HED-2017(AE)

Question-1(A): Define Influence line. Why influence line is more important for
bridge design???

An influence line is a diagram whose ordinates, which are plotted as a function of

distance along the span, give the value of an internal force, a reaction, or a
displacement at a particular point in a structure as a unit load move across the
structure.

or

An influence line is a curve the ordinate to which at any point equals the value of
some particular function due to unit load acting at that point.

or

An influence line represents the variation of either the reaction, shear, moment, or
deflection at a specific point in a member as a unit concentrated force moves over
the member.

In bridges, the live loads that comes form vehicles are very important, because the
vehicles are moving all the time from one end of the bridge to the other, the
magnitude of load a point changes as the vehicle moves. Reaction components at a
point will also vary, depending on the position of the load from the point of
consideration.

Influence line, is simply a graphical representation of variation in a reaction

component (shear, moment, etc…) as the vehicle (load) moves along the bridge
span.

In reality we apply wheel loads, An Influence line is developed for a unit load, we
can simply find-out the maximum reactions from these wheel loads using an
influence line diagram.

Or
Influence lines are important in designing beams and trusses used in bridge where
loads will move along their span.The influence lines show where a load will create
the maximum effect for any of the functions studied.

Question-2: Write down the similarities and difference between the following
terms

i) Absorber and Adsorber ii) BOD & COD iii) short column and long column
iv) one way slab & two way slab v) EIA & IEE vi) Shallow foundation & Deep
foundation

ANSWER:

i) Absorber and Adsorber

Differences between Absorption and Adsorption

Criteria Absorption Adsorption

Assimilation of the molecular Accumulation of molecular

Definition system throughout the bulk of species at the bottom instead of
the solid or liquid medium. the liquid or solid.

Phenomenon A bulk phenomenon. A surface phenomenon.

Heat exchange Endothermic process Exothermic process

Temperature The temperature has no effect. Influenced by low temperature

Increases steadily and reaches

Rate of reaction Occurs at a uniform rate.
equilibrium.

The Concentration at the bottom

It is constant throughout the
Concentration of adsorbent is different from
medium.
that in bulk.

Cold storage, ice production, Air conditioning, water

Application
turbine inlet cooling, purification, synthetic resin,
 refrigerants. chillers.

Similarities:
Adsorption and absorption are both sorption processes.
Absorption occurs when atoms pass through or enter a bulky material. During
absorption, the molecules are entirely dissolved or diffused in the absorbent to
form a solution. Once dissolved, the molecules cannot be separated easily from the
absorbent.
Adsorption is generally classified into physisorption (weak van der Waals forces)
and chemisorption (covalent bonding). It can also be caused by electrostatic
attraction. The molecules are held loosely on the surface of the adsorbent and can
be easily removed.

ii) BOD & COD

Similarities Between BOD and COD

 COD and BOD can be indicated as mg/L or ppm (parts per million).
 Both parameters measure the amount of oxygen needed to oxidize
pollutants in water.
 Also, both measurements indicate the intensity of water pollution.
 Furthermore, both BOD and COD are critical in wastewater for
determining the amount of waste in the water.

Difference between BOD and COD

BOD COD

COD is a chemical oxidation

BOD is a biological oxidation process
process

BOD is performed by aerobic organisms
BOD is measured by keeping a sealed water
sample for incubation for a period of 5 days
at 20 degree Celsius. The reduction in
dissolved oxygen gives the amount of
oxygen consumed by the aerobic organisms.
BOD value is determined by 5 days.
BOD value is lower than COD
BOD is used to oxidize the natural
organic matter and organic waste in the
water
iii) Short column and Long column
COD is performed by chemical
reagents
In COD test, the water sample is
incubated with a strong
oxidant in combination with
boiling sulphuric acid for a specific
period of time and temperature.
COD can be measured
within few days.
COD value is always greater than
BOD
COD is capable of degrading the
industrial sewage. COD does not
measure the amount of oxygen
consumed by acetates present in
the water sample
N.B: EXTRA:

Short column and Long column

Radius of Gyration
iv) One Way Slab & Two Way Slab

One Way Slab Two Way Slab

1 In one way slab, the ratio of In two way slab, the ratio of
longer span panel (L) to shorter longer span panel (L) to shorter
span panel (B) is equal or span panel (B) is less than 2.
greater than 2. Thus, L/B ≥ 2 Thus, L/B < 2.

2 Slab panel is supported on two Slab panel is supported on four

opposite sides in short direction sides of two-way slab.
of one-way slab

3 One way slab bends or deflect in Two way slab bend or deflect in
a direction perpendicular to the both directions.
supporting edges

4 Deflected shape is cylindrical. Deflected shape is dish-shaped.

5 one way slab has structural Two way slab has structural
strength in shortest direction strength in the shortest direction

6 Main reinforcement is provided Main reinforcement is provided in

in only one direction. both the direction for two way
slabs.

7 Loads are carried along one Loads are carried along both the
direction in one way slab. directions in two way slabs.

8 A one-way slab is designed for The two-way slab is designed for

the spanning direction alone as it both the directions as it is bent in
bends in only one direction both directions.
 One Way Slab Two Way Slab

9 The thickness of one-way slab The usual thickness of two-way

varies between 100mm to slabs is in the range of 100mm to
150mm based on the deflection 200mm depending upon span and
consideration and span. deflection consideration.

10 The one-way slab may economical Two-way slab may economical for
up to the span of 3.6m. the panel sizes up to 6m x 6m.

v) EIA & IEE

vi) Shallow Foundation & Deep Foundation
Sources Shallow Foundation
1 Definition Foundation which is placed
near the surface of the earth or
transfers the loads at a shallow
depth is called shallow
foundation.
2 The depth of The depth is equal to or less
foundation than the footing width.
3 Cost Shallow foundation is cheaper.
4 Feasibility Shallow foundations are easier
to construct.
5 Mechanism of Shallow foundations transfer
load transfer loads mostly by end bearing.
6 Advantages Construction materials are
available, less labor is needed,
construction procedure is
simple at an affordable cost
etc.
Deep Foundation
Foundation which is
placed at a greater depth or
transfers the loads to deep
strata is called deep
foundation.
The depth is greater than
the footing width.
Deep foundations are
generally more expensive
than shallow foundation.
The construction process
of a deep foundation is
more complex.
Deep foundations rely both
on end bearing and skin
friction, with few
exceptions like end bearing
pile.
Foundation can be
provided at a greater depth,
Provides lateral support
and resists uplift, effective
when foundation at a
shallow depth is not
possible, can carry huge
 Sources Shallow Foundation Deep Foundation

load etc.

