Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 16 Ž2001.

133᎐150

Tunnelling in Taiwan

Assessment of damage in mountain tunnels due to the

Taiwan Chi-Chi Earthquake

W.L. Wang a , T.T. Wang b,U , J.J. Sua , C.H. Lin a , C.R. Seng a , T.H. Huang b
a
United Geotech Inc., Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
b
Department of Ci¨ il Engineering, National Taiwan Uni¨ ersity, 1 Section 4 Roose¨ elt Road, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC

Received 15 March 2001; received in revised form 10 August 2001; accepted 14 August 2001

Abstract

Tunnels, being underground structures, have long been assumed to have the ability to sustain earthquakes with little damage.
However, investigations of mountain tunnels after the Chi-Chi Earthquake in central Taiwan revealed that many tunnels suffered
significant damage to various extents. This work describes the findings of a systematic assessment of damage in the mountain
tunnels in Taiwan after the earthquake. It was found that among the 57 tunnels investigated 49 of them were damaged. The
damage patterns are summarized based on the characteristics and the distribution of the lining cracks. This systematic
investigation, involving geological conditions, design documents, construction and maintenance records of these tunnels, has been
conducted to assess the potential factors that may have influence on the various damage patterns and the earthquake loading for
tunnels. The results show that the degree of damage is associated with the geological condition and structural arrangement of the
tunnel. A tunnel passing through a displaced fault zone will definitely suffer damage. The extent of geological weak zones,
distance from the epicenter, and the existence of a slope face are also significant influencing factors. The seismic capacity of the
tunnel is influenced by its structural arrangement, type of lining, invert setup, lining reinforcement, and other parameters. 䊚 2001
Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Tunnel damage; Earthquake; Lining cracks

1. Introduction portal sections., which were damaged owing to slope

Mountain tunnels, being situated deep within rock
layers, have generally been assumed to be sustainable
against damage from earthquakes. Previous studies
have found earthquake damage in tunnels to be local-
ized at sections with two important characteristics:
those running through displaced faults, which were
damaged by shear forces that developed during the
earthquake, and those near surface slopes Žespecially at
U
Corresponding author. Tel.: q886-2-2746-6777; fax: q886-2-
2364-5734.
E-mail address: wangseeu@ms11.hinet.net ŽT.T. Wang..
failures ŽDowding and Rozen, 1978; Yoshikawa, 1981;
Sharma and Judd, 1991; Asakura and Sato, 1996, 1998..
Most of the design codes relating to earthquake mitiga-
tion for mountain tunnels are currently designed for
use at portals and sections near slope surfaces, and
seldom for other sections, including deeper mined parts
and areas near intersections. Nevertheless, the Chi-Chi
Earthquake inflicted significant damage on many tun-
nels in central Taiwan, such as cracking, spalling of
concrete lining and deformation of steel reinforcement.
This damage provides sufficient evidence to suggest
that the effects of earthquakes on tunnels should be
further studied.
To study the damage influencing factors, the results

0886-7798r01r$ - see front matter 䊚 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 8 8 6 - 7 7 9 8 Ž 0 1 . 0 0 0 4 7 - 5
134 W.L. Wang et al. r Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 16 (2001) 133᎐150

of investigations of 57 mountain tunnels affected by the

Chi-Chi Earthquake were presented in this paper. For
each tunnel, the damage patterns are examined on the
basis of crack mapping results, and the degree of
damage was assessed based on its functionality after
the earthquake. Tunnel damage, geological and
geotechnical conditions and tunnel structural charac-
teristics are systematically investigated to evaluate the
factors influencing tunnel damage in an earthquake.
This paper also discusses the influence of seismic ef-
fects on tunnel engineering.

2. Brief description of the Chi-Chi Earthquake

On 21 September 1999, at 01.47 h local time, a

strong earthquake with a magnitude of 7.3 on the
Richter scale occurred near the town of Chi-Chi in
central Taiwan ŽN23.78⬚, E120.84⬚., at a depth of ap-
proximately 7.5 km. The island suffered catastrophic
damage during the earthquake, with 2375 lives being
lost, over 10 000 people being injured and more than
30 000 buildings collapsed.
The Chi-Chi earthquake resulted from the reactiva-
tion of the Chelungpu Fault. The fault was long ago
identified as a thrust fault, running in a N᎐S direction Fig. 1. Intensity of Chi-Chi Earthquake felt at different locations in
for a total length of 60 km, while dipping eastward at Taiwan Žafter National Central University, 2001..
an angle of 30⬚ or less. However, visually identified
surface ruptures following the earthquake indicated
that the fault is more extensive. It has a total length of mation on the east of the fault, i.e. the hanging wall,
85 km, including newly formed branches at the north- consists of late Pliocene Chinshui Shale and early
ern tip of the fault, as shown in Fig. 1. This growth of Pleistocene shaley Cholan Formation, while the west of
the fault represents the largest known onshore thrust- the fault, the footwall, consists of gravelly late Pleis-
faulting event of the 20th century. tocene Toukershan Formation.
Geologically, the fault is easily identifiable. The for- The Chi-Chi earthquake caused significant ground

Fig. 2. The location of tunnels investigated and the earthquake intensity on ground surface.
Table 1
Tunnels investigated and their damage types

No. Tunnel and Basic information

location Tunneling Length Width Lining Distance Distance
Methoda Žm. Žm. to the to Che-
epicenter Lung-Pu
Žkm. fault Žkm.

