PDF

The Role of Music in Mass Media, Public Education and the Formation of a Malaysian
National Culture
Author(s): James D. Chopyak
Source: Ethnomusicology, Vol. 31, No. 3 (Autumn, 1987), pp. 431-454
Published by: University of Illinois Press on behalf of Society for Ethnomusicology
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/851665
Accessed: 08-07-2018 05:18 UTC
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide
range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and
facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
http://about.jstor.org/terms
University of Illinois Press, Society for Ethnomusicology are collaborating with JSTOR
to digitize, preserve and extend access to Ethnomusicology
This content downloaded from 103.18.0.17 on Sun, 08 Jul 2018 05:18:14 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
The Role of Music in Mass Media, Public Education and
the Formation of a Malaysian National Culture'
James D. Chopyak
The search for a national culture is . . . of paramount importance to the new na-
tions. Firstly, it is a matter of symbolic importance for a new nation to assert its
identity in the family of nations. Secondly, in a country with a multi-racial and
multi-cultural society, more urgent is the need to have a national and common
culture for purposes of national unity (Ismail Zain 1977:1).
alaysia is indeed no exception to this feature of newly developing

nations. In fact most writers on this topic feel that the problem of
forming a national culture is even more pronounced in Malaysia than in
most new countries (Andaya and Andaya 1982, Ismail Zain 1977, S. Takdir
Alisjahbana 1965, Tun Abdul Razak bin Hussein 1965).
The task of shaping or creating a national culture is a complex and
wide-ranging one, which in Malaysia is considered fundamental to the na-
tion's development. This article will survey the interrelationships between
the development of a national culture and the development of modern Ma-
laysian music. Music, mass media, the public education system and the
problem of forming a national culture are involved in a complicated series
of interrelationships, hence the subheadings for this article are public edu-
cation, recording and film industries, music and broadcasting, and Malay-
sian popular music today. It is my belief that to understand the develop-
ment of a country's contemporary urban music, it is first necessary to un-
derstand that country's communication and education policy.
The concept of "cultural planning" is one which Americans seem un-
comfortable with, yet in the Malaysian context a strong case can be made
for these endeavors. A brief discussion of some important events in Malay-
sian history and the principles governing the formation of Malaysia's na-
tional culture is essential here.
The modern nation of Malaysia is a rapidly developing, complex multi-
racial society.2 Although small and only newly independent it "belongs to
the part of the world where the great cultural traditions of the world have
come to a confluence and confrontation as nowhere else" (S. Takdir Alis-
431
432 Ethnomusicology, Fall 1987
jahbana 1967: 20). Before the British colonial period Malaya3 consisted of a
number of separate and independent states.
They were noted not only for their flourishing entrepot trade but also their pat-
ronage of religion, the medium for many of the intellectual trends in the world
beyond the Straits [of Melaka]. This area, then, was never a backwater but was
exposed to a continuing progression of ideas from abroad, the most suitable of
which were adopted and adapted by the local population to suit their own needs
(Andaya and Andaya 1982:299).
The most important of these early outside influences were clearly from
India " . . . at least 1,700 years ago" (Andaya and Andaya 1982:14). This
was followed in due course by an Arab influence which accompanied Islam
into Malaya in the thirteenth century.
Direct contact with European culture began with the Portuguese in the
early sixteenth century. However, it was the arrival of the British in the
nineteenth century that brought about the greatest long-term changes. The
British attempted to consolidate the various independent Malay states under
a single central government along the west coastal regions of the peninsula.
From that time onwards the west coastal region has dominated the rest of
the country in terms of political and economic influence.
Achieving independence required a certain amount of unity among the
various groups living in Malaya at that time. Even so "since independence
the principal preoccupation of Malaya's government leaders has been the
preservation of the country's fragile unity and the welding of a truly united
nation" (Andaya and Andaya 1982:265). Part of the reason for this is ...
"that in the pre-independence period, what existed was not a single Ma-
layan nationalism but three streams of nationalism-for the Malays, Chi-
nese and Indians" (Wan Hashim 1983:56).
Music, particularly through the mass media and education, has been
given an important role in this process of unification by the Malaysian gov-
ernment. Although this had been encouraged ever since independence was
achieved, the outbreak of racial violence in 1969 added urgency to the
matter.
. . . the post-1969 period saw a sudden realization that Malay culture needed to
be rejuvenated, clearly defined and put in its proper and respectable position to
represent the national culture of Malaysia. Since its components comprise tradi-
tional Malay culture elements, this culture is to be 'modernized' to adapt itself in
the changing situation of modern Malaysia. The culture will be modified so that
it will function well in the world of science and technology and as a national
identity of the new Malaysian nation (Wan Hashim 1983:89).
The Rukunegara is the primary document governing the formation of a

unified Malaysia. It was written in response to the racial violence of 1969.
The Rukunegara is given below.
The Role of Music in Mass Media 433
Our nation, Malaysia, is dedicated-to achieve a greater unity for all her peo-
ples; to maintaining a democratic way of life; to creating a just society in which
the wealth of the nation shall be equitably distributed; to ensuring a liberal ap-
proach to her rich and diverse cultural tradition; to building a progressive society
which shall be oriented to modern science and technology. We, her peoples,
pledge our united efforts to attain these ends guided by these principles: Belief in
God. Loyalty to King and Country. Upholding the Constitution. Rule of Law.
Good Behavior and Morality (Ismail Zain 1977:5-6).
The specific policies governing the formation of a Malaysian national

culture are:
That the base of national culture is the culture which is native to this region.
That traits from other cultures, which are pertinent, should be absorbed to en-
rich the national culture.
That Islam, as the official religion of Malaysia, would play its role in the forma-
tion of national culture (Ismail Zain 1977:9).
These three policy guidelines are often paraphrased as meaning that