7 Disadvantages Possibility of a settlement, More expensive, needs

usually applicable for
lightweight structure, weak
against lateral loads etc.
skilled labors, complex
construction procedure,
can be time-consuming
and some types of deep
foundations are not very
flexible etc.

8 Types Isolated foundation, strip Pier foundation, pile

foundation, mat foundation, foundation, caissons etc.
combined foundation etc.

Question-3(B): Mixed proportion of three sand are 1:2:3 and their fineness
modulus are 2.62, 2.32 & 2.8.Find the combined FM???

ANS: Combined FM=(2.62*1+2.32*2+2.8*3)/(1+2+3)

=2.61

Question-4(A): Describe Air pollution with example???

Air pollution may be defined as any atmospheric condition in which

substances are present at concentrations, above their normal ambient
levels, to produce measurable adverse effect on human, animal,
vegetation or materials.
Outdoor Air Polution:

Indoor Air Polution

Cooking (biomass fuel in developing countries), tobacco smoking,
vapors from building materials, paints, furniture
heating appliances
radon (natural radioactive gas released from earth
Question-4(B): Write the causes of Sound Polution and How to control
it??
Sound that is unwanted or disrupts one’s quality of life is called as
noise. When there is lot of noise in the environment, it is termed as
noise pollution.
Causes of pollution:
1. Transportation systems are the main source of noise pollution in
urban areas.
2. Construction of buildings, highways, and streets cause a lot of
noise, due to the usage of air compressors, bulldozers, loaders,
dump trucks, and pavement breakers.
3. Industrial noise also adds to the already unfavorable state of
noise pollution.
4. Loud speakers, plumbing, boilers, generators, air conditioners,
fans, and vacuum cleaners add to the existing noise pollution

Solution For Noise Polution:

1) Planting bushes and trees in and around sound generating sources is
an effective solution for noise pollution.

2) Regular servicing and tuning of automobiles can effectively reduce

the noise pollution.

3) Buildings can be designed with suitable noise absorbing material for

the walls, windows, and ceilings.

4) Workers should be provided with equipments such as ear plugs and

earmuffs for hearing protection.
5) Similar to automobiles, lubrication of the machinery and servicing
should be done to minimize noise generation.

6) Soundproof doors and windows can be installed to block unwanted

noise from outside.
7) Regulations should be imposed to restrict the usage of play
loudspeakers in crowded areas and public places.

8) Factories and industries should be located far from the residential

areas.

9) Community development or urban management should be done with

long-term planning, along with an aim to reduce noise pollution.

10) Social awareness programs should be taken up to educate the public

about the causes and effects of noise pollution.

Question-5(A): Define Highway. Write down the name of different types of

Highway???

ANS: A highway is any public or private road or other public way on land. It is
used for major roads, but also includes other public roads and public tracks: It
is not an equivalent term to controlled access highway, or a translation
for autobahn, autoroute, etc.

Tpes: 1) National Highway 2) Regional Highway

Question-5(B): Define Right of Way and Describe its element??

The right of way can be described generally as the publicly owned area
of land that encompasses all the various cross-section elements.
The right of way is the land set aside for use as a highway corridor.
Rights of way are purchased prior to the construction of a new road, and
usually enough extra land is purchased.
Sometimes, rights of way are left vacant after the initial roadway facility
is constructed to allow for future highway expansion.
Requirements of area for right of way are as follows:
• For 2 lane road = 150 ft width of area
• For 4 lane road = 250 ft width of area
• For 8 lane road = 300 ft width of area

Question-5(C): Calculate the Super elevation for a 40 BG curve for the

speed of 72 km/h of the train??
Solution: R=1750/D=1750/4=437.5 m
G=1750 mm for BG
SE=GV2/127R
= (1750*722) / (127*437.5)
= 163.28 mm

N.B: EXTRA:
Details about Super elevation
Question-6 (A): What is meant by 80/100 grade bitumen?

A 80/100 grade bitumen indicates that its penetration value lies between
8 to 10 mm.
80/100 Bitumen is a high-quality penetration grade bitumen used in road
and airport construction and other similar applications.
N.B: Grading of bitumen helps to assess its suitability in different
climatic conditions and types of construction.
It represents softness or hardness of bitumen (completely melted form of
bitumen, just like liquid) by measuring the depth in 1/10th of mm to
which a standard needle carrying a weight of 100gms penetrates in 5
seconds at a temperature of 25 degree Celsius.

Question-6(B): Write the advantages and disadvantages of bituminous

road and cement concrete road??

Cement concrete Road: The roads having their wearing surface

consisting of cement concrete (plane or reinforced) are known as cement
concrete roads or concrete roads.
Advantages:
1. Concrete roads have long life than any other roads.
2. These roads are durable and are practically unaffected by weathering
agencies.
3. They provide an excellent riding surface under all weather conditions.
4. They provide an impervious, dustless and sanitary surface.
5. They do not develop corrugations.
6 Can be laid on any subgrade.
7. Can be easily reinforced when they are to resist high stresses due to
heavy wheel loads of the traffic.
8. Concrete roads are non slipery and offer less tractive resistance.
9. They provide good visibility for traffic during night hours.
10. Maintenance cost is low.
Disadvantages:
1. The initial cost of concrete roads is high.
2. They are liable to crack and warp due to temperature variations.
3. Become noisy under iron-tyred traffic.
4. Skilled supervision and labour are required for construction.
5. less resilient than bituminous or W.B.M roads.
6. Require long time for curing and thus cannot be opened to traffic
earlier.
7. It is very difficult to locate and repair sewers and water mains lying
under the pavement in their case.

