Anuradha - Kumar (2015) - Trigunas in Organizations East-West Synthesis PDF

CCM International Journal of
Cross Cultural
Article Management
International Journal of
Cross Cultural Management
Trigunas in organizations: 1–20
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synthesis DOI: 10.1177/1470595815594636

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MV Anuradha
Great Lakes Institute of Management, India
YLN Kumar
ICFAI Business School, India
Abstract
The present study tests an alternative and indigenous theory of personality and explores its links
with various aspects of organizational behavior. According to the Indian philosophy, trigunas (three
trait-like components), namely, sattva, rajas, and tamas, are present in everyone, but it is the
relative predominance of one of the three gunas that determines the personality of an individual.
Sattva guna is reflected in equanimity, serenity, and poise. Rajas is expressed in high action
orientation, ambition, lust, and so on. Tamas is the trait that is manifested in sloth and laziness. The
predictive relationship of these three gunas with organizational citizenship behavior, job satisfac-
tion, and job performance (task performance and overall performance) was measured using the
method of multiple regression analysis. Data were collected in dyads using 82 mid-level managers
and their subordinates working in various Indian banking organizations. Results confirmed that high
sattva guna strongly predicted organizational citizenship behavior and high performance but not job
satisfaction. Rajas was the second best predictor of these outcome behaviors (except job satis-
faction) but was negatively related to them, suggesting that only when rajas was low would these
desirable behaviors be exhibited. Tamas did not predict any of the outcome behaviors measured.
This Indian perspective on personality has significant implications for cross-cultural management.
These implications and limitations of the study are discussed.
Keywords
Cross-cultural studies, job satisfaction, organizational citizenship behavior, performance,
personality theories, triguna theory
Corresponding author:
MV Anuradha, Great Lakes Institute of Management, Dr. Bala V Balachandar Campus, ECR Road, Manamai,
Tirukazhukundram Taluk, Kanchipuram District 603102, Tamil Nadu, India.
Email: anuradha.m@greatlakes.edu.in
Downloaded from ccm.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on May 12, 2016

2 International Journal of Cross Cultural Management
Introduction
Indian psychology has its roots in Indian philosophy, and its modern origins can be traced back to
the works of Swami Vivekananda and Sri Aurobindo in the beginning of the last century (Dalal and
Misra, 2010). Although there has been a recent upsurge of interest in applying the principles of
Indian psychology to understanding managerial and organizational behavior (Bhal and Debnath,
2006; Biswas, 2010a, 2010b; Kaur and Sinha, 1992; Kejriwal and Krishnan, 2004; 2007; Madhu
and Krishnan, 2005; Mehra and Krishnan, 2005; Mishra, 2004; Narayanan and Krishnan, 2003;
Srivastava, 2004; Vimala, 2004), their integration into mainstream management literature still
remains to be accomplished. The predominant intent of this research is to achieve the integration of
one of these indigenous behavior theories into mainstream management literature.
The triguna theory is the Indian theory of personality. According to the theory, all objects of the
material world including human beings possess three fundamental qualities called gunas. Although
all the three gunas exist in every being, generally one guna predominates over the others. The
predominant guna defines the personality of the entity. The aim of the present article is to study the
relationship of the three gunas with organizational citizenship behavior, task performance, overall
performance, and overall job satisfaction. The article begins with a detailed explanation of the
Indian philosophical understanding of personality. In the second section, an effort has been made to
draw logical linkages between the trigunas (three traits), with various personal and organizational
variables. The hypotheses were tested through the process of multiple regression analysis using the
participants’ responses to survey questionnaires measuring these variables.
There could be several significant contributions that the findings of this study could make. In the
globalized context of organizations today, the interactions between cultures have increased (Bha-
wuk, 2009; Black and Mendenhall, 1989; Blasco, 2009), necessitating the need for special skills
referred to as cultural learning or cultural competence (Lee et al., 2013). This competence allows for
an understanding of other cultures and using their worldviews to manage people. However, most of
the studies on cross-cultural management are based on etic principles. An etic emphasis results when
an outsider’s view of a culture is presented in the form of simplistic generalizations. On the other
hand, research that takes an insider’s perspective of cultural experiences, which makes use of the
lived experiences of the people and which provides a more nuanced understanding of the com-
plexities of any culture, is referred to as the emic view of culture studies. Academics argue for the
need of more emic or culture-specific studies to balance out the etic perspective for a deeper
understanding of cultures (Yunxia and Francesca, 2013). Emic approaches to understanding cultures
use methods like ethnography that require complete immersion into the culture. Although the
present study uses a more positivistic approach to understanding the Indian perspective on per-
sonality, it also provides insights into the Indian worldview. We argue that cross-cultural man-
agement scholarship can be made truly cross-cultural only when explanations of behavior from
different cultural worldviews are integrated into mainstream management education. Some of these
insights could have broader applications in other cultures beyond the culture of their origin. This
research therefore acts as a bridge between the etic and emic perspectives on management.
Given this argument, the first contribution that this study can make could be to the field of
personality studies. The triguna theory could provide an alternative to the existing trait theories of
personality. An understanding of personality based in philosophy has the advantage of simultane-
ously suggesting a way of living one’s life that could enhance the desired guna or trait within
individuals. The popular psychological theories of personality in use today tend to be descriptive at
best. Second, the understanding of gunas could provide a fresh perspective on increasing managerial

Anuradha and Kumar 3
creativity and effective decision making, especially in contemporary organizational environments

ridden with cultural diversity. This has been discussed in detail in the section on ‘Theoretical
implications and future research directions’ of this study.
Triguna theory: The Indian theory of personality

