Wellsite Geologist

(Job Description)

 Wellsite Geologist study rock cuttings from oil

and gas wells to determine what rock formations
are being drilled into and how drilling should
proceed.
 They identify critical strata from core samples
and rock-cutting data and build up knowledge of
structure being drilled.
 They are experienced geologist, deciding when
specialized test should be carried out, and
ultimately, when to stop drilling.
 They send report and log of completed drilling to
the operation geologist and offer geological
advice to oil company representatives.
 Wellsite Geologist also liaise with drilling
engineer, petroleum engineer and mudloggers
during the course of project

The Wellsite Geologist remains one of the most

responsible persons in drilling the wells.

 Currently or mostly there are three classifications

of wells in Indonesia area :

1. Exploration
2. Appraisal and
3. Development

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 The Wellsite Geologist has the greatest amount
responsibility on exploration wells. The
exploration wells mostly called “wildcat wells”.
 The entire section is mud logged by contract
personnel and at least one wellsite geologist
supervising them.
 The wildcat well not only ascertain the presence
or absence of hydrocarbons, it also provides the
factual information on the primary geological
conditions necessary for accumulations, i.e.
reservoir quality, source and seal capacities.
 The wildcat well also calibrates the seismic
section thus enabling the final structural
interpretation.
 All of these data in the form of samples, cores,
logs, tests, and reports are gathered and collated
by the wellsite geologist.
 It is his responsibility to see that all these data
are completely and accurately gathered and
evaluated during the drilling of the well.
 Serving on front-line of exploration at the
wellsite is required experience for petroleum
geologist.
 It is not possible for a geologist to be an effective
part of an active exploration operation without
complete familiarity with wellsite activities.

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  Moreover, almost by definition, the geologist
should be the person most interested in getting a
first look at the actual rock drill by bit.
 Guided by the well drilling, he “runs” the well.
 The wellsite geologist is the only representative
of the exploration department at the wellsite. In
many cases, he may be the only main company
representative on site.
 The wellsite geologist is expected to be on duty
throughout all drilling operations

The Wellsite Geologist principal specific duties are:

 Supervises contract mud loggers.

 Maintains coordination with Drilling
supervisors, advising him on “gas kicks that may
effect drilling operations, significant
hydrocarbon shows, anticipated coring, testing
or logging, and any other pertinent information
that may influence or affect the drilling and
evaluating” of the well.
 Examine all samples and records observations.
 Evaluate all hydrocarbon shows and make
recommendations to geological coordinator main
office.
 Input all collected data to available lithology/ log
composite program i.e SDC. Geologix latest
version. (shows “Geo eview)

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  Supervises all coring, logging and testing
operations.
 Maintains wellsite correlation and advised
anticipated depth of formation.
 Prepares daily and weekly reports.
 Organized all samples and dispatched them as
drilling well planning program.

Wellsite Geologist
(Pre-drill Preparation)

Pre-drill preparation for wellsite geologist will be

completed to run the wells.

 Arranged and collect all data to support run the

wells
 Be familiar with drilling program.
 Always attend pre drill meeting, and safety
meeting.
 In many case wellsite geologist will present to all
Rig personnel’s and services company the
situation will be faced while drilling the well,
especially considered on geological aspect.

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 Wellsite Geologist
(Check list)
Geological Data Supplies
Well Data Packet Sample sacks
Contract Obligation Core Trays
Distribution List (Logs & Core Boxes
Reports) Special Sampling Supplies
Special Instruction
Safety & Pollution Handbook

Geological Equipment Personal Gear

Microscope Hard Hat
Microscope Light (Spare Safety Shoes
bulbs) Gloves
Fluoroscope Safety Glasses
Sample Trays Cover-all
Spot Plate
Acid/Chemical Agents Transport/Accomodation
Hand Lens Transport arrangements
Field Notebook * Hotel Arrangements
Work Logs
Lithology Description
Forms
SWC Forms
Core Forms
Report Form
*Currently Notebook mean computer “Laptop” complete
with program need

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 Wellsite Geologist
(Sample catching and preparation)

 The cutting samples contribute the basic

information on the well.
 Ditch or cutting samples are the only source of
information on lithology, porosity and
hydrocarbon shows when unforeseen events
preclude wireline logs, cores and sidewalls core
samples.
 Wellsite geologist will make sure to obtaining the
most representative cuttings possible under
existing conditions
 This will require particular care during periods
of caving shales, air drilling or under balance
drilling, lost circulation, and other hole
problems.
 Wellsite often finds himself at odds with rig
personnel whose ultimate aim is to drill the hole
as rapidly as possible, often at the expense of
obtaining good cuttings.
 It has generally been found that when the quality
of the samples deteriorates to the point that they
are unreliable, the drilling and mud program is
not being followed by the contractor. This should
be brought to the attention of the drilling
supervisor.
 When a compromise cannot be reach and it
appears that hydrocarbon shows could be
overlooked do to the poor quality of the ditch

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 samples this should be brought to the attention of
Management.

Collection and Preparation.

 Every drilling Rig has a shaker screen for

separating the cuttings from the mud as they
reach the surface.
 The shaker screen may or may not be a good
place from which to take cuttings samples.
 If the mesh size is small enough to remove small
cuttings and the well is an area where there is
reason to believe that no unconsolidated sand
will be encountered, the shaker screen will serve
as a satisfactory source of samples.
 If the shaker screen is used, a broad or box
should be placed at the foot of the screen for
collection of composite samples
 A settling box through which a small portion of
the mud is diverted will generally serve to collect
more representative samples than those caught
from the shaker screen. The use of such a box
insures that a composite sample is collected and
afford the surest means of collecting small cutting
and finely divided sand.
 If the drill rate indicates sandstone but none is
present in the cutting samples and an increase of
loose sand is observe in the de-sanders or de-
silter, a settling box should be used.

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  Through zones of lost circulation, such a
box provides practically the only means of
catching samples while the shaker is by
passed. Cuttings will not settle out very
satisfactorily, however, from drilling mud
of very high density and gel strength.

 Washing and preparation of the sample of

cuttings to be examined is extremely important.
 In hard rock areas, the cuttings are usually quite
easily cleaned. Washing usually is matter of
merely hosing the sample in a container with a
jet of water to remove the mud film.

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 However washing the cuttings in many areas,
particularly cutting from Tertiary sand and
shales is more difficult and requires the use of
several precautions.
 Primarily the Clays and Shales present are often
soft and of a consistency which easily break down
and “make” mud. Care should be exercised to
wash away as little of the shale as possible, and
that wash away should be taken into account in
determining the sample composition.
 After the cuttings have been washed for mud
removal, they are washed through 5 mm sieve
unless doing so will further cause excessive loss
of shale or clay.
 It is generally considered that the cuttings will go
through the 5 mm sieve and that material which
does not through is cavings and may be
discarded.
 However, the material does not through should be
examined for sand cuttings. If they should be
present, this afford and excellent opportunity for
study of larger than normal cuttings chip.
 Cuttings from wells drilled with oil-base or oil –
emulsion muds are usually more representative of
the drilled formation than cuttings drilled with
water-base mud, because the oil-emulsion
prevent sloughing and dispersion of clays and
shales into the mud.

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 At the same time, washing and handling cuttings
drilled with this type mud is more difficult. They
cannot be cleaned by washing in water alone. It
is necessary to wash these cuttings first in
detergent solution to remove the oil-base or oil-
emulsion mud. Some of the liquid detergents
commercially available may be used or solution
specifically designed for this purpose.
 In extreme cases it may be necessary to wash the
cuttings first with a non-fluorescent solvent, such
as naphtha. This should then be followed by
washing in a detergent to remove the solvent.
 The used of a solvent should only be used as a
last resort because of the possibility of removing
any oil staining present.
 In any event, in order to make a good inspection
for lithology and staining, these cutting must be
broken or crushed by the “Wellsite Geologist
 When a bit change takes place a bottom samples
should be circulated up in zone interest only prior
to pulling out of hole. This called “Circulating
out.”

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 Wellsite Geologist
(Determine of the “Lag”)

 It is assumed that all samples will have been

lagged back to their proper depth
 Any deviations from this policy must be not on
the lithology log an on all samples envelops,
cloth bags, etc.
 Mud logging units carry instrumentation which
continuously calculates the depth at which the
sample is to be caught.
 Should this equipment not function not be
available the lag can be determined by counting
the pump strokes and then computing the annular
velocity of the drilling .
 This method is sufficient for most our work, but it
is not absolutely precise since it assumes the hole
is in gauge and does not account for slippage of
the cuttings within the drilling fluid as they move
up hole.

Depth (feet)
Lag Time =
Annular velocity (feet/min)

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 Pump output (barrels/minute)
Annular velocity =
Annular volume (bbl/ft)

Annular velocity = hole capacity – pipe (capacity +

displacement)

 The method can be checked when drilling breaks

or obvious changes in the formation are
encountered.
 Wellsite geologist can also observe the time
required for the first new cuttings to come over
the shaker after drilling is resumed with a new
bit.
 Some cavings may appear shortly after
circulation is resumed due to up hole sloughing.

 Other methods of calculating the lag are often

used when the annular velocity erratic due to air
drilling, lost circulation or other problem.
 Rice, corn or any other solid that will not plug up
the jets in the bit can be added during a
connection and then timed to come back over the
shale shaker.
 Take 90 % of this value for the cutting lag

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 A similar A similar method is to take a cup of
carbide and wrap it in a paper towel. Dropped
into the drill pipe just before the kelly is screwed
on, the carbide reacts with the drilling fluid
(water) to form acetylene gas- treat this as wet
gas- which should show up as a kick on the gas
detector.
 Take 80 % of this value for the gas lag and 90%
for the cutting lag.

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 Wellsite Geologist
(Trip Gas)

 After a trip has been made and drilling is

resumed, a period of time equivalent to the lag
must transpire before any cuttings or formation
gas shows from formation drilled after the trip
may appear at the surface.
 It is quit common for an increase in the mud gas
reading to occur some time between the time
drilling is resumed and time the first sample from
newly drilled formation is due at the surface. This
occurrence is commonly referred to as “trip
gas”. Usually, trip gas will make its appearance
toward the end of this period – just before the
first newly drilled sample is due.
 After a trip has been made and drilling is
resumed, a period of time equivalent to the lag
must transpire before any cuttings or formation
gas shows from formation drilled after the trip
may appear at the surface.
 It is quit common for an increase in the mud gas
reading to occur some time between the time
drilling is resumed and time the first sample from
newly drilled formation is due at the surface. This
occurrence is commonly referred to as “trip
gas”. Usually, trip gas will make its appearance
toward the end of this period – just before the
first newly drilled sample is due.