Bituminous Road: The roads having their wearing surface consisting of

bitumen are known as Bitumen Road.
Advantages:
1. Can be built in a phased manner to cater to the increased traffic
plying on the road, as and when required, allowing the possibility
of limited resources to be put to better use elsewhere, so that
maximum utility is derived out of those resources.
2. Can be dug up to access sub surface utilities (like pipelines and
cables) for maintenance/repair and be filled/patched very easily
and economically, afterwards.
3. Can be built with cheap, low quality & locally available
materials as stresses in the bottom layers of the pavement aren't
high enough to necessitate the use of high quality materials.
4. Cost (initial investment) is lower than that of concrete
pavements, when subgrade conditions are ideal (adequate
subgrade strength and drainage conditions, subgrade is not
 expansive, etc.) and when commercial traffic is low (trucks and
other heavy vehicles)
5. It is cheaper & easier/simpler to repair distresses of bituminous
roads in comparison to distresses of concrete roads (but requires
more maintenance overall)
6. Easier and quicker to place/lay on curves and steep slopes
7. Can be opened to traffic sooner as bituminous roads do not
require curing, unlike concrete pavements. This helps in reducing
traffic delays caused by maintenance/repair activities.
8. Bituminous roads are made of asphalt and asphalt is a recyclable
material.
9. Lower tire/pavement noise
10. The effect of deicing salts on bituminous roads is limited.
11. Less prone to frost heaving than concrete roads
12. Offers better skid resistance than concrete roads
13. Better visual contrast/distinction between the road and road
markings

Disadvantages:
1. Bituminous pavements are less durable
2. Low tensile strength compared to concrete pavement
3. Extreme weather and improper weather conditions tend to make
bituminous pavement slick and soft.
4. Bitumen with impurities can cause pollution to soil, hence ground
water by their melting. These may have hydrocarbons in small amounts.
5. Clogging of pores and drainage path during construction and
service life
6. More salting- to prevent snow during winter season
7. Cost of construction high during extreme conditions of temperature
Question-7(B): When and why Deep foundation is used?

Deep foundations are used when surface soil is unsuitable for Shallow foundation
and a firm stratum is so deep that it cannot be reached economically by shallow
foundation.

Followings are the main cases where Deep foundation use is desirable.

 If a high groundwater table exists beneath the structure.

 If the superstructure load is high and non-uniform.
 Pile foundation is economic than other proposed foundation types.
 If highly compressible soil is present at shallow depth.
 If the structure is located near the river bed or sea shore etc, pile foundation
is suggested to secure the structure form the possible scouring.
 If a canal or deep drainage systems pass near the structure, pile foundation is
suggested.
 If soil condition is very poor and it is not possible to excavate the soil up to
the desired depth.
 If it becomes impossible to keep the foundation trenches dry by any measure
due to heavy inflow of seepage.

Question-7(C) : What are the main condition for foundation design???

The foundation is the structural base that stands on the ground and supports the rest
of the building.

Conditions:

1) Design Load and Load Combinations

Foundation design shall consider the following combination of loads.

a) Dead load + Normal live load

b) Dead load + Normal live load+wind load or seismic load whichever is critical
2) Bearing Pressure

Calculation of safe bearing capacity.

3) Settlement

a) Total settlement calculation

b) Differential settlement calculation

Question-8(A): Why factor of safety in column is greater than beam

in RCC design?
Basically, Beam resists the transverse load of the structure and Columns are
resisting the compression load of the structure.

As beam have received transverse load and it should not fail suddenly and will
give warning in form of deflection, cracking and one can tackle its failure or will
get some time to tackle the failure.

But the failure of a column will not show any symptoms and it happens suddenly
without any warning. The column failure will make fatal damages.

That’s why factor of safety in column is always greater than beam.

Question-8(B): What are the minimum and maximum

reinforcement ratio used in RC beams and Why we need to follow
this ratio??

Minimum and maximum reinforcement ratio of a beam is 0.25% to 2.5%

respectively.

The minimum are of reinforcement is to control thermal and shrinkage cracking

within acceptable limits.Also minimum steel area ensures that the reinforcement
does not yield when concrete in tension zone cracks with a sudden transfer of
stress to the reinforcement.
other hand,the maximum is to acheive adequate compaction of concrete around
reinforcement.

Question-9(A): Write down full form of the following: BNBC,ASTM,ACI

BNBC-Bangladesh National Building Code

ASTM-American Society for Testing and Materials

ACI-American Concrete Institute

Question-9(B): What is USD & WSD? What are the difference between them???

WSD=Working Stress Design Method of reinforced Concrete.

USD=Ultimate Stress Design Method of reinforced Concrete.

USD(Ultimate Stress Design) Method WSD(Working Stress Design) Method

Its primarily based on strength concept of Its based on the linear theory or elastic
Concrete theory.

Its Consider to Design Critical

Its Consider to Design carrying load
Combination of load

Its Designing to elastic behavior of Its Designing to plastic behavior of

materials. materials

Materials strength to be used for member

Modular Ratio used for member Design
Design.

Stability of Structure is more then WSD Stability of Structure is less then USD

Low Cost Design Method High Cost Design Method

Question-9© : What is Shoring and Underpining?
Shoring is used to describe the process of supporting a structure to prevent collapse
so that construction can proceed.

Underpinning is the process of strengthening and stabilizing the foundation of an

existing building or other structure in order to prevent further deterioration.
 HED-2016(AE)

Question-02: Define Surveying. Name of five modern equipment of

surveying. What is GIS & GPS?
Surveying is the process of analyzing and recording the characteristics of a land
area span to help design a plan or map for construction.

Or

Surveying is the technique of determining the relative position of different features

on, above or beneath the surface of the earth by means of direct or indirect
measurements and finally representing them on a sheet of paper known as plan or
map.

Following are the modern surveying instruments which are used for surveying:

o Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM) Instruments

o Total Station
o Global Positioning System (GPS)
o Automatic Level
o One Second Theodolite
o 3D Laser Scanning
o Gyrotheodolite
o Geographic Information System (GIS)
o Smart Stations
GPS and GIS:
GPS is an infrastructure in which satellites send signals to GPS receivers and the
GPS receiver calculates the exact latitude/longitude/elevation position it is
currently located at. Typically they can track this data, use changes in location to
calculate speed and direction of travel.

