________ 15
3.1.3. Dolostone unit __________________________________________________________________ 16

3.2. Antalo (Laga Jima Limestone) _________________________________________________ 16

3.2.1. Limestone Unit __________________________________________________________________ 16
3.2.1.1. Upper Limestone Unit _________________________________________________________ 217
3.2.1.2. Lower Limestone unit __________________________________________________________ 17
3.2.1.3. Types of limestone unit ________________________________________________________ 217
3.2.1.4. Description of Fossils ___________________________________________________________ 18
3.2.2. Marl unit _______________________________________________________________________ 19
3.2.2.1. Upper marl unit _______________________________________________________________ 19
3.2.2.2. Lower marl unit _______________________________________________________________ 19

3.3. Mugher mudstone units______________________________________________________ 19

3.4. Volcanic rock unit ___________________________________________________________ 20
3.5. Geological Structure _________________________________________________________ 21
3.5.1. Primary Structures _______________________________________________________________ 25
3.5.2. Secondary Structures _____________________________________________________________ 22

3.6. General stratigraphy ________________________________________________________ 25

3.7. Geological map and cross section ______________________________________________ 27
Chapter Four _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 28
4. Results and Discussion _____________________________________________________________________________ 28
4.1. Result of the study __________________________________________________________ 28
4.2. Discussion of the studies _____________________________________________________ 29
4.3. Correlation of Local with Regional Geology ______________________________________ 31
Chapter Five______________________________________________________________________________________________________ 33
5. Economic Importance of Sedimentary Rocks __________________________________________________ 33
Chapter Six _______________________________________________________________________________________________________ 35
6. Conclusion and Recommendation________________________________________________________________ 35
6.1. Conclusion ________________________________________________________________ 35
6.2. Recommendation ___________________________________________________________ 35
References ________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 37

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Abstract
This filed work had been carried out in mugher area which is located about 100 km from
Addis Ababa capital city of Ethiopia. The main object of this field work is to map
sedimentary terrain around mugher area, to prepare geologic map of sub Blue Nile basin
around mugher area and to identity different types of sedimentary succession out crop on
the study area and also to identify different lithologic unit and geological structure
associated with the evolution of the basin. Different methodologies were used during the
field work such as selecting the best traverse line, reading GPS, description of rock at out
crop, mapping of contact, collection of representative sample and identification of
sedimentary structures. The base map of 1:50,000 scales were used to conduct filed work.
There are different lithological units described in the study area which were found with
different process like Transgression, regression, and volcanism. The succession of
lithology’s from youngest to oldest include volcanic rock, mudstone, upper limestone,
upper marl, lower lime stone, lower marl and interaction of gypsum-shale-dolostone unit
as they were exposed on the study area. There are different types of geological structure
observed in that area with in different rock unit like primary structure and secondary
structure including bedding, lamination, fracture, and fault. Local geology of the study area
can be correlated with regional geology in terms of lithostratigraphy. Different rock unit
exposed in the study area has different economic value for the local people and country as
whole.

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Acknowledgement
First of all we offer our great thanks to God for being with us from the beginning to the end
of our work. Next we would like to thanks Adama Science and Technology University for
their contribution on facilitating our field work by preparing necessary things like food
preparing materials and transportation. And also we thanks school of applied Natural
science for helping us to play a great role in their contribution for successfulness of our
filed work; they prepare necessary field materials like tents, sleeping bags, geological
hammers, sample bags and etc. for us. We thanks greatly Applied Geology department staff
(Mr. Hasen.Sh ) who work as a department head as well as advisor in their contribution in
the arrangement and planning of these filed work. Also we would like to thanks our
instructor, Mr. Yonaton, Mr. Asfaw, Prof. (Dr.) Sreepat.J and Mr. Geleta for giving a detail
explanation to our filed work treatment, encouragement and for their positive comments in
helping us. Finally we would like to thanks the local people around mugher area; they give
as different information during the field work. And also we would like to thank a bus driver
and co-driver who give us a service from the beginning to the end of our work.

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Chapter One

1. Introduction
The Mesozoic sediments of Ethiopia occur mainly in two areas. These are; the North
western plateaus, which includes the Danakil, Alps, the Tigrai region and the Abay River
(Blue Nile basin). And the South eastern plateau, which comprises the Ogden basin
(Russo.A, Getaneh. A and Balemwal.A.1994).

The Blue Nile basin is situated in the North western Ethiopian plateau and is bounded to
the east and south east by the tectonic escarpment of the uplifted western flank of the main
Ethiopian rift and to the North and South by the Axum–Adigrat and Ambo lineaments,
respectively. The basin contains a ≈1400m thick succession of Mesozoic sedimentary rocks
unconformably overlying Neoproterozoic basement rocks.

1.1. Geological setting

Ethiopia is characterized by two very extensive plateaus; the North western plateau and
the southern plateau. These are separated by Ethiopian rift Valley and Afar depression. The
NW plateau occupies a major part of the country sloping down words towards the west and
south. The south eastern plateaus descend to the Indian Ocean in the form of wide, low
terraces. The NW Ethiopian plateau, has mean elevation of a ≈ 2.5 km, and is located on the
western flanks of the tectonically active MER and Afar Depression.

The plateau was uplifted due to the combined effects of; the rising Afar mantle plume, flank
uplift of the MER and Afar Depression (Sengor, 2001). The basement of Ethiopian consists
of metamorphic and Igneous rocks of Precambrian and lower Paleozoic age, between
Ordovician and early Mesozoic system of North easterly and north westerly trending
through were filled with continental sediments. Early Jurassic marine sediment filled this
trough at late Jurassic time; the transgression sea was wide spread over a part of Ethiopia.
Regression happened at the end of the Jurassic the Ethiopian rift valley crosses all of
Ethiopian and forms the northern extension of the east African rift systems. The study area
which is part of Blue Nile basin (Abay Sub basin) is found on the North western plateaus.

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 1.2. Description of study area

1.2.1. Location
The study area is located in central part of Ethiopia, particularly in Oromia regional state
around 100km north western of Addis Ababa and around 190km far from Adama.
Geographically it is bounded between longitude of 430000mE to 436000m E and latitude
of 1046000 m N to 053000 m N. It covers 42 square kilometer. The Blue Nile basin in
Ethiopia lies between 90N and 130 50ꞌN and 340 50ꞌE and 390 50ꞌ E where the Blue Nile is
incised into the ≈2500 m high (average) NW plateau of Ethiopia. The linear exposure in the
George of the Nile makes it difficult to trace the trend of the extensional structure related to
the Blue Nile basin. (N.DS.GANI1*,M,G.ABDELSALAM2,S.GERA3 and M.R.GANI1)

Fig 1.1 Location map of study area (https://www.google.com/earth/)

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 1.2.2. Topography and Relief
The study area (mugher) show different topographic features flat area around cement
factory and steeply to gentle sloping and ridges are covered wide area along kersa river.
The study area show visible variation in slope and altitude, particularly observed between
the cliff limestone units because of it is highly resistant to weathering and erosion (high
stability) and marl unit is characterized by gentle slope due to low stability that means it is
highly susceptible to weathering.