Indian psychology has its epistemological roots in Indian philosophy (Bhawuk, 2010). The systems
of Indian philosophy can be grouped into three couples comprising six philosophical traditions.
The first couple includes the Nyaya philosophy (rationalism) and the Vaisheshika philosophy
(pluralism). The second couple consists of the Samkhya (evolutionism) philosophy and the Yoga
(perfectionism) philosophy. The third couple is made up of Mimamsa (moralism) and Vedanta/
Brahmanism (pantheism) philosophies (Gerber, 1967).
Of these, the Samkhya tradition is of particular relevance in understanding the development
and constituents of personality. The ideas of the Samkhya system correspond roughly with the
theory of evolutionism as discussed in Western literature. The Indian version though takes a more
spiritual and dualistic view of evolution (Dasgupta, 1991a & b; Prabhavananda, 2003; Radhak-
rishnan, 1999). The dualism mentioned in the Samkhya tradition is different from the mind–body
distinction made in Western philosophy. It is suggested that every entity in the world consists of an
unchanging core called the purusa and a more tangible material aspect called the prakriti. The
purusa can roughly be equated with the soul. It is like a pure bright and intelligent light that is
affected by neither pain nor pleasure. It is the ideal state of being that, if achieved, can lead to
transcendence from the everyday ordeals of existence. It is therefore the ultimate state, the
achievement of which defines the purpose of our existence. This inner core is intangible and
cannot be seen or felt. It gets reflected in prakriti, which is the part of the self that is attached to the
everyday existence.
Prakriti is the apparatus through which we experience the world. It comprises the body, its sense
organs, the various faculties, the mind with its various functions, for example, memories, reason,
reflection, and so on (Prabhavananda, 2003). Prakriti or the undifferentiated essence of mind and
matter is made up of three forces called gunas, namely, sattva, rajas, and tamas. Although it is
difficult to do an exact English translation of the term gunas, they can be said to be the building
blocks or elements that get manifested as personality traits or qualities observed in people and
other empirical aspects of the world. Gunas can’t be seen, they can only be inferred from their
manifestations.
According to the Samkhya philosophy, the world and all the material objects of the world are
manifestations of prakriti. The three constituents of prakriti—the three gunas—exist in various
permutations and combinations resulting in the differences between the characteristic quality or trait
of all physical and psychical objects of the world. Sattva represents all that is tranquil, serene, pure,
and ideal. It causes moments of inspiration, disinterested affection, quiet joy, and meditative calm.
Rajas guna causes itself to be noticed by motion, restlessness, activity, passion, anger, and violence.
It manifests itself at times in outbursts of rage and desire. But it might also propel us into phases of
constructive energy, activity, enthusiasm, and courage. Tamas is the principle of solidity, inertia, and
resistance. When tamas guna dominates an individual, he/she might exhibit the lowliest of habits
like sloth, obstinacy, stupidity, and helpless despair.
The three gunas account for the differences between people and their behavior as well. The
triguna (three gunas) theory therefore can be called the Indian understanding of the trait theory of
personality. Traits have been defined as the “enduring characteristics that describe an individual’s

behavior” (Robbins et al., 2013, p. 140). The Big Five personality theory is one of the most popular
trait theories of personality. It suggests that there are five most fundamental traits that determine the
dominant personality of any individual. The five traits are openness, conscientiousness, extraver-
sion, agreeableness, and emotional stability/neuroticism. The triguna theory goes one step ahead
and states the process through which people come to possess these traits. The process is explained in
the Samkya tradition using an evolutionary explanation. It suggests that at the beginning of evo-
lution of any entity, the three gunas exist in a state of absolute balance. Evolution begins with a
disturbance in this balance. When there is no disturbance, the purusa is clearly reflected in the
prakriti, suggesting that the soul and the material body are not highly differentiated. But as the
prakriti evolves, the individual develops faculties to sense the world, the individual also slowly
develops a sense of self (ego) as separate from the other objects in the world. This sense of selfhood
is called ahamkara (Prabhavananda, 2003; Radhakrishnan, 1999). The actions and life experiences
of an individual determine the relative strength of each of the three gunas, and this in turn deter-
mines his/her personality. In the philosophical tradition, the attainment of transcendence therefore
involves working backward by annihilating the sense of self and getting back to the state where all
the three gunas are in perfect balance (Dasgupta, 1991). The predominance of the sattva guna helps
in the attainment of this ideal state of being (Prabhavananda, 2003).
Previous research on the trigunas found that sattva guna is most strongly correlated with positive
organizational behaviors followed by rajas guna. Tamas was usually negatively correlated with
these behaviors (Anuradha et al., 2009; Biswas, 2010a, 2010b; Kaur and Sinha, 1992; Kejriwal and
Krishnan, 2004; Krishnan, 2001; Narayanan and Krishnan, 2003). A recent study applied the
principles of detachment, the illusory nature of the sense of self, equanimity, and so on to understand
the nature of consumerism (Pace, 2013). Scales for measuring gunas have also been developed
(Bhal and Debnath, 2006; Das, 1987, 1991).
In the extant organizational behavior literature, various concepts similar to the gunas have also
been studied. Research done in the area of passion for example is relevant for the understanding of
the rajas guna. Passion has been defined as a “strong inclination or desire toward an activity that one
likes, finds important, and in which one invests time and energy” (Vallerand et al., 2003, p. 756).
Rajas guna is also manifested through action orientation and passion. Literature also suggests that
passion can be of two kinds, namely, harmonious and obsessive passion. Harmonious passion is said
to exist when an individual engages in an activity out of a sense of personal choice and is simul-
taneously able to manage the other aspects of life with equal ease. When an individual is possessed
by a compulsion to engage in some activity, it is referred to as obsessive Passion. A number of
studies found that harmonious passion tend to lead to adaptive responses,while obsessive passion
usually lead to less adaptive responses to events within organizations (Ho and Pollack, 2014; Jowett
et al., 2013). Harmonious passion also led to higher work satisfaction (Thorgren et al., 2013), lower
depression, lower turnover intentions (Houlfort et al., 2014), and low levels of burnout (Lavigne
et al., 2012).
However, interest in this topic emerged recently, with a lot of research still in its nascent stage.
We still know little about the concept and phenomenon of passion (Perrewé et al., 2014). For
example, we know that passion for work is distinct from work motivation (Houlfort et al., 2014), but
we do not know where the passion comes from, that is, what factors determine whether you will
exhibit harmonious passion or obsessive passion? The triguna understanding could provide some
answers to these questions.
Similarly, ambition and achievement orientation are also characteristics that a person high on
rajas guna is very likely to display. These have also been studied in organizational research.