1 Shih-Gang Dam, NA TM ᎐ ᎐ Y ᎐ 0.0

Water conveyance
tunnel
2 Highway 8, 13k q 381 T 20 6.5 N 35.1 12.0
3 Highway 8, 27k q 710 T 30 6.8 N 38.6 18.6
Li-Lang Tunnel
4 Highway 8, 34k q 668 T 50 3.2 Y 44.0 20.1
5 Highway 8, 34k q 775 T 41 3.4 Y 44.0 20.1
6 Highway 8, 35k q 908 T 90 5.1 Y 44.8 19.8
old Ku-Kuan Tunnel
7 Highway 8, 36k q 908 T 90 7.5 Y 44.8 19.8
Ku-Kuan Tunnel
8 Highway 8, 38k q 500 T 150 4.0 Y 45.9 21.5
No.1 old Maa-Ling
Tunnel
9 Highway 8, 38k q 500 T 365 5.1 Y 45.8 21.5
No.1 Maa-Ling Tunnel
10 Highway 8, 39k q 075 T 60 7.5 Y 46.1 21.6
No.2 Maa-Ling Tunnel
11 Highway 8, 40k q 830 T 245 7.5 Y 46.3 21.6
No.3 Maa-Ling Tunnel
12 Highway 8, 41k q 311 T 100 7.5 Y 47.8 22.1
No.4 Maa-Ling Tunnel
13 Highway 8, 41k q 311 T 100 4.0 Y 47.8 22.1
No.4 old Maa-Ling
14 Highway 8, 42k q 573 T 10 6.5 N 48.3 23.0
15 Highway 8, 43k q 040 T 15 6.5 N 48.3 23.0
16 Highway 8, 45k q 266 T 32 6.5 Y 48.5 22.8
17 Highway 14, 37k q 405 T 150 7.5 Y 19.7 12.0
Shuang-Fu Tunnel
W.L. Wang et al. r Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 16 (2001) 133᎐150

18 Highway 14, T 182 7.5 Y 19.8 12.2

37k q 981ŽL.
Gang-Lin Tunnel
19 Highway 14, T 249 7.5 Y 19.8 12.2
38k q 000ŽR.
Gang-Lin Tunnel
135
Table 1 Ž Continued. 136

No. Tunnel and Basic information

location Tunneling Length Width Lining Distance Distance
Methoda Žm. Žm. to the to Che-
epicenter Lung-Pu
Žkm. fault Žkm.

20 Highway 14, T 158 7.5 Y 19.0 13.8

39k q 921ŽL.
Yu-Ler Tunnel
21 Highway 14, T 158 7.5 Y 19.0 13.8
39k q 921ŽR.
Yu-Ler Tunnel
22 Highway 14, 45k T 120 7.5 Y 15.9 17.5
q182 Pei-Shan
Tunnel
23 Highway 14, T 129 7.5 Y 17.1 20.4
48k q 616ŽL.
No.1 Kuan-Yin
Tunnel
24 Highway 14, T 129 7.5 Y 17.1 20.4
48k q 616ŽR.
No.1 Kuan-Yin
Tunnel
25 Highway 14, T 123 7.5 Y 17.5 20.8
48k q 787ŽL.
No. 2 Kuan-Yin
Tunnel
26 Highway 14, T 123 7.5 Y 17.5 20.8
48k q 787ŽR.
No.2 Kuan-Yin
Tunnel
27 Highway 14, 49k q T 252 7.5 Y 17.6 21.2
253ŽL. No. 3
Kuan-Yin Tunnel
28 Highway 14, T 252 7.5 Y 17.6 21.2
49k q 253ŽR.
No. 3 Kuan-Yin Tunnel
W.L. Wang et al. r Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 16 (2001) 133᎐150

29 Highway 16, T 238 4.8 Y 6.1 5.5

Chi-Chi Tunnel
30 Highway 16, NA TM 580 7.5 Y 6.4 5.3
New Chi-Chi Tunnel ŽL.
31 Highway 16, NA TM 515 7.5 Y 6.4 5.3
New Chi-Chi Tunnel ŽR.
32 Highway 21, NA TM 462 7.5 Y 14.2 21.8
54k q 326ŽL.
Da-Yuan Tunnel
Table 1 Ž Continued.

No. Tunnel and Basic information

location Tunneling Length Width Lining Distance Distance
Methoda Žm. Žm. to the to Che-
epicenter Lung-Pu
Žkm. fault Žkm.

