Refraction is the change in the direction of light when it passes from one medium to

another of different optical density.

Where does refraction occurs?

It occurs as a result of the change in the speed of light upon crossing the boundary
of two different media.

Optical density is related to the transparency of a substance to light.

-should not be confused with mass density(mass per unit volume)
-the higher optical density of a material, the slower the light travels through to
it.

How can refraction of light explain some phenomena that we see around us?
A lot of phenomena that result from refraction maybe observe in everyday life.

Examples:
1. A pencil or a straw placed obliquely in a glass of water appears to be broken.
2. An object lying underwater or in a pool appears nearer to the surface than it
actually is.
3. The refraction of lunar light from sunlight due to the ice crystal in clouds,
especially during winter results in the formation of halos around the moon or the sun.
4. Stellar scintillation commonly known as the twinkling of a stars.
5. Mirage (the apparent puddles of water on the road on a hot day), and a slightly
longer daytime are the result of the refraction of light as it passes through the
different layers of air of varying temperatures in the atmosphere.

Refraction light as also responsible for the image formation in your eyes and lenses.
Some effects of refraction of light: a wooden stick appears to be broken and a
mirage

Index of refraction or Refractive index the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to
that in the material

Equation:

n-the index of refraction

c-the speed of light in a vacuum (3 × 108 m/s )
v-the speed of light in the substance

How will you know that a substance is optically denser from the other?
A substance is optically denser than another if its index of refraction is greater than
that of the other medium. The higher the index of refraction, the higher the optical
density and the slower light travels in that substance.
The refractive index varies slightly with the wavelength of light used
Index of Refraction of Some Materials for Yellow Light
Material n
Air 1.0003
Ice (at 0°C) 1.309
Water 1.33
Fused quartz 1.46
Glass (crown) 1.523
Sapphire 1.77
Zirconium 2.2
Diamond 2.419

Sample Problem:
A material has an index of refraction of 1.5. What is the speed of light in this
material?
Given: n=1.5

Solution:
To solve this, you need to manipulate the formula for index of refraction, then
substitute the values.

Practice Exercise:
Light travels in a transparent material at 2.5 × 108 m/s. Find the index of refraction of
the material.

Law of refraction
When light passes from one to another of different optical density, it is refracted
according to certain laws.

1.The incident ray, the refracted ray, and the normal all lie on the same plane.

ray AB is the incident ray and ray BC is the refracted ray. Angles and are
the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction, respectively.
2. (a) When a ray of light passes obliquely from an optically denser medium to a less
dense medium, it is refracted away from the normal.
(b) When a ray of light passes obliquely from an optically less dense medium to a
denser medium, it is refracted toward the normal.
(c)When the incident ray is perpendicular to the interface (i.e., at an angle of
incidence of zero degrees), no bending of light occurs.

3.Snell’s Law, named after Dutch astronomer and mathematician Willebrord Snell,
relates the indices of refraction of two media and the angles from the normal using
the equation.

Shallowing Effect another interesting effect of refraction. Object submerged in a

liquid always appear to be shallower than they actually are.

Problem:
A coin at the bottom of a cylinder appears to be 12.6 cm deep when the cylinder is
filled with water. (a) What is the real depth of the coin in water? Oil, with an index of
refraction of 1.25, is added to the cylinder. The coin now appears to be 17.6 cm
deep. (b) What is the real depth of the coin in oil and water?
Given: apparent depth in water= 12.6 cm
apparent depth in oil and water= 17.6 cm
n of water= 1.33
n of oil= 1.25

Solution:

a.)

1.33=real depth real depth=16.8 cm

b.) apparent depth= 17.6 cm – 12.6 cm
=5.0 cm

Real depth= (n)(apparent depth)

= (1.25)(5.0 cm)
= 6.25 cm
Real depth of the coin= 16.8 cm + 6.25 cm
=23.05 cm.

Practice Exercise:
A vessel contains 8.25 cm of water and 5.00 cm of oil. What is the apparent depth of
a coin placed at the bottom of the container? (n of water= 1.33, n of oil= 1.25)
Given: real depth of water= 8.25ccm
real depth of oil= 5.00 cm
n of water= 1.33
n of oil= 1.25
Solution:

1.33= 8.25 =6.20 cm

1.25= 5.00 cm =4 cm

=6.20 cm + 4 cm
= 10. 2 cm

Lenses refracts light depending on its nature.

Spherical lens is a piece of glass or transparent material that has at least one
spherical surface. It can be convex or concave.
Convex lens thicker at the middle than at the edges.
Concave lens thicker at the edges than at the middle

Convex lenses are used to correct farsightedness

Concave lenses are used to correct nearsightedness

Optical center P of the lens is the point through which all light rays pass without
being bent.
Geometric center optical center for double concave or double convex.
Convex lenses are converging lens when a beam of parallel rays falls on a convex
lens, the rays are refracted and the converge to a point called the principal focus F.
Concave lenses are diverging lenses-parallel rays falling upon a concave lens
spread out. When extended the refracted rays will appear to come from a point in
front of the rays.
Focal length f is the distance from the optical center of the lens to the principal
focus.
The letters F and F’ are used to denote the principal focus and secondary focus.
Principal Axis is the line joining the optical center and the principal focus.