GIS is an informational system to capture, store, manipulate, analyze, manage, and

present all types of geographical data. The acronym is also used for geographical
information science, and like computer science, it crunches data to figure out
things like the percentage of tree coverage for the U.S. how to render terrain as a
3D model and display that in a printout.

GPS is a measuring tool. GIS is a science that uses data from GPSs (and other
sources) for analysis to tell us things about the world.

Question 03(A): What is the Function of Foundation in a building? What is

shallow and deep foundation???

Foundation is the lower portion of the building usually located below ground level,
which transmits the loads of the super structure to the supporting soil. A
foundation is therefore that part of the structure which is in direct contact with the
ground to which loads are transmitted.

FUNCTIONS OF FOUNDATION
1. REDUCTION OF LOAD INTENSITY

Foundation distributes the loads of the super structure, to a larger area so that the
intensity of the load at its base (i.e. total load divided by the total area) does not
exceed the safe bearing capacity of the sub-soil.
2. EVEN DISTRIBUTION OF LOAD

Foundations distribute the non-uniform load of the super structure evenly to the
sub soil. For example, two columns carrying unequal loads can have a combined
footing which may transmit the load to sub soil evenly with uniform soil pressure.
Due to this, unequal or differential settlements are minimized.
3. PROVISION OF LEVEL SURFACE

Foundation provide leveled and hard surface over which the super structure can be
built.
4. LATERAL STABILITY

It anchors the super structure to the ground, thus imparting lateral stability to the
super structure. The stability of the building, against sliding and overturning, due
to horizontal forces (such as wind, earthquake etc.) is increased due to foundations.
5. SAFETY AGAINST UNDERMINING

It provides the structural safety against undermining or scouring due to burrowing

animals and flood water.
6. PROTECTION AGAINST SOIL MOVEMENTS

Special foundation measures prevents or minimizes the distress (or cracks) in the
super structure, due to expansion or contraction of the sub soil because of moisture
movement in some problematic soils.

Shallow Foundation

Foundation which is placed near the surface of the earth or transfers the loads at a
shallow depth is called shallow foundation. The depth is equal to or less than the
footing width. Shallow foundations are easier to construct. Shallow foundations
transfer loads mostly by end bearing. Isolated foundation, strip foundation, mat
foundation, combined foundation etc. are shallow foundation.

Deep Foundation

Foundation which is placed at a greater depth or transfers the loads to deep strata is
called deep foundation. The depth is greater than the footing width. The
construction process of a deep foundation is complex. Deep foundations rely both
on end bearing and skin friction, with few exceptions like end bearing pile. Pier
foundation, pile foundation, caissons etc. are deep foundation.
Question 03(B): What are the components of Concrete and State their
importance??

The basic constituents of concrete are cement, water and aggregate. Other
constituents such as admixtures, pigments, fibres, polymers and reinforcement, can
be incorporated to modify the properties of the plastic or hardened concrete.

Cement: Binds the aggregate into a solid mass, fills up voids present in
aggregates (fine as well as coarse) & gives strength to concrete on setting &
hardening when it's mixed with water.

Aggregates: fine aggregates reduces shrinkage & cracking, fills voids present
in coarse aggregates & helps in hardening of cement. Coarse aggregates
increases the crushing strength of concrete, makes concrete solid hard mass,
reduces cost of concrete by occupying major volume in concrete. Also it
should be noted that coarse aggregate plays major role in transition zone.

Water: Water is needed in concrete for two reasons, firstly to hydrate the cement
and secondly to provide mobility when the concrete is in its fluid state
(workability). Generally the amount of water needed for mobility purposes is
greater than that required for hydration only. The water used should be clean, i.e.
of drinking water quality.

Many properties of concrete are affected by the water content, and more
particularly the water/cement ratio.

Question-4(A): Explain with figure the structure of Stretcher bond and Header
bond used in Brick Masonary???

Stretcher bond
Longer narrow face of the brick is called as stretcher as shown in the elevation of
figure below. Stretcher bond, also called as running bond, is created when bricks
are laid with only their stretchers showing, overlapping midway with the courses of
bricks below and above.
Stretcher bond in the brick is the simplest repeating pattern. But the limitation of
stretcher bond is that it cannot make effective bonding with adjacent bricks in full
width thick brick walls. They are suitably used only for one-half brick thick walls
such as for the construction half brick thick partition wall.

Walls constructed with stretcher bonds are not stable enough to stand alone in case
of longer span and height. Thus they Then need supporting structure such as brick
masonry columns at regular intervals.

Stretcher bonds are commonly used in the steel or reinforced concrete framed
structures as the outer facing. These are also used as the outer facing of cavity
walls. Other common applications of such walls are the boundary walls, gardens
etc.

Fig-1: Stretcher Bond

Header bond
Header is the shorter square face of the brick which measures 9cm x 9cm. Header
bond is also known as heading bond. In header bonds, all bricks in each course are
placed as headers on the faces of the walls. While Stretcher bond is used for the
construction of walls of half brick thickness whereas header bond is used for the
construction of walls with full brick thickness which measures 18cm. In header
bonds, the overlap is kept equal to half width of the brick. To achieve this, three
quarter brick bats are used in alternate courses as quoins.
 Fig-2: Header Bond

Question-4(B): List of table of Plumbing and Pipe fittings??

Types of Pipe Fittings

 Adaptor
 Barb
 Coupling
 Cross
 Double Tapped Bushing
 Elbow
 Mechanical Sleeve
 Nipple
 Plug and Cap
 Reducer
 Tee
 Union
 Valve
 Wye
Question-5(B): Draw Typical stress-strain diagram for Mild steel and show yield
strength on the diagram??

Question-6: What is SPT of soil? Why it is perform? For Bangladeshi’s

Market/Bazar Road Rigid Pavement is more suitable why???

SPT stands for The Standard Penetration Test.