1.2.3. Population density (settlement)

The study area contains the settlement variation from place to place. In some area there is
densely populated and in other there is sparse population densities. The densely populated
area such as wayu biyo, because the area is suitable for getting some special needs like
drinking water, to get different facilities like school, health center, good climatic condition,
fertile soil for cultivation and etc. in other areas the population is sparsely populated
because of difficulty of the area condition such as lack of farm land scarcity of fresh water
and steepness of slopes in an area.

1.2.4. Drainage pattern

The area show dendritic drainage pattern along the major rivers like Kersa,Birate and
Sodoble River which is supported by different substantial tributaries. Several seasonal
tributaries from different direction feed the main stream with substantial among during
rainy seasons. Those tributaries flow from high altitude to low altitude to increase the level
of river. Which has wide channel and useful for the area in different purpose like for house
hold, agriculture and etc. the dendritic drainage pattern in study area contains irregular
stream branching with tributaries joining the main stream at all angles.

1.2.5. Vegetation coverage

The study area is sparsely vegetated and covered by different types of vegetation’s.
Landscape of the area is covered by Natural growing plants. Different crops like teff, maize,
wheat, bean, sorghum etc. are available in the study area.

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 1.2.6. Climate condition
The study area is semi-arid climate area with temperature varying from hot at day and cold
at the night and is found under the weinadaga climate condition. It is also characterized by
seasonal rain fall. The climate condition area is categorized into two Wet (summer) and dry
(winter) season.

1.2.7. Accessibility and land use

The study area can be accessed through main asphalt road running from Addis Ababa to
Mugher town and has numerous gravel roads and a number of foot paths. The study area
serves for agricultural purpose and as a query site for the cement factory and it is also used
for cultivation of different crops

1.3. Previous Work

Previous stratigraphic studies on the blue Nile basin and surrounding areas is not fully
understood since much of the basins geological record (Mesozoic and Precambrian rocks )
is buried beneath the extensive 500-2000 thick Cenozoic volcanic rocks (Hofmann et al
.1997,coulie et al.2003; kieffir et al.2004) and no subsurface data are available. However
the 1600m deep George of the Nile (Gani and Abdelsalam 2006; Gani et al.2007) formed by
the blue Nile river on NE Ethiopian plateau provides good surface exposures suitable for
focused stratigraphic and structural studies than can be used for regional reconstruction of
the geological history of the blue Nile basin. Many geological works are conducted by
different researcher, who explains about the geology of mugher sub basin of Abay main
basins. People those work on these are, GETANEH (1991) work on all formation that found
around the Nile basin and the massive lava chiefly basaltic, overlies unconformably on the
sediments. MERLA et al (1973, 1979) work on the following succession upper sandstone on
top, upper gypsum on the bottom, the upper gypsum follows conformably on a limestone
and marl unit. STEFANINI (1933) work on sandstone overlying limestone. Generally all
formation and succession have studied by different worker. The general stratigraphic
succession is lower sandstone, gypsum and a shale unit, marl and limestone (Antalo
limestone), muddy sandstone (mugher mudstone) upper sandstone (Debra libanos)
volcanic rock unit.

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 1.4. Objective of Present Studies

1.4.1. Main Objective

The main objective of the present field work is to map sedimentary terrain around mugher
area of sub-blue Nile.

1.4.2. Specific Objective

The specific objective of this field work is:-

 To differentiate different types of sedimentary rocks.

 To identify different rock units outcropped on the study area.
 To identify different geological structures developed in the study area.
 To identify different lithology of an area
 To differentiate the environment of deposition of sedimentary rocks.
 To identify different types of contact.
 To examine the geological formation of the area.
 To describe the economic importance of each sedimentary rock units.
 To correlate the local geology with regional geology

1.5. Methodology and Materials

1.5.1. Methodology
Several methodologies were followed to achieve the objective of field works. These
includes, selecting the best traverse line that helps to get different lithologic units and
structures, Reading the geographic coordinate and elevation from GPS in order to locate
the station on the topographic map, Description of rocks at outcrop level, mapping of
contacts when there is a change in lithology, collecting of representative samples which
helps for further laboratory study, identification of sedimentary structures (both primary
and secondary), labeling of samples that are collected, Reading the compass in order to
identify strike and dip of different structure and etc.

1.5.2. Materials
Different geological materials were used to achieve specific objectives. Geological field
works requires different equipment’s in order to identify, cut, mark collect and hold
different lithologies, read the area to get direction and locate ones position. These materials
includes: -

 Topographic map; used for the purpose of base map, showing geological features
using contour lines.
 GPS (Geographical Positioning system); used for finding ones position, to locate
different geological features, measuring elevation.

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 Brunt on compass: - Used for determining directions and orientation of geological
structures.
 Sample bag:- Used to collect samples after they are cut and labeled
 Geological hammer:- Used for breaking samples
 Colored Pencil: - To identify different lithology in different colors.
 Marker: - used for labeling samples before they are put into samples.

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Chapter Two

Regional Geology and Tectonics

2. Introduction to regional geology and tectonics

During the Triassic cretaceous time Northern and Central Africa was affected by
lithospheric extension associated with NE-SW extension (fair head 1988) this formed NW-
trending Mesozoic rift basin including the muglad, the melut, the Blue Nile and the Anza rift
basins (McHargue et al -1992; Binks and fair head 1992). Bosellini (1989, 1992) and Russo
et-al (1994) interpreted these structures as NW-trending aulacogen –like rift basins
extending NW ward from the NE –trending karoo rift which was formed in let Paleozoic
Jurassic time during Gondwana break-up.

The SE continuation of the Mesozoic rift basin, especially in the high land of Ethiopia, is
poorly understood; there these basins are covered by 500-2000 m thick pile of early let
Oligocene volcanic rock and locally followed by ≈300 m thick sequence of quaternary
volcanic rock. These volcanic rocks are associated with the Afar mantle plume and
subsequent opening of the Afar depression and the main Ethiopian rift (MER) (Hofman et-
al 1997; Abebe et al.2005). Most of the published work has concentrated on the melut, the
Muglad and the Blue Nile rift basin in Sudan, and the Anza rift basins in Kenya (Binks and
fair head 1992; Guiraud and Maurin 1992; Mc Hargue et al.1992; Bosworth and Morely
1992). These studies have shown that the melut and the muglad rift basin connected with
each other in the SE and connected with Anza rift in Kenya (MC Hargue et al 1992; Binks
and Fair head 1992).

Blue Nile basin in Ethiopia lies between 90 N and 130 50l N and 340 50l E and 390 50l E
where the Blue Nile basin is increased in to the ≈ 2500 m high (average) NW Ethiopian
plateau the liner exposure in the gorge of the Nile make it difficult to trace the trend of
extensional structure related to the Blue Nile basin. It has been suggested that the Blue Nile
basin in Sudan continues SE, ward through Ethiopia, across the NE trending MER to join the
Ogden basin in SE Ethiopia. (Bosellini 1984; Russo et al.1994)

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 2.1. Major rock units

2.1.1. Adigrat sandstone/lower sandstone

This unit is about 300 m thick in the measured section. It is formed by sub horizontal layer
about 30 cm thick of fine grained sandstone intercalated with reddish shale and siltstone in
its lower part. Upward, the layer thickness increase up to 1 m. They are characterized by
(angular-sub angular) medium to coarse grained sandstone with planar cross bedding. In
the upper part this unit is constituted by several fining upward sequences with reddish
coarse sand at the base and siltstone at the top.