33 Highway 21, NA TM 444 7.5 Y 14.2 21.8

54k q 326ŽR.
Da-Yuan Tunnel
34 Highway 21, NA TM 185 7.5 Y 8.5 19.9
66k q 940ŽL.
Shue-Sir Tunnel
35 Highway 21, NA TM 185 7.5 Y 8.5 19.9
66k q 940ŽR.
Shue-Sir Tunnel
36 Highway 21A, 17k q 303 T 128 7.5 Y 9.3 20.2
No. 1 Huan-Hu Tunnel
37 Highway 21A, 17k q 253 T 61 7.5 Y 9.3 20.2
No. 2 Huan-Hu Tunnel
38 Highway 149, NA TM 505 7.0 Y 31.1 7.0
Tsao-Ling Tunnel
39 Highway 149, T 52 7.5 N 32.0 3.7
Ching-Shue Tunnel
40 Tou-6 highway, T 100 6.5 Y 15.5 7.2
No. 1 Tu-Cheng Tunnel
41 Tou-6 highway, T 290 6.4 Y 15.3 7.6
No. 2 Tu-Cheng Tunnel
42 Tou-6 highway, T 140 5.3 Y 15.2 7.8
Shuang-Lung Tunnel ŽE.
43 Tou-6 highway, T 90 5.3 Y 15.2 7.8
Shuang-Lung
Tunnel ŽW.
44 Tou-6 highway, T 80 4.5 Y 15.2 7.8
No. 1 Shuang-
Tung Tunnel
45 Tou-6 highway, T 120 4.5 Y 15.2 7.8
No. 2 Shuang-
W.L. Wang et al. r Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 16 (2001) 133᎐150

Tung Tunnel
46 Chi-Chi line railway, T 350 5.0 Y 6.1 5.5
No. 1 tunnel
47 Chi-Chi line railway, T 1400 5.0 Y -1 11
No. 2 tunnel
48 Chi-Chi line railway, T 250 5.0 Y 4.5 15.9
No. 3 tunnel
49 Chi-Chi line railway, T 150 5.0 Y 5.5 16.4
No. 5 tunnel
137
Table 1 Ž Continued. 138

No. Tunnel and Basic information

location Tunneling Length Width Lining Distance Distance
Methoda Žm. Žm. to the to Che-
epicenter Lung-Pu
Žkm. fault Žkm.

50 Da-Kuan power station, T ᎐ ᎐ Y 8.5 19.9

headrace tunnel
51 New Tien-Lun NA TM 10 600 5.0 Y 40 18.6
power station,
headrace tunnel
52 Mountain line railway, NA TM 7540 9.1 Y 55 11.1
No. 1 San-I Tunnel
53 Mountain line railway, NA TM 260 9.1 Y 50 10.1
No. 2 San-I Tunnel
54 Mountain line railway, NA TM 520 9.1 Y 49 10.1
No. 3 San-I Tunnel
55 Mountain line railway, NA TM 455 9.1 Y 49 10.1
No. 4 San-I Tunnel
56 Old mountain line T 230 5.0 Y 59 14.5
railway, No. 1
San-I Tunnel
57 Old mountain line T 730 5.0 Y 58 13.1
railway, No. 2
San-I Tunnel

No Tunnel and Damage description Damage classificationb

location Portal Sheared Slope Lining Concrete Water Exposed Lining Pavement Rockfalls Overall Mined Portals
failure off lining failure cracks lining inrush reinforce displaced cracks in section
induced spalling ment unlining
tunnel section
collapse

1 Shih-Gang Dam, 6 C
Water conveyance tunnel
2 Highway 8, 13k q 381 6 A A A
W.L. Wang et al. r Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 16 (2001) 133᎐150

3 Highway 8, 27k q 710 A A A

Li-Lang Tunnel
4 Highway 8, 34k q 668 6 6 B A B
5 Highway 8, 34k q 775 6 6 B A B
6 Highway 8, 35k q 908 6 6 6 B A B
old Ku-Kuan Tunnel
7 Highway 8, 36k q 908 6 6 B A B
Ku-Kuan Tunnel
8 Highway 8, 38k q 500 6 6 6 6 C B C
No.1 old Maa-Ling
Tunnel
Table 1 Ž Continued.

No Tunnel and Damage description Damage classification b

location Portal Sheared Slope Lining Concrete Water Exposed Lining Pavement Rockfalls Overall Mined Portals
failure off lining failure cracks lining inrush reinforce displaced cracks in section
induced spalling ment unlining
tunnel section
collapse

