Wave Particle duality and Schrodinger

Equation
 What is light? Is it a wave or a particle?

Light is an electromagnetic radiation which shows dual nature

Wave like behaviour Particle like behaviour

Reflection Photoelectric effect

Refraction Compton effect
Diffraction
Interference
 𝒉𝒄 𝒉
𝑬 = 𝒉𝝂 = ℏ𝝎 = ℏ=
𝝀 𝟐𝝅
𝒉
𝑷= = ℏ𝒌 𝟐𝜋
𝝀 𝒌=
𝝀

The visible region of the spectrum that to which our retina is

sensitive occupies a very small portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum
 Max Planck who is one of the great physicist
wrote……
“Maxwell’s theory remains for all time one of
the greatest triumphs of human intellectual
endeavour”.
Max Planck
(1858-1957)

𝐸 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑦 sin(𝑘𝑥-𝜔𝑡)

𝐵 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑧 sin(𝑘𝑥-𝜔𝑡)
𝜔
= 𝑣 is the velocity of
𝑘 Electromagnetic wave
𝑣 = 𝑐 in free space
 Photoelectric effect
The photoelectric effect refers to the emission, or ejection, of
electrons from the surface of, generally, a metal in response to
incident light.

Experimental Setup
Einstein’s explanation
• Light is comprised of particle-like quanta
each with energy 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡 = ℎν
• The quanta collide with electrons &
transfer all their energy to them

• Each electron needs a minimum energy to escape the cathode.

This is called f.
• If Equant is less than f, the electron can’t escape
• If Equant is greater than f, the electron escapes & the quantum
energy in excess of f becomes electron KE

𝐾𝐸𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 = ℎ𝜈 − 𝜙
 Light quanta  “photons”
Einstein’s light quanta were given the name
“photons” by Arthur Compton.

1892-1962 Compton Effect

 When a photon enters matter, it is likely to interact with one of the
atomic electrons.
 The photon is scattered from only one electron, rather than from all
the electrons in the material, and the laws of conservation of
energy and momentum apply as in any elastic collision between
two particles.
 The momentum of a particle moving at the speed of light is

𝐸 ℎ𝜈 ℎ
𝑃= = =
𝑐 𝑐 𝜆
Photon Energy for red light
Red light: ν = 4.0x1014 Hz

Ephoton = hν = (6.6x10-34 Js) x (4.0x1014 Hz)

= (6.6x4.0)x10-34+14 J = 26 x10-20 J
1eV
= 2.6x10-19 J x 1.6 x10-19 J
2.6 eV
= =1.6 eV
1.6

Photon Energies for visible light

color: freq Equant = hν
Red 4.0x1014 Hz 2.6x10-19J 1.6 eV
Yellow 5.0x1014Hz 3.3x10-19J 2.1 eV
Green 6.0x1014 Hz 4.0x10-19J 2.5 eV
Blue 6.7x1014Hz 4.4x10-19J 2.8 eV
Violet 7.5x1014 Hz 5.0x10-19J 3.1 eV
 Electron

J. J. Thomson’s Experiment (1897)

𝑞𝑒 = 1.60217733 × 10−19 Coulomb

𝑚𝑒 = 9.1093897 × 10−31 Kg

Joseph John Thomson

(1856-1940)
 Electromagnetic Radiation and Electron

The diffraction pattern of aluminium foil produced (a) by X-

rays and (b) by electrons; notice the similarity in diffraction
patterns.
 Wave-Particle duality
Louis de Broglie wrote…..
I was convinced that the wave particle duality
discovered by Einstein in his theory of light
quanta was absolutely general and extended to
all of the physical world, and it seemed certain
to me, therefore, that the propagation of a wave
Louis de Broglie is associated with the motion of a particle of any
(1892-1987) sort…… photon, electron, proton or any other.

 de Broglie did the research and mentioned in his Ph.D Thesis

that wave-particle is not only applicable to photons but
applicable to all e.g. electron, proton etc.
 He was given the noble prize in 1923.
 It is this wave particle duality that led to the development of
Quantum Mechanics in 1926.
When light behaves like a wave and when a particle ?