The upper most part≈40m thick is constituted by horizontal layer of greenish clay and fine
silt stone, 10-20 cm thick alternating with law angle cross bedding siltstone. This unit
shows the characteristic fluviatile facies of Aigrette sand stone BEAUCHAMP (1977),
Bosselini (1989).The unit is found unconformably overlaying Neoproterozoic basement
rock and in turn is overlay by early late Oligocene volcanic rock in the NW flowing segment
of Blue Nile. This unit is made up of pink to red fine to coarse grained sand stone that are
rarely inter bedded with grey mudstone beds. It is continental Mesozoic old sediment.

2.1.2. Gohatsion Formation

This formation is represented in the lower part by alternating dolostone, gypsum and
shale. The thickness of dolostone and shale beds is 50-80 cm and 10-20cm, respectively.
(Antonio.R, Getaneh.A; Balemwal.A, 1991). The dolostone is greenish, grey or brown, with
flute casts at the base of beds, ripples and flasher bedding on the lower part, and parallel
lamination at the top. They are the deposit of decelerating tractive currents, probably in
shallow ponds and lagoons. Microscopic analysis shows equigranular mosaic of
microcrystalline dolomites, in some cases partially dedolomized. Upward, there are
mudstones with thin levels of angular quartz grading into bioturbated mudstones with few
and scattered small bivalves, fine siltstones very rich in small bivalves and gastropods
(corbiculinae, lucinids anomytilus, and protoceritbium), fine grained sandstones displaying
cross-laminations at the base and parallel ones at the top. This sequence is cyclically
repeated. It is a fauna occurring typically in a mixed marine environment, probably
influenced by fresh water from adjacent areas (Mckerrow, 1978).

The middle part of the Gohatsion formation is characterized by several cycles of (I) non-
fossiliferous shale (II) marlstone or dolostone with few scattered small bivalves (III) fine-
grained, coquinoid, cross laminated sandstone, and (IV) thick beds of gypsum. The latter

12
are thinner with chicken wire structure in the lower-middle part of this unit and thicker
laminated in the upper part. The upper part of this formation which is not well observable
because of the covering vegetation, consist of an alteration of unfossoliferous, green, red
and brown clays and siltstones. Generally the siltstone beds coarsen upward. Some
coquinoid dolostone layer can be observed almost at the top of this last part (especially in
the mugher valley about 20 km S of Abay canyon).It is synonyms to shale and gypsum unit.
The sequence is well exposed in the easternmost part of the Abay River Basin, particularly
confined in the canyons of such rivers as Mugher, Zega Wodem, Dersena, Beressa, Adabai,
zhema, Wenchit, Ghennesi, as well as the canyon of the Abay River itself. Gohatsion
formation Document the beginning of the marine transgression occurred in the Abay River
basin during Toarcian time.

2.1.3. Antalo Limestone (Laga Jima Limestone)

The upper part of this unit is characterized by a more massive limestone, about five meter
thick, containing scattered corals at the base and some nerineneids and stromatoporoids in
the upper part. A tiny layer of small pebbles colonized by lopha has been observed at the
very top. The total thickness is about 180m. The faunal content and the sedimentological
characters of the lower part of the limestones allow us to infer complex paleoenvirnment
with associated Oolithic bars and small coral patches. On the contrary, the silty limestone
fauna is characterized by the presence of eulamelli branchiate in faunal siphon-feeders and
epifaunal suspension feeders, typically of continental shelf areas were silty or fine-grained
sediments prevail. The marl layers, indeed, are more abundant in Grypbea, a reclining
inhabitant of muddy substrates, where euhaline water conditions exist.
Above this limestone unit, a 200m thick succession of marly limestones, marls, and silty
limestone characterizes the middle-upper Antalo limestone. In its lower and middle part,
marly limestones and marls prevail, whereas upward silty limestones are more developed.
In the marly layers, “Terebratula” pelagic, Nanogyra sinuate, associated with some
ammonites (Litbacoccrassp. and Subplanites spatbi, Nenzo 1942), are more important; in
the upper silty limestones, Somalirbyncbia Somalica, Zeilleria Latifrons, “Venilicardia” bunli
and Anisocardia sp, are more abundant. The presence of ammonites and terebratuline,
associated with Nanogyra, a muddy substrate inhabitant in the silty-marly sediments,

13
suggests an open sea environment, probably a ramp. The presence of rbynchonellid
brachiopods and in faunal siphon-feeders (anisocardia, Benilicardia etc.) in the silty
limestones allows us to infer a shelf environment, where a feeble hydro dynamism is
present (Fersich & Hurst 1974).
An abrupt contact separates the more soft silty limestone from the upper most hard
limestone unit. This is made up an about 50m thick planar laminated Oolithic and reefal
limestone at the base, which evolves upward into a bedded mudstone reach in branching
cladoropsis. This uppermost limestone unit was again formed in shallow water, which is
documented by the occurrence of Oolithic bars, coral patches offshore and more protected
facies inshore.

2.1.4. Mugher Mudstone Unit

This unit doesn’t outcrop in the Abay canyon, but is confined to the canyons of Mugher, Ega
Wodem, Dersena, Beressa, Adabai, Zhema, Wenchit and Chenneli Rivers. The lower part
consists of 15 m of alternating gypsum, dolomite and shale, whereas the upper part is
constituted of 240 m thick mudstone. (Russo.A, Getaneh .A and Balemwal .A (1994).
Gypsum occurs as vug and vein-fillings in the dolomicrite and shale, and as megascopical
nodules, lenses and beds. Dolomitic algal stromatolites are common. Small-scale mud
cracks and birds eyes, filled with sparry calcite are observed. The shale is laminated and
contains a few thin laminae and veinlets of gypsum. The upper part consists of interbedded
mudstone, siltstone and fine to medium grained sandstone. The mudstone shows massive
bedding, thin laminae and ripple lamination. Discontinuous thin beds of lignite and
carbonaceous siltstones containing plant fragments occur locally. The siltstone is thinly
bedded and commonly contains cross-lamination and convolute bedding. The sandstone
consists of fining upward sequences and thick massive beds. The massive sandstones have
no visible sedimentary structures. The dominant dolomicritic lithology, associated with
gypsum, algal stromatolites, mudcracks and Birdseyes structures points to the deposition
of this lower part in supratidal and lagoonal environments. The upper part presents the
characteristic feature of muddy, fine-grained meandering river facies (Getaneh 1991).