9 Highway 8, 38k q 500 6 6 6 6 6 6 C C C

No.1 Maa-Ling Tunnel
10 Highway 8, 39k q 075 6 C A C
No.2 Maa-Ling Tunnel
11 Highway 8, 40k q 830 6 6 C A C
No.3 Maa-Ling Tunnel
12 Highway 8, 41k q 311 A A A
No.4 Maa-Ling Tunnel
13 Highway 8, 41k q 311 6 6 6 C C A
No.4 old Maa-Ling
14 Highway 8, 42k q 573 6 6 C C C
15 Highway 8, 43k q 040 6 6 B A B
16 Highway 8, 45k q 266 6 6 C B C
17 Highway 14, 37k q 405 6 A A A
Shuang-Fu Tunnel
18 Highway 14, 6 6 6 6 C A C
37k q 981ŽL.
Gang-Lin Tunnel
19 Highway 14, 6 6 6 A A A
38k q 000ŽR.
Gang-Lin Tunnel
20 Highway 14, 6 6 A A A
39k q 921ŽL.
Yu-Ler Tunnel
21 Highway 14, 6 6 A A A
39k q 921ŽR.
Yu-Ler Tunnel
22 Highway 14, 45k 6 A A A
q182 Pei-Shan Tunnel
23 Highway 14, 6 A A A
W.L. Wang et al. r Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 16 (2001) 133᎐150

48k q 616ŽL.
No.1 Kuan-Yin
Tunnel
24 Highway 14, 6 A A A
48k q 616ŽR.
No.1 Kuan-Yin Tunnel
139
Table 1 Ž Continued. 140

No Tunnel and Damage description Damage classification b

location Portal Sheared Slope Lining Concrete Water Exposed Lining Pavement Rockfalls Overall Mined Portals
failure off lining failure cracks lining inrush reinforce displaced cracks in section
induced spalling ment unlining
tunnel section
collapse

25 Highway 14, 6 6 A A A
48k q 787ŽL.
No. 2 Kuan-Yin Tunnel
26 Highway 14, 6 6 A A A
48k q 787ŽR.
No.2 Kuan-Yin Tunnel
27 Highway 14, 49k q 6 6 6 B A B
253ŽL. No. 3
Kuan-Yin Tunnel
28 Highway 14, 6 6 A A A
49k q 253ŽR.
No. 3 Kuan-Yin Tunnel
29 Highway 16, 6 6 A A A
Chi-Chi Tunnel
30 Highway 16, 6 A A A
New Chi-Chi Tunnel ŽL.
31 Highway 16, 6 6 6 C C A
New Chi-Chi Tunnel ŽR.
32 Highway 21, 6 A A A
54k q 326ŽL.
Da-Yuan Tunnel
33 Highway 21, 6 A A A
54k q 326ŽR.
Da-Yuan Tunnel
34 Highway 21, 6 A A A
66k q 940ŽL.
Shue-Sir Tunnel
35 Highway 21, A A A
66k q 940ŽR.
Shue-Sir Tunnel
W.L. Wang et al. r Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 16 (2001) 133᎐150

36 Highway 21A, 17k q 303 A A A

No. 1 Huan-Hu Tunnel
37 Highway 21A, 17k q 253 A A A
No. 2 Huan-Hu Tunnel
38 Highway 149, 6 6 6 6 C B C
Tsao-Ling Tunnel
39 Highway 149, 6 6 6 C C C
Ching-Shue Tunnel
40 Tou-6 highway, 6 6 A A A
No. 1 Tu-Cheng Tunnel
Table 1 Ž Continued.

No Tunnel and Damage description Damage classification b

location Portal Sheared Slope Lining Concrete Water Exposed Lining Pavement Rockfalls Overall Mined Portals
failure off lining failure cracks lining inrush reinforce displaced cracks in section
induced spalling ment unlining
tunnel section
collapse

41 Tou-6 highway, 6 6 B B A
No. 2 Tu-Cheng Tunnel
42 Tou-6 highway, 6 6 B B A
Shuang-Lung Tunnel ŽE.
43 Tou-6 highway, 6 A A A
Shuang-Lung
Tunnel ŽW.
44 Tou-6 highway, 6 6 6 B B B
No. 1 Shuang-
Tung Tunnel
45 Tou-6 highway, 6 6 A A A
No. 2 Shuang-
Tung Tunnel
46 Chi-Chi line railway, 6 A A A
No. 1 tunnel
47 Chi-Chi line railway, 6 A A A
No. 2 tunnel
48 Chi-Chi line railway, 6 B B B
No. 3 tunnel
49 Chi-Chi line railway, 6 B B B
No. 5 tunnel
50 Da-Kuan power station, 6 6 C C A
headrace tunnel
51 New Tien-Lun 6 6 6 C C A
power station,
headrace tunnel
52 Mountain line railway, 6 6 6 6 C C A
No. 1 San-I Tunnel
53 Mountain line railway, A A A
No. 2 San-I Tunnel
W.L. Wang et al. r Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 16 (2001) 133᎐150

54 Mountain line railway, A A A

No. 3 San-I Tunnel
55 Mountain line railway, A A A
No. 4 San-I Tunnel
56 Old mountain line 6 6 A A A
railway, No. 1
San-I Tunnel
57 Old mountain line 6 6 A A A
railway, No. 2
141

San-I Tunnel
a
Tunnelling method: T means traditional tunneling method, NATM means New Austria Tunneling Method.
142 W.L. Wang et al. r Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 16 (2001) 133᎐150