This test is also known as "In-situ penetration test" of soil. The main aim of this
test is to determine the Geo-technical engineering properties of subsurface layers
of soil, class of soil and to obtain the penetration resistance or N - value.
The test is extremely useful for determining the relative density and the angle of
shearing resistance of cohesionless soils. It can also be used to determine the
unconfined compressive strength of cohesive soils.
In Market/Bazar Road Rigid Pavement is more suitable because—

1) Can bear more load compared to flexible pavement

2) Requires less maintenance
3) little emission of pollutants which is a major problem in case of bituminous
pavements but not a case for rigid pavement.
Question-08(B): Write down the name of Timber natural defects and timber
seasoning methods??

Defects due to Natural Forces:

The main natural forces responsible for causing defects in timber are two, namely,
abnormal growth and rupture of tissues. Following defects are caused by these
forces:
(i) Knots
(ii) Rind galls
(iii) Shakes
(iv) Upsets
(v) Twisted fibres
(vi) Coarse grain
(vii) Burls
(viii) Foxiness
(ix) Callus
(x) Chemical stain
(xi) Dead wood
(xii) Druxiness
(xiii) Water stain
(xiv) Wind cracks.

Methods of Seasoning of Timber

There are two methods of Seasoning of timber which are explained below

Natural seasoning
a) Water Seasoning
b) Air Seasoning

Artificial seasoning
a) Seasoning by Boiling
b) Chemical seasoning
c) Kiln seasoning
d) Electrical seasoning

Defects in Timber:
(1) Defects due to Conversion:
During the process of converting timber to the commercial form, the following
defects may occur:
(i) Chip mark
(ii) Diagonal grain
(iii) Torn grain
(iv) Wane
(2) Defects due to Fungi:
The fungi are minute microscopic plant organisms.
They attack timber only when the following two conditions are satisfied
simultaneously:
(i) The moisture content of timber is above 20 per cent.
(ii) There is presence of air and warmth for the growth of fungi.

Following defects are caused in the timber by the fungi:

(i) Blue stain
(ii) Brown rot
(iii) Dry rot
(iv) Heart rot
(v) Sap strain
(vi) Wet rot
(vii) White rot

(3) Defects due to Insects:

Following are the insects which are usually responsible for the decay of timber:
(i) Beetles
(ii) Marine borers
(iii) Termites.

(4) Defects due to Natural Forces:

The main natural forces responsible for causing defects in timber are two, namely,
abnormal growth and rupture of tissues. Following defects are caused by these
forces:
(i) Burls
(ii) Callus
(iii) Chemical stain
(iv) Coarse grain
(v) Dead wood
(vi) Druxiness
(vii) Foxiness
(viii) Knots
(ix) Rind galls
(x) Shakes
(xi) Twisted fibres
(xii) Upsets
(xiii) Water stain
(xiv) Wind cracks.

(5) Defects due to Seasoning:

Following defects occur in the seasoning process of wood:
(i) Bow
(ii) Case-hardening
(iii) Check
(iv) Collapse
(v) Cup
(vi) Honey-combing
(vii) Radial shakes
(viii) Split
(ix) Twist
(x) Warp.
 LGED-2017(AE)

Question-02(A): Define Right of way. Draw a road section of National

Highway with right of way and name different pavement layer with CBR??

The right of way can be described generally as the publicly owned area
of land that encompasses all the various cross-section elements.
The right of way is the land set aside for use as a highway corridor.
Rights of way are purchased prior to the construction of a new road, and
usually enough extra land is purchased.
 Question-02(B): Compare Digital Levelling and Total Station. What is
transition curve and when it is needed??

Transition curve is a curve in plan which is provided to change the horizontal

alignment from straight to circular curve gradually means the radius of transition
curve varies between infinity to R or R to infinity.

Objectives for providing transition curves

1. For the gradual introduction Centrifugal force

2. To introduce super elevation gradually
3. To introduce extra widening gradually
4. To provide comfort for the driver that is to enable smooth vehicle operation
on road.
5. To enhance aesthetics of highways.

N.B: EXTRA:

Types of transition curves

o Spiral or clothoid
o Cubic parabola
o Lemniscate
Spiral or clothoid as the ideal transition curve due to following reasons:
1. It satisfies that rate of change of centrifugal acceleration is constant i.e., Ls.R =
constant. Where Ls = length of transition curve R = radius of curve.
2. The calculation and field implementation of spiral curve is simple and easy.
3. It enhances aesthetics also.
Determining length of transition curve

Based on rate of change of acceleration

Radius of curve is infinity at the tangent point and hence centrifugal acceleration is
zero. Similarly at the straight end radius of curve has minimum value means
centrifugal acceleration is maximum. So, the rate of change of centrifugal
acceleration should be adopted such that the design should not cause any
discomfort to the drivers.

Let Ls be the length of transition curve and a vehicle is moving with a speed of V
m/s.

Force P = (mV2/R)
Since it is similar to F= ma

P = m (V2/R)
Therefore, centrifugal acceleration = V2/R
Let “C” be the coefficient of rate of change of centrifugal acceleration.

C = (V2/R). (1/t)
Where t= time taken to travel the transition curve of length Ls, with a speed of V

t = Ls/V

C = (V2/R). (V/Ls)
Ls = (V3/CR)
According to IRC, C = 80/(75+V) and C should be (0.5<C<0.8).

Based on rate of change of superelevation and extra widening

Let 1 in N is the allowable rate of introduction of super elevation and E is the raise
of the outer edge with respect to inner edge. W is the normal width of pavement in
meters. We is the extra width of pavement in meters. And e is the rate of
superelevation.

E = (W+We).e

Therefore length of transition curve, Ls = (W+We).e.N

If the pavement outer edge is raised and inner edge is depressed with respect to
center of pavement then,
 Ls = [(W+We).e.N]/2
Typical range of introduction of super elevation is as follows according to IRC

Type of terrain Rate of super elevation 1 in N

For plain and rolling terrains 1 in 150

For built up areas 1 in 100

For hilly and steep terrains 1 in 60

Question-03(A): What is shallow and deep foundation???

Question-03(B): When mat foundation is recommended??

