CHAPTER -1

GROUND WATER HYDROLOGY

INTRODUCTION:
Ground-water hydrology is the subdivision of the science of hydrology that deals with the
occurrence, movement, and quality of water beneath the Earth’s surface. It is interdisciplinary in scope in
that it involves the application of the physical, biological, and mathematical sciences.
Groundwater, pumped from beneath the earth’s surface, is often cheaper, more convenient and
less vulnerable to pollution than surface water. Therefore, it is commonly used for public water supplies.
Groundwater provides the largest source of usable water storage in the United States. Underground
reservoirs contain far more water than the capacity of all surface reservoirs and lakes, including the Great
Lakes. In some areas, ground water may be the only option. Some municipalities survive solely on
groundwater.
Hydrologists estimate the volume of water stored underground by measuring water levels in
local wells and by examining geologic records from well-drilling to determine the extent, depth and
thickness of water-bearing sediments and rocks. Before an investment is made in full-sized wells,
hydrologists may supervise the drilling of test wells. They note the depths at which water is encountered
and collect samples of soils, rock and water for laboratory analyses. They may run a variety of geophysical
tests on the completed hole, keeping and accurate log of their observations and test results.
Hydrologists determine the most efficient pumping rate by monitoring the extent that water
levels drop in the pumped well and in its nearest neighbours. Pumping the well too fast could cause it to
go dry or could interfere with neighbouring wells. Along the coast, over pumping can cause saltwater
intrusion. By plotting and analyzing these data, hydrologists can estimate the maximum and optimum
yields of the well.
The earth sciences dealing with the flow of water through aquifers and other shallow porous
media (typically less than 450 m below the land surface). The very shallow flow of water in the subsurface
(the upper 3 m) is pertinent to the fields of soil science, agriculture and civil engineering, as well as to
hydrogeology. The general flow of fluids (water, hydrocarbons, geothermal fluids, etc.) in deeper
formations is also a concern of geologists, geophysicists and petroleum geologists. Groundwater is a slow-
moving, viscous fluid (with a Reynolds number less than unity); many of the empirically derived laws of
groundwater flow can be alternately derived in fluid mechanics from the special case of Stokes flow
(viscosity and pressure terms, but no inertial term).
The mathematical relationships used to describe the flow of water through porous media are
Darcy's law, the diffusion and Laplace equations, which have applications in many diverse fields. Steady
groundwater flow (Laplace equation) has been simulated using electrical, elastic and heat conduction

1
analogies. Transient groundwater flow is analogous to the diffusion of heat in a solid, therefore some
solutions to hydrological problems have been adapted from heat transfer literature.
Traditionally, the movement of groundwater has been studied separately from surface water,
climatology, and even the chemical and microbiological aspects of hydrogeology (the processes are
uncoupled). As the field of hydrogeology matures, the strong interactions between groundwater, surface
water, water chemistry, soil moisture and even climate are becoming more clear.
California and Washington both require special certification of hydrogeologists to offer
professional services to the public. Twenty-nine states require professional licensing for geologists to offer
their services to the public, which often includes work within the domains of developing, managing, and/or
remediating groundwater resources.

1.1 SCOPE OF GROUNDWATER HYDROLOGY:

Hydrology is the science that deals with all aspects of the water available on the earth. It includes
study of occurrence of water, its properties, its distribution and circulation and also its effects on the living
beings and their surroundings. It is not entirely a pure science because it has many practical applications
and it utilizes knowledge of other sciences greatly. Broadly, the whole subject matter can be expressed in
the form of a mathematical equation.
The equation is:
P=R+L
(or)
Precipitation= Runoff + Losses
In the above equation precipitation indicates total supply of water from all forms of falling
moisture and mainly includes rainfall and snowfall. The runoff represents surplus water that flows over
the surface to join some river or sea.
The term losses includes that portion of water which goes to atmosphere and underground by
the processes like evaporation and percolation respectively. For practical reasons hydrology does not cover
all studies- of oceans and medical uses of water.
After studying this equation with the background of hydrologic cycle it will be clear that the
term losses never implies that this water is lost and cannot be used again. It is the water which temporarily
disappears from view (e.g., evaporation, seepage, etc.) and given favourable conditions, reappears to
perform various duties. Hence, it is necessary to study all the three terms of the equation, namely rainfall,
runoff, and losses.