Malay Culture and Islam are the basis of Malaysian national culture, but
that room must be allows for some influences from the other racial and reli-
gious groups.4 The existence of the national culture is intended as both a re-
flection of national unity and an aid to its promotion. As a result of the im-
portance of music as a cultural marker some musicians (especially those in
broadcasting and education) find themselves in the forefront of nation
building. This is not a theoretical situation, it is a practical one which musi-
cians in Malaysia must deal with on a regular basis. As will be shown, music
and musicians in Malaysia are expected to play an important role in the pro-
cess of building and defining their new nation. Furthermore, everyone (stu-
dents, teachers, composers and performers) is expected to do their part in
this process, and it affects most kinds of music making either directly or in-
directly.
Public Education
The public education system in Malaysia is part of the country's coloni
al legacy, having been started by the British in the second half of the 19th
century (Hemsler 1981:130-135). It began as a Western education system and
was implemented primarily to provide enough people in Malaya to aid
the operation of the colony. Music did not play an important role in t
education system at that time, but it is clear that the music which was use
and taught in the schools was European music (Hodge 1935:143-5). Fu
thermore it does appear that "it was with the establishment of an Eng
education system in the late 19th century that Western music began to ma
a strong impact on the young members of all communities [racial grou
(Dobbs 1972:498).
With independence there were many far reaching changes in the educa-
tion system, both in overall goals and day-to-day policies. As the Deputy
Prime Minister said shortly after independence was achieved, "In less than
a generation, I believe that our schools can create a truly united Malayan
nation and people. This is the avowed object of the new education policy"
(Abd. Razak bin Hussein 1958:22). While various aspects of the education
system have undergone frequent changes in the past twenty-eight years the
basic objective of the new education policy as stated in 1958 has remained
unchanged.
Music in the Malaysian education system today is a complicated and at
times controversial issue, because it can touch on such things as language,
race and national unity. It is through the education system that the govern-
ment hopes to fully achieve its goal of a totally united multi-racial nation;
thus, all aspects of the education system must strive to promote and reflect
the national culture. Music and the other performing arts are usually the
most visible manifestations of the national culture. Music in the schools is
expected to both reflect and promote the national culture and hence, na-
tional unity.
There is currently a shortage of qualified music teachers in Malaysia.
As a result there is often a great disparity between what appears in the music
syllabus and what is actually taught in the schools. In a number of schools
observed by this writer music classes were simply singing sessions in which
everyone sang songs (in Malay or English) to a piano or guitar accompani-
ment. Efforts are being made to train more music teachers within Malaysia
itself (New Straits Times, July 21, 1983:3); a few potential teachers are also
sent to the United States to study music education.
Western music notation and theory are the basis for the music taught in
Malaysian schools. Some mention is made of the folk music rhythms (asli,
joget, zapin, etc.)5 and Malay folk songs are sung. Although Western in-
struments are most often used in the schools, students are now being ex-
pected to learn about some of the traditional Malay instruments. At the
present time the Ministry of Education is completing a new music syllabus
for primary schools (Kurikulum Baru Sekolah Rendah). It was written to
give a greater emphasis to Malaysian music (Xavier Anthony:1983). The
Ministry of Education also intends to help provide more songbooks and
other teaching aids to help teachers use more Malaysian music in the
schools. This will include Malay, Chinese and Indian songs. Some of these
are traditional folk songs, some have been written specially for use in
schools, while others are patriotic songs written by various composers at the
encouragement of the government.
In secondary schools music exists primarily on the club level. The
music clubs often consist of a brass band, a choir and increasingly common,
small pop bands (kugiran). The term kugiran comes from the words, kump-
ulan gitar rancak, which literally means, "lively guitar groups" (Daud
Hamzah 1974). These groups play the latest popular song hits and tradi-
tional folksongs as well.
Music started in the early colonial schools as an extension of the West-
ern education system in which it existed. It has now become more Malaysian
in its orientation in accordance with the role established for the Malaysian
education system since independence was achieved. The importance of the
popular song form and instrumental combination (kugiran) in society at
large is also increasingly reflected in the music activities in the schools.
Meanwhile many teachers and musicians have admitted that music in the
Malaysian schools could make a greater contribution to the nation if there
were more trained and experienced musicians and music educators in deci-
sion-making positions within the Malaysian Ministry of Education.
Recording and Film Industries

The mass media in Malaysia also play an important role in the building of a uni-
fied nation. There is a strong case for believing that mass communication is
importantly linked to national development . . . And as a matter of economics,
developing countries can least afford to waste resources on the unsuccessful or
inefficient use of their mass media . . . Malaysian leaders perceive the country's
mass media in what might be termed the classical role for media in developing
countries (Grenfell 1979:2,4,7).
Mass media are required to reflect and promote national unity and the na-
tional culture in the same manner as the education system. While the print
media do play a role reporting on and promoting musical events, the term
"mass media" will be used hereafter to refer to the recording industry, the
film industry, and radio and television broadcasting.
The history of the Malaysian recording industry has not been written
yet. Despite the fact that Malaysia is a relatively new nation, its recording
industry has been in existence since the early part of the twentieth century.
The American and European record companies not only exported records
to Asia, but also started making recordings there at a very early date (see
Table 1). The statistics on records imported into or produced in Malaya are
not complete but it is clear that a large number of recordings of a wide vari-
ety of music were in Malaya at an early date. Furthermore, the record com-
panies were not just aiming their business at the Europeans who lived in
Asia. "But record companies immediately realized that they would also
have to record native music in order to expand their business . . . by spring
1903 Gaisberg [an American] had recorded a total of 1700 discs of Indian,
Burmese, Siamese, Malay, Javanese, Chinese and Japanese music" (Gro-
now 1981:272, 251). It seems safe to assume that this new technology had lit-
Table 1
Recordings Imported Into Malaya 1910-1930*

Country Yearly
Year Germany United Kingdom United States Total
1910 813 813
1912 19,000 19,000
1913 12,705 12,705
1922 513 513
1925 42,372 17,133 59,505
1929 380,392 169,956 48,409 598,757
1930 192,985 192,985
Total 592,377 212,328 79,573
(Total for all countries 1910-1930 = 884,2
*Does not include records imported from
business records only (Gronow, appendix).
tle impact on people living in the remote,

organized school system, it was primaril
This is supported by the statement tha
record . . "in fact anything that might inter
buying public" (Gronow 1981:274).
Foreign companies in the past have dom
Malaysia. Even today while there are sever
foreign recording companies (WEA and CB
from Great Britain) there are still very fe
operated recording companies. The indust
point where the Malaysian Association of
ducers (MAPV) estimates that in the 1980s
annually. The local Malaysian repertoire is
sales. These figures are only approximatio
two-thirds of the market is captured by
1983).
The cinema has also been a part of Malaysian urban life for most of the
20th century.
In 1929 there were 35 permanent cinemas distributed among sixteen towns in

what was then British Malaya. By mid-1975 every gazetted urban area in Penin-
sular Malaysia had at least one cinema and the total number of cinemas through-
out the country was 368. Multiplying the number of seats per cinema by the
number of shows offered by each cinema in a week, the total weekly audience
capacity of these 368 cinemas was 5.5 million (Grenfell 1979:152)
A Malaysian film industry began in Singapore in the 1940s and reached