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 Trip gas is gas from formation. It may be from
some previously drilled gas-bearing zone.
Frequently, however, it may appear after every
trip on holes in which no significant show has
been previously encountered and be from some
section of very low permeability containing gas
under fairly high pressure.
 Some carbonaceous shales are likely sources of
trip gas; it is necessary to visualize what happens
as to the old bit is pulled out of the hole, for it is
during this operation that the gas which is
subsequently labeled “trip gas” gains entry to
the mud system.
 Not only does the bit have the largest diameter of
all tools in the hole, it is at the extreme lower
end of the drilling string. In the process of
“coming out of the hole”, the bit is pulled
through a mud-filled cylinder of diameter only
slightly greater than the bit itself.
 As the bit is pulled through this cylinder (the bore
hole) a swabbing action on the formation takes
place.

 The drilling fluid is forced to rush past the bit to

underside. There is a momentary reduction in
hydrostatic pressure immediately adjacent to and
below the bit as it is pulled upward.

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 As this zone of reduce pressure travels up the
hole past sections containing gas, those of
sufficient pressure will bleed into the adjacent
mud column.
 Once it has entered, the gas is trapped in mud.
The mud column then remains static until the trip
is completed. When circulation is resumed, the
gaseous interval is pumped to the surface where
the gas is detected as trip gas.
 Secondly, the mechanical forces which result in
the accumulation of trip gas may be expected to
be the greatest where the hole is nearest to
gauge. The most recently drilled section of hole
near the bottom is more likely to be in gauge than
shallower hole which has had the chance to wash
out and cave off. There for, conditions are much
more conductive to swabbing gas near the bottom
of the hole than at shallower depths.
 It is important to remember that this trip gas will
usually accompany the returns of formation that
was drilled prior to the trip.
 There is always the possibility that the gas is not
trip gas but rather is legitimate show which was
encountered just prior to making the trip and is
coincidental with the appearance of trip gas.
 The gas reading should be watched closely to see
weather it persist as a legitimate show might.

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 Trip gas will usually build up rather rapidly to a
peak and then commence decreasing almost
immediately.
 The cuttings and other available data should be
carefully scrutinized with the object of
ascertaining definitely weather the gas reading is
due to trip gas.
 The mud and mud pit level should be watched for
indication of a possible blowout or salt water
accompanying the trip gas.
 Trip gas will usually be observed to recirculation
at least once and often several times. This
recirculation may be recognized on the recorder
by the occurrence of regularly spaced peak in the
gas curve.
 The time interval between peaks will be
equivalent to the time required to make one co
complete circulation of the entire mud system
 Conditions resulting in the occurrence of trip gas
may be aggravated by the air introduced into the
mud column if the drill pipe is “floated” in when
run back in the hole.
 A float valve may be placed above the bit
preventing fluid entry as the pipe is run in the
hole. This huge air bubble will assist in collecting
gas in the mud as it is circulated out.
 It is possible for the volume of air to be so large
that there will be a short period of time when no
mud, only air, will be coming out of the flow line.

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 For the same reason, but to much less extent, this
same accumulation of gas and air may prevail as
a result of making a connection; however, except
under extreme condition, it will hardly be
noticeable.

Wellsite Geologist
(Examination and Description of cutting)

 The important thing in examining and describing

ditch cuttings is to detect hydrocarbons and
describe lithology in a systematic, meaningful
manner.

 Lithologic units rather than individual sample

intervals should be logged. The quality of sample
log is directly dependent on the quality of the
sample, which are sometimes poor and require
considerable interpretation to determine what
actually representative of the lithology drilled is.

 The method used to accomplish this is to first

make a visual, non-interpretative determination
of the relative percentages of the various
lithologic components actually present in each
sample and record this on the “Sample Record”
form provided. Usually this form will be used by
mud logger log.

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  The “Sample Description” portion is
interpretative, and the wellsite geologist should
utilize all the data available, such as, drilling
rate, type bit, weight on bit, mud data, mud
logging information, etc. in interpreting the
lithology. The “Lithology Log is strictly
interpretative.
 This method provides information on both what is
actually present in the samples and the wellsite
geologist’s best interpretation on yhe lithology.

Cuttings Examination Technique

 Collecting wet  Determined

cutting samples. “Halite”
 Checked samples  Color of cutting
with HCl. samples
 Determined the  Texture of cuttings
presence of the samples.
accessory minerals.  Cement of cutting
 Examination the samples.
presence of  Used fossils as
dolomite, anhydrite correlation and
or other environment
accessories. indicators.
 Observed textures  Accessory
and fossils in constituents also as
carbonates. correlation and
 Distinguishes environment
dolomite and indicators.

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 carbonate cutting  Determination
samples. sedimentary
 Porosity structure in cores
determination. samples.
 Recognition and
evaluation of
hydrocarbons in
well samples.

 1- Normally cuttings are collected wet from shale

shaker.

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 Always examine the dry sample in the ultraviolet
light box also, as sometimes heating will flush
hydrocarbons to the surface of the individual
cuttings.
 This is particularly true if the perrmeability is
poor, which causes the hydrocarbons to be
hidden from view when examined wet.
 If several or more samples are available to be
examined at the same time, they should be laid
out in sequence beside each other, or put in
compartment trays. The sample are then scanned
for lithologic breaks. Subtle changes in color,
texture, mineralogy and facies often become
apparent even before microscopic examination.
 A portion of the sample is washed and examined
wet in the ultraviolet light box and under the
microscope while the reminder is put to dry by
heating.
 Color, mineral composition, texture and structure
are described from wet sample.
 Porosity is described from the dry sample.
 The Wellsite geologist is then alerted to look for
these changes when making a detailed
examination of the cuttings, and is better able to
pick tops and depositional sequences and log
lithologic rather than sample interval units.
 If this method is used the samples will be dry and
should be dipped in water and agitated gently to
remove any fine contaminants and then drained
and examined while stil wet.

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 2- Dip selected sample in dilute HCl -10% for a
few seconds. If it is carbonate it will effervesce
and become etched. Etching emphasized the
texture and structure. If it is not a carbonate but
is calcareous it will effervesce more slowly. Be
sure the sample is clean as certain compounds in
drilling mud will effervesce readily.

 3- If the samples effervesces, put another small

piece in HCl and allow reaction to go to
completion. The insoluble residue may consist of
clay, anhydrite crystal, glauconite, pyrite, etc. It
will helps to determine the presence of the
accessories minerals. The rate of effervescence
detects the difference between dolomite and
calcite. If the sample is not a carbonate but is
calcareous, the amount of residue helps in
determining the amount of calcite present. As an
occasional check on calcareous or dolomitic
lithologies, the mud loggers can be requested to
the measure calcimetry. Always be alert for
hydrocarbon shows in acid, gives off irredescent
bubbles or leaves an oil scum residue ring. Use a
white porcelain spot tray to better detect any oil
residue.

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 4- If the sample is carbonate, examination of the
piece dipped in the acid may reveal at presence
of dolomite, anhydrite or accessories as the acid
etches away the calcite and leaves them standing
out in relief.
 5–Textures and fossils can be more clearly
observed in carbonates if a drop of glycerin,
clove oil or other wetting agent is placed on the
sample. If more detail is needed, representative
samples selected for their thin, platy shape
should be etched lightly in dilute HCl, placed in a
clear glass dish and covered with a wetting
agent. Light can then be transmitted through the
chips by placing a small reflecting mirror directly
on the stage and underneath the plate, or by a
sub stage mirror if available.If it is necessary to
identify the particles or fossils in a carbonate
more accurately (i.e. to determine reef presence)
a thin section can be made at the well site in
about 15 minutes.
 The procedure is as follows:
1. Place glass slide on hot plate for several minutes.
Hold stick of Canadian balsam cement on slide
till it melts and drop into cement several selected
cuttings.
2. Remove slide with tweezers and allow to cool.
3. Wet grinding surface (glass plate) with water,
sprinkle on grit (abrasive powder) and rub in a
circular motion to hone chips to desired thinness.

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4. Wash off grit and examine wet (glycerine or oil is
better) under reflected or transmitted light. If
under reflected light, some can be transmitted by
lifting slide and holding at an angle.

 6- If the sample is a carbonate, it may be difficult

to distinguish whether it is calcite or dolomite,
this or the percentage of each if both are present,
can be readily determined by staining with
Alizarin Red solution. Wash the selected samples
with water and dry, then place in a spot tray and
covered with Alizarin Red solution. After one
minute examine under the microscope while still
submerged in the staining solution. The calcite
will be stained red and the dolomite unstained.
Stains which develop after the sample is removed
from the solution are not significant.

 7- Porosity is best determined from a dry sample.

If a number of tray fuls of samples are being
examined it useful to wet only a portion of
samples in each tray and leave the remainder dry
for porosity determination. Use higher
magnification on the microscope when necessary.
If any porosity at all can be observed it is
probably at least 8%. In general, the smaller the
grain or crystal size, the lower the porosity and
permeability. As porosity and permeability have
direct bearing on the amount of fluid that can be
present in a rock and the amount that can be

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 recovered, their detection and evaluation is one
of the most important responsibilities of the
wellsite geologist All available information
should be utilized , even though their presence
must be inferred from indirect evidence such as
drilling rate, lost circulation, salt water flows,
hydrocarbon shows, loose sand grains, etc.
Fractures can sometimes be inferred from the
presence of coarsely crystalline vein calcite.
Relative permeability may be determined by
placing a drop of water with tweezers on dried
sample while viewing through the microscope.
The speed with which the water is absorbed by
rock fragment as indication of its relative
permeability. The water will stand up in a bead
on a completely impermeable fragment (also on
oil saturated fragment.). Differentiate in the
remarks column between observed and inferred
porosity and permeability. Samples with porosity
should always be checked for hydrocarbon
shows.

 8- Halite occurs as beds and as separate crystals

in dolomite and anhydrite. Unless a completely
salt-saturated or oil-base drilling mud is used,
the salt will be dissolved but its presence will be
indicated by significant increase in drilling mud
salinity and relative increase in drilling rate. If
separate halite crystals are present in dolomite or
anhydrite, the halite crystal will be dissolved and

29
 leave behind a cubic mold which denotes the
presence of halite.

 9- Color of rocks may be a mass effect of the

colors of the constituent grains, or result from the
color of cement or matrix, or staining of these.
Colors may occur in combinations and patterns
e.g., mottled, banded, spotted, variegated. It is
recommended that color be described on wet
samples under ten-power magnification. It is
important to use the same source of light all of
time and to use constant magnification for all
routine logging. General terms such as dark
gray, medium brown, etc generally suffice.
Ferruginous, Carbonaceous, Siliceous, and
calcareous materials are the most common
coloring agents. Yellow, red, or brown shades
come from limonite or hematite. Gray to black
color can result from the presence of
carbonaceous or phosphatic material, iron
sulfate or manganese. Green coloring can come
glauconite, ferrous iron, serpentine, chlorite, or
epidote. Red or orange mottlings are derived
from surface weathering or subsurface oxidation
by the action of circulating waters. The colors of
cuttings may altered, after the samples are caught
by oxidation caused by insufficient drying after
washing, or by overheating. Bit or pipe fragment
in samples can rust and stain the samples.
Drilling mud additives may also cause staining.