Ambition was seen to be predicted by personality traits like conscientiousness, extraversion,

emotional stability, and so on (Judge and Kammeyer-Muelle, 2012) and was also socially created in
part through dominant discourses existing in society and organizations (Benschop et al., 2013).
Wang et al. (2013) found that managers who were only achievement oriented were less efficient in
executing their responsibilities. But when the quality of dependability coexisted with achievement
orientation in an individual, it led to effective execution of responsibilities.
Achievement orientation was also found to be negatively related to the exercise of voice, that is,
overtly expressing one’s dissatisfaction with any issue in the organization with the intention to bring
about a positive change. However, duty orientation was positively related to voice behavior
(Tangirala et al., 2013).
The above-stated findings suggest that pure passion, ambition, or achievement orientation (rajas
like characteristics) might not be desirable traits for positive organizational outcomes. It’s only when
these traits are combined with aspects like detachment (as in the case of harmonious passion) and a
sense of duty (as in the case of achievement orientation) will the consequences of behavior be
positive. This suggests that organizations need to start focusing on the factors that moderate the
effect of ambition, passion, and achievement orientation. The triguna theory could be helpful in
explaining what this moderator could possibly be. Innes-Brown and Chatterjee (1999) suggest, for
example, that the dynamism of rajas is important for effective managerial execution, but it has to be
tempered by the harmony provided by the sattva guna. The concept of the three gunas is yet to gain
prominence in the popular understanding of personality and behavior dominated by Western the-
ories. This study aims to bridge this gap.
The Indian philosophical tradition provides a fresh and unexplored perspective to understanding
personality dynamics. Does the triguna theory provide an explanation of personality that is unique
to understanding the behavior exhibited by Indians only? The answer to this question is not a simple
yes or a no, especially given today’s context of globalization. A number of recent studies have found
an intermingling of cultural values of the Indian employees with their Western counterparts, and
vice versa (Budhwar et al., 2008; Debrah and Budhwar, 2004). Indian employees today have been
seen to possess both Eastern and Western values, and which one of these value systems dominates at
any given point in time is determined by the situation. Gupta and Panda (2003), for example, found
that young employees in an information technology firm in India expressed individualistic values
(very much like the Western employees) at work and collectivistic values in their personal lives.
Generational differences in value systems have also been found (Sinha as cited in Tripathi, 1990).
Some research on karma yoga has clearly stated the caveat that the influence of karma yoga on
behavior is contingent upon an individual’s belief in the karma philosophy (Mulla and Krishnan,
2006). The findings of these studies indicate that though it is quite likely that Indians who believe in
the triguna theory would strive for a saatvic lifestyle (i.e. predominance of the most desirable
guna—the sattva guna) more than anyone else, the belief in the Indian philosophical principles
might not be evenly held by all Indians. This research therefore is based on the assumption that the
understanding gained from the triguna theory is not bound by geographical or cultural boundaries
but is instead bound by one’s belief in the Indian philosophy that explains it. Therefore, anyone who
believes in the philosophy of the gunas will find the theory relevant, irrespective of the national,
religious, or cultural background of the person. This makes the results of the present study all the
more relevant for managing people across cultures.
Having said this, it is important to point out how the triguna theory of personality could con-
tribute to the existing knowledge (mostly based on Western studies) on personality dynamics. There
are various unique characteristics of the triguna theory that underscore the necessity of integrating

this understanding into the existing knowledge of personality. Firstly, the triguna theory rates
tranquility and poise (sattva guna) above passion, activity, and aggression (rajas guna). It is
commonly known that the latter attributes are highly valued in the present corporate world. The
prevalence of the view that stability, equanimity, and poise could in fact ensure organizational
success much more than ambition and aggression remain weak in organizational literature. The
results of this study could help bridge this gap and provide unique insights into understanding
organizational behavior. Secondly, the triguna theory takes the epistemic stance that personality is
not fixed, that is, it is possible to change the traits of people. This makes a systematic study of the
triguna theory all the more relevant for managers seeking application of research findings. A third
and related point in support of the triguna understanding of personality is that it takes into account a
wider array of factors that influence the behavior of people. As already mentioned above, the three
gunas are present not only within human beings but also determine the characteristics of all physical
matter. Food, for example, can be classified as saatvic, rajasic, and tamasic. The guna of the food
one consumes, the mode of worship one engages in, and the individual’s lifestyle in general could
influence the personality and behavior of an individual, and vice versa (Krishnan, 2002). The tri-
guna view of personality therefore looks at the individual as embedded within nature and explores
his/her relation with the material and spiritual world. Understanding an individual through this lens
also allows for personal growth and development for people.
The next section argues for a possible relationship between the three gunas and various orga-
nizational outcome variables. Through the use of logical arguments hypotheses about the rela-
tionship between the three gunas and the organizational outcome variables are derived and tested.
Trigunas and organizational outcome variables

Performance and profits are the prime concerns of any business unit. To ensure that a research
effort is relevant for a business manager, it is important to suggest how the concept being
studied would affect the behavioral outcomes of employees. Organizational citizenship beha-
vior (hereafter referred to as OCB), task performance, overall performance, and job satisfaction
have all been proven through various studies to be important outcomes desired by organiza-
tions. Job satisfaction affects performance and has an affective and cognitive basis to it (Weiss,
2002), while OCB, task performance, and overall performance are productive behaviors that
employees engage in. Extant literature suggests that personality variables are correlated with
these outcome variables (Borman and Motowidlo, 1997; Bruk-Lee et al., 2009; Ilies and Judge,
2002, 2003; Organ and Ryan, 1995). To underscore the relevance of gunas for positive
organizational performance, the cognitive, affective as well as behavioral work outcomes have
been used in this study.
OCB, task performance, and overall performance. OCB is the discretionary behavior carried out by
an employee that might not be part of his/her formal job requirements yet aids in the effective
functioning of the organization (Bateman and Organ, 1983; Smith et al., 1983). These behaviors
have also been referred to as extra-role behaviors or contextual behaviors (Borman and Motowidlo,
1997). Good citizenship behaviors include acts like making constructive statements about their
work group and organization, helping coworkers in the team, volunteering for extra-role activities,
respecting organizational property, its spirit as well as its rules and regulations. Personality variables
like agreeableness, conscientiousness, positive affectivity, and negative affectivity were found to be
highly correlated with OCB (Borman and Motowidlo, 1997; Organ and Ryan, 1995).