its peak of activity in the late 1950s and early 1960s (Danker 1983:345).
Since that time there has been a large downturn in the Malaysian film in-
dustry. Thus
. . .the total local production is insignificant compared to the total number of

films screened a year. At present, $200 million [Malaysian] a year is being spent
to purchase films from abroad. Malaysia is said to be the only country in the
world which imports 1,000 films a year (Danker 1983:346).
In addition to American and European films a large number of Indian

and Chinese films are also imported. In fact Indian films have had a large
impact on Malaysian music and entertainment from the start.
When the first Hindi film was screened in Malaysia it became evident that the
Bangsawan [Malay opera] days were numbered. For here was a more sophisticat-
ed form of entertainment . . . Inevitably the early Malay films bore a strong re-
semblance to Indian ones (Aishah Ali 1981:38).
But things took a turn for the better with the emergence of an outstanding per-
sonality who gave Malay films character and a flavor of their own . . . Almost
single-handedly P. Ramlee transformed the Malay film industry by putting Ma-
lay social drama in the modern context (Aishah Ali 1981:39).
At the height of his career in the 1950s and 1960s, P. Ramlee was con-
sidered Malaysia's leading movie actor, director and producer as well as the
leading songwriter and singer. He was not the first person to try to express
modern Malay life in films and music. He was, however, the first to gain a
wide audience for this type of music. Most Malaysian musicians agree that
P. Ramlee was a talented man who was also fortunate to be in the right
place at the right time. Because of his multi-faceted role in the film industry
his songs automatically received public attention through the movies, a sit-
uation which benefited few, if any, other songwriters. Furthermore, re-
cordings of his songs were released to coincide with the release of his latest
film. Since the 1970s, however, the Malaysian film industry has had rela-
tively little influence on popular music trends and fortunes.
Music and Broadcasting

The history of broadcasting in Malaysia is better documented than the
history of film and recording, perhaps due to the simple fact that broadcast-
ing has been under much closer government control than other media
forms. "Broadcasting in Malaya before the Second World War was con-
ducted on an amateur basis. In those days, a small radio station provided a
limited service to Kuala Lumpur under the then United Kingdom Ministry
of Information and Propaganda" (Adhikarya 1977:27). Since that time r

dio service has been greatly expanded so that the present broadcasting facili
ties are
. . .now the biggest broadcasting complex in South East Asia. A six-storey [sic]
technical and administration building, the Wisma Radio facilities include two
auditoria (Seating 1,000 and 250 people), 21 studios and full technical facilities.
Despite the introduction of television in 1963, radio still has a large audience, es-
pecially among the rural people (Adhikarya 1977:28).
Most Malaysian homes have a radio receiver, yet "many Malaysian

listen to the radio elsewhere than their own homes. The domestic broadcasts
of Radio Malaysia are carried principally by four networks" (Grenfell
1979:73). Privately sponsored audience research in the 1970s showed that
approximately 48% of the adult population of Malaysia listens to Radio
Malaya on any given day and . . . "that the particular attraction of Radio
Malaysia for its large weekly audience is music" (Grenfell 1979:96). "By
1973, with the rapid expansion of Kuala Lumpur as a business and ad-
ministration centre, Radio Malaysia Ibukota [capitol city] was started as a
pilot service for the population within a 20-30 mile radius of the city centre"
(Adhikarya 1977:28). For the same reason a FM stereo service was begun
only for the Kuala Lumpur area. Although radio broadcasts place an em-
phasis on promoting the national language and a national culture, there
continue to be broadcasts in other languages which also highlight the music
of the various ethnic groups living in the country.
Television began broadcasting with one network on December 28,
1963. A second network, intended primarily for the urban areas was started
in 1969. When the second network reached nearly the entire country the ur-
ban audience was left with no network of their own. As a result of this, and
the fact that home video tapes were occupying an increased portion of view-
ers' time, the first commercially run broadcasting enterprise, Sistem Tele-
visyen Malaysia (TV 3), was granted an operating license and began opera-
ting on June 1, 1984, broadcasting only to the Kuala Lumpur metropolitan
area. Since it is still too early to tell what the impact of TV 3 will be on
broadcasting in Malaysia, the remainder of this section will deal primarily
with Radio Television Malaysia.
Radio Television Malaysia falls entirely under the auspices and control
of the Ministry of Information.
Early in 1973, Tan Sri Ghazali Shafie, then Minister of Information, said that
television was not regarded by his ministry as an 'entertainment box.' He said
that television was perceived to be a means of imparting knowledge and multi-
plying the flow of information on development and nation-building. He ex-
plained that imported television programmes were being selected, and local
productions being developed, with a view to screening content which was conso-
nant with the national goals set out in Rukunegara: Through dramas, music,
dance, etc., TV must enlarge the awareness of the aspiration and development of
the nation in terms of unity, democracy, just society, etc., as envisaged in the
Rukunegara . .. canned syndicated films will be shown only if they are in line
with the national objectives-for example, race relations, education, rule of law,
cultural ties (Grenfell 1979:8).
The formal objectives of Radio Television Malaysia as published by the

Ministry of Information are as follows:
1. To explain in depth and with widest possible coverage, the policies and
programmes of the Government in order to ensure maximum understanding
by the public.
2. To stimulate public interest and opinion in order to achieve changes in
line with the requirements of the Government.
3. To assist in fostering national unity in our multiracial society through
the use of Bahasa Malaysia.
4. To assist in promoting civic consciousness and fostering the development
of Malaysian arts and culture.
5. To provide suitable elements of popular education, general information
and entertainment. (Ministry of Information 1984).
Radio Television Malaysia is regarded by most Malaysians as being the
voice of the government, thus what is said on the air (even on entertainment
shows) takes on extra importance. This is largely a result of the rigid organi-
zational hierarchy for decision making within Radio Television Malaysia.
The Minister of Information (a Cabinet Member appointed by the Prime
Minister) or one of his deputies chairs a weekly meeting with the Director
General of Broadcasting and other top broadcasting officials. The decisions
made at these meetings work their way down through the heads of the enter-
tainment and news divisions, to the drama and music directors, to the pro-
ducers, directors, writers, actors, musicians and entertainers themselves.
As a result, Radio Television Malaysia is often seen as a slow-moving
conservative body in which even relatively small details of programing must
be cleared by the highest levels of the governmental bureaucracy.
There are also some specific directives which Radio Television Malay-
sia (RTM) musicians, producers and directors receive on such things as "the
hair length and appearance of television performers..." (Adhikarya
1977:37). Most of these directives are impossible to document as they are
generally intended for internal use within RTM. My discussions with offi-
cials at Radio Television Malaysia and TV 3 (the new commercial station)
would indicate that everyone expects TV 3 to voluntarily follow most of
these directives as well.
It is also difficult to document the precise extent of the television au-