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 2.1.5. Debre-libanos Sandstone
This unit is widely exposed in the valley of the Zega Wodem River and its tributaries. It is
consisted of sandstone, pebbly sandstone, local lenses of conglomerates and clay stone. The
main Sedimentary structures which common in sandstone are large and small scale planar-
tabular and asymmetrical trough cross beds, convolute beds, flat beds, scored and channel
surface and massive beds. Some fining upward trends occur from medium to fine grained
sandstones up to laminated clay stone. This unit is interpreted as a deposit of sandy-
braided river on broad alluvial plain (Getaneh, 1991).

The Debre-libanos sandstone is described as a unit conformably overlying the Mugher

mudstone with maximum thickness of 280m (Assefa 1991, Merla et al., 1973, 79, Wolela
1997, 2009). It characteristically forms a steep cliff except along the contact with the
underlying Mugher mudstone where it appears gentler. It consists of fine to medium
grained, moderately well sorted sub angular to rounded friable and gray sandstone, pebbly
sandstone and local conglomerate and clay stone. The main sedimentary structures of
sandstones are large and small-scale planar-tabular and asymmetrical trough cross-
bedding, convolute beds, flat-beds, scored and channel surface, and massive beds (Assefa,
1991). Some fining upward trends occur from medium to sandstone up to laminated clay
stone. This unit is interpreted as a deposit of sandy-braided rivers on a broad alluvial plain
(Getaneh, 1991). This unit is extensively exposed along the valleys of the ZegaWodem
River and its tributaries. It composes sandstone, pebble sandstone, local lenses of
conglomerate and clay stone. The depositional age of this unit is from lower Cretaceous to
upper Jurassic (Russo.A, Getaneh .A and Balemwal .A; 1994). Its depositional environment
is continental.

2.2. Geological structure

The Blue Nile Basin, situated in the Northwestern Ethiopian Plateau, contains 1400m thick
Mesozoic sedimentary section underlain by Neoproterozoic basement rocks and overlain
by Early–Late Oligocene and Quaternary volcanic rocks. This study outlines the
stratigraphic and structural evolution of the Blue Nile Basin based on field and remote
sensing studies along the Gorge of the Nile. The Blue Nile Basin has evolved in three main
phases:

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 (1) Pre-sedimentation phase, include pre-rift peneplanation of the Neoproterozoic
basement rocks, possibly during Palaeozoic time;

(2) Sedimentation phase from Triassic to Early Cretaceous, including; Triassic–Early

Jurassic fluvial sedimentation (Lower Sandstone, 300m thick); Early Jurassic marine
transgression (glauconitic sandy mudstone, 30m thick); Early–Middle Jurassic
deepening of the basin (Lower Limestone, 450m thick); Desiccation of the basin and
deposition of Early–Middle Jurassic gypsum; Middle–Late Jurassic marine transgression
(Upper Limestone, 400m thick); and Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous basin-uplift and
marine regression (alluvial/fluvial Upper Sandstone, 280m thick);

(3) The post-sedimentation phase, including Early–Late Oligocene eruption of 500–

2000m thick Lower volcanic rocks, related to the Afar Mantle Plume and emplacement
of 300m thick Quaternary Upper volcanic rocks.

The Blue Nile Basin was formed as a NW-trending rift, within which much of the Mesozoic
clastic and marine sediments were deposited. This was followed by Late Miocene NW–SE-
directed extension related to the Main Ethiopian Rift that formed NE-trending faults,
affecting Lower volcanic rocks and the upper part of the Mesozoic section. The region was
subsequently affected by Quaternary E–W and NNE–SSW-directed extensions related to
oblique opening of the Main Ethiopian Rift and development of E-trending transverse
faults, as well as NE–SW-directed extension in southern Afar (related to northeastward
separation of the Arabian Plate from the African Plate) and E–W-directed extensions in
western Afar (related to the stepping of the Red Sea axis into Afar). These Quaternary
stress regimes resulted in the development of N-, ESE- and NW-trending extensional
structures within the Blue Nile Basin.

2.3. General Stratigraphy

The main features of the sedimentary sequence of central part of the NW plateau are
illustrated in geological map of Ethiopia (Kazmin; 1973, 1975).The sedimentary beds are
nearly horizontal but slightly dip to south east causes progressively older bed to disappear
beneath the lavas in the westerly or downstream direction .The oldest recorded deposits
above the basement are Paleozoic (Ordovician) continental sediments ranging in
thickness from 150-400m (Japsen and Athearn, 1964). Five formations are in formally

16
established for the Mesozoic sediments in the central part of NW plateau (Getaneh, 1979).
Generally the stratigraphy of sub-blue Nile basin of Ethiopia from bottom to top up to
volcanic product exposure (Cenozoic volcanic rocks) are –basement, edega arbi enticho,
calub, pre-Adigrat, lower sand stone, Gohatsion formation, Laga- Jima /Antalo limestone,
mugher mudstone and upper/Debre-libanos sandstone.

2.4. Stratigraphic column of the main rock unit

In the stratigraphic column of the Blue Nile basin the exposures are dominantly
Neoproterozoic basement rocks, Triassic-Early Jurassic lower sandstone and early –late
Oligocene volcanic rocks, flows to NW. Within SW-flowing of sediment of blue Nile
exposures includes Triassic-early Jurassic lower sandstone , early Jurassic glauconitic
sandy mudstone, early-middle Jurassic lower limestone and gypsum, middle-late
Jurassic upper limestone and early-late Oligocene volcanic rocks. In area where Blue
Nile flow S, exposures includes middle-late Jurassic upper limestone, late Jurassic-early
cretaceous upper sandstone and early-late Oligocene volcanic rocks.

17
Figure2.1 stratigraphic column of the Blue Nile basin (a) Generalized stratigraphic column
of the Blue Nile Basin, (b) detailed stratigraphic column showing the repetitive fining-
upward faces succession interpreted as fluvial channel deposits within the Lower
Sandstone and (c) detailed stratigraphic column showing sedimentological characteristics
of the sandy mudstone unit. (N. DS. GANI1*, M. G. ABDELSALEM2, S. GERA3 and M. R. GANI1)

18
 Chapter Three

Local Geology

Local Geology of the study area

There are different types of lithological units in the study area which are exposed along
quarry site, river cut and road cut. These lithological units include one recent volcanic rock
and different Mesozoic sedimentary lithologic units. These units from bottom to top
includes, intercalation of gypsum unit, shale units and dolomite units, lower marl, lower
limestone, upper marl, upper limestone, mugher mudstone units and Cenozoic volcanic
exposure.

3. Description of Local Geology

3.1. Gohatsion Formation (Intercalation of Gypsum- Shale and Dolostone units)

Gohatsion formation is part of the Mesozoic sedimentary succession of sub blue Nile basin
which is deposited at the bottom of sub-blue Nile basin. This lithologic unit is found at an
elevation of below 1700m above sea level and located from 0434303mE, 1053250mN to
0434417mE, 1053203m N. It includes three different units; gypsum, shale, and dolostone
units.