Mat foundation is actually a thick concrete slab resting on a large area of soil
reinforced with steel, supporting columns or walls and transfer loads from the
structure to the soil. Usually, mat foundation is spread over the entire area of
the structure it is supporting.

When to Choose Mat Foundation

For foundation design, one of the most important aspects is choosing the right type
of foundation. Raft foundation is preferred when-
 The soil has a low bearing capacity.
 Load of the structure has to be distributed over a large area.
 Individual or any other foundation area would approximately cover 50%
of the total ground area beneath the structure.
 The columns or walls are placed so closely that the individual footings
would overlap.
 Stress on soil needs to be reduced.
 There is a possibility of differential settlement in case individual footing is
used.
 When soil strata are unpredictable and contain pockets of compressible
soil.
 Basement is to be constructed.
Question-04(A): How many number of bricks would be required to
construct 100 sqm wall of 25 cm thickness???

The volume of brickwork is = 100*0.25 m3

= 25 m3

The standard brick size is, 9½″ x 4½″ x 2¾″.

When we make a brick wall, we normally use ½” thick of mortar in between bricks
for jointing. Including that mortar joint, the brick size will be, 10″ x 5″ x 3″.

So, the volume of a brick (including mortar) is,

= 10″ x 5″ x 3″
= 0.83’x0.42’x0.25’
= 0.087 ft3

= 0.00246 m3 (1 ft3 = 0.028 m3)

No. of Bricks = Volume of brickwork ÷ Volume of a brick (including mortar)

= 25 / 0.00246

= 10162 nos

Due to wastage during carrying and working, we take this number as 10500.
N.B: EXTRA:

Calculate mortar for this brick work???

Volume of a standard bricks is,

= 9½″ x 4½″ x 2¾″.
=0.79’ x 0.37’ x 0.23’

= 0.067 ft3

= 0.0019 m3

Volume of these bricks are

= 10500*0.0019 m3

= 19.95 m3

Mortar volume = brick wall volume – bricks volume

= (25-19.95) m3

= 5.05 m3

The commonly used cement-sand proportion to make 5″ thick brick walls is 1:4.

Dry volume of mortar is = 1.5*5.05= 7.575 m3

Cement volume is = 7.575/5 = 1.515 m3 @ 0.0347 bag = 44 bag

The sand volume is = (7.575*4/5) = 6.06 m3

Required materials for 100 sqm brickwork –

Brick: 10500 numbers.
Cement: 44 bags.
Sand: 6.06 m3
Type of Sand Fineness Modulus Range

Fine Sand 2.2 – 2.6

Medium Sand 2.6 – 2.9

Coarse Sand 2.9 – 3.2

Question-4(B): Why covering of rod in reinforced concrete is needed?

We provide cover ---

1. To protect the reinforcement steel from environment in order to prevent

the corrosion
2. To give reinforcing bars sufficient embedding to enable them to be
stressed without slipping
3. And to provided insulation from fire or heat.
N.B: EXTRA:
Minimum clear cover for Beam, Column, Slab and Footing

Question-5(A): What is the causes of traffic congestion in Dhaka

city????
Question-5(B): Define (i) Railway Station (ii) Terminal (iii) junction

Railway Station: A train station, railway station, railroad station, or depot is

a railway facility or area where trains regularly stop to load or unload passengers
or freight.

It generally consists of at least one track-side platform and a station building

(depot) providing such ancillary services as ticket sales and waiting rooms.

Terminal: A Terminal “ The meaning of the terminal itself is the termination”. It

can also be understood as it is the termination of the track, where each incoming
track ends at stop-blocks and does not go any further

Junction: Junction refers to the railway station where the main line deviates to
another destination.
Or
A station is called a junction if there are at least 3 or more routes going out of
that particular station. Trains coming in should have at least 2 routes to leave, then
a station is called a junction.

Question-6: Writes short notes on

(i) water cement ratio (ii) STP (iii) Waste management (iv) Curing of
concrete (v) Rigid pavement (vi) Pot hole

The water–cement ratio is the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of cement
used in a concrete mix and has an important influence on the quality of concrete
produced.

A lower ratio leads to higher strength and durability, but may make the mix
difficult to work with and form. Work-ability can be resolved with the use of
plasticizers or super-plasticizers
A mix with too much water will experience more shrinkage as excess water leaves,
resulting in internal cracks and visible fractures (particularly around inside
corners), which again will reduce the final strength..

STP: STP is the abbreviation for Standard Temperature and Pressure. The
standard temperature is 273 K (0° Celsius) and the standard pressure is 1 atm
pressure. If you perform calculations, it’s useful to know that one mole of gas
occupies 22.4 L of volume (molar volume) at STP.

Or

STP is Sewage treatment plant. It is a plant which works similar to water treatment
plant.

STP receives human excreta from the trunk main pipe lines. Trunk main pipelines
recieves Sewage from lateral mains. These lateral mains receives sewage from
Manholes. Manholes recieves Sewage from individual house's Septic tank or
Recieving chambers.
The Sewage is converted into Clean water after treatment & is released for
Farming etc.
Waste management: Waste management (or waste disposal) are the activities
and actions required to manage waste from its inception to its final disposal. This
includes the collection, transport, treatment and disposal of waste, together with
monitoring and regulation of the waste management process.

TYPES OF WASTE
 Solid Waste: Solid rubbish consists of number of items found in household
along with some commercial as well as industrial locations.
 Liquid Waste: Households and industries generate liquid waste.
 Organic Waste: Consisting of organic material such as food, garden and
lawn clippings organic waste includes animal and plant based material and
degradable carbon such as paper, cardboard and timber, commonly found in
household.
 Agricultural Waste: Waste generated by agriculture includes waste from
crops and livestock.
 Bio-medical Waste: Bio-medical waste means any waste, which is
generating during the diagnosis, treatment, or immunization of human beings or
animals.
 Recyclable Rubbish: Recyclable rubbish consists of all waste items that
convert into products and use again as all types of metals, paper, and organic
wastes.