dience in Malaysia. One reason for this is that the statistics change so rapid-
ly that it is nearly impossible to keep up to date. The size of the Television
Malaysia adult audience, for example, grew by 79% between 1971 and 1975
(Grenfell 1979:132). The situation is further complicated by the fact that
many people watch television outside of their homes. My own experience
confirms the findings of Abdul Maulud bin Yusof (1976) and Ronald Prov-
encher (1971), which was that watching television in Malaysia often turns
into a communal event in which "those households which have television
sets often turn their homes into little 'movie houses' . . ." (Abdul Maulud
1976:40). Thus a 1975 information survey showed that 54% of the people
who watch television watch it somewhere outside their homes, and the
figure for rural areas is as high as 72% (Grenfell 1979:128-129). Even so it
is reported " . . . that more than three million adults live in homes with
television sets .. ." (Danker 1983:375). As for how important television is
to the people who do own one, the New Straits Times of February 10, 1976
(Editorial, page 10) stated, "For those with TV sets or access to them,
watching 'the box' is the main cultural preoccupation; it is the most impor-
tant pastime for millions of Malaysians; it is the third biggest time con-
sumer, coming only after work and sleep." My personal observations, both
before and after I performed on television in Malaysia, fully confirm this
assessment. According to the government's own estimates in 1983 79.1 %o of
the adult population listened to radio and 93% of the adult population
viewed television on a daily basis (Ministry of Information 1984).
The effect that mass media in general (including the recording industry)
have had on music, especially popular music, has been well documented by
Adorno (1941), McLuhan (1964), Laing (1969), and Hamm (1975). More
recently the effects of mass media on the developing nations and their music
have been commented on by Lerner (1958, 1972), Lerner and Schramm
(1967, 1976), Nettl (1972, 1975, 1978), Mohd. Dahlan Haji Aman (1975),
Fang-mei Lee (1975), Ware (1978), Stigberg (1980), Lasswell, Lerner and
Speier (1980), Baily (1982) and Coplan (1982). As in so many other aspects
of modernizing, the developing nations appear to be experiencing an accel-
eration of the effects of mass media which the older industrialized countries
have already gone through. The development of a nation's mass media is
dependent upon the urbanization and industrialization of that country.
Popular music itself (in the sense of being mass produced commercialized
music) is dependent on these events having taken place. Thus what is being
examined here is not simply a musical phenomenon but is a reflection or in-
dication of changes which have been taking place in the economy and soci-
ety at large. This includes the problems connected with Malaysia's recent
and rapid urbanization, as well as the urban-rural dichotomy. (Despite the
efforts of the government to eradicate rural poverty and to bring moderni-

zation to the rural areas, a large disparity still exists in life styles of the rural
and urban areas.)
Effects (some of which are interrelated) of mass media on music which
are relevant to Malaysia can be summarized as follows:
1. A wider availability of music is made possible. In other words a
greater variety of music is made available to a greater number of people
than was previously possible (Hamm 1975:268; Nettl 1975:81,106; Stigberg
1980:24,30; Ware 1978:297).
2. Musical styles tend to be standardized and the means of musical
production is centralized. The term music industry can only be relevant in a
society possessing developed mass media (Adorno 1941:441, Stigberg 1980:
8-10).
3. Performance standards become higher. Music is performed primari-
ly by professionals and the repeatability of performances makes mistakes
less tolerable (Hamm 1975:265).
4. There is a change from a focus on the song to a focus on the singer
(Laing 1969:34,41,42).
5. Recordings provide music from oral traditions a way to exist and
survive in their own right (Laing 1969:35).
6. For most people music shifts from being an active process to a
passive one (Laing 1969:37).
7. Particular songs and singers rise and subsequently fall in popularity
more quickly as music is disseminated at a faster rate (Laing 1969:34, Nettl
1978:7).
8. Music industry (mass media) related jobs become an important, of-
ten the most important source of employment for musicians (Hamm
1975:266, Stigberg 1980: 10).
The impact of the various mass media on music in Malaysia can not be
overstated. It has been an important facet of musical life for a long time.
Even sixty-two-year-old Hamzah Dolmat, who is generally regarded as the
leading exponent of tradition Malay asli style violin playing has remarked
that he "listened over and over again to records of traditional Malay music
to master the violin" (Adibah Amin 1980:12).
The effects of the media coupled with the desire to create a national
culture had the greatest impact with the creation of RTM (Radio Television
Malaysia). RTM is currently the largest single employer of musicians, with
over fifty full-time and additional part-time musicians on the payroll. In
addition to performers there are usually six or seven full-time ar-
ranger/composers on the staff as well. All of the music performed on radio
and television shows produced in Malaysia must be locally composed and/-
or arranged, and this music is expected to both keep within and promote the
national culture. The music composed and used for broadcasts is expected
to have broad appeal and yet be educational (in the broadest sense) as well.
A large quantity of music is required for these purposes as ". . . RTM is
trying to produce 60%o of all its television programmes locally . . . [and]
. . .entertainment takes up at least one-half of air time" (Danker 1983:
376). These tasks have been approached by the musicians in a number of
ways.
At the time Malaysia gained its independence the recording industry
was essentially controlled by the large foreign companies. Since Radio Ma-
laya had a greater stake in promoting local music and was not concerned
with making a profit, it quickly became a dominant force in the local music
scene. Thus many recordings of Malaysian music were made for broadcast-
ing purposes only and were never made commercially available to the gen-
eral public. Also, it was only after independence in 1957 through the efforts
of Radio Malaya that a centralized and concerted effort was begun to create
and promote a uniquely Malaysian style of music. This effort was intensi-
fied with the creation of Television Malaysia in 1963.
"The RTM Orchestra, an outgrowth of the Radio Malaya Orchestra
began on a modest scale. When it was formed in 1961 the Orchestra had on-
ly 9 members. Since then, the RTM Orchestra has become one of the biggest
in the region with nearly 50 musicians..." (Ministry of Information
1980). This orchestra has played a significant role in the development of
modern Malaysian music. The orchestra has developed along the lines of a
dance orchestra rather than a symphony orchestra, although at times it has
been supplemented to perform symphonic-style works. The orchestra has
performed as an accompanying ensemble for singers and is also the primary
source of contemporary instrumental music. The orchestra, and smaller en-
sembles consisting of orchestra personnel, provide much of the music
broadcast by RTM through both pre-recorded and live studio perfor-
mances.
In addition to regular programming of musical an