3.1.1. Gypsum unit

This rock unit is found at the base of Gohatsion formation which is intercalated with shale
and dolostone units. This rock unit is outcropped/exposed well at the quarry site and
different types of gypsum are exposed such as: nodular gypsum that has nodule like
structure and massive gypsum which is more compacted and the dominant one. The
gypsum unit generally has fine grains, white in color, with some dark colored due to the
presence of magnesium, formed by precipitation and scratched with finger nail that shows
it has low hardness, and its depositional environment is transitional like dolostone and
shale units within the Gohatsion formation.

3.1.2. Shale unit

This rock unit is found in between dolostone and gypsum units as intercalation. It is
laminated and show good fissile and can be easily break down or it is friable, it is loose and
smooth. Has clearly visible lamination which is horizontal bedding usually less than 1 cm in

19
thickness, also form thin beds within this rock unit. Compositionally, it is composed of clay,
and its depositional environment is transitional which is in the Gohatsion formation.

Figure 3.1 shale unit

3.1.3. Dolostone unit

The dolostone unit is underlain by a gypsum unit, has low hardness, is semi-consolidated,
and its color is yellowish. Its composition is calcium- magnesium-sulfate; its depositional
environment is transitional within the Gohatsion formation. It is intercalated with gypsum
and shale units.

3.2. Antalo (Laga Jima Limestone)

3.2.1. Limestone Unit

Limestone is a part of Antalo formation which is composed of calcite and it is highly
resistance to weathering. It forms cliff which contain different geological structures due to
its hard composition and its resistance to weathering. Limestone unit forms steep slope. Its
texture ranges from fine to medium grain. It contains two different units (upper limestone
and lower limestone unit) which are compositionally the same, but different depositional
age. Lower limestone is older and upper limestone unit is younger based on superposition
principle.

20
 3.2.1.1. Upper Limestone Unit
It is the upper most part of Laga-Jima (Antalo limestone) which is composed of calcite. It is
differentiated from lower limestone unit based on depositional age, thickness and fossil
content. It is younger than lower limestone and is also thicker than lower limestone. It
contains more fossils than lower limestone because it is younger than lower limestone unit;
the probability to get free oxygen is higher than that of lower limestone and this free
oxygen is suitable for organism to live. But in the lower limestone fossils are disappear
because of lack of free oxygen on the older rock units. Generally upper limestone has
relatively high resistance to weathering and erosion because their grains are highly
compacted. There are different trace fossils that are deposited at the upper cliff of
limestone these includes; planolite-tube shaped fossils and Thallosinoides y-shaped fossils.

3.2.1.2. Lower Limestone unit

This unit is overlain by upper marl unit and underlain by lower marl unit. The unit is
thinner than upper limestone due to their degree of weathering. Different fossiliferous
limestones are present and different fossils occur on the lower limestone unit. The fossils
like bivalves, gastropods, brachiopods and other fossils are found in these units. It contain
steep slope due to its resistance to weathering and erosion as a result of fertile soil is not
formed and there is no vegetation growth on these unit. The boundary between lower
limestone and upper marl unit is located at about 1990m above sea level and at geographic
coordinate of 0434238mE and 1051751m N.

3.2.1.3. Types of limestone unit

There are different types of limestone units based on different characteristics

Micrite (Microcrystalline) Limestone

A fine grained limestone where individual grains cannot observe by naked eye, it is known
as lime mud or carbonate mud. Some micrites may have originated when calcium
carbonate precipitated as tiny grains in the water column and settled to the sea floor. And
its form from a soft lime mud originally made of tiny grains of calcium carbonate.

Intraclastic limestone

Intraclastic limestones are limestone unit in which different grain on the lime stone units
are visible to our naked eyes. It is fragments and re-worked carbonate sediment. The
impurity is clearly observed on it. An aggregate consists of several carbonate grains
cemented together during sedimentation.

21
 Oolithic limestone

This type of limestone has holes (moulds) where originally aragonitic fossils and Ooids
have been dissolved out. It is observed at the bottom part of lower limestone.

Fossiliferous Limestone

Any type of limestone made mostly of calcium carbonate (CaCo3) in the form of minerals
calcite or aragonite that contains an abundance of fossils or fossil traces. The fossil present
in the following rock units are brachiopods and other hard shelled mollusk remains. Some
of these fossiliferous limestones are covered around upper cliff limestone.

Figure 3.2 fossiliferous limestone

3.2.1.4. Description of Fossils

In the study area there are different types of fossils that are dominantly present in the
limestone units. These fossils include bivalves, gastropods, brachiopods and etc.

Bivalve’s bivalves are molluscs that belong to class bivalvia. They have two parts of shells
in which both valves are symmetrical (mirror image) along plane passing through between
two valves. One of the valves cover the left side of animals and one cover the right side of
animals. They live in marine environment by filtering particles from the water.

22
Gastropods; they are a molluscs that contains univalves (one valves) and live in marine
environment. They are commonly known as snails and slugs. Nails have external shells
and slugs do not have external shells.

Brachiopods; these organisms are sessile two-valved, marine animals. The two
brachiopod valves differ in shape and size from one another and their opposing valves are
used to enclose most of the soft body. Their shell is made up of calcite but a few groups
have shells made of calcium phosphate.

3.2.2. Marl unit

3.2.2.1. Upper marl unit

It is a rock unit overlain by upper limestone and underlain by lower lime stone units. At the
contact between this unit and the lower limestone there is formation of sharp contact
which is located at geographic coordinate of 0434238m E and 1051751m N and elevation
of about 1990m above sea level. These unit is also has the same characteristic with that of
the lower marl both compositionally and lithologically. They are differing in the time of
deposition of sediments from which it is formed; upper marl is younger and lower marl is
older. The depositional area of these units is also marine environment.

3.2.2.2. Lower marl unit

Lower marl unit is similar in composition to that of upper marl unit that means both of
them are composed of calcite and clay. It contains soft sediment which is highly susceptible
to weathering. Due to this lower marl unit is easily broken down and forms fertile soil
which suitable for vegetation growth. It is gentle covered by plant or vegetation, crops and
grasses. This unit is characterized by forming gentle slopes due to low resistance to
weathering and erosion and it is located at about 1800m above sea level. The contact
between this unit and lower limestone is sharp contact and it is located at 0434170m E and
1052908m N.

3.3. Mugher mudstone units

It is the upper most part of Mesozoic sedimentary succession, overlain by volcanic rock and
underlain by upper limestone unit. The unit is well exposed in query site. It has variegated
colors (White-Reddish) due to composition and environment of deposition. White color is

23
due to the high silica content and its environment of deposition is anaerobic. Reddish color
is due to the presence of iron content and aerobic environment of deposition. As result
reddish color is formed when it is oxidized and reacted. Compositionally it is composed of
silt, mud and sand and it has fine to medium grain size. If the grain size is finer it form
mudstone and larger grain sized is called conglomerate, if it has rounded edge. Baked
mudstone is formed around a Togo ridge of the study area. The baked mudstone is formed
when mudstone is subjected to high temperature it forms thin lamination if it is subjected
to high pressure. Its color is reddish which is due to the effect of baking. Due to the
presence of quartz and feldspar in there composition mugher mudstone are highly
resistance to weathering. The environment of deposition is continental. Because it
deposited after ocean is withdrawn from the basin during uplifting of Indian Ocean. Since
mudstone is impermeable and is characterized by isolated porosity, when water which
percolates through Cenozoic volcanic rock reaches mudstone, it does not pass through it
and thus, they are exposed to the surface in terms of spring. Therefore, springs are good
indicators of contact between Mugher mudstones and Cenozoic volcanic in Mugher basin of
Abay sub-basin. These types of springs are called contact springs because they are formed
due to contact between different lithology. The type of contact that is formed between
Cenozoic volcanic rock and mudstone unit is sharp contact because at the contact between
them there is no mixture of the two lithologic units. This means at the contact between
them one lithologic unit is directly changed to another lithologic unit.