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1.2 OBJECTIVES OF GROUNDWATER HYDROLOGY:
• Nearly 50% of the population of the india uses ground water for its drinking water supply.
• 30% of stream flow in the India is derived from groundwater discharging to the stream.
• Many aquifers are mined.
• Reduce rainfall from global warming is predicated to increase the need for groundwater.

3
 CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE REVIEW
GENERAL:
Ground water is an importance source of water supply for municipalities, agriculture and industry.
Therefore the capability to predict the behaviour of chemical contaminates in flowing ground water is of
vital importance for
a) The reliable assessment of hazardous or risks arising from ground water contamination problems,
b) The design of efficient and effective techniques to mitigate them.
The most challenging problems associated with ground water contamination are :-
a) To prevent the introduction of contaminations in an aquifer.
b) To predict their movement if they are introduced.
c) To remove them, to some extent in order to protect the biosphere effectively.
Groundwater contamination studies generally include: -
1. The scientific understanding of physical, chemical and biological processes controlling fate and
movement of contaminants in the subsurface environment;
2. The mathematical representation in the transport models to predict the contaminant movement;
3. The determination of different model parameters in the field and the laboratory using different
methods;
4. The development of management models to control or prevent introduction of contaminants and to
determine the methodology for the safe disposal of hazardous wastes.

2.1 AQUIFER SYASTEMS:

Water resources of earth can be classified as surface water and ground water in which
groundwater is the main source for the domestic, agricultural and industrial needs. Groundwater is an
important part of the hydrologic cycle.
The hydrologic cycle begins with the evaporation of water from the surface of the ocean. As
moist air is lifted, it cools and water vapour condenses to form clouds. Moisture is transported around the
globe until it returns to the surface as precipitation.

Once the water reaches the ground, one of two processes may occur;
(1) some of the water may evaporate back into the atmosphere or
(2) the water may penetrate the surface and become groundwater.
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 Groundwater either seeps its way to into the oceans, rivers, and streams, or is released back
into the atmosphere through transpiration. The balance of water that remains on the earth’s surface is
runoff, which empties into lakes, rivers and streams and is carried back to the oceans, where the cycle
begins again.

Fig. 2.1 Hydrological cycle

2.2 BASIC DEFINATIONS OF TYPES OF AQUIFERS:-
An Aquifer is defined as a rock mass, layer or formation which is saturated with groundwater
and which by virtue of its properties is capable of yielding the contained water at economical costs when
tapped. The quality of an aquifer will, therefore, depend both on how much quantity of water a rock
formation can hold per unit volume and at what rate it can yield water when tapped for supplies. It is a
storage reservoir and transmission conduit at the same time.
Gravels, limestone and sandstone generally form good aquifer when occurring in suitable
geological conditions and geographic situations.
Aquifer are divided into four types on the basis of physical conditions under which water can
exist in term, they are:
a) Confined Aquifer:
A confined aquifer is that in which aquicludes lie both above and below it. The aquiclude restrict
the movement of groundwater and as a result in the confined aquifer the groundwater moves under
pressure. The water pressure in such an aquifer depends on the difference in height between it and the
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recharge area. If the difference is enough, the water will readily flow out of a well drilled into it. Such
wells are called “artesian wells”. A region supplying water to a confined aquifer is called “recharge area”.
In the recharge area, the rain water infiltrates underground through the soil. Naturally, water held in this
type of aquifer is not under atmospheric pressure but under a greater pressure due to the confining medium.
The upper surface of water in a confined aquifer is called Piezometric surface.

Fig.2.2 Aquifer system

b) Unconfined Aquifer:
It is also called a watertable aquifers, and is most common type encountered in the field. In this
type, the upper surface of water-table is under atmospheric pressure which may be acting through the
interstices in the overlying rocks. Water occurring in this type of aquifer is called Free Groundwater. When
tapped through a test well, the free water will rise to a level in the well equivalent to the water table of the
area.
c) Perched Aquifer:
It is the term used for isolated water table in an aquifer held by a small extension of impervious
rocks within a large pervious tract. In such cases, the main water table is located much below. Supplied
from such isolated reservoirs with perched water-table are often unreliable.
d) Artesian Aquifer:
It is a aquifer of such a geometry developed in suitable geological situation so that the piezometric
surface is always above the ground level at many places when projected in elevation. When water is tapped
from such a aquifer, it reaches out and may rise to the height equivalent to the projected piezometric
surface.
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2.3 ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION OF GROUNDWATER: -
All that water which occurs below the surface of the earth in one from or another, that is , as water
moving down to greater depths under the influence of gravity, or moving in columns and thickness of
saturated rocks, the aquifers under definite hydro-static pressure of flowing as underground streams etc,
is broadly grouped as subsurface water. The water occurring in definite rock bodies and fully saturating
them below a level is further distinguished as Groundwater.
Groundwater, like surface waters, is also very powerful natural agent responsible not only for
modifying the existing features but also for creating many other geological features on and below the
surface of the earth.