shows, an effort was made to fulfill the orchestra's ma
form of modern Malaysian music through symphonic-
that were broadcast on radio and television each year
1976. The concerts were called Malam Irama (musical evening) from
1963-65; Malam Irama Malaysia from 1966-1970; and Konsert Perdana
Mentri (the Prime Minister's concert) from 1971 through 1976. All of the
music used for these concerts was composed by local composers, and new
pieces were composed for each concert. These compositions are the primary
source of symphonic-style pieces of Malaysian music.
The composers of these pieces had the difficult task of composing
music which would have a broad appeal to both the urban and rural popula-
tion throughout the country. It was also hoped that these concerts w
serve an educational purpose as well. The concert series was establishe
that people who were unfamiliar with orchestral music (generally rega
in Malaysia as modern music) would come to appreciate and understan
this type of music. Likewise it was hoped that people who were unfam
with the traditional musics of Malaysia would gain an appreciation f
those types of music. It was also felt that a truly Malaysian style of m
would help in the process of nation building in a nation of so many differ
cultural and economic groups. The music composed for these broadcas
generally referred to as either muzik klasik or muzik seriosa. Although no
of this music is published, recordings of the concerts are archived in
RTM music library.
It was probably through these concerts that the question of what is M
laysian music was most vigorously debated and most practically dealt w
It was accepted at this time that the Malaysian style included Indian, C
nese, Malay (various different types from different regions) and Wes
musics, but molding them into a truly Malaysian music was potentiall
difficult as producing a unified society. There is a consensus that an es
tially Western-based form like the RTM Orchestra constitutes a neutral an
modern basis to form a modern, progressive national music for a new mod
ern and progressive nation.
The composers used a number of techniques to compose music wh
could quickly be perceived as Malaysian. Often more than one of these
proaches or techniques would be used in the same piece. The following
list of some of the techniques and approaches most often used:
1. The writing of programmatic pieces based on historical events
folk tales. For example, Si-Tanggang (The Legend of the Batu Caves) w
ten in 1968 by Gus Steyn.
2. The use of various musical elements from the traditional music of
the different ethnic groups. For example, Pulau Mutiara (The Pearl Island)
written by Alfonso Soliano in 1975.
3. The combination of traditional instruments with modern orchestral
instruments. For example, Gurindam Gamelan written in 1976 by Johari
Salleh.
4. The use of variations based on well known melodies. For example,
Asli Lama Dan Baru (Old and New Asli Songs) written in 1968 by B.
Ortega.
5. The use of Malay lyrics, and traditional folk music rhythms. For ex-
ample, Rampai Ghazal (Ghazal Medley) written by Johari Salleh in 1970.
This series of annual concerts was never formally discontinued. Johari
Salleh, who was the RTM Music Director at that time, explained that in
1977 and 1978 RTM produced two large-scale shows involving the orchestra
as a celebration of ASEAN (The Association of South East Asian Nations

which at that time consisted of Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore
and Thailand), in which the RTM Orchestra accompanied performers from
each of the ASEAN countries. The first of these broadcast specials was
made to coincide with the ASEAN Heads of State meeting in Kuala Lumpur
in 1977. Evidently the time, personnel and budget devoted to these specials
made it impossible to hold the Konsert Perdana (Prime Minister's Concert)
in those years. It is interesting to note, however, that by 1979 the Malaysian
Ministry of Culture was beginning to speak of creating an "ASEAN music
identity" (New Straits Times November 16, 1979:17). It is possible (but
speculation) that the active striving for a sense of national identity was
superseded by an effort to foster a sense of regional identity.
The music activities of Radio Television Malaysia have covered a very
broad range including: traditional (Chinese, Indian, Malay and other indig-
enous groups), jazz, semi-classical and popular. As the RTM Music Direc-
tor and the orchestra's conductor from 1965 until 1982, Johari Salleh has
played a particularly important part in the mass media efforts in modern
Malaysian music. His influence has been of a different nature than P.
Ramlee's influence through films. For example, although Johari Salleh has
written a number of songs which have become very popular, none of them
have yet achieved the folksong-like quality of some P. Ramlee songs. Johari
Salleh's influence has so far been more closely linked to the RTM orchestra;
as a conductor, and as an arranger and composer of large-scale works.
The RTM Orchestra had long been highly regarded and was usually re-
ferred to as being the premier musical organization in Malaysia. They have
provided most of the music used on radio and television shows produced in
Malaysia. Yet its most pronounced influence may have been from
1979-1982 when the orchestra presented a monthly television show called
simply Orkes R TM. At its peak this show was generally believed to be the
most popular locally produced program in Malaysia. In many ways this was
Johari Salleh's show. He conceived the original idea for the show and was
largely responsible for its success. A number of times in those years the or-
chestra went on tours performing in different parts of the country. Perfor-
mances were also given in Indonesia, Singapore and Brunei. The tours were
so successful that the orchestra had to give extra performances to accom-
modate the large demand for concert tickets.
Examination of the format for the Orkes R TM monthly broadcasts of
1979-1982 can shed some light on a number of issues concerning popular
music in Malaysia. This program was usually a live telecast performed for a
live audience, often scheduled for the first Sunday evening of each month.
Most of the musical arrangements and compositions were done by Johari
Salleh. He also conducted the orchestra and was the show's host, intro
ducing and talking with the guest artists who appeared with the orche
This show succeeded in reaching a large and varied audience. In ad
tion to the live telecasts, each show would be rebroadcast in the aftern
later the same week. Radio broadcasts were also made of these shows,
suring wide dissemination of this music.
For most of these broadcasts the orchestra personnel consisted of
violins, four violas, four trumpets, three trombones, one French horn, fiv
saxophones (doubling on flutes and clarinets), one keyboard (piano an
synthesizer), one bass guitar, one rhythm guitar and three to four per
sionists (trap set, conga, timbales, tabla, etc.).
Each show would begin with the orchestra performing an instrumenta
piece lasting ten to fifteen minutes. This piece was usually based on a trad
tional or well known Malay melody but would be arranged in a jazzy
temporary style. These compositions would often incorporate contem
porary art music techniques like tone clusters into a popular music idi
Johari Salleh has explained that it was felt that most of the older more co
servative segment of the potential viewing audience could be counted o
watch the show, because they knew that more conservative songs w
eventually appear later in the show. This first piece was essentially intend
as an attention grabber for the younger more "modern" oriented view
Thus it was hoped that this opening might get the younger viewers to wa
the whole show, and that since it was based on a traditional song, the o
viewers might find it more acceptable than other modern sounding m
Other purely instrumental items would appear in the middle and ag
at the end of the program, which would last just over one hour. Most of t
rest of the music performed would include a wide variety of popular mus
This would include mostly Malay pop songs, one or two American or
British pop songs, two Chinese and one Indian song. Each show would
mostly well known Malaysian singers as well as occasional newcomers or in
ternational artistes who happened to be in Kuala Lumpur.
RTM is non-commercial and government run. Therefore the per
formers do not receive large salaries to perform on radio or television. Th
does not prevent RTM from getting well known singers to perform s
most singers feel that the exposure received more than compensates for t
lack of money. Furthermore, performing for a show such as Orkes R
was considered very prestigious.
The total Malaysian audience for radio, television, cinema and reco
ings is small by American standards. As a result each of the mass media op
erations in Malaysia runs on a very low budget in comparison to the equiv
lent American mass media.
Today there is a close interaction among the different forms of ma