3.4. Volcanic rock unit

Volcanic rock (basalt) is formed at the upper part of the Mesozoic sedimentary succession
of sub blue Nile basin with an elevation of greater than 2240m and Geographic coordinate
of above 0433823m E and 1050508m N. These rocks are a result of volcanic eruption of
Afar Mantle plume in early and late Oligocene, depositing volcanic rocks between 500m
and 2000m thick, with further eruption in Quaternary depositing another thick rock. This
succession is exposed around Togo ridge, Wayu Wegidi, Wayu biyo and Wayu mokoda of
the study area. They are formed when volatile gases escaped from lava during
crystallization of magma on the surface of the earth. The volcanic rock crystallized from the
molten magma that rises from a great depth and they are extrusive rocks composed of
heavy minerals like olivine and pyroxene. They are ferromagnetic compositionally which
are composed of ferromagnetic minerals Like Mg and Fe. Their fresh part is dark colored
and their weathered part is light colored depending on the degree of weathering. The
presence of Mg in their composition makes their color to be black. And reddish color is also
formed which indicates the presence of Fe in their composition. Volcanic rocks are highly
susceptible to weathering, because they are formed from minerals that are crystallized at
high temperature. They are generally characterized by fine grained (aphanite) texture. Due

24
to their susceptibility to weathering they form fertile soil and are suitable for vegetation
growth. They are characterized by high permeability and highly interconnected porosity, as
a result they percolate water through them.

3.5. Geological Structure

Geological structures are a feature that develops during or shortly after deposition of
sediment. Helps to understand how the sediment was transported and deposited. They
provide important clues to depositional environment.

There are two types of geological structures in the study area. They are formed at different
time during and after formation os sedimentary structure. The one that is formed during
the depositions of sedimentary succession is known as syn-depositional or primary
sedimentary structures and the one that is formed after depositions of sedimentary rocks
due to different geological activities associated with it is known as post depositional or
secondary structures. Generally, geological sedimentary structures are mainly classified
into two major types:

3.5.1. Primary Structures

Primary structures are structures which are formed simultaneously during the formation
of rocks. Common primary structures observed in the study area are; bedding
(stratification), lamination.

Bedding or stratification: These structures are formed during the formation of rocks and
characterized by their thickness, due to the depositional age and orientation. They are
nearly horizontal layering that develops as sediment accumulates layer by layer. Bedding is
commonly observed in limestone, intercalation of gypsum-shale-dolostone.

25
 Figure 3.3 horizontal bed found in limestone unit

Lamination: These primary structures very thin layers that are observed in shale and
siltstone.

Figure 3.4 lamination developed in shale unit

3.5.2. Secondary Structures

Secondary structures are structures which are formed after deposition of sedimentary
rocks as a result of subjection to external forces.

26
Faults: It is secondary structure which is formed due to the movement of two blocks. The
two blocks are known as foot wall block and hanging wall block. Foot wall block is found
below the fault plane and hanging wall block is found above the fault plane. Based on the
movement of the hanging wall and foot wall block there are different types of fault. These
are normal fault, reverse fault and thrust fault and etc. In normal fault the hanging wall
blocks move down and the foot wall block moves in upward direction and in reverse fault
the hanging wall blocks move upward and foot wall blocks move downward. In the study
area there is a Major fault plane which extends for several kilometers and there are also
Minor faults. The topography may also be strongly influenced by faulting, So that the fault
plane can be identified on the ground by a sudden and sharp change in elevation.

FAULTS

Figure 3.5 minor normal faults in the study area.

Joint: Is one of secondary geological structure which formed or observed in different
lithological units. This structure developed through the body of sedimentary rock without
any displacement of rocks. It is mainly observed in the limestone unit. Joints are cracks (or
fractures) found in most rocks either at the surface, or in subsurface. Depending up on the
grain size and rock fabric the joint spacing could be different. For example, fine grained

27
rocks tend to have close-spaced joints, while coarse grained rocks tend to have wide spaced
joints.

Figure 3.6 Joint developed in lower limestone unit

Crack: Is the well-developed breaking up the body of sedimentary rocks with some
displacement.
Fracture: Are secondary structures which are not well oriented directional. These
structures are common in limestone and they run in any direction. These structures are
also developed in mugher mudstone unit and they show non symmetrical fracturing.

28
 Figure 3.7 fracture developed in mugher mudstone

3.6. General stratigraphy

The stratigraphic sequences of sub-blue Nile basin have different layers which are
deposited at different time and different environment of deposition. The oldest part of sub-
blue Nile basins are formed during Mesozoic era and are termed as Mesozoic sedimentary
succession of sub-blue Nile basins and the youngest part is formed during Cenozoic
volcanic exposure. The sequence includes three major Mesozoic sediments which are
overlaid by Cenozoic volcanic exposure. These includes Gohatsion formation, Antalo
limestone and mugher mudstone units from oldest to youngest.

29
Formation Lithologic units Stratigraphic succession Environment
of the units of
deposition

Cenozoic Continental
exposure Volcanic rock

Continental
Mugher mudstone

Marine

Upper
Antalo limestone
limestone Marine
(Laga-
Mesozoic
Jima) Upper
sedimentary
limestone marl
succession
of sub blue
Nile Lower Marine
limestone
Lower
marl Marine

Transitional

Gohatsion formation

Figure3.8 General Stratigraphy and environment of deposition of sub-blue Nile basins.