Fig. 3. Tunnel locations relative to Chelungpu thrust fault.

deformation. GPS survey results indicated that an area
east of the fault with a width of approximately 15 km
was displaced north-westwards, with a maximum hori-
zontal displacement of 9.06 m Ž10 m horizontal dis-
placement was measured on the ground., and vertically
uplifted by approximately 9.8 m at the Shihkang Dam,
near the north tip of the fault line. Fig. 1 shows the
surface rupture and peak ground acceleration ŽPGA.
contour caused by the earthquake.
3. Damage to mountain tunnels
Following the earthquake, a systematic investigation
was conducted on 57 tunnels located in central Taiwan.
Firstly, quick visual inspections were performed within
a couple of days of the earthquake to gather prelimi-
nary information on tunnel damage. Detailed surveys
were then performed for tunnels that were significantly
damaged, using lining crack mapping, photo recording,
and measuring of the major crack characteristics Žin-
cluding width, depth and relative displacement direc-
tion.. Non-destructive inspection methods, such as
ground penetration radar ŽGPR., were also used in
several severely damaged tunnels. Fig. 2 indicates the
locations of the investigated tunnels and the intensity
of the earthquake on the ground surface.
Various types of damage were observed, including
lining cracks, portal failure, concrete lining spalling,
groundwater inrush, exposed and buckled reinforce-
ment, displaced lining, rockfalls in unlined sections,
lining collapses caused by slope failure, pavement or

Fig. 4. The numbers of tunnels suffering various types of damage.

 W.L. Wang et al. r Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 16 (2001) 133᎐150 143

Table 2
Tunnel damage classification chart for emergency investigation phase ŽHuang et al., 1999.

Tunnel classification a,b Damage level Damage description Traffic strategy

No A No damage No damage detectable by visual inspection. Normal

immediate A Slight Light damage detected on visual inspection, no operation
danger effects on traffic Ž wc - 3 mm, lc - 5 m..
Dangerous B Moderate Spalling, cracking of linings Ž w ) 3 mm, l ) 5 m., Operable with
exposed reinforcement, displacement of segmental regulations
joints, leaking of water.
Some disruption to traffic.
Dangerous C Severe Slope failure at openings, collapse of main tunnel Not
structure, up heave or differential movement of operable
road and road shoulder, flooding, damaged
ventilation and lighting system in long tunnels.
Total disruption of traffic.
a
Classification of a tunnel is based on its functionality Žtraffic condition for road tunnels, ability to withstand water pressure for water
conveyance tunnels . and extent of damage in the tunnel.
b
Classification of a tunnel should be based on the least safe section being assessed to be conservative.
c
w s width of crack, l s length of crack.

bottom cracks, and sheared off lining. Table 1 lists the
basic information and damage conditions of the investi-
gated tunnels.damage suffered by mountain tunnels
following the earthquake.
Huang et al. Ž1999. suggested assessing the degree of
damage to a tunnel based on its functionality after an
earthquake. Considering the potential hazard to vehi-
cles, the degree of damage can be evaluated according
to the width and length of cracks in mined sections of
typical traffic tunnels, as presented in Table 2. Mean-
while, in this paper the degree of damage to the portal
section can be accessed by the stability of the slope
above the tunnel. For simplicity, the same damage
evaluation standards are also adopted herein for water
conveyance tunnels. Among the 57 tunnels investi-
gated, only 8 are classified as totally undamaged, while
the other 49 tunnels suffered various degrees of
damage, as summarized in Table 1. Table 3 lists the
degree of damage to tunnels in different categories.
The tunnels passing through the displaced fault zone
suffered catastrophic damage, and the lining was
sheared off. Meanwhile, for the 50 tunnels in the
hanging wall group, 5 tunnels Ž10%. are classified as
undamaged, 21 tunnels Ž42%. were lightly damaged, 11
Ž22%. moderately damaged and 13 Ž26%. severely da-
maged. Finally, for the 6 tunnels in the footwall and
other areas, 3 Ž50%. suffered no damage at all, 2 Ž34%.
were lightly damaged and 1 Ž16%. was severely da-
maged. Evidently, the tunnels located in the hanging
wall area suffered more damage than those in the
footwall area.
4. Classification of damage patterns
Numerous damage conditions were observed in the
tunnels ŽUnited Geotech, Inc., 1999a,b., and some of
the major patterns with significant characteristics are
illustrated below.
4.1. Sheared off lining
All buildings, bridges, roads, tunnels or other struc-

Table 3
Damage of mountain tunnels caused by Chi-Chi Earthquake Žafter Wang et al., 2000.