media in Malaysia, especially concerning music. As stated earlier, Rad
Malaya relied essentially on its own recordings of Malaysian music when
began broadcasting. While still composing, arranging and performing much
of its own music, RTM today also relies on music from commercial reco
ings for much of its broadcasts (especially on radio). The recording industry
is relatively free of the government regulations and guidelines affecting th
RTM music broadcasts. However, most people involved in the Malaysia
music business feel that it is extremely difficult for a singer, a song, o
record album to be a success without getting adequate air time on radio and
television. Therefore most record companies (foreign and domestic) volu
tarily strive to keep within the guidelines concerning music broadcasting on
RTM to ensure that the singer, song or album will not be denied access
the broadcast media. This is a vivid example of the influence of the cen
tralized broadcast media.
Malaysian Popular Music Today

There is a wide variety of popular music available to people in Malay-
sia. In addition to a large amount of foreign music which is still listened to,
there is a great variety of styles within Malaysian popular music.
The music of P. Ramlee and his early contemporaries took the Western
popular music idiom and gave it Malay lyrics and a Malay feeling. For basic
instrumental accompaniment, these early efforts used the popular dance
music combos (piano, drums, double bass, trumpet, saxophone and occa-
sional violin), which had already been in Malaya for over 20 years. Evident-
ly most Malaysian musicians viewed this ensemble as simply a more modern
version of the traditional Malay folk music ensembles. In fact my own anal-
ysis of this music indicates that the function of the traditional instruments
was often taken over by modern instruments (Chopyak 1985:89-148).
Malaysia had a long history of contact with foreign music long before
modern Malaysian popular music began. Throughout this history, instru-
ments and aspects of the foreign music were often adopted and adapted to
the local situation. This phenomenon has continued in the popular music
realm as well. Thus Malaysian popular musicians have always managed to
keep themselves up to date with the developments in the popular music cap-
itals of the world. As a result, many of the international trends in popular
music can be found in Malaysian popular music as well.
It is generally believed that the Western popular music trends of the
times are reflected in the music of P. Ramlee. P. Ramlee's singing style was
crooning, not too unlike his contemporaries Bing Crosby and Frank Sinat-
ra. Much of his early music shows a heavy Latin American influence, simi-
lar to what was popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s. Iberian
music from Portugal, of course, had its first influence on Malaysian music
over 400 years ago. The Latin American rhythms and percussive accompa-
niment may have been viewed as merely a modern update of the rhythmic
percussive accompaniments found in traditional Malay folk music.
Johari Salleh has also said that the Latin and big band music he heard
while growing up in Singapore had an early influence on him.
Influences of rock and roll music can also be found in some of P. Ram-
lee's music. Electric guitars became a part of the standard pop music group,
and the electric organ gradually pushed out the piano in the 1950s. How-
ever, Malaysian style rock and roll has always been of a conservative vari-
ety. Through the 1960s and early 1970s a modified rock and roll combo (the
Malay pop ensemble of the 1940s with the addition of electric guitars) ac-
companied most singers. In the 1970s and early 1980s most popular albums
strove to achieve an orchestral sound for accompaniment.
The guitar dominated kugiran only became common in the late 1960s
and early 1970s. Although some albums were released in the 1960s, it has
only been in the last six or seven years that commercial recordings of these
groups have done well in the market place. In the late 50s electric guitars
were added to existing pop ensembles, but relatively few Malaysian rock
group albums were issued at that time. In the past few years Malaysian rock
groups have developed a much larger and loyal following. It is not clear
whether this change is due to a change in the public's attitude towards these
groups, or to the increased activity and competition in the Malaysian re-
cording industry. Until recently even the albums released by Malaysian
kugiran would try to duplicate the sound of the RTM orchestra as much as
possible, by adding string and wind instruments in the studio recordings.
The large-scale use of synthesizers by the Malaysian recording industry in
the last few years has begun to move much popular music away from the or-
chestral sound ideal of the past. Yet most of the Malaysian popular music
which exists today would still fit into the corresponding "easy listening" or
"middle of the road" categories in the United States.
The most common style of Malaysian pop music could perhaps be best
described as Malay ballads. It is interesting to speculate on the possible
reasons why Malaysian music has picked up some Western trends quite
quickly, but others not at all. There are many explanations offered by the
musicians themselves. Some feel that since the broadcast media has been
controlled by the government, only the more conservative styles of music
are given air time. Thus "inappropriate" styles would not reach a large
enough audience to survive. Others feel that the type of melodic structures
found in traditional Malay songs are more appropriate to ballads and easy
listening styles. It is also possible that the social rebellion often associated
with some of the more "wild" styles of rock music in the West (for exam-
pie, hard, acid and punk rock) simply were not present in a country like Ma-
laysia, which has been concentrating on economic development and na-
tional unity.
Most of the rock and roll style kugiran which existed when I first lived
in Malaysia in 1973 tended to be highly localized groups which played for
parties and dances as well as in small night clubs. They appeared almost to
be a modern folk music phenomenon. Nearly all of the groups were self-
taught part-time musicians. Most played a mixture of "traditional" and
modern Malay songs as well as Western popular song. It is also interesting
that the internationally successful group which had the greatest influence on
the Malaysian groups at that time seemed to be the American band Santana
which used a great deal of Latin style percussion and rhythms.
Vocal groups never seem to have been very successful in Malaysia. Oc-
casionally a group will catch the public's attention in the Bintang RTM
competition (the annual nationally televised talent competition), but few
have lasted beyond that. Most music teachers admit that they have found
teaching part singing to Malaysian students a particularly difficult task.
Most Malaysian musicians seem to feel that both of these situations are
largely due to the lack of part singing in traditional Malay music.
It was mentioned earlier that one of the effects of the mass media on
popular music is a greater emphasis on the singer than the song. Every Ma-
laysian musician I have spoken to feels that this effect has been even more
pronounced in Malaysia than elsewhere, and many attributed this phenome-
non to the predominant influence which P. Ramlee had in popular music in
the 1950s and early 1960s. In the early 1980s I was able to notice a growing
feeling that perhaps this situation (the pre-eminence of the singer over the
song) was changing. The musicians I spoke with had different views on the
reasons for this change. Some felt that the change had been caused by the
larger number of singers with media exposure. Others felt that the general
public had become more sophisticated in its taste and thus no longer was
willing to "accept just anything" a popular singer might sing.
What is clear is that as a genre, the Malaysian popular song is today
particularly important in Malaysian society. This genre of music is what is
most often heard through the mass media. The annual national talent time
(Bintang RTM) features only popular songs. Every year since 1979, RTM
has sponsored a national popular song competition (Pesta Lagu Malaysia)
for amateur songwriters. Television specials to celebrate religious and na-
tional holidays use more popular songs than any other musical genre. Ma-
laysian songs for the Muslim holiday Hari Raya (celebrating the end of
Ramadan) are generally performed and recorded in a pop song style.
The development of Malaysian popular music, which combines ele-
ments of Western popular music and traditional Malay folk music has coin-
'1
")
Ci2
Cl)
0
I t w
0
0
Figure 1 The role of Music in Mass Media, Public Education and the Formation of National
Culture.
Public Education System
Colonial Malaya Independent Malaysia