The Human Eye

Eye is an opaque ball averaging 2.3 cm in diameter.
It is composed of several parts, each part playing a distinct role that enable
humans to see.

Parts of the Eye

Cornea
-“window of the eye”
-the outer thin. Transparent membrane of the eyeball
-it covers the iris, pupil, and the anterior chamber
-refracts most of the incident light that enters it

Conjunctiva
-thin, transparent tissue that lines the inner surface of the eyelids and the outer
surface of the eyeball
-conjunctivitis inflammation of the conjunctiva
A condition that makes the white part of the eye appear red, which is caused
by either an allergic reaction or a bacterial or viral infection.
Sclera
-visible area of the eye
-it provides structure, protection, and strength to the eyeball

Pupil
-black circle in the middle of the eye
-an opening through which light enters the inner portion of the eye
-it changes size to regulate the amount of light entering the eye
-in dim light, it enlarges to allow more light to pass through
-in bright light, it becomes smaller to minimize incoming light

Iris
-the colored circle of the eye
-it may be brown, black, gray, or any other color
-its main task is to regulate the size of the pupil through the contraction or relaxation
of its muscles.
-it has been claimed that each iris is unique and is a better identifier than fingerprints
in biometric authentication

Crystalline lens
-a clear convex structure behind the pupil
-it can focus on objects at different distances by changing its shape
-accommodation ability of the lens

Ciliary muscles
-attached to the crystalline lens and responsible for changing the shape of the
crystalline lens when focusing on objects at different distances
-focus on a nearby object, the muscles contract and the center of the lens
becomes thicker
-the object is distant, the muscles are relaxed and the lens is thin

Retina
-inner surface of the eye
-for normal vision, the image of an object seen by the eye is formed exactly at the
retina
-consists of light-sensitive rods and cones
-cones can distinguish color and responsible for daytime vision
-rods enable us to see in the dark
-fovea important part of retina. This is the region of most distinctive vision. There are
about 200 000 cones but no rods in the fovea
-blind spot point in the retina where the optic nerve exit
-optic nerve carries image from the retina to the brain. The effective distance of the
retina to the eye lens is approximately 2.0 cm
Choroid
-between the retina and sclera
-it composed of layers of blood vessels and connective tissue
-it nourishes the back of the eye with blood and nutrients

Aqueous humor
-between the cornea and the lens
-vitreous humor other side of the lens
-both humors are gel-like fluids responsible for giving the eye its near perfect
spherical shape. They also belong to the refractive system of the eye

The focal length of the crystalline lens can change by about 20 percent. The relaxed
focal length of the crystalline lens is about 1.96 cm.

How light passes through the eye?

Light striking the objects enters the eye through the cornea. After passing through
the cornea, a portion of this light passes through the pupil and goes to the crystalline
lens. It focuses the light on a single point and by the help of the ciliary muscles, casts
an image of the object on the retina. The image formed is real, inverted, and smaller
than the object. It is relayed to the brain by the optic nerve. This image is then
adjusted by the brain so that you can see the object as it is.

Vision problems

Near point
-an object can be seen clearly by the eye
-the near point for young adults with normal vision is 25 cm; for children around 10
cm; and for the aged 50 cm 0r more
Far point
-farthest distance at which an object can be seen clearly
-the far point of the normal eye is taken infinity. Thus, a normal healthy eye can see
objects as close as 25 cm or very distant from it

4 common types of vision problems

 Myopia
 Hyperopia
 Presbyopia
 Astigmatism

Myopia
-medical term for nearsightedness
-this vision problem can see nearby objects clearly, but distant object are blurry
-can be corrected by using a diverging lens or a concave lens
-diverging lens causes the light to bend slightly before entering the eye so that the
image will be formed exactly at the retina
Hyperopia
-hypermetropia in some references
-farsightedness can see distant objects but cannot focus clearly on nearby objects
-converging lens or convex lens can correct this vision problem

Presbyopia
-people aged 40 and above suffer from presbyopia
-sometimes called “aging eyes” or “old eyes”
-needs reading glasses. Alternatively, a bifocal lens may be prescribed
-bifocal lens produces ‘split-image effect”
The upper half is normal viewing, lower half is for reading

Astigmatism
-a person suffering from astigmatism cannot focus simultaneously on horizontal and
vertical lines
-caused by the cornea’s irregular shape or unequal curvature
-cylindrical lens is used to correct astigmatism

Surgery
-Keratectomy and refractive surgery are two eye correction procedures that use the
excimer laser, an ultraviolet laser, to reshape the cornea so that the images are
formed at the retina. These procedures take approximately 10 minutes, with actual
laser time exposure varying from 15 to 60 seconds.
-LASIK (laser-assisted in situ keratomileusis) procedure or three to four days after a
photorefractive keratectomy procedure.