1) ORIGIN: -
Most of the Groundwater occurring below the surface is derived from the following three
sources:
(a) Meteoric Water
(b) Connate Water
(c) Magmatic water
a) METEORIC WATER:–
It is derived from recent or modern atmospheric precipitation by mainly rain and snow, which
provide surface and sub-surface runoff rivers, streams and creeks. A considerable part of precipitation
gradually infiltrates into the ground. This infiltrated water continues its journey till it reaches the zone of
Saturation to become a part of the groundwater in the aquifer. Almost entire water obtained from the
ground water belongs to this category. Depending upon the continuity and /or discontinuity of the aquifers
based on stratigraphy, sedimentology, structural dip, directions of cleat and fracture systems, groundwater
develops either local or regional flow.
Water may also be contributed to the groundwater by surface water bodies (which themselves
are supplied by precipitation) such as rivers, lakes and seas. In the case of streams this happens when the
water table is lower than the water level in the stream. Such streams are often referred as Influent Streams.
A reverse condition is also common when groundwater nourishes a stream; in this case water table is
higher than the level of water in the stream and such streams are called as Effluent streams.

7
 Fig. 2.3 Meteoric Water
b) CONNATE WATER:–
This is the water present in the rocks right from the time of their deposition in an aqueous
environment. During the process of formation of sedimentary rocks in a lake or sea or river, deposition is
followed by compaction, which leads to the squeezing out of most of the water present between the
sediments. Sometimes however incomplete compaction may cause retention of some water by these rocks
this is the connate water and may be encountered in sedimentary rocks like Limestones, sandstones and
gravels. This water is highly saline and mineralised and is of no importance as a source for exploitable
groundwater.
c) JUVENILE WATER:–
Also called Magmatic Water . Water formed in the cracks or crevices or pores of rocks due to
condensation of stram emanating from hot molten masses or magmas existing below the surface of the
earth.
2)DISTRIBUTION: -
The water that goes below the surface of the land may be found to exist in two main zones
namely as Vadosezone and Saturation zone

8
 Fig.2.4 Zone of interconnected Openings

i. MOISTURE ZONE:
The soil moisture zone forms a thin layer of depth 1to 9 metres held up by the root zone of
vegetable cover and soil chemicals. This water is very important for the life and growth of the vegetable
cover of the globe. It is lost to the atmosphere by transpiration and evaporation.

A) INTERMEDIATE VADOSE ZONE:-

Also known as the zone of unsaturation, water is moving downwards under the influence of
gravity. This zone is of small thickness and is also absent in some cases.
B) ZONE OF CAPILARUY FRINGE:-
This zone of capillary fringe comprises of soil and rocks of fine particle size underlying the vadose
zone. It is absent in the coarse sediments. In the fine particle size zone, groundwater is drawn upwards by
capillary action, sometimes to heights of 2-3 metres above the saturated zone lying underneath. The cause
of rise of water in the capillaries of fine sediments is well known force of surface tension.