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 10- Texture is a function of the size, shape, and
arrangement of the component element of rock.
 A) Grain or crystal sizes. Size grades and
sorting of sediments are important
attributes. They have a direct bearing on
porosity and permeability and may be a
reflection of the environment in which a
sediment was deposited. Size
classifications, based on a modified
“Wentworth scale”. The Geologist should
not try to record size grades without
reference to some standard comparator
or mounted sieve sand grains or
photographs of these.
 B) Shape, Shape of grains be used to
decipher the history of a deposit of
which the grains are part. Shape involves
both sphericity and roundness.
Sphericity refers to a comparison of the
surface area of a sphere of the same
volume as the grain, with the surface area
of the grain itself, for practical purposes,
distinction is usually made in large
particles on the basis of axial ratios
Roundness. which refers to the
sharpness of the edges and corners of a
fragment, is an important characteristic
that deserves careful attention in detailed
logging.

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 C). Sorting. Sorting is a measure of dispersion of
the size frequency distribution of grains in a
sediment or rock. It is affected by roundness,
specific gravity, and mineral composition as well
as size. A classification used on the the lithologic
log is:
Well : 90% in 1 or 2 size classes
Moderate : 90% in 3 or 4 size classes
Unsorted : 90% in 5 or size classes

 11) - Cement is chemical precipitate deposited

around the grains and in the interstices of
sediment as aggregates of crystal or growths on
grains of the same composition. Cement is
deposited chemically. Clay is not a cement. The
order of precipitations of cement depends on the

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type of solution, number of ions in solution and
the general geochemical environment. Several
different cements, or generations of cement, may
occur in a given rock, separately or overgrown
on or replacing one another. Chemical cement is
uncommon in sandstone which has a clay matrix.
The most common cementing materials are silica
and calcite. Silica cement is common in nearly all
quartz sandstones. This cement generally occurs
as secondary crystal overgrowths deposited in
optical continuity with detrital quartz grains.
Opal, Chalcedony, and chert are other forms of
siliceous cement. Dolomite and calcite are
deposited as crystal in interstices an as
aggregates in the voids. Dolomite and Calcite
may be indigenous to sandstone, the sands
having been mixture of quartz and dolomite or
calcite grains, or the carbonate may have been
precipitated as a coating around the sand grains
before they were lithified. Calcite in the form of
clear spar may be present as vug or other void
filling in carbonate rocks . Anhydrite and gypsum
cements are commonly associated with dolomite
and silica than with calcite. Additional cementing
minerals, usually of minor importance, include
pyrite, generally as small crystals, siderite,
hematite, limonite, zeolites and phosphatic
material. Compacting and presence of varying
amount of secondary quartz, secondary
carbonate, and interstitial clay are the man

33
 factor affecting pore space in siliciclastic rocks.
While there is a general reduction of porosity
with depth due to secondary and compaction,
ranges of porosity vary considerably due
primarily to extreme variations in amounts of
secondary cement. For instance, coarse-grained
sandstones have greater porosity than finer ones
when the same amount of cementing material is
available to both. This is because the same
thickness of cement will form around the grains
regardless of their size, therefore the small
interstices, which occur in finer grain sandstones
will be cemented earliest. Dissolution of cement
is a common cause of porosity.

 12- Matrix, consists of small individual grains

that fill interstices between the larger grains.
Matrix is deposited mechanically. Chemical
cement is uncommon in sandstone which has a
clay matrix. Silt acts as matrix, hastening
cementation by filling interstices, thus decreasing
the size of interstitial spaces. Clay is common
matrix material, which may cause loss porosity
either by compaction, or by swelling when water
is introduced into the formation. Argillaceous
material can be evenly distributed in siliciclastic
or carbonate rocks, or have laminated, lenticular,
detrital or nodular form.

34
 13- Microfossils and some small macrofossil, or
even fragment of fossils, are used for correlation
and may also be environment indicators. A
wellsite geologist who examines samples should
be able to distinguish such forms as foraminifera
ostracods, chara, bryozoa, corals, algae,
crinoids, brachiopods, pelecypods, and
gastropods so as to record their presence and
relative abundance in the samples being
examined

 14- Accessory constituents, although constituting

only a minor percentage of the bulk of a rock be
significant indicators of environment of
deposition, as well clues to correlation. The most
common accessories are glauconite, pyrite,
feldspar, mica, siderite, carbonized plant
remaints, heavy minerals, chert, and-sized rock
fragments.

 15- Most sedimentary structures are not

discernible in cuttings. Structures involve the
relationship of masses or aggregates of rock
components, i.e. cross bedding, ripple marks,
borings, compaction, slumping, bedding planes,
etc. In time of origin, they are formed either
contemporaneously with deposition (syngenetic),
or after deposition and burial (epigenetic).
Syngenetic structures are often very important

35
 indicators of the environments of deposition of
sediments.
 16- The recognition and evaluation of
hydrocarbons present in well samples is one of
the most important responsibilities of the wellsite
geologist. He should be familiar with the various
methods of testing for and detecting
hydrocarbons and use them in the course of
sample examinations. Cuttings with good
porosity should always be tested for
hydrocarbons.

Descriptions of cutting
Type of Rock.
Based on Hydrocarbon looking consideration, the
lithology of rock can be classified into three type:

1. Reservoir rock ,
2. Cap rock or seal ,
3. Basement rock .

Reservoir rock in Petroleum geology, any rock with

adequate porosity or joint and fracture system to contain
liquid or gaseous hydrocarbons. Sandstone and
limestone are the usually encounter as reservoir bed,
while accumulation fracture igneous or metamorphic
are rare.

36
Cap rock or seal, is overburden, usually used for
consolidate material is a hard rock layer, impermeable.
Shale usually encounter overlying reservoir rock

Basement, the crust of earth below the sedimentary

deposit, extending downward to the mohorovisic
discontinuity. In many place the rock of the complex are
igneous and metamorphic rock.

Rock classification.
Rock classification system are a way of briefly
describing rocks in a standardized, easily comparable
form. Descriptive classification are used for wellsite
sample logging.
They should :
1. stress the most important and most
identifiable aspects of the rock,
2. be brief easily abbreviated (if
needed) and clearly
understandable,
3. be general enough to be used
when very little can be determined
from the cuttings,
4. be primarily descriptive but when
possible also describe parameters
needed for genetic classification,
and
5. should include, but identify any
parts of description which are
interpret

37
The rock classification system set forth here takes into
consideration :
1. the quality of the ditch samples
available to be examined,
2. the time available for
examination,
3. the availability of optical aids and
reagents at the wellsite,
4. the varying skills of the wellsite
geologist, and
5. The general terms of the
classification systems currently
being used.

LIMESTONE AND DOLOMITE.

Limestone.
A modification of the Dunham’s classification is
used by current by industry.
Description terms :
Following the basic mineral composition term
and should be a brief description of the other rock
properties in the following order :

38
 Particles or grains and or crystal size, and any
possible fossil identification. The five principal
grains or particles are:
 fossils,
 oolites,
 pellets,
 intraclasts, and
 lithoclasts

39
40
 Color – example : tan, light grey, etc
 Cement – if a cement is obvious it should be
noted, such as sparry calcite cement, chert
cement, etc.
 Accessory minerals – such as clay (argillaceous),
pyritic, glauconitic, etc.
 Sedimentary and organic structures – for
example, laminated, stylolitic, borrows, etc.
 Hardness or compaction – subjective description
such as soft, hard, very hard.
 Color – example : tan, light grey, etc.
 Cement – if a cement is obvious it should be
noted, such as sparry calcite cement, chert
cement, etc.
 Accessory minerals – such as clay (argillaceous),
pyritic, glauconitic, etc.
 Sedimentary and organic structures – for
example, laminated, stylolitic, borrows, etc.
 Hardness or compaction – subjective description
such as soft, hard, very hard.

 Porosity – This is economically the most

important rock property and should be given the
most attention. The porosity is usually one of six
types :

 Interparticle (x or BP) – the pore space

between crystals, fossils, clasts, etc.

41
  Vugular (v or VUG) – the pore space
formed by the solution of crystals and
may be as small as two crystals in
diameter or as large as a Carlsbad
Cavern. (CV)
 Moldic (m or MO) – the pore space which
is created by the partial or complete
removal of grain.
 Fracture (f or FR) – the void space
between the two sides of a fracture,
breccia, or fault.
 Intraparticle (o or WP) – the original
pore space within a grain, normally only
in fossils.
 Chalky or earthy (c) – usually of low
permeability.
 Hydrocarbon shows . Will be described for all
rock classification.

42
 Examples of Limestone Description.
 Limestone Grainstone, pellets, light
brown, sparry Calcite cement, very slight
argillaceous, stylolite, hard, poor por
osity, traces light brown oil stain, fair
yellow fluorescence on 60 % samples, fair
– good bright yellow cut fluorescence.
 Abbreviated description.
Ls,Grst, pel, lt brn,sy-Ca cmnt, v sl arg,
styl, hd, p por, tr lt brn o stn, f yel fluor on
60 % spls, f-g bri yel fluor.

43
SILICICLASTIC.

Siliciclastic pertains to clastic, non - carbonate

rock which are almost exclusively silicon-bearing either
as quartz or silicates. They are composed principally of
detritus but also includes material that originally was
deposited chemically or biogenetically but which was
later move as particles before its final deposition.
Owing to the difficulty of recognizing certain
mineral and rock fragments with wellsite optical
equipment, a classification based on composition is not
always feasible. Consequently a classification base on
size (texture) will be used for this group of rock. The
Wentworth size scale, will determine the basic “rock
name of Siliciclastic”.

As the rock type will frequently be composed of an

admixture of other rock types, a classification which
modifies the rock name with a descriptor is necessary.
The classification is modified from Folk, 1954.

The basis of the classification is a triangular diagram on

which are plotted the proportions of gravel (material
coarser than 2 mm), sand (material between 0.062 and 2
mm), and mud (all material finer than 0.062 mm, i.e., silt
plus clay), as shown in the triangular diagram.
Depending on the relative proportions of these
constituents, eleven major textural groups are defined.

44
45
To place a specimen in one of the eleven major groups
only two properties need be determined :
1. How much gravel it contains-
boundaries at 80, 30, and 5
percent ;
2. The ratio of sand to mud (silt plus
clay) with bondaries at 9:1 , 1:1 ,
and 1:9.

Examples of the usage of Wentworth size scale and

triangular diagram.

 Sandy  Sandy mudstone

Conglomerate.  Sandy siltstone.
 Silty sandy  Mudstone.
conglomerate.  Siltstone.
 Muddy sandy  Claystone.
conglomerate.  Shale
 Muddy
conglomeratic
sandstone.
 Silty sandstone.
 Muddy sandstone.
 Sandstone

46
Due to bit action reducing the size of the cuttings,
breccia and conglomerate will probably appear as “very
coarse sandstone”, but may be recognizable by the shape
of rounding on portions of individual grains. The “size

47
class” can be applied as a descriptive term to the rock
type if discernable. The rock type “Shale" will be of both
“siltstone” and “clay", but will be differentiated from
them by exhibiting fissility. In most cases, the adjective
“argillaceous” or “muddy" will be used for both
“clayey” and “shaley” as the fissility will not be
discernable

This diagram places all sandstone in just three classes:

1. Lithic sandstone, composed primarily of rock
fragments of rock fragments of basic igneous,
sedimentary and methamorphic rocks, including
chert,
2. Feldspathic sandstone, composed primarily of
feldspar and

48
 3. Quartz sandstone, composed of at least 90 %
quartz.
This compositional classification should immediately
follow the basic rock type name and be placed in
parentheses.