TYPES/METHODS/TECHNIQUES OF WASTE MANAGEMENT

 Ocean Dumping

 Sanitary Landfill

 Incineration

 Composting

 Waste separation, recycling and recovery

 Mechanical and biological waste treatment

 Mechanical sorting of wastes

BENEFITS OF WASTE MANAGEMENT
1. Saving Natural Resources
2. Producing energy
3. Reduce pollution
4. Recycling Rubbish

Curing of concrete:
Curing is the process in which the concrete is kept moist to protect it from loss of
moisture due to atmospheric temperature and hydration reaction.

or

Curing is the process of controlling the rate and extent of moisture loss from
concrete during cement hydration.

Objects of Curing of Concrete

1. Is to provide enough quantity of water for the cement to hydrate and set
completely.
2. Is to maintain a proper temperature in and around the concrete during the
setting process.
3. Is to ensure a concrete of good quality, when set, strong enough to
stresses, hard enough to abrasion and resistant to chemical attacks.

Methods of Curing of Concrete

1. Water Curing
i. Spraying or Fogging.
ii. Ponding.
iii. Wet covering.
iv. Immersion.
 2. Membrane curing

3. Application of heat
i. Steam curing at ordinary temperature
ii. Steam curing at high temperature
iii. Curing by infrared radiation
iv. Electrical curing

(v) Rigid pavement:

A rigid pavement is constructed from cement concrete or reinforced concrete slabs.
Grouted concrete roads are in the category of semi-rigid pavements.

The design of rigid pavement is based on providing a structural cement concrete

slab of sufficient strength to resists the loads from traffic. The rigid pavement has
rigidity and high modulus of elasticity to distribute the load over a relatively wide
area of soil.

Minor variations in subgrade strength have little influence on the structural

capacity of a rigid pavement. In the design of a rigid pavement, the flexural
strength of concrete is the major factor and not the strength of subgrade. Due to
this property of pavement, when the subgrade deflects beneath the rigid pavement,
the concrete slab is able to bridge over the localized failures and areas of
inadequate support from subgrade because of slab action.
N.B: EXTRA:

Flexible Pavement:

Flexible pavement can be defined as the one consisting of a mixture of asphaltic or

bituminous material and aggregates placed on a bed of compacted granular
material of appropriate quality in layers over the subgrade. Water bound macadam
roads and stabilized soil roads with or without asphaltic toppings are examples of
flexible pavements.

The design of flexible pavement is based on the principle that for a load of any
magnitude, the intensity of a load diminishes as the load is transmitted downwards
from the surface by virtue of spreading over an increasingly larger area, by
carrying it deep enough into the ground through successive layers of granular
material.

Thus for flexible pavement, there can be grading in the quality of materials used,
the materials with high degree of strength is used at or near the surface. Thus the
strength of subgrade primarily influences the thickness of the flexible pavement.
Difference between Flexible Pavement and Rigid pavement

Sl.
Flexible Pavement Rigid Pavement
No.

It consists of a series of layers with the It consists of one layer Portland cement
1. highest quality materials at or near the concrete slab or relatively high flexural
surface of pavement. strength.

It reflects the deformations of subgrade It is able to bridge over localized failures

2.
and subsequent layers on the surface. and area of inadequate support.

Its stability depends upon the aggregate Its structural strength is provided by the
3.
interlock, particle friction and cohesion. pavement slab itself by its beam action.

Pavement design is greatly influenced Flexural strength of concrete is a major

4.
by the subgrade strength. factor for design.

It functions by a way of load It distributes load over a wide area of

5. distribution through the component subgrade because of its rigidity and high
layers modulus of elasticity.

Temperature variations due to change in

Temperature changes induce heavy
6. atmospheric conditions do not produce
stresses in rigid pavements.
stresses in flexible pavements.

Any excessive deformations occurring

Flexible pavements have self healing
due to heavier wheel loads are not
7. properties due to heavier wheel loads
recoverable, i.e. settlements are
are recoverable due to some extent.
permanent.

(vi) Pot hole:

A pothole is a depression in a road surface, usually asphalt pavement, where traffic
has removed broken pieces of the pavement. It is usually the result of water in the
underlying soil structure and traffic passing over the affected area. Water first
weakens the underlying soil; traffic then fatigues and breaks the poorly supported
asphalt surface in the affected area. Continued traffic action ejects both asphalt and
the underlying soil material to create a hole in the pavement.
Potholes may result from four main causes:
1. Insufficient pavement thickness to support traffic during freeze/thaw
periods without localized failures
2. Insufficient drainage
3. Failures at utility trenches and castings (manhole and drain casings)
4. Pavement defects and cracks left unmaintained and unsealed so as to
admit moisture and compromise the structural integrity of the pavement.

The following steps can be taken to avoid pothole formation in existing pavements.
1. Surveying of pavements for risk factors
2. Providing adequate drainage structures
3. Preventative maintenance
4. Utility cut management

Question-07(A): Why soil test needed before construction of a building. What

do you mean by bearing capacity of soil?

Types of Soil tests for building construction works depend on properties of soil.
Design of foundation is based on soil test report of construction site.
Soil tests for construction of buildings or any structure is the first step in
construction planning to understand the suitability of soil for proposed construction
work.

Soil which is responsible for allowing the stresses coming from the structure
should be well tested to give excellent performance. If soil shouldn’t tested
correctly then the whole building or structure is damaged or collapsed or leaned
like leaning tower of Pisa. So, soil inspection or testing is the first step to proceed
any construction.
Bearing capacity of soil: The bearing capacity of soil is defined as the capacity of
the soil to bear the loads coming from the foundation. The pressure which the soil
can easily withstand against load is called allowable bearing pressure.
Ultimate bearing capacity (qu)
The gross pressure at the base of the foundation at which soil fails is called
ultimate bearing capacity.

Net ultimate bearing capacity (qnu)

By neglecting the overburden pressure from ultimate bearing capacity we will get
net ultimate bearing capacity.

Where = unit weight of soil, Df = depth of foundation.