9
 ii. SATURATION ZONE:-
The water held up in this zone is called groundwater in real sense. The upper surface of water in
the zone marks the water table in the area. The layers or bodies of rocks which are porous and permeable,
have all their open spaces such as pores, cavities, cracks, etc. completely filled with groundwater. All these
openings are thoroughly interconnected saturated rock mass, called the aquifer.
2.4 GROUNDWATER RECHARGE: -
Deep drainage or deep percolation is a hydrologic process, where water moves downward from
surface water to groundwater. Recharge is the primary method through which water enters an aquifer. This
process usually occurs in the vadose zone below plant roots and, is often expressed as a flux to the water
table surface. Groundwater recharge also encompasses water moving away from the water table farther
into the saturated zone. Recharge occurs both naturally (through the water cycle) and through
anthropogenic processes ("artificial groundwater recharge"), where rainwater and or reclaimed water is
routed to the subsurface.
2.5 GROUND WATER DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA: -
The total annual replenishable ground water resources of the country have been assessed as 433
billion cubic meter (BCM). Existing gross ground water draft as on March 2004 for all uses is
231 BCM per year. The stage of ground water development is about 58%.
The development of ground water in different areas of the country has not been uniform. Highly
intensive development of ground water in certain areas in the country has resulted in over exploitation
leading to decline in the levels of ground water and sea water intrusion in coastal areas. There is a
continuous increase in dark and over-exploited areas in the country.
As per the latest assessment of ground water resources carried out jointly by the Central Ground
Water Board (CGWB) and the States, the assessment units are categorized as 'over exploited'/'critical' and
'semi-critical' based on the stage of ground water development and the long-term water level declining
trend during the past decade (1995-2004). Out of 5,723 assessment units (Blocks/Mandals/Talukas) in the
country, 839 units in various.
States have been categorized as 'over exploited', i.e., the annual ground water extraction exceeds
the annual replenishable resource. In addition, 226 units are 'critical', i.e., the stage of ground water
development is above 90 per cent and less than 100 per cent of annual replenishable resource with
significant decline in long term water level trend in both pre-monsoon and post-monsoon period.
2.6 GROUND WATER POTENTIAL IN INDIA:
The total annual replenishable ground water resources of the Country have been reassessed as 433
Billion Cubic Meters (BCM) and the net annual ground water availability is estimated as 399 BCM. The
stage of ground water development is around 6

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 The development of ground water in different areas of the country has not been uniform. Highly
intensive development of ground water in certain areas in the country has resulted in over exploitation
leading to decline in the levels of ground water and sea water intrusion in coastal areas.
There is a continuous growth in dark and overexploited areas in the country

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 CHAPTER-3
OVER VIEW OF GROUNDWATER HYDROLOGY
The question arises why groundwater is so important in today’s world where water scarcity
becoming ubiquitous. The following few points demonstrate the need and importance of groundwater:
• availability of water at the point of need,
• relatively low costs compared to surface water,
• availability in most of the areas worldwide,
• potable to a large extent and do not require treatment,
• water scarcity in many parts of the world motivates the use of groundwater during dry seasons
Groundwater also plays an important role in maintaining ecological balance and environment
through maintaining water at a minimum required level in rivers and other water bodies. Groundwater also
plays a very important role in maintaining navigation through inland waters in the drier seasons.
Rainwater infiltrates in the ground through the soil pores and stored in water bearing strata
below the ground, which is called aquifer. Aquifers are composed of different materials like
unconsolidated sands and gravels, permeable rocks such as sandstone, limestone, fractured volcanic and
crystalline rocks, etc.
Water moves through interconnected spaces within these rocks and such a property makes
them permeable. Portion of the rocks in which voids are filled with water is called saturated zone of
aquifer. Depth of water in saturated zone of aquifer from the ground is called water table. The water table
ranges from shallow (few meter below the ground) to deep (few hundred meters deep). Flow of upon
hydraulic gradient and normally flow takes places under gravity exact groundwater in the aquifer is a
function of aquifer characteristics.

Fig. 3.1 types of water

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external influences like pumping wells. The groundwater flow remains in circulation in the hydrological
cycle until it is withdrawn through pumping.Surface and groundwater remains in dynamic interaction in
the form of recharge from surface sources and withdrawal from the groundwater. Groundwater is
(naturally) recharged from the rain, surface water bodies like rivers and lakes and from seepages taking
places from the man-made irrigation, water supply and drainage systems. Groundwater is available almost
everywhere. Depth of the groundwater table depends on several factors such as the physical characteristics
of the area, aquifer characteristics, meteorological conditions, recharge and withdrawal rates. Heavy rains
may increase recharge and cause the water table to rise. But on the other hand, an extended period of dry
weather and increased withdrawal may cause the water table to fall. Global Water Balance (Shiklomanov’s
1993).