A series of descriptive terms will follow the rock name

and compositional class to complete the description of
the rock specimen and are as follows:
(1) Color – a subjective description – example:
clear, light-brown, etc.
(2) Dominant size grade – this means one size
grade only.
(3) Extreme size range – in more detailed written
description it may be appropriate to record the
range in sizes
(4) Sorting size range. The degrees of sorting as
well sorted (W), moderately (M) and unsorted
(U).
(5) Roundness and grain surface features – the
degree of roundness only angular (A), sub
angular (SA) or sub rounded (SR), rounded (R),
and well rounded (WR).
(6) Cement, if present, silica cement, calcite
cement. Note: Clay is not cement.
(7) Accessory minerals such as dolomite rhombs,
pyrite, glauconitic, etc. bitumen and fossils may
be included.
(8) Sedimentary and organic structures such as
crossbedding, burrows, stylolites.

49
 (9) Hardness. Give a subjective description such as
friable , soft, hard, etc.
(10) Porosity type : Usually limited to
“interparticle” (X), and fracture (F), but a
Calcit (and to lesser extent, silica ) cemented
clastic rock may be late leached leaving behind
“vugs” (V). Intraparticle (O) and moldic (M)
porosity are not as common, but “earthy” (C)
may be encountered.
(11) Porosity grade will be (1) poor – less than
10 %, (2) fair – 10 % - 15 %, (3) good – 15 % -
25 % and (4) excellent – greater than 25 %.
(12) Hydrocarbon shows, should include oil
stain, fluorescence, cut fluorescence, etc. In
addition, any anomalous characteristic should
be described.
Examples of siliciclastic rock descriptioton, are as
follows:
Sandstone (Quartz), white, very fine grain, Well
sorted, angular, abundant silica cement, very
argillaceous, trace pyrite, hard, poor intragranular
porosity, fine space yellow fluorescence on 50 %
sanstone, slow cloudly crush cut fluorescence

Examples rock description abbreviation :

Ss (qtz), wh, v f gr, W srt, ang, abd sil cmt, sl argl , tr
py, h, pr (X) por, f sp yel fluor on 50%, sl cldy cr cut.

50
Evaporates are a group of sedimentary rocks resulting
mainly from the evaporation of restricted bodies of sea
water. Rocks normally considered as evaporates,
“Dolomite”, “Anhydrite”, or “Gypsum,” and “ Halite",
(Salt).
Because limestone are made up primarily of
organic skeletal debris, the are treated separately from
the evaporates

Dolomite may precipitate directly from sea water, and it

may also occur as the pen contemporaneous replacement
of Limestone in the intratidal zone through percolation of
magnesium-rich waters.

Since most Dolomite is believed to be secondary

dolomitization of Limestone, the nomenclature for
Dolomite will be same as that of Limestone.

Gypsum and Anhydrite are precipitated in intratidal

zones under reducing conditions. It is generally believed
that gypsum is precipitated from waters of less than 30
degree Celsius and when 30 degree Celsius is exceeded
the precipitate is Anhydrite.
Most subsurface (below 2,000 feet) occurrences
are anhydrite and it is believed to be primary deposit in
most instances, due to the high temperatures associated
with evaporation.

Anhydrite typically occurs as uniformly bedded deposits

with uniform dense to saccharoidal texture, and

51
occasionally as cement in Dolomites. Anhydrite will
dissolve in hot dilute HCl and, when cooled, will
recrystallize out of solution as acicular needles.
Gypsum commonly occurs in surface and near-
surface deposits in uneven masses or in beds with
disturbed bedding, due to expansion during hydration.
Fine to medium crystalline texture is common and the
colors are the same as anhydrite: translucent, white,
pink or tan.

Anhydrite and Gypsum are partially soluble in fresh

water drilling mud and can cause flocculation and
aggregation resulting in a thickening of mud. This is
called “Calcium Contamination" due to the calcium
sulfate chemical composition of anhydrite and hydrated
calcium sulfate of gypsum. Although this affect on the
mud can be dramatic, if a calcium base mud is in use
there will be no affect and much slower affect in oil-base
mud. In addition to using this drilling mud reaction to
detect the presence of anhydrite/gypsum, the wellsite
geologist should alert the drilling personnel of the
presence or anticipated presence of these evaporites can
pre-treat the mud if necessary.

Halite may occur as interbeds with anhydrite and

dolomite, or as euhedral crystals in dolomite and
anhydrite. Unless a salt-saturated or oilbase drilling
mud is being used, halite will be dissolved before
reaching the surface. It’s presence in the bore hole must

52
be inferred by drilling rate, increased mud salinity and
the presence of molds of halite crystal in the cuttings.
The rock name will be based on the predominant mineral
composition, i.e., Dolomite, Anhydrite, Halite, and
Gypsum. The descriptive terms for “Dolomite” will
include of the modified “Dunham classification "in
parenthesis, after the rock name, followed by the particle
type or crystal size i.e., Dolomite (Packstone), oolitic.
The remaining descriptive terms will follow in the same
order as for “Limestone”

The Dunham classification is not used for “Anhydrite,

Halite, and Gypsum”. The series of descriptive terms
following the rock name and classification will be in the
following order :

(1) Color – a subjective description,

(2) Crystal or grain size –
crypto ( < 0.03 mm)
mycro ( 0.03 – 0.062 mm)
very fine ( 0.062 – 0.125 mm)
fine ( 0.125 – 0.250 mm)
medium ( 0.250 – 0.500 mm)
coarse ( 0.500 - 1.00 mm)
very coarse ( > 1.00 mm )
(3) Porosity – porosity in Anhydrite/Gypsum and Halite
is normally confined to fractures.
(4) Cement – There is normally no primary porosity in
Anhydrite, Gypsum or Halite, but cement may occur

53
in fractures. The cement can be simply described
such as anhydrite cement, calcite cement, etc.
(5) Accessory minerals – calcite crystals, clay
(argillaceous), glauconite, pyrite, etc.
(6) Sedimentary and organic structure – relict fossils,
stylolites, relict burrows, pods of anhydrite, clay
laminae,
(7) Hardness or compaction – subjective description
such as soft, soft, moderately hard, very hard.
(8)Hydrocarbon shows.

Examples: Anhydrite, angular nodular,

mostly micro crystalline, with some coarse crystals,
tight, occasionally pyrite crystals, occasionally
stylolites, hard to very hard, no shows.

Wellsite Geologist
(Geological notes)
Unconformities.
Notation on a sample log of any data which
suggest the presence of an unconformity is
important, even thought the evidence is
inconclusive. Supporting evidence may be found
nearby wells. In cuttings, the following criteria
may indicate the presence of “Unconformity”:

1)Concentrations of minerals – e.g., phosphate, pyrite,

glauconite, or manganese nodules.
2)Abrupt changes in mineral assemblages, fauna,
lithologic character, or cementing material.

54
3)Iron oxide stains or manganese coatings.
4)Corrosion surfaces, as developed on conglomerates
(e.g.blackened limestone pebbles).
5)Desert varnish, as polished surfaces on pebbles.
6)Basal conglomerate – generally more heterogeneous
and weathered than other conglomerates.
7) Bone and tooth conglomerate – accumulated as “lag
zone” overlying an unconformity
8) Siliceous shells with beekite rings – small, bluish gray
to white doughnut-like rings occurring on siliceous
shells below some unconformities.
9) Weathered chert – a definite indication of an
unconformity, providing the chert is residual and not
reworked
10) Asphaltic residues can be present at unconformities
at which oil seeped out to the surface. In the case of
cherts, the oil or asphaltic residue may be in the residual
chert and not in overlying reworked material.
11) Porous zone in limestone, caused by solution by
ground water, may be evidence of unconformities, but
porous zones can develop for considerable distances
below the surface. The porosity may not be in contact
with the unconformity, but erosional interval is the
cause of it. Limestones that underlie unconformities
should be more deeply leached than similar limestones
which do not underlie unconformities. Other porous
zones may occur at unconformities in various types of
lithology because of the occurrence there of coarser
material and the effects of weathering. An

55
unconformity so established may be trace from well
to well by recognition of the porous zones.
12) Caliche, and Vadose pisolites, may form in
carbonate rock exposed to surface weathering.

The presence of two or more associated criteria greatly

increases the chances that an unconformity is present.

Cavings.
Cavings may often be recognized as material
identical to what has already been seen much higher in
the hole. This spalling of previously penetrated rocks is
particularly pronounced after trip of the drill stem for bit
changes, coring operations or other activities. It is
suppressed by good mud control, but most samples will
contain caved material. Soft shales, thinly bedded brittle
shales, and bentonites cave readily and may be found in
samples representing depths hundreds of feet below the
normal stratigraphic position of those rocks.
Owing the difference in the hardness of rocks, the type
and condition of the bit, and practice of the driller, one
cannot set any hard and fast rule for the size of true
cuttings. Caved fragments tend to be larger than
fragments of rock from the bottom, and they are typically
rounded by abrasion. Flaky shape, freshness of
appearance, sharp edges and signs of grinding by the bit
may be use as criteria for the recognition of fresh cuttint
pags. Casing points should be carefully noted inasmuch
hole as they indicate to the geologist examining the
sample what parts of the hole were open at various stage

56
of the drilling and thus were a potential source of
cavings.

Recirculation.
Recirculation chiefly refers to sand grains and
microfossils from previously drilled rocks which remain
in the mud stream and contaminate the rising sample.

Other contaminations.
Contamination of the cuttings is direct result of
rig operations. The setting of casing and the addition of
mud additives are a common occurrence on location,
both of which normally cause cuttings contamination.
Contamination may or may not be easily detected

Type : Mica,
Use or source : Lost circulation material,
Mistaken for : A mineral that has broken away from the
rock.
Characteristics: Much larger flakes than found in most
rock, thick block (many layers), colorless or transparent
in thin sheet, yellow or brown in thick blocks

Type : Lignite
Use or source : Thinners or dispersants,
Mistaken for : Natural lignite or coal,
Characteristics: Lighter than cuttings, reacts with water
to give a slight coloration, brownish to black in color,
usually floats on water.

57
Type : Cement
Use or source : Holds casing in place
Mistaken for : Calcareous siltstone, limestone
Characteristics: Medium gray to white with black
specks, calcareous, reacts with phenolphthalein (turns
purple), fine grain, no large aggregates as in
construction cement.