Control Foreign Local
Content Foreign Local/Foreign
Region Urban Urban Based/
Reaches Rural
Mass Media System
Colonial Malaya Independent Malaysia

Control Foreign Local/Foreign
Content Foreign/ Local/Foreign
Some Local
Region Urban Urban Based/

Reaches Rural
Figure 2 Control, Content and Regions affected by Mass Media and Public Education in M
laya and Malaysia.
cided with similar Western-local adaptations in the fields of public educa

tion, mass media, government and economics. The development of this
urban based music has also coincided with the rapid increase in the Mala
urban population. Malaysian popular music can in many ways be regarde
as the country's national music. It is the music that is most often per-
formed, and clearly has a larger audience than any other type of music. To a
large extent the importance of Malaysian popular music crosses through
social class and age groups. Furthermore, Malaysians of all races take par
in the composition, performance and production of Malaysian popular mu
sic. This is less often true for other genres of Malaysian music.
Conclusion
Music clearly plays a role in Malaysia's national development plans.
Since independence in 1957, government policies have evolved relating to
music and national culture. The creation and acceptance of a truly Malay-
sian music by both the urban and rural based populations has been of the
utmost importance to cultural policy makers. Music in the public education
system and mass media is therefore expected to promote and reflect the na-
tional culture and hence national unity. As a result of the centralized mass
media a relatively small number of musicians have had a large impact on the
development of modern Malaysian music.
Perhaps the greatest problem for Malaysian musicians within all of this
has been that too often administrators with little or no background in music
have been placed in the position of making decisions directly affecting t
development of music. However, there has been some success in reachin
the goal of establishing a national identity through music, especially among
the current generation of school children who do seem to have a more un
fied or shared musical identity than their parents' generation. Through re-
cordings and broadcasts, some of Malaysia's traditional rural music reach
audiences much larger than ever before. At the same time, urban base
modern music is reaching far beyond the urban centers into the most remot
areas of the country. Meanwhile, the education system has reached out
the rural areas yet has become more locally relevant as well. All of this
part of the process (represented in Figures 1 and 2) of creating a nation
culture, a Malaysian identity and an independent and unified nation.
In the past few years in Malaysia, as in many other countries, the rapid
technological developments in computers, satellites and telecommunica
tions, as well as audio and video cassettes have begun to have a pronounce
affect on communication and educational policies, as well as on music. It
seems to be an obvious conclusion that these technological developments
which are leading to the convergence of the modes of communication, w
have an increased effect on society and music in the future. Some back-
ground in these areas will be essential for ethnomusicologists to fully
understand the developments in urban music in the years ahead.6
Notes
1. This article is a reworking of material from the writer's MA thesis and a paper pre-
sented at the Annual Meeting of the Association for Asian Studies in Chicago in March 1986.
2. Malaysia's population was estimated by the government to be 15.6 million in 1985 with
the following approximate ethnic breakdown: Malays and other indigenous races, 55%; Chi-
nese 35%; Indians (Asian) and others, 10%.
3. The term Malaya is used to refer to pre-independence Malaysia.
4. It is not yet clear what role the various aboriginal groups (orang asli) will play in this
matter.
5. For a full description of these Malay folk music genres see Chopyak 1985:13-30
Chopyak 1986.
6. A highly recommended source on these topics is Technologies of Freedom: On
Speech in an Electronic Age by Ithiel de Sola Pool.
References
Abdul Maulud bin Mohd. Yusof
1976 "Cultural Adaptations in an Urbanizing Malay Community," Ph.D. dissertatio
Rice University, Houston.
Abdul Razak bin Hussein Al Haj