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 Water source Water Water volume, Percent of Percent of
volume, In cubic kilometres freshwater total water
in cubic miles

Oceans,Seas,& Bays 321,000,000 1,338,000,000 — 96.5

Icecaps, Glaciers, 5,773,000 24,064,000 68.7 1.74

&Permanent Snow

Groundwater 5,614,000 23,400,000 — 1.69

Fresh 2,526,000 10,530,000 30.1 0.76

Saline 3,088,000 12,870,000 — 0.93

Soil Moisture 3,959 16,500 0.05 0.001

Ground Ice & 71,970 300,000 0.86 0.022

Permafrost

Lakes 42,320 176,400 — 0.013

Fresh 21,830 91,000 0.26 0.007

Saline 20,490 85,400 — 0.006

Atmosphere 3,095 12,900 0.04 0.001

Swamp Water 2,752 11,470 0.03 0.0008

Rivers 509 2,120 0.006 0.0002

Biological Water 269 1,120 0.003 0.0001

Table.1. Details Of Ground Water Volume

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3.1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF AQUIFER:-
Aquifers differ in their geological composition and physical characteristics. Most important aquifer
properties are storage capacity and transmissivity. Physical characteristics of aquifer depend upon shape,
size, and packing of the grains. Some important characteristics of aquifers are as follows -
Porosity:-
Porosity is a measure of available voids in percentage in a soil/rocky formation in which water can
be stored. It can be defined as the ratio of voids to the total volume of a soil or rock. It can be represented
in fraction or percentage.

ή = Vv /Vt

where, ή is the porosity, Vt is the total volume and Vv is volume of voids in the soil or rock. Porosity is
one of the important aquifer property which indicates the maximum amount of water that an aquifer store,
when it is saturated. Porosity depends on grain size, shape and their arrangement but not on the size of
grains.
Permeability: -
Permeability (K) is the ability of an aquifer to transmit water through its voids under a hydraulic
gradient. It can be defined as the flow per unit cross-sectional area of the aquifer when subjected to a unit
hydraulic head per unit length of flow (i.e., per unit hydraulic gradient) and has the dimension of velocity,
i.e., L/T. The permeability depends upon the grain size distribution, porosity, shape and arrangement of
pores, properties of the pore fluid and entrapped air or gas.

FINE (SILT-CLAY)

Fig.3.2 Effect of permeability and hydraulic conductivity in the groundwater flow

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1. Specific Yield:-
The percentage volume of water with respect to total volume of water stored in the saturated aquifer,
which can be drained by gravity is called the specific yield Sy and the volume of water retained by
molecular and surface tension forces, against the force of gravity as a percentage of the total volume of
the saturated aquifer, is called specific retention Sr and corresponds to field capacity.

Porosity (n) = Specific yield (Sy) + Specific retention (Sr)

Specific yield is the water removed from unit volume of aquifer by pumping or drainage and is
expressed as percentage volume of aquifer. Specific yield depends upon particle size , shape,
arrangements of pores and compaction of the formation. The values of specific yield for alluvial aquifers
vary from 10 to 20% and for uniform sands about 30%.
2. Storage Coefficient:-
Storage coefficient of an aquifer is the volume of water drained from a unit volume of aquifer as
water level falls by a unit depth (1 m). For unconfined aquifers (water table conditions), the storage
coefficient is the same as specific yield, whereas the storage coefficient for confined aquifers ranges from
0.00005 to 0.005 and for water table aquifers from 0.05 to 0.30.
3. Specific Capacity:-
Specific capacity of a well is defined as the discharge from the well per unit drawdown. This is a
measure of the performance of a well.
4. Safe Yield:-
Safe yield from a well is the amount of water that can be economically withdrawn from the well in
the foreseeable future without causing depletion of the aquifer. Groundwater withdrawal from a
groundwater field should be planned (spacing, location and yield) in such a way that withdrawal is not
more than recharge without over exploitation.
5. Hydraulic Conductivity:-
Hydraulic conductivity of soil is a measure of its ability to transmit water under a given hydraulic
gradient. Hydraulic conductivity is the proportionality coefficient in Darcy’s law. In a saturated flow
conditions the velocity of the flow in the porous media is directly proportional to the hydraulic gradient.
This coefficient of proportionality is a constant with unit of velocity (M.T–1) and is named as hydraulic
conductivity (K).

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6. Transmissivity:-
Transmissivity measures the extent to which a reduction in groundwater level due to pumping at a
particular point is transmitted to rest of the aquifer. The coefficient of transmissibility (T) is the discharge
per unit width and entire depth of a saturated aquifer under a unit hydraulic gradient and is usually
expressed as lpd/m or m2/sec. It is the product of permeability (K) and saturated thickness of the aquifer
(b); T = Kb and has the dimensions L2/T.
7. Groundwater Flow:-
There are two basic equations which governs the flow through porous media. These are (a) Darcy’s
law and (b) Continuity equation (law of mass conservation.