Type : Plastic beads,

Use or source : Torque reducers,
Mistaken for : Well rounded sands
Characteristics: Transparent, well rounded, well sorted,
medium grain, lighter than water

Type : Walnut hulls

Use or source : Lost circulation material,
Mistaken for : Dark brown siltstone.
Characteristics: Lighter tha cuttings and heavier than
water sowhen it is agitated with the water the rock
cuttings will remain in place and the walnut hulls will
move with the water, light to ark brown with a distinct
darker coloration on the surface, unique texture
(detected by chewing), will burn.

Type : Rubber
Use or source : Displacement plugs used in cementing
(drill out)
Mistaken for : --

58
Characteristics: Red or black rubber, will burn

Type : Metal filings

Use or source : From drill bit, drill pipe, casing or
casing shoe.
Mistaken for : --
Characteristics: Metallic when fresh but may look like
red siltstone or limonite when oxidized, magnetic except
for some aluminum casing shoes.

Lost Circulation material.

A larger variety of substances may be introduced
into the hole to combat lost circulation difficulties. These
include such obviously foreign materials as feathers,
leather, burlap sacking, or cotton seed hulls, as well as
cellophane (which might be mistaken for selenite or
muscovite), perlite, and coarse mica flakes which might
be erroneously interpreted as formation cuttings. Most
of these extraneous materials will float to the top of the
sample tray when it is immersed in water and so can be
separated and discarded at once. Others may need more
careful observation. Generally, the sudden appearance
of flood of fresh – looking material, which occupies the
greater part of a sample, is enough to put the sample –
logger on his guard. As a check, he can consult the mud
report for lost circulation troubles, and the kinds of
materials introduces into the hole.

59
Cement.
Cement fragments in cuttings are easily mistaken
for sandy, silty, or chalky carbonate. However, most
cements are of an unusual texture or color, frequently
have a glazed surface, tend to turn yellow or brown
when immersed in dilute HCl, and are ussually full of
fine black specks. The latter are sometimes magnetic, in
which case the fragments of cement can be removed from
the cuttings with the aid of small magnet. If the
identification of cement is questionable, phenolphthalein,
which turns purple on cement, is usually available in the
mudlogging unit.
Pipe Scale and Bit Shavings.
Scale and savings of metal may also contaminate
the samples, but they can be readily removed with a
small magnet. They are usually rusty and rarely present
a logging problem. The drilling superintendent should be
notified of any large increase in fresh metal shavings as
it may indicate mechanical problems.
Miscellaneous Contaminations.
Other lithic materials which may be present in
cutting samples and obscure their real nature, or might
be logged as being in place, include rock fragments used
as aggregate in casing shoes.
Drilling mud.
In examining unwashed or poorly washed
cuttings, it is often important to be able to recognize the
drilling muds which were used. An inexperienced sample
examiner may confuse drilling mud with soft clay,
bentonite, or sometimes gypsum or carbonate. Through

60
washing and rinsing in a pan of water will generally
remove most mud contamination. If necessary, lithic
fragments can be broken open to see if the interior
(fresh) differs from the surface (coated).
Oil-base and oil-emulsion muds coat the cutting with oil,
and care must be taken to distinguish such occurrences
from formation oil. They are generally recognized
because they coat all cuttings regardless of lithology,
rather than being confined to one rock type. Such
contamination can sometimes be removed by washing the
samples with a detergent or with a detergent or with
dilute HCl. Lignosulfate muds may present problems in
sample used in palynological studies and sample of any
lignite added to the mud should be obtained, labeled,
and sent in with the palygnological samples.
U.V. Box Contamination.
When using the UV box, one must be certain that
the fluoresce is actually coming from a hydrocarbon
bearing rock. Here is a list of a few common
contaminants.

Type Colour Characteristic

Pipe dope Bright blue Will cut using
Chloroethane
Coffee grounds Dull green Will not cut, will
burn
Some oil base Variety of Most will cut
mud additives colours when using
Chloroetane

61
Rock Dust.
If samples are not washed sufficiently, a fine dust
composed of powdered rock or dried drilling mud may
cover the chips with a tightly adhering coat. In such
cases, care should be taken that a fresh surface of the
rock is described. Wetting the samples will tend to
remove this coating, but if the chips are saturated with
oil, the powder may still adhere to the surface even after
immersion in water, unless a wetting agent or ordinary
household detergent is used. These comments are
particularly applicable to limestone and dolomite where
the powdered rock film tends to be in the form of crystals
which may mask the true texture of the rock. In this case,
the best procedure is to break a few chips and obtain
fresh surface for description.

Powdering. (bit spin and percussion chalkification)

Powdering is the pulverization of the cuttings by
regrinding (failure of the mud to remove cutting from the
bit), or by crushing between the drill pipe and the wall of
the bore hole. It can result in the erroneous logging of
chalky limestone where non exist.

Fusing

62
 Shales drilled by diamond bit may be burned and
fused, resulting in the formation of dark gray or black
hard fragments that resemble igneous rock.

Air-Gas Drilling samples.

Cuttings from wells drilled with air or gas
instead of mud are usually made up of small chips and
powder, which makes sample examination difficult. Often
a simple screening of the cuttings to eliminate the
powder will facilitate the sample study. When the
cuttings are entirely of powder, little can be done beyond
describing basic rock types and colors. When the
cuttings ae carbonates the basic rock type will be
difficult to determine because dolomite powder
effervesces as readily as limestone powder. Where well-
indurated shale sections are air drilled, the samples can
be cleaned conveniently by washing them with care on
60-100 mesh screen. This cleaning procedure should be
required, where feasible, as the dust coating on particles
will mask the true color, texture and even the basic
lithology of the drilled section. When “mist” drilling is
done, particles can become plastered with fine mud
which is removable only by by washing process; simple
screening does not suffice.

Sample Lag Correction Error.

Lag time is the time required for cuttings to travel
from the bottom of the hole to the place at which they are
collected. If new hole is drilled during this time interval,

63
the depth assigned to the samples will be greater than
the depth from which the cuttings originated.
Despite the many methods available for
determination of lag time and for the correct labeling of
depths shown on the sample sacks, the actual job is
sometimes done incorrectly, or not at all, by the person
catching the samples who is sometimes a roughneck at
the well site.

Subsequent sample studies are thus affected by

significant discrepancies between indicated sample depth
an true sample depth. As a result of these discrepancies :
1. Lithologies are plotted at incorrect depth,
2. Interpolation of true depth become time
consuming and requires unnecessary log
manipulation, and
3. Uncertainties as to the character of the as
to the character of the formation
penetrated may be introduced
4.
If erroneous lag correction is suspected or known, the
geologist examining the sample should endeavor to plot
the lithologic information obtain from the sample study
at true depth. This can best be done with the aid of
penetration rate log or mechanical log. If the
discrepancy from true sample depth is not determinable,
or is questionable, the samples must be plotted as
labeled, with approperiate note in the remarks column.
Lag correction is best controlled at the wellsite.

64
Spread.
Spread is the separation of large from small cuttings by
relative slippage (also called elutriation or differential
settling) in the mud stream, so that the cuttings of a rock
drilling up into fine chips may overtake the cuttings of a
rock drilling up into coarse chip during their journey up
the borehole. This results in the wrong sequence of rock
type or mixed sample being recovered.

“Boiler – housing” or “Dog – housing” of samples

Unfortunately, because of inclement weather, lack
of interest or supervision, breakdowns, or fast drilling,
the sample catcher (generally an assigned roughnecks)
will occasionally sack up a number of samples only once
during his tour. However, he then labels the samples as if
they were properly caught at specific intervals. This
collection procedure is known as “boiler-housing” or
“dog-housing.” Any geologist can readily see the errors
inherent in this practice.

Losing Fine-Grained Sand through the Shale-shaker

screens.
When the rate of penetration indicates that a
sand is being drilled, but little or no sand is present in
the cuttings, it is good practice to catch a sample from
de-sander and de-silter. Sometimes the presence of very
fine-grained unconsolidated sandstone and siltstones can
be inferred by an increase by an increase in the volume
of these lithologies through the de-sander and de-silter.

65
Also the mud report may indicate an increase in the sand
in the mud or solids in the mud, but if the mud solids are
used to infer drill solids, then the affect of the mud
additive solid (barite, salt, etc,) must be calculated. This
indications of representative sample being lost through
the shale-shaker screens dictate the necessity of
installing a settling box in the mud stream.

Washing Oil-base mud cuttings in Diesel oil.

Sometimes it may be necessary to wash the cuttings in
diesel oil to remove the oil-base mud and then in a
detergent to remove the diesel. This will usually result in
a dull, pale blue, background fluorescence on all
cuttings, but a good show of natural hydrocarbons is
usually still apparent.

Wellsite Geologist
(Hydrcarbons)

Hydrocarbon Shows
It is the geologist’s primary responsibility to
detect, report and log all shows, and to see that good
shows are evaluated. Although subsequent petrophysical
analyses may give a conclusive determination of the
presence of commercial quantities of oil, the first

66
indications of hydrocarbons is usually in the cutting and
can be a decisive factor in all other evaluations.
Unfortunately, no specific criteria can be established as
positive indications of whether or not a show represent a
potentially productive interval. The color and intensity of
stain, fluorescence, cut, cut fluorescence and residual cut
fluorescence will very with the specific chemical,
physical, and biologic properties of each hydrocarbon
accumulation. The aging of the shows (highly volatile
fractions dissipate quickly), and flushing by drilling
fluids or in the course of sample washing, also tend to
mask or eliminate evidence of hydrocarbons. The
presence or absence of obvious shows cannot always be
taken as conclusive. In many cases, the only suggestion
of t he presence of hydrocarbon may be a positive cut
fluorescence. In other cases, only one or two of the other
test may be positive. Hence, when the presence of
hydrocarbons is suspected, it is very important that all
aspects be considered: the porosity and thickness of the
interval, the petrophysical evaluation, and the evaluation
of the hydrocarbon test and mudlog shows.

Hydrocarbon Detection method.

Odor
Odor may range from heavy, characteristic of
low gravity oil, to light and penetrating, as for
condensate. Some dry gas have no odor. Strength of odor
depends on several factors, including size of sample.

67
Describe as oil odor or condensate odor. Depending on
strength of odor detected, report as good, fair, or faint,
in remarks column. Faint odors may be detected more
easily on a freshly broken surface or after confining the
sample in bottle for 15-20 minutes. When examining side
wall cores always check for odor immediately after
taking the cap off the bottle. Frequently the door is so
fleeting that it is gone is less than a minute after the
bottle is opened.

Staining and Bleeding.

The amount by which cuttings and cores will be
flushed on their way to the surface is largely a function
of their permeability. In very permeable rocks only very
small amounts of oil are retained in the cuttings, but the
gas detector will probably indicate gas in the mud. Often
bleeding oil and gas may be observed in cores, and
sometimes in drilling cuttings, from relatively tight
formations. The gas will appear as bubbles when
cuttings are immersed in water, or in the mud on a core.
The amount of oil staining on ditch cuttings and cores is
primarily a function of the distribution of the porosity
and oil distribution within the pores.
The color of the stain is related to oil to oil
gravity; heavy oil stains tend to be dark brown, while
light oil stains tend to be colorless but do have a vitreous
luster. The percentage of the effective reservoir rock
which is stained should be reported.
An example of a description of staining in a
sidewall core is : “Thinly interbedded shale and very

68
fine grained sandstone with good intergranular porosity,
even light brown oil staining on 100% of sandstone.”
Note here that all brown or tan colored rock should be
suspected of being oil stained and carefully tested for
fluorescence, cut fluorescence, mudlog shows, etc. If the
rock appears to have low permeability be sure to break
open the individual cuttings and examine them for stain,
fluorescence and crush cut fluorescence. Also ask the
mudloggers to run a “cuttings gas analysis” in the
Waring Blender. Oil staining is direct evidence of the
presence of hydrocarbons and is a strong, significant
show and deserves careful examination and description.