Location No. of tunnels Tunnel Damage Tunnel Damaged Damaged in

assessed classification level damaged in portal mined section

Displaced 1 A Slight ᎐ ᎐ ᎐
fault zone 1 B Moderate ᎐ ᎐ ᎐
1 C Severe 1 ᎐ 1
Hanging 50 A Slight 26 32 35
wall area 50 B Moderate 11 9 8
50 C Severe 13 9 7
Footwall 6 A Slight 2 3 2
and other 6 B Moderate ᎐ ᎐ ᎐
areas 6 C Severe 1 ᎐ 1
144 W.L. Wang et al. r Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 16 (2001) 133᎐150

tures lying across the displaced fault zone were de-

stroyed, regardless of their size and stiffness, when the
Chelungpu Fault line underwent shearing. The Shih-
gang Dam and its water conveyance tunnel are the best
examples of this type of failure. Investigations by Chang
and Chang Ž2000. revealed that this gravitational type
Shihgang Dam was displaced 7.8 m vertically and 7.0 m
horizontally towards the north, destroying the dam’s
water retaining function. The dam’s water conveyance
tunnel was also sheared off at a point 180 m down-
stream from the inlet because of the displaced fault.
The tunnel was separated roughly 4 m vertically and 3
m horizontally, as displayed in Fig. 5a, causing the
tunnel to fail. Furthermore, severe spalling of the con-
crete lining and cracks developed along the tunnel, as
illustrated in Fig. 5b.

4.2. Slope failure induced tunnel collapse

When surface slopes fail during an earthquake, tun-

nels can be damaged by the failure surface at sections
near the slope face. Fig. 6a᎐c illustrate two representa-
tive cases from tunnels located at Sta. 42k q 573 of
Fig. 5. Damage pattern ᎏ sheared off lining. Ža. sheared off damage
Highway No. 8 and the Chingshue Tunnel of Highway at the water conveyance tunnel of Shih-Gang Dam; Žb. sketch of
No. 149A. The damage patterns are presented Fig. 6d. sheared off lining damage.

Fig. 6. Damage pattern ᎏ slope failure induced tunnel collapse. Ža. photo of Chi-Shue Tunnel before Chi-Chi Earthquake; Žb. photo f Chi-Shue
Tunnel after Chi-Chi Earthquake; Žc. slope failure induced tunnel collapse at Sta. 45k q 573 of Highway No. 8; Žd. sketch of damage pattern.
 W.L. Wang et al. r Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 16 (2001) 133᎐150 145

Fig. 7. Damage pattern ᎏ longitudinal cracks. Ža. sketch of longitudinal cracks damage; Žb. typical mapping result of singular crack at the vault
of the crown; Žc. typical mapping result of symmetrical cracks; Žd. typical mapping result of non-symmetrical cracks.

4.3. Longitudinal cracks 4.4. Trans¨ erse cracks

Longitudinal cracks in the concrete lining were de-
veloped in some tunnels, and were generally extended.
The crack length often exceeds the diameter of the
tunnel, as illustrated in Fig. 7a. This damage pattern
can be further classified into three types, singular crack
at the vault of the crown, symmetrical cracks, and
non-symmetrical cracks, as shown in Fig. 7b᎐d. Most of
the singular cracks and symmetrical cracks are of the
open and non-sheared types. The No. 1 San-I railway
tunnel, New Chi-Chi Tunnel on Highway No. 16 and
the headrace tunnel of New Tienlun power station are
the most representative examples of this type of da-
mage.
Cracks in the concrete lining also developed perpen-
dicular to the direction of tunnel axis, as illustrated in
Fig. 8. These cracks were generally observed above the
road, and were characterized by the spalling or relative
displacement of the lining. The No. 1 San-I railway
tunnel and the No. 1 Maaling Tunnel on Highway No.
8 are the most representative examples of this kind of
damage.
4.5. Inclined cracks
Singular cracks inclined at 30᎐60⬚ to the horizontal
develop in concrete lining at one side of the tunnel and
146 W.L. Wang et al. r Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 16 (2001) 133᎐150

Fig. 8. Damage pattern ᎏ transverse cracks.

generally terminating at the segmental joints, as illus-

trated in Fig. 9. Damage of this type was found in the
No. 1 San-I railway tunnel.

4.6. Extended cross cracks

Inclined cracks in the concrete lining develop at

variable inclinations and run continuously, possibly
crossing segmental joints, along the concrete lining
segments and around the tunnel, as illustrated in Fig.
10a. The No.1 Shuangtung Tunnel, shown in Fig. 10b,
and the West Shuanglung Tunnel of Tou-6 highway are
typical examples of this kind of damage.

4.7. Pa¨ ement or bottom cracks

Cracking of the pavement or the bottom of the

tunnel usually runs continuously over a long distance,
as shown in Fig. 11a, such as in the Shuanglung Tunnel
of the Tou-6 highway. More serious damage may also
occur in the form of up heaving, such as the adit of the
No.1 San-I railway tunnel, as shown in Fig. 11b.
Fig. 10. Damage pattern ᎏ extended cross cracks. Ža. sketch of
extended cross cracks; Žb. extended cross cracks observed in No. 1
Shuang-Tung Tunnel.