1958 "Unity Through The Schools," Straits Times Annual. Kuala Lumpur: Straits
Times Press.
1965 "Opening Address," The Cultural Problems of Malaysia in the Context of South
east Asia. Kuala Lumpur: The Malaysian Society of Orientalists, 17-19.
Adhikarya, Ronny
1977 Broadcasting In Peninsular Malaysia. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Adibah Amin
1980 "Hamzah Dolmat," New Straits Times Annual Kuala Lumpur: Straits Times
Press.
Adorno, T. W.
1941 "On Popular Music," Studies in Philosophy and Social Science. New York, 17-48.
Aishah Ali
1981 "A Glorious Chapter in the Malay Film Industry," New Straits Times Annual.
Kuala Lumpur: Straits Times Press, 36-45.
Andaya, Barbara Watson and Andaya, Leonard Y.
1982 A History of Malaysia. London: The MacMillan Press Ltd.
Anthony, Xavier
1983 Personal communication, June 22, Kuala Lumpur City Teacher Training College.
Baily, John
1981 "Cross-cultural perspectives in popular music: the case of Afghanistan," Popular
Music: Vol. 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 105-121.
Chopyak, James D.
1985 "The Development of Malaysian Popular Music: The Influential Roles of P. Ram-
lee and Johari Salleh," MA thesis, University of Hawaii, Honolulu.
1986 "Music in Modern Malaysia: A Survey of the Musics Affecting the Development
of Malaysian Popular Music." Asian Music 18 (1) : 111-138.
Coplan, David
1982 "The urbanization of African music, some theoretical observations," Popular Mu-
sic: Vol. 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 113-129.
Danker, Milicent, ed.
1983 Information Malaysia 1982-1983. Kuala Lumpur: Berita Publishing Sdn, Bhd.
Daud Hamzah
1974 "Perkembangan Muzik Pop Hingga Sekarang," (The Development of Pop Mu
Until Now) a paper presented at the National Music Seminar, University of
Malaya.
Dobbs, Jack Percival Baker
1972 "Music in the Multi-racial Society of West Malaysia," Ph.D. dissertation, Univer-
sity of London School of Oriental and African Studies.
Fang-mei Lee
1975 "The Effects of Mass Communication on Taiwanese Opera: How Television has
Modified Taiwanese Opera," a paper presented at the Comparative Popular Cul-
ture Research Seminar on Traditional Media, East-West Center, Honolulu.
Grenfell, Newell
1979 Switch On: Switch Off, Mass Media Audiences In Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Ox-
ford University Press.
Gronow, Pekka
1981 "The Record Industry Comes to the Orient," Enthnomusicology 25 (2) 251-82.
Hamm, Charles
1975 "Technology and Music: The Effect of the Phonograph," Contemporary Music
and Music Cultures. Englewood, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 253-270.
Hemsler, Robert
1981 British Rule in Malaya: The Malayan Civil Service and Its Predecessors. Westport,
Connecticut: Greenwood Press.
Hodge, H.L.
1932 "The Gramophone in Malayan Schools," Oversea Education April, 143-145.
Ismail Zain
1977 Cultural Planning and General Development in Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Ministry
of Culture Youth and Sports.
Kurikulum Baru Sekolah Rendah: Buku Panduan Khas Muzik, Tahun Satu.
1983 (The new elementary school curriculum: guidebook for music, first year) Ktrala
Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Laing, Dave
1969 The Sound of Our Time. London: Sheed and Ward.
Lasswell, Harold, Daniel Lerner and Hans Spier, ed.
1980 Propaganda and Communication in World History. Vol 3: A Pluralizing World in
Formation. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii.
Lerner, Daniel
1958 The Passing of Traditional Society: Modernizing the Middle East. Glencoe, Il-
linois: Free Press.
1972 Communication For Development Administration in Southeast Asia. New York:
The Asia Society.
Lerner, Daniel and Schramm, Wilbur
1967 Communication and Change in the Developing Countries Honolulu: The Univer-
sity Press of Hawaii.
1976 Communication and Change the Last Ten Years. Honolulu: The University Press
of Hawaii.
McLuhan, Marshall
1964 Understanding Media. New York: McGraw Hill.
Ministry of Culture
1980 Orkestra Radio Televisyen Malaysia (The Radio Television Malaysia Orchestra).
Kuala Lumpur.
1984 Radio Television Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur.
Mohd. Dahlan Haji Aman
1975 "The Socio-Cultural Significance of Traditional Gathering Centers in a Peasant
Fishing Community in Malaysia," a paper presented at the Comparative Popular
Culture Research Seminar on Traditional Media, East-West Center, Honolulu.
Nettl, Bruno
1972 "Persian Popular Music in 1969," Ethnomusicology 16:218-39.
1975 "The Role of Music in Culture: Iran, A Recently Developed Nation," and "The
Western Impact on World Music: Africa and the American Indians," Contempo-
rary Music and Music Cultures. Englewood, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 71-124.
1978 "Introduction," Eight Urban Musical Cultures: Tradition and Change. Urbana:
University of Illinois Press, 3-18.
New Straits Times
1976 February 10.
1979 November 16.
1983 July 21.
1983 August 6, 1983.
Pool, Ithiel de Sola
1983 Technologies of Freedom: On Free Speech in an Electronic Age. Cambridge: Har-
vard University Press, Belknap Press.
Provencher, Ronald
1971 "Two Malay Worlds: Interaction in Urban and Rural Settings," Research Mono-
graph #4, Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of California
at Berkeley.
Ram Singh Gill
1983 Personal communication, Malaysian Association of Phonogram and Videogram
Producers and Distributors, Kuala Lumpur, July 1.
S. Takdir Alisjahbana
1965 "Acculturation and Modernization in Malaysia and the Arising World Culture,"
and "Confluence and Conflict of Culture in Malaysia in World Perspective," The
Cultural Problems of Malaysia in the Context of Southeast Asia. Kuala Lumpur:

The Malaysian Society of Orientalists, 20-39, 235-252.
Stigberg, David Kenneth
1980 "Urban Musical Culture in Mexico: Professional Musicianship and Media in the
Musical Life of Contemporary Veracruz," Ph.D. dissertation, University of Illi-
nois, Urbana.
Sukatan Pelajaran Sekolah Menegah:Muzik
1972 (Secondary school music syllabus). Kuala Lumpur.
Wan Hashim
1983 Race Relations in Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Heinemann Educational Books.
Ware, Naomi
1978 "Popular Music and African Identity in Freetown, Sierra Leone," Eight Urban
Musical Cultures. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 296-320.

PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

The Role of Music in Mass Media, Public Education and the Formation of a Malaysian

alaysia is indeed no exception to this feature of newly developing

The Rukunegara is the primary document governing the formation of a

The specific policies governing the formation of a Malaysian national

These three policy guidelines are often paraphrased as meaning that

Recording and Film Industries

Recordings Imported Into Malaya 1910-1930*

tle impact on people living in the remote,

In 1929 there were 35 permanent cinemas distributed among sixteen towns in

A Malaysian film industry began in Singapore in the 1940s and reached

. . .the total local production is insignificant compared to the total number of

In addition to American and European films a large number of Indian

Music and Broadcasting

of Information and Propaganda" (Adhikarya 1977:27). Since that time r

Most Malaysian homes have a radio receiver, yet "many Malaysian

The formal objectives of Radio Television Malaysia as published by the

It is also difficult to document the precise extent of the television au-

efforts of the government to eradicate rural poverty and to bring moderni-

In addition to regular programming of musical an

as a celebration of ASEAN (The Association of South East Asian Nations

Today there is a close interaction among the different forms of ma

Malaysian Popular Music Today

Public Education System

Colonial Malaya Independent Malaysia

Mass Media System

Colonial Malaya Independent Malaysia

Region Urban Urban Based/

cided with similar Western-local adaptations in the fields of public educa

Abdul Razak bin Hussein Al Haj

Cultural Problems of Malaysia in the Context of Southeast Asia. Kuala Lumpur:

You might also like