Fluorescence.
Examination of mud, drill cuttings and core for
hydrocarbon fluorescence under ultraviolet light often
indicates oil in small amounts, or oil of light color, which
might not be detected by other means. Every sample
must be examined for fluorescence. A good habit to form
is to automatically put every trayful of cuttings in the
ultraviolet lightbox before examining it under the
microscope. This practice will prevent missing an
obvious oil show and will alert you to look for staining
and porosity under the microcope when the sample
fluoresces. Color of fluorescence of crudes range from
brown through green, gold, blue, yellow, to white; in
most instances, the Spotted fluorescence in samples
having apparently homogeneous porosity may indicate
the presence of water in the reservoir. The intensity
range is bright, dull, pale, and faint. Pinpoint

69
fluorescence is associated with individual sand grains
and may indicate condensate or gas.
heavier oils have darker fluorescence. Distribution may
be even, spotted, or mottled, as for stain.
Mineral fluorescence, especially from shell fragments,
may be mistaken for oil fluorescence, and is
distinguished by adding a few drops of a solvent.
Hydrocarbon fluorescence will appear to flow and
diffuse in the solvent as the oil dissolves, whereas
mineral fluorescence will remain undisturbed

Reagent Cut Test.

Oil-stained samples which are old may not
fluorescence; thus failure to fluorescence should not be
taken as decisive evidence of lack of hydrocarbons. All
samples suspected of containing hydrocarbons should be
treated with a reagent. The most common reagent use by
the geologist are chlorothene, petroleoum ether, and
acetone. Those reagents are available at most drug
stores and give satisfactory results. The use of ether
gives a more delicate test for soluble hydrocarbons than
chlorothene or acetone, however, the ether being used
should be tested constantly, for the least presence of any
hydrocarbon product will contaminate the solvent and
render it useless. Chlorothene is recommended for
general use although it too may become contaminated
after a long period of time. Acetone is a good solvent for
heavy hydrocarbons but is not recommended for routine
oil detection.

70
CAUTION: Proper ventilation is important when using
petroleoum ether as it may have toxic effect in a
confined space. In addition, petroleum ether and acetone
are very inflammable and must be kept away from open
flames. Carbon tetrachloride is a cumulative position
and should not be used for any type of hydrocarbon
detection.

To test cutting or cores, a few pieces of samples should

be placed in a clean white porcelain evaporating dish or
spot plate and covered with reagent. The sample should
be thoroughly dried at low temperature before applying
the reagent, to obtain the best results.

The hydrocarbon extracted by the reagent is called a

“cut”. It is observed under normal white light should be
described on the basis of the shade of the coloration,
which will range from dark brown to no visible tint. A
faint “residual cut” is sometimes discernible only as an
amber-colored ring left on the dish after complete
evaporation of the reagent.

A very faint cut will leave a very faint ring, and a

negative cut will leave no visible color. The shade of the
cut depends upon the gravity of the crude, the lightest
crudes giving the palest cuts, therefore, the relative
darkness should not be taken as an indication of the
amount of hydrocarbon present. A complete range of cut
colors varies from colorless, pale straw, dark straw, light
amber, amber, very dark brown to dark brown opaque.

71
An alternate method involves picking out a number of
fragments and dropping them into a clear one-or two-
ounce bottle. Petroleum ether, chlorothene, or acetone is
poured in until the bottle is about half full. It is then
stoppered and shaken. Any oil present in the sample is
thus light, it may be necessary to hold the bottle against
a white background to detect it. If there is only a slight
cut, it may come to rest as a colored cap or meniscus on
the top surface of the solvent.

The most reliable test for hydrocarbons is the “cut

fluorescence” or “wet cut” test. In this test the effect of
the reagent on the sample is observed under ultraviolet
light, along with a sample of the pure solvent as control.
The sample should be thoroughly dried before applying
the reagent. If hydrocarbons are present “streamers”
will be emitted from the sample and the test is evaluated
by the intensity and color of these streamer.

Some shows will not give a noticeable streaming effect

but will leave a fluorescent ring or residue in the dish
after the reagent has evaporated. This is termed a
“residual cut fluorescence”.

It is recommended that the “cut fluorescence” test be

made on all intervals in which there is even the slighest
suspicion of the presence of hydrocarbons. Samples that
may not give a positive cut or will not fluoresce may give
a positive “cut fluorescence”. This is commonly true of

72
the high gravity hydrocarbons which may give a bright
yellow cut fluorescence,” Distillates show little or no
fluorescence or cut but commonly give positive “cut
fluorescence”, although numerous extractions may be
required before it is apparent. Generally low gravity oils
will not fluorescence but will cut a very dark brown and
their “cut fluorescence” may range from milky white to
dark orange.

Reaction in Acid of Oil – Bearing Rock Fragment.

Dilute HCl may be used to detect oil show in
cuttings, and the wellsite geologist should be alert for
this indication when checking samples for effervescence.
This is effected by immersing selected cuttings of the
rock to be tested in dilute HCl. If oil is present in the
rock, surface tension will cause large bubbles to form,
either from air in the pore spaces or from CO2 generated
by the reaction of the acid with carbonate cement or
matrix.
In the case of calcareous rock, the reaction forms lasting
iridescent bubbles large enough to raise the rock
fragment off the bottom of the container in which the
acid is held, and sometimes even large enough to carry
the fragment to the surface of the acid before the bubbles
break and the fragment sinks, only to be buoyed up again
by new bubbles. The resulting bobbing effect is quite
diagnostic. The bubbles which form on the surface of a
cutting fragment of similar size which contains no oil do
not become large enough to float the fragment before
they break away, and the fragment, therefore , remains

73
on the bottom. In the case of oil-bearing non calcareous
sandstone, large lasting bubbles form on the surface but
may not float the fragment. The large bubbles result from
the surface tension caused by the oil in the sample,
which tends to form a tougher and more elastic bubble
wall.
It should be pointed out this test is very sensitive to the
slightest amount of hydrocarbons, even such as found in
carbonaceous shale; therefore, it is well to discount the
importance of a positive test unless the bobbing effect is
clearly evident or lasting iridescent bubbles are
observed. The test is very useful, however, as a simple
and oil-acid reaction alerts the observer to intervals
worthy of more exhaustive testing.

Wettability
Failure of samples to set, or their tendency to
float on water when immersed, is often an indication of
the presence of oil. Under the microscope, a light-
colored stain which cannot be definitely identified as an
oil stain may be tested by letting one or two drops of
water fall on the surface of the stained rock fragment. In
the presence of oil, the water will not soak into the
cutting or flow off its surface, but will stand on it or roll
off it as spherical beads. Dry spots may appear on the
sample when water is poured off.

Iridescence

74
 Iridescence may be associated with oil of any
color or gravity, but it is more likely to be observable
and significant for the lighter, more nearly colorless, oils
where oil staining may be absent. Iridescence may be
observed in the wet sample tray. Iridescence without oil
coloration or staining may indicate the presence of light
oil or condensate.

Flow Checks.
A useful practice is to request the Driller to
“Flow check” a drilling break. This only takes about ten
minutes and involves shutting down the mud pumps to
allow any fluid entering the bore hole from the formation
to displace an equal amount of mud into the mud pit.
Such again of mud is usually justification for circulating
bottoms up to determine if hydrocarbon show has been
encountered. This quick method of checking for a
significant formation flow is often employed when:

1) Encountering a fast drilling break after drilling a

long impermeable.
2) Encountering a fast drilling break after several
previous similar breaks had only weak hydrocarbons
show
3) Encountering a fast drilling break as a zone of interest
is being approached.
4) Encountering any other shows or drilling breaks not
deemed worthwhile to circulate up.
5) Encountering a fast drilling break in a possible
abnormally pressure formation.

75
Acetone-Water Test.
If the presence of oil or condensate is suspected,
and provided no carbonaceous or lignitic mater is
present in the rock sample, the acetone-water test may be
tried. The rock is powdered and placed in a test tube and
acetone is added. After shaking it vigorously it is filtered
into another test tube and an excess of water is added.
When hydrocarbons are present, they form a milky white
dispersion, inasmuch as they are insoluble in water,
whereas acetone and water are completely miscible.

Hot-water test.
Place 500 cc of fresh, unwashed cuttings in a tin
or beaker which has a capacity of 1,000 cc. Pour in hot
water with a temperature of at least 170 degree F. (77
degree C) until it covers the sample to a depth of 1 cm.
Observe the oil film thus formed under ultraviolet light
and record the amount of oil released using the scale as
illustrated:

76
Pyrolysis Test.
When well samples of kerogen-rich rock are
pyrolyzed in a thick walled test tube placed over a
propane torch, oily material may be generated and
condensed as a brown residue around the walls of the
tube. This simple technique may be used to identify
source rocks capable of generating liquid oil. However,
the pyrolysis technique cannot distinguish between oil
source rocks and those sediments rich in humic matter
( carbonaceous shales and coals) which are considered
to be dominantly source for gas. This test is also not
responsive to post mature source rocks. The artificial
test-tube generating process is believed to be similar to
that associated with natural time-temperature dependent
processes accompanying rock burial in depositional
basins. Hydrocarbons in organic rich sediment may be
determined semi-quantitatively with Turner fluorometer.
One hundred milligrams of rock is pyrolyzed as above
and the resulting condensation is diluted with 3
millimeters of chlorothene. The florescence of the
solution thus produced is recorded in fluorometer units.

Solid Hydrocarbon and Dead oil.

77
 There has been much inconsistency about the
usage and meanings of these two terms. They are not
synonymous.

Solid hydrocarbon refers to hydrocarbons that are in a

solid state at surface conditions, usually brittle, and
often shiny and glossy in appearance. There are a wide
variety of substances called solid hydrocarbons with
variable chemical and physical properties. The most
significant of these variations is that of maturity. Some
solid hydrocarbons, like gilsonite, are immature or
barely mature oils, while others like anthraxolite
represent the carbonaceous residue left after
hydrocarbons have been overheated and thermally
cracked. Anthraxolite is considered a “thermally dead
oil”. Gilsonite, on other hand, is certainly not a dead oil.
It is a substance from which high-quality gasoline,
industrial fuel oils and endless list of other products are
produced.