4.9. Cracks that de¨ elop near opening

4.8. Wall deformation
Fig. 12a shows tunnel damage caused by significant
inward deformation of the sidewalls. The deformation
caused numerous cracks in the concrete lining on the
inner face of the sidewalls and collapse of the side
ditch, such as in the adit of the No.1 San-I railway
tunnel shown in Fig. 11b and Fig. 12b.
It is very common to see cracks developed near an
opening such as electronic niche, fireplug and fire
extinguisher niche, refuge and so on. These cracks
illustrated in Fig. 13a are usually localized and limited
to a few meters. However, as those openings become
large and are arranged symmetrically, the cracks can
extend from both sides and join together. The collapse
at the large refuges of the No. 1 San-I railway tunnel is
an example, as shown in Fig. 13b.

5. Study of the possible influences related to tunnel

damage

Based on the above damage patterns, possible causes

of tunnel damage are investigated. For each damaged
tunnel, relevant geological investigation reports, design
documents and details on construction and mainte-
Fig. 9. Damage pattern ᎏ inclined cracks. nance were collected. Details of each section of the
 W.L. Wang et al. r Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 16 (2001) 133᎐150 147

be under greater seismic forces if they are closer to the

displaced fault zone or the epicenter. Additionally,
when seismic waves reach the ground surface, they
release energy due to reflection or refraction, and thus
tunnels near the surface, and especially those near
slope faces, will absorb a greater seismic energy.

5.2. Condition of the surrounding ground

Most mountain tunnels run through very hard

ground, and a few tunnels pass through the displaced
fault zone and fractured zones. Seismic waves propa-
gate faster in hard and dense materials, and thus less
energy will be released at places where the tunnels lie
in ground that is harder than the tunnel structure,
meaning that such tunnels will tend to deform with the
ground and suffer less damage. On the other hand, if
the tunnels lie in relatively weaker ground they will
absorb larger amounts of energy and thus suffer greater
damage. Concrete linings can particularly be damaged

Fig. 11. Damage pattern ᎏ pavement or bottom cracks. Ža. sketch of

pavement or bottom cracks; Žb. bottom cracks observed in the adit of
No. 1 San-I railway tunnel.

damaged tunnels were systematically investigated to

examine possible factors controlling the occurrence of
a certain type of damage. Table 4 illustrates an exam-
ple of such an investigation, focusing on the eight
damaged sections in the No. 1 San-I railway tunnel.
The major factors associated with increased damage
include: tunnel being located adjacent to surface slopes
or portals, tunnel running through faults, absence of
concrete lining, unusual or unfavorable concrete lining
conditions, steep sidewalls, absence of invert, etc. These
factors are listed in Table 5 corresponding to the
damage patterns, and can be broadly classified into
three major categories, as discussed below.

5.1. Earthquake intensity at each tunnel

The intensity of seismic force experienced by each

tunnel differs owing to their different distances from
the displaced fault zone and the epicenter of the
earthquake. The distance to the ground surface or to
nearby slopes also influences the seismic effect. Seismic Fig. 12. Damage pattern ᎏ wall deformation. Ža. sketch of inward
waves propagate in the ground and lose energy because deformation of sidewall; Žb. inward deformation of sidewalls in the
of dispersion and ground resistance, causing tunnels to adit of No. 1 San-I railway tunnel.
148 W.L. Wang et al. r Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 16 (2001) 133᎐150
Fig. 13. Damage pattern ᎏ cracks nearby the opening. Ža. sketch of
the cracks nearby the opening; Žb. lining collapse occurred above the
refuge of No. 1 San-I railway tunnel.
easily by ground displacement or ground squeeze where
soft and hard grounds meet, as soft and hard grounds
behave differently during earthquakes.
Any unfavorable events such as cave-in or collapse
during tunneling would extend the plastic zone around
the tunnel, weaken the surrounding rock and cause
excessive vibration when seismic waves pass through. In
addition, if the ground has previously experienced ver-
tical stress from loosening, plastic stress owing to
squeezing, inclined stress or any other weakening
processes, tunnels in these areas will suffer greater
damage to their concrete linings during an earthquake.
5.3. Seismic capacity of the tunnel
The seismic capacity of tunnels can be assessed by
studying the amount of damage sustained, a higher
seismic capacity implies the less substantial the da-
mages should be. Based on a general review of the 57
tunnels investigated, the seismic capacities of tunnels
depend on structural arrangements such as cross-sec-
tions and refuge openings, the presence of linings and
inverts, the presence of lining reinforcements, lining
thickness, and any unusual conditions such as porous
structures, presence of cavities and serious concrete
deterioration in the linings.
6. Concluding remarks
Among the 57 tunnels investigated in central Taiwan,
49 tunnels suffered various degrees of damage after the
Chi-Chi earthquake. The most and often serious da-
mages were found on the east of the Chelungpu fault
line Žhanging wall. while damages on the footwall and
other areas suffered less. The most severely damaged
tunnel sections in the hanging wall are those close to
surface slopes or portal openings, while sections with a
thick overburden generally suffered less. Nevertheless,
however badly the tunnels were damaged, they re-
mained relatively unscathed when compared to surface
structures.
The extent of damage to tunnel linings was influ-
enced by the position of the tunnels in relation to fault
zones, ground conditions, and closeness to the epicen-
ter and surface slopes. Additionally, the presence and
type of lining and lining reinforcement, and any un-
usual condition in the linings are also important influ-
ence factors. It is difficult in a short time to gather the
basic data of a damaged tunnel, especially information
on ground conditions, support structure designs and
unusual construction events immediately after an
earthquake. It is deemed necessary to establish a
database of basic information on existing tunnel struc-
tures and damage assessment.
To prevent slope failures and fault displacements
from damaging tunnels, efforts should be made to
avoid passing through active faults and avoid placing
tunnels too close to slope faces when planning future
tunnels.
The effects of earthquakes on mountain tunnels have
seldom been investigated. Up to now, no established
methods can be employed for assessing and evaluating
tunnel stability during earthquakes, and design codes
for earthquake protection in tunneling are lacking. To
ensure the functionality of existing tunnels and enable
future tunnels to withstand earthquakes, further inves-
tigation of the above topics is necessary.
Acknowledgements
The Highway Bureau, MOTC, the Taiwan Railway
Administration and RSEA Engineering Corporation
are appreciated for providing valuable information on
the tunnels, helping in on site investigation, and assist-
ing in other various tasks.
Table 4
Assessment example on damage influencing factors, No. 1 San-I railway tunnel Žafter Wang and Wang, 2000.