OCB is also closely related to overall performance. Borman and Motowidlo (1997) distinguish
between task performance and overall performance. Task performance they say refers to the
effectiveness with which one carries out in-role behaviors. Engaging in these behaviors contributes
to the technical core of the organization. Overall performance, on the other hand, includes both
in-role (task) and extra-role (citizenship) behaviors (Dalal et al., 2009). Some view OCB as a
parameter for measuring performance (Usman and Gary, 2010), while others found that OCB is an
antecedent of good performance (George and Bettenhausen, 1990; Karambayya, 1990; Mackenzie
et al., 1991; Organ 1988, 1990; Podsakoff and MacKenzie, 1994, 1997). The demonstration of
citizenship behavior by a subordinate affects the managerial evaluation of performance of the
subordinate (MacKenzie et al., 1991, 1993). Since OCB forms a significant component of overall
performance, and personality is strongly related to OCB, overall performance scores would in all
likelihood be related to personality as well.
To understand the correlates of these work outcomes through the Indian perspective, it is
important to know the three most popular guiding principles in Indian philosophy: (a) the doctrine of
acting without any expectation of rewards (Karma), (b) the doctrine of the presence of an eternal
soul (Atman), and (c) the doctrine of salvation (Moksha) (Dasgupta, 1991; Mulla and Krishnan,
2006, 2007, 2008, 2009). Although the Samkhya system talks about salvation through awareness of
the ultimate reality—the purusa/ atman—it does not tell us how to attain salvation. The Yoga sutras
fill in this gap and provide a practical guide to remove all ignorance and lead a fulfilling life. Yoga
literally meaning ‘union with God’ suggests ways through which one can come closer to this state of
union and do it with greater perfection. This can be done by practicing the five kinds of yoga—the
hatha yoga (union through physical exercise), jnana yoga (union through meditation), bhakti yoga
(union through devotion to God), and karma yoga (union through unattached actions) (Gerber,
1967). Karma yoga is particularly relevant in an organizational context, especially in India. In the
Indian culture, people consider themselves to be born with duties rather than with rights (Sinha,
1997 as cited by Narayanan and Krishnan, 2003). Work is a duty to be discharged. Karma yoga
refers to doing one’s duty without being attached to the outcomes (Narayanan and Krishnan, 2003).
Mulla and Krishnan (2006) did a content analysis of the Geeta (Hindu holy text also referred to as
Bhagwat Geeta) and found that karma yoga according to the Geeta has three dimensions, namely,
duty orientation, indifference to rewards, and equanimity to pleasure and pain. Duty orientation
comes from the belief that one needs to perform the roles assigned to him/her in the society with
complete honesty. This is a practical way to attain salvation (Mulla and Krishnan, 2006). Previous
studies found that task performance was predicted by cognitions, unlike overall performance which
was predicted by personality (Borman and Motowidlo, 1997).
Belief in the karma philosophy therefore could be a likely cognitive basis for a person to perform
the in-role behaviors, prescribed by the organization efficiently, leading to high task performance. A
person high on karma yoga is a self-starter, disciplined, and quality conscious. Karma yogis also
rated moral values and other oriented terminal values more highly than people who were low on
karma yoga.
Indian psychology suggests that karma yoga affects both in-role and extra-role behaviors. The
karma yogi can be said to be a personality “type” as propounded by Indian texts. This personality
type however is affected by the three core personality components—sattva, rajas, and tamas gunas.
The principle of detachment which is the central theme of karma yoga refers to viewing pleasure
as well as suffering with equanimity and observing emotional self-regulation. The Geeta claims that
only a person who is “aware” of the transitoriness of the world would succeed in detaching oneself
from ones actions and is therefore able to work for the welfare of the world Chinmayananda, 1996,

(chapter III, verse 25). A person high on sattva guna is most likely to have the serenity and self-
awareness required to view both success and failure with equanimity.
Some empirical studies have shown that dutifulness was more strongly related to karma yoga
only when the striving for achievement was low as compared to when it was high (Mulla and
Krishnan, 2006). Karma yoga was also seen to be reduced by two rajas dimensions (Narayanan and
Krishnan, 2003).
If karma yoga (detached action) is correlated with OCB (Madhu and Krishnan, 2005), as well as
task performance, and if sattva guna is highly correlated with karma yoga, it can be hypothesized
that high sattva guna will be correlated with high OCB, task performance, and overall performance.
Since rajas dimensions reduced karma yoga (Mulla and Krishnan 2006; Narayanan and Krishnan,
2003), it is hypothesized that high rajas guna will be negatively related to OCB, overall perfor-
mance, and task performance. If at all people high on rajas engage in citizenship behaviors, it is
always done in expectation of a reward (Biswas, 2010b). Tamas is characterized by inaction and
laziness, and it does not contribute positively to desirable organizational outcomes. Biswas (2010b)
did find some support for the relationship between OCB and the three gunas. Sattva and rajas guna
were positively related to OCB, and tamas was negatively correlated with OCB. However, this
study used different dimensions of OCB (helping behavior, sportsmanship, and civic virtue) and
therefore requires further validation. Drawing from the above discussion, we hypothesize that:
H1a: Sattva guna will be positively correlated with OCB, overall performance, and task
performance.
H1b: Rajas guna will be negatively correlated with OCB, overall performance, and task
performance.
H1c: Tamas guna will be negatively correlated with OCB, overall performance, and task
performance.
Job satisfaction. Previous research has shown a relationship between personality and job satisfaction
(Bruk-Lee et al., 2009; Ilies and Judge, 2002, 2003). Both rajas-like characteristics (type A per-
sonality and achievement striving) and sattva-like characteristics (internal locus of control and
positive affectivity) were found to be correlated with high job satisfaction (Bruk-Lee et al., 2009).
However, studies on the three gunas also found that sattva and rajas gunas are negatively correlated
to each other (Shilpa and Murthy, 2012), which means that when sattva guna is high rajas guna
tends to be low. This inverse relationship between the two gunas suggests that each of the two gunas
should possibly have different and opposite relationship with job satisfaction. In light of these
previous findings, we hypothesize that job satisfaction will have a positive relationship with sattva
guna and negative relationship with rajas guna. Since tamas is characterized by inaction we predict
a negative relation between tamas guna and job satisfaction.
H2a: Sattva guna will be positively correlated with overall job satisfaction.
H2b: Rajas guna will be negatively correlated with overall job satisfaction.
H2c: Tamas guna will be negatively correlated with overall job satisfaction.
Method
Sample. Data were collected in dyads, that is, one manager and his/her subordinate formed one data
point. Although a total of 100 mid-level managers working in the banking sector in India, having at