The term" dead oil" has been used indiscriminately in

the industry to describe oils that are either (1) solid, (2)
non producible or (3) immobile. All of these definitions
are deceptive and misleading. Some solid hydrocarbons
are not dead oil. Many so called “non-producible oils"
are now productive because of improved recovery
technology, and there are numbers examples of
“immobile oil” at surface conditions that are fluid and
mobile at depth.

78
Other factors that have been used to distinguish them are
extremely variable and have lacked general agreement
by industry. For examples, whether or not positives
indications of fluorescence, residual cut, and/or cut
fluorescence are considered requirements or whether the
physical state of the oil is solid or tarry.

In view of the above it is recommended that usage of the

term “dead oil” be applied only to thermally dead solid
hydrocarbons that will not cut, fluoresce, or give a cut
fluorescence. Whenever the term is used, qualifying data
should be listed.

Generalizations.
No “rules or thumb” can be used to relate the
evidences of the presence of hydrocarbons to potential
production. However , there are some generalizations
that are worth noting.

1). Lack of visible stain is not conclusive proof of the

absence of hydrocarbons. (Gas, distillates and high
gravity oils ordinarily will have no visible stain.)

2). Lack of fluorescence is not conclusive proof of the

absence of hydrocarbons.
3).Bona fide hydrocarbon shows will usually give
positive cut fluorescence (wet cut). High gravity
hydrocarbons will often give a positive cut
fluorescence and/or a residual cut, but will give

79
negative results with all other hydrocarbon detection
methods. (Minerals which fluoresce will not yield a cut.)
4).The oil acid reaction test will give positive results
when oil is present, but is very sensitive and may give
positive results in the present, but it is very sensitive and
may give positive results in the presence of
insignificant amounts of hydrocarbons.

Evaluation and Description of shows

There are many factors which have to be taken
into consideration when evaluating an oil show in the
ditch samples. A description of hydrocarbon shows
should include:

a. Percent of sample stained, color of staining, and state

of hydrocarbon such as live oil stain (LOS) or dead oil
stain (DOS), or gas.
b. Occurrence and color of cut obtained by leaching
hydrocarbons from samples with a cutting agent and
observed under normal white light. As this is usually a
stronger show than cut fluorescence, be sure to
distinguish between them.
c. Percent of sample fluorescing, color of fluorescence,
intensity of fluorescence and distribution of fluorescence.
( i.e., bright gold mottled fluorescence on 50 % of Ss.

Fluorescence Color base on Gravity (API) and crude

type (after Lynch.)

80
Gravity ( API) Color of fluorescence Crude type
< 15 brown heavy
crudes
15-25 orange (gold)
25-35 yellow to cream
35-45 white
> 45 blue-white to violet light crudes

d. Color, intensity, speed, and characteristic of cut

fluorescence obtained by leaching hydrocarbons from
samples with a cutting agent and observed under
ultraviolet light.

Examples: flash cut fluorescence (an immediately and

short lived dispersal of fluorescence on oil into the
cutting agent; which will then fluorescence evenly),
streaming cut fluorescence (individual streams of
fluorescence on oil can be seen leaving the rock sample),
cloudy cut fluorescence (the fluorescence on the oil
leaves the rock sample and enters the cutting agent in
manner similar to an expanding cloud – usually slower
than flash cut), milky cut fluorescence (the shape of the
fluorescence on the oil leaving the sample and entering
the cutting agent is not discernable and is usually slower
– the cutting agent will fluorescence evenly and the
fluorescence will make it appear slightly opaque), crush
cut fluorescence (occurs only upon crushing sample in
the cutting agent –usually indicates lack of
permeability), bleeding gas (individual gas bubbles can
be seen leaving the rock sample, and will some times

81
cause the cutting agent to fluorescence evenly but
usually with pale, clear, blue to blue white fluorescence).

Factor Which Influence a show.

Rock properties.
The type and magnitude of the porosity and
permeability greatly influence the magnitude or amount
of any show. Highly porous and permeable rocks are
rapidly and often completely flushed by the mud filtrate
to there may be a large show in the mud stream, detected
by oil in the pits wile the cutting will have very little
residual oil and only slight show. Impermeable rocks
tend to retain their formation fluids throughout the
drilling process so there will be a small show in the mud
stream but comparatively larger show in the ditch
samples. Vuggy or fracture porosity has a very high
permeability coupled with a very simple pore geometry.
This type of rock may be flushed almost entirely of its
contained fluids the instant it is penetrate so that the
shows will be intervals.

Type of hydrocarbons
In general, heavy oil will be flushed less than
light oils or gas. The static reservoir condition will
govern the gas-in-mud and oil-in mud concentration.
Solution of large amounts of gas in oil will result in
shrinkage of oil diminishing the amount that will enter
the mud.
Dry gas and distillate are difficult to evaluate
because of the lack of oil in either the mud or the

82
cuttings. For these, a chromatographic analysis of the
mud gas is very useful. The oil reservoir is easier to
detect because the cuttings provide evidence.

Drilling rate.
The magnitude of the show in the drilling mud
will be directly proportional to the rate of penetration
because this rate governs the rate at which hydrocarbons
are added to the mud stream. A rapid penetration rate
also reduces the time the formation is subject to the
differential pressure which may exist between the mud
and formation fluids, thereby diminishing the flushing
effect.

Density and viscosity of the drilling fluid..

The greater the density or weight of the drilling
fluid, the greater will be the pressure differential existing
between the mud and the formation fluid pressure
resulting in increased flushing action. Jet drilling bits
also increase the flushing action.
If the mud is too light, there will be tendency for
the formation up the hole to bleed gas into the mud and
provide an undesirable back-ground of gas.
When the mud has a high viscosity the release of
the gas from the mud in inhibited. If the mud is not
degassed the gas detector will be showing a large
background reading which can reduce the magnitude of
any show due to saturation of the detector. If the gas in
the mud continues to build up the gas detector can be

83
continuously saturated and and thus not be able to log
any new formation shows.

Depth of the well

A deep well is usually associated with
high pressure differentials and slow drilling rates, both
of which will reduce the magnitude of any shows. In deep
wells the hole size is usually smaller so that less rock is
pulverized per foot of penetration. Circulation times
are longer resulting in greater chances for mixing and
dilution of the cuttings. All of these tend to reduce the
magnitude of the show in these holes, but are partially
offset by the pressures usually being higher.

Miscellaneously Drilling condition.

Occasionally the geologist will encounter an
anomalous show, i.e., one that just does not seem valid.
For gas show, suspect the addition of some chemicals or
diesel oil to the mud. Some additives used in the mud
may cause the mud to foam. Occasionally, the driller will
put a drill pipe float valve in the drill string to prevent
plugged bits in a badly caving hole. This means the drill
pipe will be full of air before circulation is resumed on
trips. Seven or eight thousand feet of air associated with
the trip gas can make quite a blow and until the
geologist is aware of what happening, this can look like
a good gas show.
The liberal use of pipe dope can be confusing as
it is not always easy to distinguish this from heavy oil,
particularly when it gets inside a core barrel and is

84
 forced into the pores of the core. The geologist should
get a sample of all oil based lubricants used around the
rig and familiarize himself with their fluorescence and
viscosity.

Percent of the formation with a show. (cavings ignored)

Quality of the show

Little or no porosity Somevisible Good porosity

Little or no staining porosity Fair Good visible
Wk fluoresc ence visible staining staining Bright
Cut fluorescence Fair fluorescence fluorescence
only after crushing Slow streaming Good streaming
cut fluorescence cut fluorescence

Per pieces to 10% Trace (1) Poor (1) Poor – Fair (2)

10% to 25% Poor (1) Fair (2) Fair to Good

(3)

25% to 50% Fair (2) Fair (2) Good –

Excellent (3)

Greater than 50% Good (3) Excellent (3) Excellent (3)

 Legend: Quality of show.

85
 1. Probably safe not to test in open hole, but keep in
mind for careful wire line log evaluation.
2. Probably should be tested in open hole unless
similar shows were tested uphole with negative
results; requires wireline evaluation regardless of
test results.
3. Definitely should be tested in open hole. A short
core (10 -30 ft) may be taken if timing permits
before testing. Consider coring if test recover
hydrocarbons and no water. Definitely must be
evaluated with wire line log.

Wellsite Geologist
(Lithologic log preparation)

The lithologic log is interpretative log of a well available

prior to running Electric-log. It shows the wellsite
geologist’s best interpretation of the lithologic sequence
penetrated by the well based on all information available
at that time. It should be made concurrent with drilling
and must e kept up to date. The morning report will be
based on this log.
Lithologic log should not be change after E-log,
core, side wall coreor others are run. Any different
between them, could be explained on the log. So previous
or original interpretations should be left on the log. This
is valuable information to the wellsite geologist on next
wells in the area. The lithologic log should show at once
glance, lithology, shows and drilling data. A clear
presentation of the rate-of-penetration, gas curves and

86
lithology column are essential. Since it is interpretative
log, lithologic units, not individual samples should
appear in the lithology column and in the description
column.
The Final log of the well is the final
interpretation of the lithology which uses in addition all
data-information's i.e., E-logs, cores sidewall cores and
all other available information.

The preparation of the lithologic log.

1) Log base.
Old time lithologic log was drawn with drafting
ink on a mylar film with prepared scale 1:1000 or 1:500.
Since the computer program now was provided from the
main company, the log base is available in provided
computer.
2) Heading.
The standard Lithologic log heading provides the
general information, about the well, the chart of
symbols, and the headings for different columns of the
log.
3) Drilling rate curve.
The drilling rate is the first information available
from a drilling well. It gives the first indication of what
lithology is being drilled and in may cases serves to
determine tops for the interpretive litholog. This curve
should be plotted before examining the samples or
recording any other data.

87
 The drilling rate will be plotted and the scale has
to be marked at the top, and all scale changes have to be
marked where they occur. To day by using computer
program drilling rate can be transfer from mud logging
syste
4) Gas curve.
Gas reading in continues “total gas" curve with
the values, in ppm (part permillion), or percent with a
scale chosen and noted by the wellsite geologist. Scale
changes should be marked where they occur. Any gas
shows that are not believed to be valid (trip gas,
connection gas, diesel in mud) should have appropriate
notations. It is helpful to write the numerical percent or
ppm of the maximum gas reading on significant gas
curve peaks, particular, particularly when they are off-
scale.
5) Lithology Information.
Wellsite geologist’s best interpretation of
lithology of the section penetrated by the well will be
plotted. The symbols used should correspond to the ones
in the heading. Intervals without samples will be noted
by cross of diagonal lines across the interval.
Litologic description, in the remarks column, a
description of the lithologic units should be given, not a
sample by sample description. The most important thing
is to describe what is seen in a systematic and
meaningful manner, and to detect hydrocarbons.
6) Additional Information.
The casing shoe will be indicated, and casing
diameter with depth will be marked. Bit changes should

88
be recorded include bit number, size, and type.
Directional survey should only be marked if considerable
changes in hole deviation occur which appear to have a
geological meaning. Cores, Tests, Sidewall core, Mud
data, Lost circulation, any significant changes Weight on
bit, RPM, Fishes left in hole should be marked and
indicate on the log.