 Light behaves like a wave when it propagates through

space
 And as a particle when it interacts with matter
 Wave Particle duality
 Louis de Broglie suggested that mass particles should have wave
properties similar to electromagnetic radiation.
 A photon of light of frequency ν has the momentum
𝒑 = 𝒉𝝂/𝒄 = 𝒉/𝝀 Since 𝝂𝒄 = 𝝀
 The wavelength of a photon is therefore specified by its momentum
according to the relation
𝝀 = 𝒉/𝒑
 de Broglie suggested that this relation is completely general one
and applicable for material particles as well as photon
 Thus the wavelength of a matter wave is called the de Broglie
wavelength.
 The momentum of a particle of mass m and velocity 𝜗 is
𝑝 = 𝛾𝑚𝜗
 Hence, its de Broglie wavelength is accordingly
ℎ
λ = = ℎ/𝛾𝑚𝜗
𝑝
 𝛾 is the relativistic factor: 𝛾 = 1/ 1 − 𝜗2/𝑐2
 For nonrelativistic motion, 𝜗 ≪ 𝑐, and 𝛾 = 1 and hence
ℎ
λ = = ℎ/𝑚𝜗
𝑝
 The greater the particle’s momentum, the shorter its wavelength and
vice versa.
 As in the case of E.M. waves, the wave and particle aspects of
moving bodies can never be observed at the same time. In certain
situations, a moving body resembles a wave and in others it resembles
a particle.
 Wave-Particle duality

𝑑Ψ
𝑖ђ = 𝐻Ψ
𝑑𝑡
Schrödinger Equation (1926)
Erwin Schrödinger
(1887-1961)

In 1926 itself, Max Born formulated the

new standard interpretation of the
probability density function for (Ψ*Ψ) for
which, he was awarded the 1954 Nobel
Prize in Physics (some three decades later).

Max Born (1882-1970)

 Matter wave: Waves of what?

 In water waves, the quantity that varies periodically is the

height of the water surface.
 In sound waves, it is pressure.
 In light waves, electric and magnetic fields vary.
 What is it that varies in the case of matter waves?

 The quantity whose variations make up matter waves is

called the wave function,Ψ.
 The value of the wave function associated with a moving
body at the particular point x, y, z in space at the time t is
related to the likelihood of finding the body there at the
time.
 The wave function itself, however, has no direct physical
significance. Hence, it is not an observable quantity.
So, what is the measurable quantity related to matter waves?

Ans: It is Ψ 2, the square of the absolute value of the wave

function, which is known as probability density.

Note: The probability of experimentally finding the body

described by the wave function Ψ at the point x, y, z, at the time t
is proportional to the value of Ψ 2 there at t.

+∞
−∞
Ψ 2 𝑑𝜏 = 1
Normalization condition

A large value of Ψ 2 means the strong possibility of the body’s

presence, while a small value of Ψ 2 means the slight possibility of its
presence. As long as Ψ 2 is not actually 0 somewhere, there is a
definite chance, however small, of detecting it there.
This interpretation was first made by Max Born in 1926. He received
1954 Nobel Prize in Physics.
Well-Behaved Matter Wave Functions
Basic Postulates

1. Ψ must be continuous and single-valued everywhere.

𝜕Ψ 𝜕Ψ 𝜕Ψ
2. , ,
𝜕x 𝜕y 𝜕z
must be continuous and single-valued everywhere.

3. Ψ must be normalizable, which means that Ψ must go to 0 as

+∞
𝑥 → ±∞, 𝑦 → ±∞ , 𝑧 → ±∞ in order that −∞ Ψ 2 𝑑𝜏 over all
space be a finite constant.
Wave function and Appropriate dynamical operators
Ψ for a particle moving freely in the x direction is specified by

Plane wave: Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴 𝑒 −𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝑘𝑥)

Where, 𝐴 is a constant
𝑘 is the wave vector
𝜔 is the frequency of the wave
Now 𝒉 𝒉 𝟐𝝅
𝒑= = = ђ𝒌 𝑑𝑒 𝐵𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝝀 𝟐𝝅 𝝀
ℎ = 6.626 × 10−34 J. s
ℎ
ђ= = 1.06 × 10−34 J. s = 0.6582 × 10−15 eV. s
2𝜋

𝒉
𝑬 = 𝒉𝝂 = 𝟐𝝅𝝂 = ђ𝝎 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑖𝑛′ 𝑠 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝟐𝝅
So, the wave function can be written as:
Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴 𝑒 −𝑖(𝐸𝑡−𝑝𝑥)/ђ
 Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴 𝑒 −𝑖(𝐸𝑡−𝑝𝑥)/ђ
Differentiate Ψ w.r.t 𝑡
Now, differentiate Ψ w.r.t 𝑥
𝜕Ψ 𝑖 𝜕Ψ 𝑖
= 𝑝Ψ = − 𝐸Ψ
𝜕𝑥 ђ 𝜕𝑡 ђ
𝜕Ψ 𝜕Ψ
⇒ 𝑝Ψ = −𝑖ђ ⇒ 𝐸Ψ = 𝑖ђ
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡
𝜕 𝜕
⇒ 𝑝 ⇔ −𝑖ђ ⇒ 𝐸 ⇔ 𝑖ђ
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡
Momentum Operator Energy Operator
Now, take the second
derivative of Ψ w.r.t 𝑥
𝜕2Ψ 𝑖 𝑖 2
2
= − − 𝑝Ψ ђ2 𝜕2Ψ
𝜕𝑥 ђ ђ ⇒ 𝑇Ψ = −
2Ψ 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥2
𝜕
⇒ 𝑝2Ψ = −ђ2 2
𝜕𝑥 ђ2 𝜕2
⇒𝑇⇔−
𝑝2 ђ2 𝜕2Ψ 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥2
⇒ Ψ=−
2𝑚 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥2 Kinetic Energy Operator
For a free particle, Potential Energy V = 0
Total energy = K. E