least two subordinates were contacted, only 82 dyads of complete data could be collected. This
occurred due to either unavailability of subordinates or incomplete survey responses. Eight banks,
including nationalized as well as non-nationalized banks, agreed for data collection. These banks
were from the cities of Mumbai and Hyderabad located in west and south of India, respectively. The
need and impact of positive work outcomes like OCB and overall performance is much higher in the
services sector than in any kind of work. This is because the nature of work entails interpersonal
interaction with customers, and in such interactions, the influence of personality gets accentuated.
Work within banks comprises handling different kinds of roles and working in varied setups (rural,
urban, international, etc.). It is believed that studying the influence of the gunas in organizations
with such diversity in work roles and work setups would ensure greater generalizability of the
results. Care was taken that the respondents’ work required them to deal with customers face to face.
This was done to bring about uniformity in the sample. The data were collected in early 2012.
Procedure. Mid-level managers who had two or more subordinates were first identified. The
managers rated two subordinates on task performance, overall performance, and demonstration of
OCB. It was ensured that the two subordinates rated by the manager were easily accessible, that is,
worked in the same location, were available on phone, e-mail, and so on The two subordinates rated
by the manager were then contacted and asked to rate themselves on gunas and overall job satis-
faction. This procedure was followed to reduce biases that are inherent in self-rating questionnaires.
One dyad, comprising the boss and his/her subordinate, made for one data point. Data were
collected from a total of 82 managers and 164 subordinates. Envelopes were provided to the
respondents, and they were asked to place the duly filled-in questionnaire in the envelope and seal it.
Once the managers had filled in the survey their names were removed and replaced with codes. The
manager questionnaires were numbered 1 to 82 (for 82 managers who responded) and their sub-
ordinates were given the codes 1.1 and 1.2 and so on. This was done to put the participants at ease
and assure them that their identity was not essential to us but their honest responses were. Assigning
codes to the questionnaires instead of their names was intended to help them answer as honestly as
possible.
Instruments used. (a) Trigunas: sattva, rajas, and tamas. The scale developed by Bhal and Debnath
(2006) that measured the three gunas (sattva, rajas, and tamas) was used in this study. The
questionnaire had 15 items for measuring the three gunas—6 items for tamas, 5 items for rajas, and
4 items for sattva. However, 1 item from sattva scale was dropped, as it did not show satisfactory
inter-item correlations with the other 3 items. Respondents rated each item on a 7-point Likert-type
scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree), and their ratings were summated.
Representative items include “I feel at times my powers of judgment and understanding get lost”
(tamas), “I take part in various activities otherwise I feel restless” (rajas), and “I believe my
emotions are always under control” (sattva). Cronbach’s a for the three scales were 0.86 (tamas),
0.72 (rajas), and 0.69 (sattva).
(b) OCB. The scores on two scales—OCB individual and OCB organization—were summed up
and used to assess OCB.
Organizational citizenship behavior–Individual (OCB-I). This dimension assesses behaviors

that immediately benefit specific individuals and indirectly through this means contribute
to the organization (e.g. helps others who have been absent or takes a personal interest in
other employees). The 7-item version of Williams and Anderson’s (1991) measure was

used to measure OCB-I. Bosses indicated the extent of their disagreement or agreement
with each of the statements that describe a subordinate’s OCB-I using a scale of 1 to 5,
where 1 ¼ strongly disagree and 5 ¼ strongly agree. Sample items on this scale are “Helps
others who have been absent” and “Takes time to listen to coworkers’ problems and
worries.” The sum of the 7 items was taken as the measure of OCB-I. Cronbach’s a for the
scale was 0.78.
Organizational Citizenship Behavior–Organizational (OCB-O). This dimension assesses
behaviors that benefit the organization in general (e.g. gives advance notice when unable to
come to work, adheres to informal rules devised to maintain order, etc.) and could be part of
the prescribed role expectations. The 7-item version of Williams and Anderson’s (1991)
measure was used to measure OCB-O. Bosses indicated the extent of their disagreement or
agreement with each of the statements that describe a subordinate’s OCB-O using a scale of
1 to 5, where 1 ¼ strongly disagree and 5 ¼ strongly agree. Sample items are “Attendance
at work is above the norm” and “Gives advance notice when unable to come to work.” The
sum of the 7 items was taken as the measure of OCB-I. Cronbach’s a for the scale was 0.78.
(c) Task performance. A 6-item version of Williams and Anderson’s (1991) measure of in-role
performance was used to measure task performance. Supervisors indicated the extent of their dis-
agreement or agreement with each of the statements that describe a subordinate’s task performance
using a scale of 1 to 5, where 1 ¼ strongly disagree and 5 ¼ strongly agree. Sample items are
“Adequately completes assigned duties’ and ‘Meets formal performance requirements of the job.”
Cronbach’s a score for the scale was 0.83.
(d) Overall job satisfaction. This study used a 3-item scale for measuring overall job satisfaction
developed by Cammann et al. (1983). The respondents gave their responses to these items on a
7-point scale (1 ¼ strongly disagree to 7 ¼ strongly agree). Sample items are “All in all I am
satisfied with my job” and “In general, I like working here.” The mean score on the 3 items was
taken as the measure of overall job satisfaction. Cronbach’s a score for the scale was 0.84.
(e) Overall performance. To assess the overall performance of the respondents, their bosses were
asked to respond to a single item “How would you rate this subordinate’s overall performance?” The
response options for this item were on a 5-point scale (1 ¼ poor to 5 ¼ outstanding).
Results
As a first step, a series of bivariate correlations were computed using the SPSS software. The results
of the correlation analysis are given in Appendix 1. All the variables except overall job satisfaction
were significantly and positively correlated with sattva guna: OCB (r ¼ 0.290, p < 0.01), task
performance (r ¼ 0.296, p < 0.01), and overall performance (r ¼ 0.480, p < 0.01). Rajas guna was
negatively correlated with all the variables. These correlations however were not statistically sig-
nificant. All the variables showed a negative correlation with tamas, as predicted, but none of the
correlations except overall performance (overall job performance r ¼ 0.224, p < 0.05) were
statistically significant. Although this was not the main aim of the study, yet it is interesting to note
the interrelations between the variables. Task performance had a significant positive correlation
with OCB (r ¼ 0.472, p < 0.01). Overall job performance was also significantly related to OCB
(r ¼ 0.474, p < 0.01). Job satisfaction was significantly related to the task performance (r ¼ 0.188,
p < 0.05) and overall performance (r ¼ 0.244, p < 0.01) measures but not to OCB. Finally, the task