3. 2 STUDY DETAILS AT LOCATED ARENA: -

3.2.1 Map of located arena: -

image. 3.1 Map of RUDRAKOTA

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3.2.2 BORE WELLS AT LOCATED ARENA:

image. 3.2 Location Of BoreWells

18
3.2.3 CHECK DAMS AND MI TANKS: -

Image. 3.3 Location Of Check And Mi Tanks

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3.3GROUNDWATER DETAILS: -
3.3.1 VILLAGE GROUNDWATER ASSESSMENT: -

District Nellore

Mandal Kavali

Village Rudrakota

Principle Aquifer Laterite

No of Existing Agriculture Bore Wells 284

Depth Range (m) 40 - 60

Yield Range (Lph) 4000 - 10000

Avg. DTW Pre Monsoon (Bgl) 8

Avg. DTW Post Monsoon (Bgl) 10.16

Groundwater Current (meters) 12.75

Rainfall Y.T.D (mm) 170.58

Whether Feasible for Groundwater Extraction Yes

Type of Well Feasible Borewell

Tentative Depth Range (m) 40 - 60

Tentative Yield Range (Lph) 4000 - 10000

Expected Yield (Lph) 4000 - 10000

Suitability Suitable

OE Village Notified -

Village Category Semi_critical

Table.2. GROUND WATER DETAILS

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3.3.2 KAVALI REGION:-

Name Kavali-1-GW

District: Nellore

Mandal: KAVALI

Level value: 16.2500

Lat: 14.91

Long: 79.97

Table.3. GW details at KAVALI REGION

3.3.3 SOIL MOISTURE CONDITION IN VILLAGE:-

Depth 0-20 20-40 40-100

30 cm 555.00 1,540.00 15,917.00

5 cm 998.00 16,248.00 16,248.00

Table.4 Soil moisture condition at RUDRAKOTA

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 3.3.4 GROUNDWATER RISE AND FALL LEVELS:-

Sno Site Id Mand Piezo Aug- Nov- May- Jul-19 Aug- Rise(
al meter 18 18 19 19 +)/Fal
Locati 24/08 24/08/ l(-)
on /2018 2019 from
(Villag curren
e) t
water
level
and
with
refere
nce to

19:00 19:00 Aug- Nov- May- Jul-19

HRS HRS 18 18 19

55 20725 Kavali Kavali 12 9.147 14.68 14.80 16.25 -4.259 -7.112 -1.576 -1.451
3 8 9

30 20805 Kaval Chela 10.5 11.19 13.68 14.92 15.59 -5.092 -4.402 -1.908 -0.667
i m 4 5 2
Cherla

Table.5. Ground water rise and fall details at kavali region

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 CHAPTER-4
CONCLUSION
• Groundwater is one of the important components of the hydrological cycle.
• Groundwater constitutes a significant proportion of the freshwater available on the
earth surface.
• Groundwater also remains in interaction with surface water system through
groundwater recharge from rainfall through infiltration and from rivers and water
bodies.
• Groundwater may also contribute to the streams and waterbodies in case of adverse
hydraulic gradient.
• Groundwater bearing formations/ rocks are called aquifers.
• Movement of groundwater in aquifer is a function of aquifer characteristics like
porosity, transmissivity, specific yield and storage capacity etc.
• Correct groundwater system characterization, conceptualization is necessary for
correct assessment of groundwater resources.
• There are various methods and models are available to describe the groundwater
behaviour under different type of external influences i.e., recharge and withdrawal
stresses.
• Groundwater assessment and management is very vital for sustainable water
resources of an areana at RUDRAKOTA- KAVALI.

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 CHAPTER- 5
REFERENCE
1 Bouwer, Herman, 1978, Groundwater hydrology :New York,McGrawHill,
2 Central Water Commission (2015) Annual Report 2013-14, CWC, Ministry of
Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation, 1-180.
3 National Research council (1996) Rock fractures and fluid flow: contemporary
understanding and Applications, National Academies Press.
4 Introduction to ground water hydrology Worthington, Ohio.
5 Todd, D. K., 1980, Groundwater Hydrology.
6 WWW.APWRIMS.AP.GOV.IN

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