30
3.7.Geological map and cross section

Figure 3.9 i) geological map of the study area ii) geological cross section of the study area

31
Chapter Four

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. Result of the study

In our study area we have seen only three parts of the Mesozoic sedimentary successions of
sub-blue Nile basin including Gohatsion formation, Antalo (Laga-Jima) limestone and
Mugher mudstone which are overlain by Cenozoic volcanic exposure. Gohatsion formation
is deposited at the bottom of Mesozoic sedimentary succession of sub-blue Nile Basin and it
consist the intercalation of Gypsum-shale-Dolostone. Antalo limestone unit is deposited on
the top part of Gohatsion formation and compositionally it consists of clay and calcite. It
consists of limestone and marl unit. The limestone unit in the Antalo limestone is classified
as upper limestone and lower limestone and the marl unit is also classified in to upper marl
and lower marl units. Lower marl unit is exposed at the bottom layer of Antalo lime stone
and it is characterized by forming gentle slope. Lower limestone unit is overlain by the
upper marl unit and underlain by the lower marl units. It forms steep slope and is
characterized by sparse vegetation growth. Upper marl is deposited on the lower limestone
unit forming gentle slope and this unit is highly suitable for vegetation growth. Upper
limestone unit is exposed at the top part of Antalo limestone unit. It is characterized by
more fossil contents and thicker than lower limestone unit. Mugher mudstone is exposed
on the upper part of Antalo limestone unit. Volcanic rock which is deposited on the mugher
mudstone is highly susceptible to weathering and they forms fertile soil. Rock in this unit is
characterized by reddish and black colors. There is major fault in study area which extends
many kilometers and displaces different lithological units especially closer to Antalo
limestone. There is a contact between the Mesozoic sedimentary succession and Cenozoic
volcanic exposure. Spring is formed at the contact between mudstone and volcanic rocks.
There is formation of cliff on the upper limestone and lower limestone units.

Table 4.1 Table of result from the study area

32
Rock type Color Grain Composition Mode Environment
size Of formation of deposition
Fresh Weathered

Volcanic Dark Light-dark Fine Ferromagnetic Extrusive

rock grained minerals and Volcano Continental
olivine and
pyroxene

Variegate Yellowish- Fine- Iron Regression of

Sandstone d colors greyish- coarse Quartz Indian ocean Continental
brown grained Feldspar

Limestone Grey Light-dark Fine- Calcite Transgression of

grey coarser (CaCO3) Indian ocean Marine
grain

Gypsum White White Fine

,red, grain CaSO4.2H2O Evaporation Transitional
brown,
yellow

Mudstone Brown Fine Quartz and Transgression

light-dark grain feldspar Continental

Shale Variegate Black Fine- Iron

d colors coarser Quartz and Transgression Transitional
yellowish, grain feldspars
greenish
and
reddish

4.2. Discussion of the studies

Mugher basin is part of Blue Nile basin which is situated in North western part of Ethiopia.
Gohatsion formation represents the oldest Mesozoic sedimentary succession and mugher
muddy sandstones represent the youngest Mesozoic sedimentary succession in this basin.
At the top of Mesozoic sedimentary rocks, Cenozoic volcanic rocks are deposited
Gohatsion formation:-Gohatsion formation is part of Blue Nile basin which is deposited at
the bottom part of Mesozoic sediments of Blue Nile basin. It includes the intercalation of
Gypsum-shale-dolostone units. This intercalation forms due to the gap in their depositional

33
time. The intercalations of these units are horizontally bedded and they are found at the
query site. The gypsum unit generally has fine grain, white in color with some dark colored
due to the presence of magnesium. The shale units are formed between gypsum and
dolostone. They show fissility and can be easily break down or it is friable. It is loose and
smooth and has clearly visible lamination which is horizontally bedded.

Antalo limestone: - Antalo limestone is deposited at the top of Gohatsion formation. It

includes limestone unit and marl units. Both are composed of calcite minerals. They are
differing in depositional time, fossil content and thickness. Lower limestone deposited first
before the deposition of upper limestone and therefore it is older than the upper limestone.
The fossil content is higher in the upper limestone unit and lower fossil content in the
lower limestone because the upper limestone is younger, the probability of fossils to get
oxygen is higher as a result they contain more fossils. The upper limestone unit is also
thicker than lower limestone, because as the geological age increases the rocks are highly
compacted together. The marl unit in Antalo limestone is also classified in to upper marl
and lower marl units. Similar to the limestone unit they differ in the depositional age and
thickness. Lower marl unit is older than upper marl unit.

Lower marl:-it is oldest part of Antalo limestone unit which is deposited at the bottom of
Antalo limestone. It is highly susceptible to weathering and forms fertile soil. As a result it
is suitable for vegetation growth. The marl unit also form gentle slope due to their
susceptibility to weathering.

Lower limestone- it is exposed on the top part of the lower marl and is underlain by upper
marl unit. It forms cliff which shows steep slope. It is highly resistant to weathering
because it is composed of calcite which is hard. They do not form fertile soil therefore they
are not suitable for vegetation growth

Upper marl unit- this unit is highly exposed at the study area and it is underlain by lower
limestone unit and overlain by upper limestone unit. The upper marl unit is
compositionally similar with lower marl but they are separated due to depositional time
difference. They are also highly susceptible to weathering and forms gentle slope.

Upper limestone – this unit is the upper most part of Antalo formation which is deposited
at the top of upper marl and overlain by mugher mudstone unit. They forms steep slope
because they are highly resistant to weathering and as a result they form cliff. They are not
suitable for vegetation growth because they do not contain the soil as they are highly
resistant to weathering.

Mugher mudstone unit- mugher mudstone unit is the youngest part of the Mesozoic
sedimentary succession of Blue Nile basin which is exposed at the study area and is
underlain by Antalo limestone and overlain by volcanic rock. Compositionally they are

34
composed of clay, sand and mud. As a result they contain different rock units and are fine in
grain sized and are red in color due to the presence of iron in their composition. Mugher
mudstone unit consists of isolated porosity and is highly impermeable as a result it does
not percolate water through it therefore the water that reaches mudstone unit become
exposed to the surface at the contact between Cenozoic volcanic rock and mudstone in the
form of springs.

Volcanic rock- This is part of Cenozoic exposure which is highly exposed at the top of
Mesozoic sediment of Abay basin. This rock unit is highly suitable to weathering because
they are formed from minerals that are crystallized at high temperature like olivine and
pyroxene. As a result they are suitable for vegetation growth due the formation of fertile
soil by weathering presses. The rock unit is fine grained basaltic rocks which contain black
to reddish color. Black color is due to the presence of magnesium in there composition and
reddish color is due to the presence of Iron in their composition. At the contact between
volcanic rock and mudstone there is no mixture of the two lithologic units, As a result the
contact between them is called sharp contact and contact spring is formed due to the
permeability of volcanic rock and impermeability of mudstone.

There is large fault in study area which extends to several tens of kilometers displacing
several lithologies. This fault is normal fault because the hanging wall block above the fault
plane is moved to down whereas foot wall block below the fault plane is moved upward.

4.3. Correlation of Local with Regional Geology

Correlation of different rock unit understanding of the relationship between rock strata at
different localities based on their stratigraphy and lithology. It is the demonstration of
equivalence among rocks that are formed in different areas at different period of time on
the basis of common features they display. So in order to correlate the stratigraphic
sequence of the study area with regional stratigraphic sequence in Blue Nile basins, it
needs different types of correlation mechanism like; lithostratigraphy-correlation based on
lithology, biostratigraphy-the correlation based on fossil content, and Chronostratigraphy-
correlation which is based on absolute time of formation. From this we correlated them by
using lithostratigraphic correlation, because due to the absence of detailed studies and lack
of appropriate instruments we are unable to do the other mechanism. As a result we have
mapped major lithologies based on similarity of the rock type and their stratigraphic
sequence in the succession. Based on their stratigraphic position the volcanic rock in the
local geology is correlated with the volcanic rock in the regional geology. Mugher Mudstone

35
unit in local geology can be correlated with mudstone of regional geology based on their
lithology and stratigraphic position.