𝑝2 𝜕Ψ ђ2 𝜕2Ψ
So, 𝐸= ⇒ −𝑖ђ =−
2𝑚 𝜕𝑡 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥2

For a particle in a Potential Field 𝑉 (𝑥)

Total energy = K. E + P. E

𝑝2
So, 𝐸= + 𝑉(𝑥)
2𝑚
𝑝2
⇒ 𝐸Ψ = + 𝑉(𝑥) Ψ
2𝑚

𝜕Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡) ђ2 𝜕2
⇒ 𝑖ђ = − 2
+ 𝑉(𝑥) Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡)
𝜕𝑡 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥

𝐻: 𝐻𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑎𝑛
Classical variables Quantum operators
Position, 𝑥 𝑥
Linear momentum, 𝑃 𝜕
−𝑖ђ
𝜕𝑥
Potential Energy, 𝑈(𝑥) 𝑈(𝑥)
Kinetic Energy, 𝑇 = 𝑃2 /2m −
ђ2 𝜕2Ψ
2𝑚 𝜕𝑥2
Total Energy, 𝐸 𝜕
𝑖ђ
𝜕𝑡
Total Energy (Hamiltonian ђ2 𝜕 2
− + 𝑉(𝑥)
form) (𝐻 = 𝑇 + 𝑉) 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥2
So, 1-D time dependent Schrödinger’s Equation is

𝜕Ψ(𝑥,𝑡) ђ2 𝜕2
⇒ 𝑖ђ = − + 𝑉(𝑥) Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡)
𝜕𝑡 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥2

Where did we get that equation from?

Nowhere. It is not possible to derive it from
anything you know. It came out of the mind
of Schrödinger. Richard Feynman
Richard Feynman
(1918-1988)
He is the Nobel Prize winner in Physics in 1965 for his
outstanding contribution to Quantum Electrodynamics .
Schrödinger’s equation: steady-state form
 In many situations the potential energy of a particle does not
depend on time explicitly
 The forces that act on it, and hence V, vary with the position
of the particle only.
 When this is true, Schrödinger’s equation may be simplified
by removing all reference to t.

Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴 𝑒 −𝑖(𝐸𝑡−𝑝𝑥)/ђ
= 𝐴 𝑒 (𝑖𝑝/ђ)𝑥 𝑒 − (𝑖𝐸/ђ)𝑡
= 𝜓𝑒 − (𝑖𝐸/ђ)𝑡
𝜕Ψ(𝑥,𝑡) ђ2 𝜕2
Now, ⇒ 𝑖ђ = − + 𝑉(𝑥) Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡)
𝜕𝑡 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥2
Partially differentiation will give
− (𝑖𝐸/ђ)𝑡
ђ2 − (𝑖𝐸/ђ)𝑡 𝜕2𝜓 − (𝑖𝐸/ђ)𝑡
⇒ 𝐸𝜓𝑒 =− 𝑒 + 𝑉(𝑥)𝜓𝑒
2𝑚 𝜕𝑥2
Dividing through by the common exponential factor gives
𝜕2𝜓 2𝑚 Steady-state Schrödinger equation
⇒ + 𝐸 − 𝑉 𝜓 = 0
𝜕𝑥2 ђ2 in one dimension
 Steady-state Schrödinger equation in three dimensions
𝜕2𝜓 𝜕2𝜓 𝜕2𝜓 2𝑚
⇒ 2
+ 2
+ 2 + 2 𝐸−𝑉 𝜓 =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 ђ

Time dependent Schrödinger’s Equation in three dimension is

𝜕Ψ(𝑥,𝑦,𝑧,𝑡) ђ2 𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
⇒ 𝑖ђ = − + + Ψ(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) + 𝑉(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) Ψ(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)
𝜕𝑡 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑦2 𝜕𝑧2