and overall performance scores were also significantly and positively correlated to each other
(r ¼ 0.588, p < 0.01)
The correlational analysis was just a first step to ascertain the direction of relationships between
the variables. To assess whether the three gunas predict these organizational outcomes, a multi-
variate regression analysis was done (see Appendix 2). The results of the regression suggest that
the sattva guna strongly and positively predicted organizational outcome behaviors like OCB
(b ¼ 0.290, t ¼ 3.782, p < 0.01), Overall performance (b ¼ 0.480, t ¼ 6.348, p < 0.01) and task
performance (b ¼ 0.296, t ¼ 3.669, p < 0.01). Rajas guna was the second best predictor of
the outcomes measured here, after sattva. Rajas guna was negatively related to overall performance
(b ¼ 0.173, t ¼ 2.374, p < 0.05) and task performance (b ¼ 0.206, t ¼ 2.589, p < 0.01). To
ensure the robustness of the regression results generated, a stepwise regression was also carried out.
The stepwise regression too confirmed that sattva guna was the strongest predictor for OCB (model 1:
b ¼ 0.290, t ¼ 3.705, p < 0.01), overall performance (model 1: b ¼ 0.480, t ¼ 6.695, p < 0.01; model 2:
b ¼ 0.505, t ¼ 7.022, p < 0.01), and task performance (model 1: b ¼ 0.296, t ¼ 3.794, p < 0.01;
model 2: b ¼ 0.327, t ¼ 4.195, p < 0.01). When rajas is introduced along with sattva as an
independent variable, it increased the strength of sattva as a predictor and negatively predicted
overall performance (model 2: b ¼ 0.149, t ¼ 2.072, p < 0.05) and task performance
(model 2: b ¼ 0.183, t ¼ 2.347, p < 0.05). Tamas guna did not emerge as a significant
predictor for the variables measured in this study. Sattva and rajas gunas however did not
predict job satisfaction.
In order to rule out the existence of any multicollinearity between the dependent and independent
variables, the variance inflation factor (VIF) and tolerance values were also checked. The VIF scores
were almost always close to 1, and tolerance values were also well above 0.02 in all cases, sug-
gesting that there was no problem with respect to multicollinearity.
Therefore, all the hypotheses relating to job satisfaction (H2a, H2b, and H2 c) and tamas guna
(H1c) were not proven in this study. Hypothesis H1a was accepted and H1b stating that rajas guna
will be negatively related to OCB, task performance, and overall performance found partial support
in that the existence of high rajas guna reduced task performance and overall performance, but the
results didn’t confirm any significant effect of rajas on OCB.
Discussion
The main intent of this study was to test an Indian perspective on personality and attempt to integrate
it into mainstream cross-cultural management literature. The results seem to have achieved this
objective to some extent.
This study hypothesized that the personality trait, namely, the sattva guna, will be positively
correlated with and will predict the desirable outcomes of OCB, overall performance, task per-
formance, and job satisfaction. This hypothesis was confirmed to quite an extent (sattva guna did
not emerge as a predictor of job satisfaction) through the results of the correlational and multivariate
regression analysis. The results here suggest that when a sense of equanimity, serenity, and poise
dominates the behavior of an individual, it is most likely to lead to desirable behaviors at the
workplace as well. There are very few studies on attributes like equanimity in the existing literature
dominated by the Western perspectives on personality.
The regression results here suggest that the existence and manifestation of rajasic characteristics
led to poorer task performance and overall performance, however OCB and job satisfaction was not
predicted by rajas.

These findings are interesting especially considering that ambition and action orientation are
highly valued attributes in employees within the new age organizations. Extant research literature
based on Western understanding of personality also reiterates this fact. This study on the contrary
shows that having these attributes has a negative effect on employee performance. There could be
alternative explanations for this contradiction. In a previous research, Kaur and Sinha (1992)
conducted a factor analysis of a guna questionnaire and found that there are in essence four and not
three gunas. They called the four gunas as sattva, tamas, rajas positive, and rajas negative. This is
the only study, as per our knowledge that differentiated between the rajas positive (love of fame,
passion, and power) and rajas negative (strife and unrest) gunas. Rajas positive came closest to
sattva, when the gunas were correlated to various important aspects of organizational behavior like
least preferred coworker, leader–member exchange, work ethic, personal effectiveness, self-
actualization behavior, and organizational effectiveness. It was suggested by these researchers
that if the gunas were to be rated in the order of their desirability for employees in organizations,
sattva guna would top the list followed by rajas positive, rajas negative, and tamas guna falling
very close to each other except for minor differences, in the same order respectively. In the present
study, no differentiation was made between the positive and negative aspects of rajas. It is quite
possible that the negative aspect of the rajas dimension was the cause of the negative correlations
with variables. Had the rajas guna been categorized as rajas positive and rajas negative, the results
could possibly have been different. This explanation also leaves space for future explorations in
this area.
While hypothesizing about the relationship between job satisfaction and the gunas, we relied on
previous research suggesting the influence of personality variables on job satisfaction. The findings
of these past studies led us to hypothesize that a positive relationship would exist between job
satisfaction and the sattva guna, while rajas and tamas gunas will be negatively related to job
satisfaction. Although the direction of correlation of the gunas with job satisfaction was positive
both for sattva guna and rajas guna and negative for tamas guna, none of them was significantly
related to job satisfaction nor did the three gunas emerge as strong predictors for job satisfaction as
was hypothesized. Although this finding was not explored further in this study, it could be indicative
of the fact that the gunas don’t directly lead to job satisfaction. It is possible that there could be one
or more mediating variables that get influenced by the gunas and in turn predict job satisfaction.
This needs to be explored in greater depth in future studies.
It was hypothesized that tamas guna, manifested in sloth and inaction would be negatively
correlated to all the outcome variables measured here. Tamas did not emerge as a predictor (even a
weak one) for any of the outcome variables in the regression analysis. There could be two possible
interpretations of these results. Firstly, it is simply that behavior within organizations is not
dependent upon or affected by tamasic qualities like laziness, dullness, and sloth. Although sta-
tistically this statement is proven in this study, it seems intuitively a little unlikely. Therefore, one
could think of alternative explanations for these findings. It is possible that there are some lim-
itations of the measurement instrument – the guna scale used in this study for example. As suggested
above, a factor analysis of the questionnaire to determine the robustness of the scale could be done
and then the regression results could be reassessed in this light. An overlap between the rajas and
tamas dimensions could be a possible influence on the present results. It is also possible that there
are some mediating variables that determine how tamas guna affects the various organizational
outcomes.
Another aspect that needs a mention is the fact that though the F values were statistically sig-
nificant confirming the dependence relationship, the R2 and adjusted R2 values are not very high.