Section Location Damage Overburden Adverse Rock mass Construction Auxiliary Convergence Support Openingc Concrete
typea Žm. geological classification hazard method Ž%. stress condition
condition ŽRMR.

A Approx. 161kq 300 4,9 45 San-I Fault Ž19. ᎐ Cement grouting 4.1 ᎐ Large Local cavern
zone Ž5 times. refuge existing
B Approx. 161kq 360 4,9 35 San-I Fault Ž14. Cave-in Cement grouting 0.3b ᎐ Small Good
zone and collapse refuge
C 161kq 375᎐410 3,5,9 25᎐35 San-I Fault Ž27᎐30. ᎐ ᎐ 0.3b 8 tons Small Cavern
zone in bolts refuge existing
D Approx. 164kq 740 3,9 120 ᎐ Ž43. ᎐ ᎐ 1.5 ᎐ Small Local cavern
refuge existing
E 164kq 758᎐810 3,5 125 ᎐ Ž46᎐67. ᎐ ᎐ 1.5᎐1.8 23.5 MPa in ᎐ Good
shotcrete
F 164kq 842᎐880 3 130᎐150 ᎐ Ž19. ᎐ Cement grouting 2.3 ᎐ ᎐ Cavern
existing
G 165kq 600᎐660 3,4,5 105᎐110 ᎐ Ž35᎐37. Squeezing Forepoling, 3.6᎐5.5 ᎐ ᎐ Cavern
and support cement grouting, existing
damaged ring excavation
and re-supporting
H Approx. 165kq 800 3,9 125 Fractured Ž28. ᎐ ᎐ 2.5 ᎐ Small Cavern
zone refuge existing
a
Damage types: Ž1. sheared off lining; Ž2. slope failure induced tunnel collapse; Ž3. longitudinal cracks; Ž4. transverse cracks; Ž5. inclined cracks; Ž6. extended cross cracks; Ž7. pavement or
bottom cracks; Ž8. wall deformation; Ž9. cracks nearby the opening.
b
Section B and C were located close to breakthrough point Sta. 161kq 385, the monitoring results might not reflect the actual tunnel behavior.
W.L. Wang et al. r Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 16 (2001) 133᎐150

c
The large refuge is 4.5 m in width and 3.5 m in height, the small one is 2.0 m in width and in height, and the excavation size of tunnel is 11 m in width and in height.
149
150 W.L. Wang et al. r Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 16 (2001) 133᎐150

Table 5
Summary of factors influencing tunnel damage

Possible factors Damage typea

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
c
Passing through displaced fault zones ⵜ
Passing through faults, fractured zone and unfavorable ground condition 䢇 ⵜ
Interface of hard and soft ground ⵜ
Nearby slope surface or portal ⵜ ⵜ ⵜ ⵜ
Unfavorable events such as cave-in, collapse occurred during construction 䢇 䢇 䢇 䢇
Anomaly such as lining cracks occurred before quake 䢇 䢇
Poor structural arrangements b 䢇 䢇 ⵜ
Absence of lining 䢇
Unreinforced concrete lining 䢇 䢇 䢇 䢇 䢇 䢇 䢇 ⵜ
Steep sidewalls, absence of invert, etc. 䢇 ⵜ ⵜ
Deteriorated lining material 䢇 䢇
Cavity existed behind lining ⵜ 䢇

a
Damage types refer to Table 4.
b
Arrangements such as opening, refuge, etc., especially symmetrically located in both sidewalls.
c
ⵜ presents significant influence, 䢇 presents moderate influence.

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