Antalo limestone in regional geology can be correlated with upper limestone unit, upper
marl unit ,lower limestone unit and lower marl in local geology based on their depositional
series and lithology. Intercalation of shale gypsum unit in local geology can be correlated
with Gohatsion formation in regional geology based on stratigraphic sequence and
lithology. Generally local geology can be correlated with regional geology based on the
above correlation.

Local Geology Regional Geology

Volcanic rock Volcanic rock

Debra Libanos sandstone

Mugher mudstone
Mudstone unit

Upper limestone
Antalo Limestone
lower limestone

Upper marl Gohatsion formation

Lower marl
Intercalation of gypsum- Adigrat sandstone
shale-dolostone
Pre Adigrat

Basement rock

Figure 4.1 correlation of local geology with regional geology

36
 Chapter Five

5. Economic Importance of Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks have a wide variety of uses, making them extremely important. The
rocks present in the study area have vast economic importance. Economic importance of
different rock units of the study area briefly explained below.
Basalt (volcanic rock): It is widely used for local construction; both as building stone and
aggregate, and crudely shaped pieces are worked with simple tools and manpower.
Volcanic rock is used in construction of Road, Bridge, Buildings and Dam due to its strength
and durability. In general, the basalt deposits are not considered to be of specific interest
for more industrial-scaled building stone exploitation.

Sandstone: sandstone is important for the reservoir of petroleum and ground water due to
its high porosity and permeability nature. Siliceous cemented sandstone is best and highly
desirable for engineering structure purposes, also ferruginous sandstone. This rock unit is
used as one of the raw material for; Cement industry and Manufacturing plate glass, It is
used for crushed in concrete and It is also used in ceramic industries as Flooring, Wall
fixing and due to its acidic and basic resistant property

Limestone: this rock unit has major uses for cement industry than that of the other
sedimentary rock types in the study area. About 75% of limestone is used as input of
cement. If the cement contains 75% limestone, 15% clay, 10% sandstone and if it contains
gypsum Portland cement is formed. Portland cement is one of the most important
products made from limestone. It is essential in many construction applications. This
cement is used for larger construction and for the construction of larger bridges. If the
cement contain 75% limestone, 15% clay, 10% sandstone and if it contains pumice
pozilana cement is formed. This cement is used for the construction of light building and
small scale dam. It is important for masonry and architecture, vying with only granite and
sandstone to be the most commonly used architectural stone. It is a key ingredient of quick
lime, mortar, cement, and concrete. Limestone can be crushed and used as road ballast. It
was most popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It was also a very popular

37
building block in the middle ages since it is hard, durable, and commonly occurs in easily
accessible surface exposures. Many medieval churches and castles in Europe are made of
limestone. It has also become common in Ethiopia to see buildings made from limestone
Other uses of limestone include: Crushed for use as aggregate the solid base for many
roads; ingredient for glass making in some circumstances; added to paper, plastics, paint,
tiles, and other materials as both white pigment and cheap filler; ingredient for making
toothpaste; suppression of methane explosions in underground coal mines; added to bread
and cereals as a source of calcium; for fireplace, pavement, and countertops; and for
whitening of sugar in sugar industry.
Gypsum: Gypsum is used in the construction sector, in the manufacturing of building products such
as plaster, plasterboard and cement. At present there are both small scale and large scale cement
factories which use gypsum as a raw material for the production of cement. Unlike the cement
factories, which have their own quarries and use modern mining equipment, co-operative miners
use hand tools to dig blocks and supply pieces to gesso manufacturer who has jaw crushers and mill
in the vicinity of the quarry. Natural gypsum and anhydrite have been the preferred material for
cement manufacturing. Gypsum is blended with cement clinker and finely ground to produce
Portland cement. In hospital gypsum plaster (gesso) is used as special dressing in supporting
broken limbs. Small quantities of high-purity gypsum are also used in confectionary, food, the
brewing industry, pharmaceuticals, in sugar beet refining, as cat litter and as oil absorbent.

Shale: it is a clastic sedimentary rock composed of consolidated clay. Texturally it is fine-

grained sedimentary rock that formed from the compaction of mostly clay size mineral
particles. This rock unit is used for drilling of machine that protects the hole from
collapsing; used for source rock; black of organic shale are the source rock for many of the
world’s most importance oil and natural gas like shale crushed and mixed with water to
create clay and because of it is impermeable and porous nature, it act as cap-rocks in the
occurrence of oil and gas and also used for cement, terracotta pots, bricks (hardened
rectangular block of clay, mud used for building) and tile roofs (cover at top of a building).

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 Chapter Six

6. Conclusion and Recommendation

6.1. Conclusion
From the geological field of the study area we concluded that different lithological units of
the Blue Nile basin is deposited by different factors including the Regression and
Transgression of Indian ocean which causes different lithologies to be formed . When the
Transgression of Indian Ocean takes place the marine deposition can be formed and during
the regression of Indian Ocean water regrets back and the continents become deposited
and crust begins to form. As a result different continental deposition takes place. Different
geological structures were formed in the study area and these geological structures are;
primary structure, which is deposited primarily at the time of deposition and secondary
structure, is formed after the deposition time due to different tectonic activity and due to
change in temperature and pressure of the area. The formation of the study area are
deposited from youngest to oldest as Volcanic(Basaltic)rock, Mugher mudstone, upper lime
stone, upper marl, lower limestone, lower marl and Gohatsion formation at the bottom.

The correlation of the local geology with the regional geology of the study area is based on
lithostratigraphy which takes place by identifying different lithology and the stratigraphic
succession of the rock units exposed on the study area. Because other ways of correlation
needs further analysis in the laboratory correlated using the method of lithostratigraphic
correlation (based on similarity of rock type and their position in the stratigraphic
succession).finally from our field work are conducting what economic value can have the
lithologies present in the study area.

6.2. Recommendation
In the field work we were identifying the lithology based on visible characteristics only. But
the field work required detail study in order to identify the properties of rocks. To identify
the invisible properties of rock units based on biostratigraphy, Chronostratigraphy,
magneto stratigraphy and chemo stratigraphy, further chemical analysis and petrographic
study is required. The topographic map of the study area is old enough as result it required
improvement. Detail study is required to identify the rock unit. Geological field work was
done without any geological instrument except sample bag and marker but it requires
enough geological instruments including Brunton compass, hand lenses, digital camera,
GPS, color pencils and different chemicals to taste different rock units (e.g. HCl to taste for
limestone). Preparation of thin section is needed for further study of the rock units and

39
preparation of field manual is also required. Therefore this problem should be solved by
university officials and by applied geology department. Mainly the field work requires
improved map, enough geological instruments, and needs enough time to conduct
efficiently and effectively. But there are no enough geological instruments and the time
given to conduct the field work is too much short. Therefore the concerning body should
have to give special attention to do this and improve these limitation for the next
generation.

40
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