This suggests that the gunas alone are not the best or strongest predictors of OCB, performance, and
job satisfaction. Future research efforts could focus on possible mediating (like karma yoga),
moderating models to explore an array of alternative relationships – both direct and indirect that
gunas can have with various work-related behaviors.
Theoretical implications and future research directions

In the past couple of decades, there has been a significant increase in research on teaching cross-
cultural management (Jose and Poonamalle, 2013; Szkudlarek et al., 2013) and training people in
it (Black and Mendenhall, 1989; Friedman et al., 2013; Mor et al., 2013; Wurtz, 2014). These
studies indicate that there has been a shift in the pedagogy of cross-cultural management courses
from simply providing knowledge to trying to develop skills and tolerance toward other cultures,
also referred to as cultural intelligence (Lee et al., 2013). The findings of this study can be used to
make cross-cultural management education and training more effective. One way of doing this
could be by integrating the behavioral theories originating in diverse cultures into the popular
teaching and training courses. The following paragraphs suggest directions for extending this study
in the future and, through this, provide specific suggestions on how management teaching and
training can be made more culturally inclusive.
One of the crucial outcomes from this study has been the insight that the gunas probably do not
directly affect performance. It seems probable that various other factors mediate between the
manifestation of gunas and organizational outcomes. It is possible that factors like the belief in
karma yoga mediate between the gunas and positive organizational behavior. If one is cognitively
detached with the outcomes of one’s actions, then it leads to positive behaviors, and vice versa. This
understanding links the notion of traits, cognitions, and behavior, with the possibility that cognitions
might be acting as mediators between traits and behavior. The existing literature on personality has
not focused on the connection between personality traits and thoughts or beliefs. If it is true that
certain beliefs and cognitions mediate between the personality traits and their effect on behavior,
then any training (especially cross-cultural training) intervention aimed at increasing positive
organizational behavior will need to focus on strengthening these belief systems.
Secondly, if we agree with the assumption of the triguna theory that the composition of the gunas
can be changed and managed through thought and lifestyle changes, this can have implications for
training initiatives within organizations as well. The process of change toward strengthening saatvic
traits and reducing tamasic qualities can be either self-initiated by employees themselves through
lifestyle changes or initiated externally by the organizations by incorporating the principles of the
Indian philosophical thought into their training programs.
Any holistic change in the lifestyle of an individual would not only influence one’s organiza-
tional performance it would also affect the overall well-being of the individual. Well-being refers to
a sense of happiness and satisfaction in all aspects of life—work and nonwork (Diener, 1984; Danna
and Griffin, 1999). Although this link has not been explored in the present study, it can be a subject
of future exploration. Previous studies indicate that personality traits like type A tendencies and
external locus of control are negatively related to well-being (Danna and Griffin, 1999; Pavot
and Diener, 2008). Does this mean that an individual who possesses opposite qualities like serenity
and equanimity is likely to experience greater well-being? Shilpa and Murthy (2012) empirically
proved that gunas are the psychological components of personality and are very closely related to
the physical/physiological components (tridoshas) of the body. Therefore, gunas not only affect the
psychological well-being of an individual but also have the potential to affect one’s physiological

well-being. These links seem worthy of exploration in the future, especially considering the value
being placed on employee health and well-being by contemporary organizations.
The results of this study found a positive correlation between sattva guna and two performance
variables (task performance and overall performance). However, the question that needs to be
answered is, “How does sattva guna lead to higher performance?” Creativity could be one important
aspect affecting the performance of an individual within organizations. Sattva guna and creativity
are closely interlinked (Chakraborty, 1989; Kiran Kumar and Thomas, 2013). The state of complete
mindfulness, triggered by the predominance of the sattva guna, tends to make the mind more
creative and improve the quality of decisions as well (Chakraborty, 1989). Innes-Brown and
Chatterjee (1999) suggest on the other hand that if an individual has a combination of both sattva
and rajas gunas, it has an ideal impact on his/her decision-making capabilities, as each guna
effectively compliments the other. However, we have come across only a few articles (e.g. Kiran
Kumar and Thomas, 2013) that empirically test the effect of the various combinations of gunas on
creativity and have seen none that study the effect of the gunas on decision making within orga-
nizations. The findings of this study therefore can be extended further to understand creativity and
decision making.
The gunas also affect the values and ethical behavior of people (Bhal and Debnath, 2006;
Chakraborty, 1998). Values and ethics could also be the possible cognitive aspects that intervene
between the gunas and their effects on organizational behavior. Future research could explore more
complex mediational or moderation models between ethical values and the gunas. Considering that
personal ethical values are determined to quite an extent by the broader cultural values in which the
individual is embedded in, future research efforts should inculcate this cultural sensitivity into the
research design.
Another significant implication of this study is that the results point to the probability of the
existence of more than three distinct gunas. Kaur and Sinha (1992) suggested that rajas can be
categorized into two factors, namely, rajas positive and rajas negative. However, no other study has
made this distinction. It might be helpful to carry out a factor analysis of the guna questionnaire to
establish the structure of the gunas. If it is established that there are in fact four gunas, as suggested
by this previous research, it would be interesting to know how sattva and rajas positive guna would
differ, if at all, in predicting positive behaviors at work. It would also be interesting to see if the four
gunas affect behavior differently in different contexts, for example, in different organizational and
national cultures, differing nature of jobs, and so on. Such an analysis could provide a more nuanced
insight into behavior at work.
The triguna theory can also be used to understand group dynamics within organizations. Using
personality to understand interpersonal interactions is not a new concept. However, applying the
concepts of the three gunas to this understanding is very likely to lead to novel insights into group
behavior. Sattva guna has been found to be positively correlated with transformational leadership
(Kejriwal and Krishnan, 2004). The effect of the three gunas on team effectiveness and other
dimensions of team behavior, however, are yet unknown. What happens when people with dif-
ferent guna compositions interact with each other? Which gunas are compatible with each other
and which ones will lead to conflicts? Do the gunas similarly affect interactions within groups
across cultures? These are some interesting questions that can be addressed by future research
efforts.
Although this study logically argued that the triguna understanding of personality can be uni-
versally applicable, subject to belief in its underlying philosophy, further research needs to be
carried out across different nationalities, organizations, and cultures for this assumption to be