Net safe bearing capacity (qns)

By considering only shear failure, net ultimate bearing capacity is divided by
certain factor of safety will give the net safe bearing capacity.

qns = qnu/ F
Where F = factor of safety = 3 (usual value)

Gross safe bearing capacity (qs)

When ultimate bearing capacity is divided by factor of safety it will give gross safe
bearing capacity.

qs = qu/F
Net safe settlement pressure (qnp)
The pressure with which the soil can carry without exceeding the allowable
settlement is called net safe settlement pressure.

Net allowable bearing pressure (qna)

This is the pressure we can used for the design of foundations. This is equal to net
safe bearing pressure if qnp > qns. In the reverse case it is equal to net safe settlement
pressure.
N.B: EXTRA:
Types of Soil Tests for Building Construction
Various tests on soil are conducted to decide the quality of soil for building
construction. Some tests are conducted in laboratory and some are in the field.
Here we will discuss about the importance of various soil tests for building
construction. The tests on soil are as follows.

1. Moisture content test

2. Atterberg limits tests
3. Specific gravity of soil
4. Dry density of soil
5. Compaction test (Proctor’s test)

Moisture Content Test on Soil

Moisture content or water content in soil is an important parameter for building
construction. It is determined by several methods and they are

1. Oven drying method

2. Calcium carbide method
3. Torsion balance method
4. Pycnometer method
5. Sand bath method
6. Radiation method
7. Alcohol method
Of all the above oven drying method is most common and accurate method. In this
method the soil sample is taken and weighed and put it in oven and dried at
110o + 5oC. After 24 hours soil is taken out and weighed.
Specific Gravity Test on Soil
Specific gravity of soil is the ratio of the unit weight of soil solids to that of the
water. It is determined by many methods and they are.

1. Density bottle method

2. Pycnometer method
3. Gas jar method
4. Shrinkage limit method
5. Measuring flask method
Density bottle method and Pycnometer method are simple and common methods.

Dry Density Test on Soil

The weight of soil particles in a given volume of sample is termed as dry density of
soil. Dry density of soil depends upon void ratio and specific gravity of soil. Based
on values of dry density soil is classified into dense, medium dense and loose
categories.

Dry density of soil is calculated by

1. Core cutter method

2. Sand replacement method
3. Water-displacement method.

Atterberg Limits Test on Soil

To measure the critical water content of a fine grained soil, Atterberg provided 3
limits which exhibits the properties of fine grained soil at different conditions. The
limits are

1. Liquid limit

2. Plastic limit

3. Shrinkage limit.
Question: What are the methods of determining bearing capacity??

The various methods of computing the bearing capacity can be listed as follows:

 Presumptive Analysis
 Analytical Methods
 Plate Bearing Test
 Penetration Test
 Modern Testing Methods
 Centrifuge Test

Question: How to improve Soil Bearing Capacity?

It happens, sometimes, that the required safe bearing capacity of the soil is not
available at shallow depth or it is so low that the dimensions of the footings work
out to be very large and uneconomical.

Therefore, on such circumstances, depending on the site conditions, it becomes

necessary to improve the bearing capacity of soil.

Following are the methods of improving the bearing capacity of soil.

1. By increasing the depth of the foundation

2. By draining the soils
3. By compacting the soil
4. By confining the soil
5. By increasing the width of the foundation
6. By replacing the poor soils
7. By grouting
8. By chemical treatment
9. By using geo-textiles
1. By increasing the depth of the foundation:
In most of the cases, the bearing capacity increases with the depth due to the
confining weight of the overlying material.

This method is not economical because the cost of construction increases with the
depth and the load on the foundation also increases.

This method should not be used on silts where the subsoil material grows wetter as
the depth increases.

2. By draining the soils:

The presence of water decreases the bearing capacity of the soil.

Some studies have shown that around 50 percent of bearing capacity is lost
in sandy soils due to the presence of excess water.
Suitable drains should, therefore, be provided in the foundation channel to drain
off the excess water.

3. By compacting the soil:

Compaction reduces the open space between the individual particles of soil, and
hence, they are less liable to displacement, thereby it will indirectly increase soil
bearing capacities.

By driving piles or by packing boulders, compaction to a certain extent can be

attained particularly in sandy soils of a loose nature.
The compaction increases the density and strength of the soil and, hence, the
bearing capacity.
Better compaction is achieved in two ways.

(1) By spreading broken stone,gravel, or sand or hand packing the rubble boulders
and after that ramming well in the bed of trenches.
(2) By driving piles either of concrete or wood or driving and withdrawing the
piles and filling the holes with sand and concrete.

4. By confining the soil:

The movement of soil under the action of load can be prevented by confining the
ground by the use of sheet piles.

Sheet piles are driven to form an enclosure, which compacts the soil particles.
Thus, it will help in increasing the bearing power.
These confined soils can be further compacted for better strength. This method is
especially useful for sandy soils below the shallow foundations.

5. By increasing the width of the foundation:

By increasing the width of the foundation, the bearing area increases and, hence,
the intensity of pressure decreases.

This method has limited usage since the width of the foundation cannot be
increased indefinitely.

6. By replacing the poor soils:

The poor soil is first removed, and then the gap is filled by superior materials such
as rubble stone, sand, gravel, or other hard materials.
First, the foundation trenches are excavated to a depth of 1.5 meters, then filled in
stages of 30 cm by hard material and finally rammed.

7. By grouting:
In poor soil bearing strata, a sufficient number of boreholes are driven. Then
Cement grout is injected under pressure in the foundation to seal off any cracks or
fissures which otherwise reduce its bearing capacity.

This method is mostly employed for fissured cracks.

8. By chemical treatment:
Chemical solutions like silicates are injected under pressure. They form a gel and
thereby unite particles to develop a compact mass, which will increase the Bearing
Capacity of Soil indirectly.

This is called chemical stabilization and is used to impart additional strength to soft
soils at a deeper depth.

However, the chemicals are added in traces only, but even then it has proved to be
costly. That’s why this method is very expensive and is adopted in exceptional
cases.

9. By using geo-textiles:
This is a method of reinforcing weak soils to improve their strength and bearing
capacity. Coir geo-textiles are found to be very useful in this context.
Question-07(B): Determine the quantity of earthwork for 500 m of
embankment having the section bellow