conclusively proven. Such an exploration will also increase the robustness of the triguna theory,
increasing its acceptability in turn. More sophisticated statistical techniques like structural equation
modeling can be used toward this end, especially to explore different mediation models and to
establish causal linkages between the three gunas and organizational variables.
Limitations
Although an attempt was made to control for the effect of social desirability inherent in self-report
measures by using a paired survey method, it is possible that even the manager’s rating of one’s
subordinate is affected by personal biases. Previous researchers have found that when managers
rated their subordinates on aspects like OCB, their responses were confounded by the “halo effect”
(Werner, 1994). A possible way to control for these biases could be to take the subordinates’ self-
rating on OCB and performance in addition to the manager’s ratings, so that the responses can be
cross-checked. This could not be done in this study and could possibly have confounded the results
to some extent.
To develop a closer understanding of the dynamics of the three gunas on behavior, and to be sure
that the trigunas are universally applicable (subject to belief in the philosophy), qualitative tech-
niques like ethnography and participant obersvation would be more appropriate. These techniques
provide deeper insights into the way cultural beliefs affect people, especially since many of these
beliefs remain outside the conscious awareness of people. In the present research, self-report
measures were used which are limited by response biases as well as lack of conscious awareness
of the deep-rooted cultural influences on one’s behavior.
As has already been discussed above a previous study showed a possibility of the existence of
four core gunas instead of three. Had we differentiated between the rajas positive and negative guna
in this study the results could have been richer.
To be affected by the philosophies of karma yoga, transcendence, awareness of the existence of a
soul (purusa), and so on, one needs to believe strongly in the tenets of the Indian philosophy. Mulla
and Krishnan (2006, 2007, 2009) found that a strong belief in Indian philosophy was an important
prerequisite for karma yoga to have any effect on organizational outcomes. Since we hypothesized
that gunas will affect organizational variables through the means of karma yoga it would have been
beneficial to check for the strength of the belief in the karma philosophy in the participants.
Measuring the awareness of and belief in the triguna theory could also have been helpful to know if
the relationships hypothesized here are getting accurately captured through the study. This could not
be done. It is therefore both a limitation of this study and can be used as a useful direction in future
research efforts.
Conclusion
Despite these limitations, we believe that the study makes a significant contribution not only to
personality and organizational research but also to cross-cultural management scholarship. Philo-
sophical perspectives on behavior originating in one culture often have a broader relevance across
cultures. Scholarship that is bereft of insights from various cultures runs the risk of being simplistic
and lacking the potential to make any real difference to cultural interactions. Integrating the triguna
theory into the popular Western theories would not only provide a novel lens through which to look
at work behavior and personal development it might also lead to the overall well-being of the
employees: an end state desired by almost all organizations.

Appendix 1
Descriptive statistics, reliabilities, and correlations for organizational variables
S
No. Variables Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 Sattva guna 21.1 3.2 (0.69)

2 Rajas guna 23.6 5.1 0.171* (0.76)
3 Tamas guna 13.6 6.2 0.302** 0.242** (0.86)
4 OCB 45.9 5.1 0.290** 0.024 0.040 (0.78)
5 Task performance 20.5 2.0 0.296** 0.127 0.155 0.472** (0.83)
6 Overall job 13.7 1.8 0.094 0.033 0.029 0.159 0.188* (0.84)
satisfaction
7 Overall 4.3 0.80 0.480** 0.063 0.224** 0.474** 0.588** 0.244** (1.00)
performance
Note: OCB ¼ organizational citizenship behavior. Cronbach’s a reliabilities are reported in parentheses along the diagonal.
**p < 0.01; *p < 0.05.
Appendix 2
Regression results
OCB Overall performance Task performance
Stepwise Stepwise Stepwise

Independent Job
variables Model 1 Model 2 Model 1 Model 2 satisfaction
Sattva .313** .290** .472** .480** .505** .296** 0.296** .327** 0.092
Rajas 0.068 0.173* 0.149* 0.206** 0.183* 0.018
Tamas .038 .124 0.115 0.003
F 4.919* 13.730** 17.791** 44.818** 25.048** 7.476** 14.397** 10.169** 0.453
R2 0.091 0.084 0.265 0.230 0.252 0.132 0.088 0.120 0.009
Adjusted R2 0.072 0.078 0.250 0.225 0.242 0.114 0.081 0.108 0.011
**p < 0.01; *p < 0.05.
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CCM International Journal of

synthesis DOI: 10.1177/1470595815594636

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creativity and effective decision making, especially in contemporary organizational environments

Triguna theory: The Indian theory of personality

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Ambition was seen to be predicted by personality traits like conscientiousness, extraversion,

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Trigunas and organizational outcome variables

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Organizational citizenship behavior–Individual (OCB-I). This dimension assesses behaviors

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Theoretical implications and future research directions

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1 Sattva guna 21.1 3.2 (0.69)

OCB Overall performance Task performance

Stepwise Stepwise Stepwise

**p < 0.01; *p < 0.05.

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