COMMON ABBREVIATION. (some examples)

@ At bcm Become
abnt Abundant bd Bed
abv Above bdd Bedded
acic Acicular bdg Bedding
aft After Belm Belemnites
agg Aggregate bent Bentonite
aglm Agglomerat bf Buff
alg e biocl Bioclastic
alt Algae biot Biotite
amb Altered bit Bitumen
amor Amber bl Blue
amph Amorphous bldr Boulder
amt Amphipora blk Black
A Amount blky Blocky
anhed Angular bnd Band
anhy Anheudral Bracb Brachiopo
app Anhydrite Brec d
apr Appear bri Breccia
apox Apparent britt bright

89
arag Approximat brn Brittle
aren e Bry Brown
arg Aragonite btry Bryozoa
argl Arenaceous Botryoidal
ark Argillaceous C
asph Argillite
Arkose
B Asphalt
bar

Barite

WELLSITE GEOLOGIST
(Mud logging)

Introduction.
 The primary purpose of mudlogging unit to
detecting oil and gas shows while drilling,
catching and processing samples.
 The final responsibility of detecting shows and
collecting and examining samples belongs to the
wellsite geologist.
 Wellsite geologist must supervise the mud logging
operation and responsible for its satisfactory
performance.
 The Exploration Department usually selects the
mudlogging company to be used, prepares the
contract with them and subsequently signs their

90
 service reports certifying that the work has been
performed.
 If any changes in the mudlogging operation are
required they can usually be accomplished
through the crew chief or by contacting the
mudlogging company office.
 The wellsite geologist is responsible for
furnishing the instructions and information,
prognosis, shipping addresses, etc. needed by the
mudlogging unit.
 Wellsite Geologist should requested and arrange
transportation of the mudlogs, the samples as
specified in the “Recommended Drilling
Program”.
 Close cooperation with drilling personnel will
always benefit a both the rig operation and the
mudlogging operation.
 Lithologic information affecting bit selection,
mud properties and hole conditions should be
discussed wit Drilling Supervisor.
 The mudlogging unit also provides a significant
safety function for the rig and personnel by the
early dection of hydrocarbons, H2S,etc.
 Other information critical to the prudent
operation of the rig such as mud pit level and
volume, pump pressure, torque, mud temperature,
rate of penetration, and sometimes shale density,
etc., are also monitored and repotted by the
mudloggers

91
 Note:
– 1). Instruct that the “Total gas" and
chromatograph readings be reported in
ppm or percent (%), not “units”. Be
aware that all gas readings are the ratio
of gas to air from gas trap, not to the
mud, although there is a relationship to
the mud. The wellsite geologist must make
sure that the loggers check the gas trap
periodically to ensure that it is not
plugged and that the gas and air mixture
are pumped into the gas detector at a
constant flow rate.

– 2). The magnitude of gas shows are

affected by rate of penetration,
differential pressure, hole size, porosity,
permeability, saturation, mud flow rate,
depth, and chemical and physical
properties of the mud. A faster drill rate
will result in a larger show because it
enters the mud faster and is less diluted
by the constant rate mud flow. Over-
balanced mud weight creates greater
differential pressure on the formation
being drilled and will result in a smaller
show because of flushing porous zones
ahead of te bit and inhibiting entry into
the bore hole.

92
Limitation of Mudlogging

Mudlogging does not present a complete subsurface

picture. It does not give quantitative determinations of
the amount of oil and gas occurring in the formation, nor
does it furnish information on the productivity of oil and
gas horizons. A quantitative estimate is preventing by the
numerous factors which affect the concentration of oil
and gas in the mud and the cuttings. Some of these
factors are the ratio of the of the volume of formation
drilled to the volume of mud used to drill it; the flushing
action of the drilling fluid which in itself is affected by
the mud filtration characteristic, drilling rate, speed of
rotation of the bit, differential pressure and effective
porosity and permeability; and the amount of oil and gas
which is re-circulated, which depends on the viscosity
and gel properties of the drilling mud. However , the
method does give reliable qualitative information on the
occurrence of oil and gas and the interpretation of thr
log should be made in the light of all available
information on that section.

Mudlogging is valuable because it detects hydrocarbon

show almost as soon as they are drilled and because it
decreases the possibility that a productive zone will be
missed. Also, the data gathered by the mudlogging unit
will be the only data available if the hole is lost prior to
coring, open hole testing or running wireline logs.

93
Continuous total gas detector.

The hydrocarbon of the return mud flow stream is of

primary importance in mud logging. To obtain this
information, a mud-gas separator (“gas trap”) is placed
in the return mud stream as close to the exit of the mud
from the flow line as practical consideration will allow.
This separator, using a vortex action, liberates gas which
may be entrained in the mud stream.

From the separator the gas-air mixture is drawn into the

gas detector inside the logging unit through a tubing and
pump system. A constant flow rate is very important so
that change in gas concentration is a true reflection of
change in volume of gas being liberated from the mud,
not a change in gas-air ratio cause by an alteration in
the total flow. As the gas-air mixture passes through the
detector, the gas concentration can be sensed by several
methods. The most common detector is a catalytic
combustion filament device. This detector uses a
platinum wire filament heated by electrical circuit. As the
gas-air mixture passes over the filament, contact with the
hot platinum causes the hydrocarbons to ignite and burn.
These burning increase the temperature of the filament,
which increases its electrical resistance and unbalances
the whetstone bridge and this, is sensed and scaled by
appropriate electronic circuitry and recorded on a strip
chart recorder.

94
The greatest limitation of the catalytic combustion
detector is the necessity that the gas-air mixture be in the
combustible range (approximately 0-12 % gas in air).
Ratios above this range give erratic response and will
finally produce a negative response as the ratio
continues to rise. In order to be able to measure gas
concentrations beyond the range of the catalytic
combustion filament, a detector called a thermal
conductivity filament is used. The electronic circuitry for
this detector is very similar to catalytic combustion type.

The response of this filament, which is also a resistance

wire heated by an electrical current, is based on the fact
that different gases have different thermal conductivity
coefficient. Using air as a standard, an air-gas mixture
will conduct heat away from the filament faster, thus
lowering its temperature and lowering its electrical
resistance. However this detector should only be used
when high concentrations exceed the range of the
combustion type filament.

The newest and most versatile detector is the flame

ionization detector (FID). This device passes the sample
through a hydrogen flame which has a high electrical
potential applied between the flame tip and an anode
placed just above the flame. Organic compounds
(hydrocarbons) are burned in the flame and negative
ions and electrons are generated and collected on the
anode, thus producing an electrical current proportional
to amount of material burned.

95
This current is electronically amplified and recorded on
a strip chard recorder. The FID is insensitive to water
vapor and inert gas, but also has high sensitivity and a
broad response range to hydrocarbons, making it ideal
for this application

The chromatograph

A chromatograph is more sophisticated from of gas

detector which has the ability to take a sample stream of
mixed components, introduce this stream into a
specialized column which separates these components,
and then detect and record each component individually.
The chromatograph is not a continues detector in that a
sample of specific size is captured from the sample
stream and introduce into the column. The analysis
cycle of separation, detection, and back flushing to clean
the column must then be completed before the next
sample is selected. Cycle times are typically six minutes
for separation through pentane with a catalytic
combustion type chromatograph and three minutes for
separations through hexane with the new flame
ionization chromatograph.

The filament detector chromatograph uses the catalytic

combustion type filament and has good sensitivity
(minimum ten parts per million) and very broad range.

96
 The newer type chromatograph uses the flame
ionization principle and has high sensitivity (minimum
ten parts per million) and very broad range.
The advantages of using a chromatograph in conjunction
with the continues detector is in its ability to separate
and identify individual components in the composite gas
stream.

Knowledge of the ratio of these components

assists the logger in his evaluation of a show in a gas or
oil bearing formation.

All gas detectors are routinely calibrated with

standard gasses of known composition and known
percentages values.

97
98
99
100
101
Gas curve.

The amount of gas that enters the mud as it passes the

system is recorded on a strip chart against time in the
unit, to be converted to a curve against depth by use of
the lag.
The recorded amount of gas passes through several
processes before being detected.
Gas may enter the well through two primary
mechanisms.

First it may be in the pore spaces of drilled up rock – this

gas is liberated from the rock by the bit and is known as
“liberated gas”.

Second, it may be pushed into the well bore by the “pore

pressure” – this would be “produced gas” and may
come from any depth, in contrast to liberated gas which
may only come from the bit face.
Wells are normally drilled with a certain amount of
differential pressure – the “hydrostatic pressure” of the
mud column will exceed the “pore pressure”.
Add to this “the annular pressure” drop to get the
equivalent circulating density and the pressure against
the formation caused by the impact force and we see that
there is a considerable force above the pore pressure
exerted on the rock ahead of the bit.
This forces drives mud and mud filtrate into the rock
ahead of the bit flushing the rock of any fluid that may be
present.

102
Core analysis data indicates that 90% - 95% of
the formation fluid is flushed away

103
The flow rate also affects the concentration of gas in the
mud, but as the flow rate is usually held constant
through long sections of the well, this effect serves to
raise or lower the gas readings only for a given run.

104
105
The depth is the sixth factor – gas shows should
increase in size with depth because of the increased
expansion that occurs.

The feature commonly referred to as background gas

originates from two sources :

First, it is produced gas from up the hole. Many shales

are drilled under balanced, permitting small quantities
of gas to bleed into the well bore from these low porosity
low permeability formations.

The second source is recycled gas.

Not all the gas is picked up the mud is removed by the

surface equipment – some will be recycled through the
hole. It may be distributed through the entire mud
volume and be seen as a constant reading-background.
Or, it may be in varying curves on gas detector at lower
level. If this is so then the recycle peak should occur at
delay equal to the time required for a complete
circulation of the system. Recycle gas tends to the less
volatile, heavy components of the hydrocarbons series.

Gas that is not strictly produced can also be seen. This is

gas that is retained in the cuttings after they have been
removed from the rock face and, due to expansion,
separates itself from the cuttings at some depth up hole.
If there is separation between the gas and cuttings lag

106
then this effect can cause gas shows to spread out after
the gas lag giving an exaggerated importance to the
show.

The mud composition can interfere with the gas response

by holding certain portions of the gas in solution,
affecting either the volume of gas released and/or the
nature of the gas released.
In water based mud's the amount of gas that is
released is inversely proportional to the available water.
So as the mud weight or salinity increases so the ability
of the mud to dissolved gas decreases and the quantity of
gas released increases.

In oil based mud's the solvent for gas is the oil phase,
which as a much higher dissolution capacity than water
so gas shows will be lower. The oil also has a greater
affinity for the heavier hydrocarbons than the lighter to
the extent that the “heavies” may not be seen at the
surface.

Connection and trip gas.

The procedure for making a connection usually involves

the shutting down of the pumps and the moving of drill
string upwards. If the string is moved upward with the
pumps off the effect is not just to reduce the pressure of
the mud column by the amount of pump pressure
required to circulate it; allowing it to exert only
hydrostatic pressure, but actually to cause a reduction in

107
bottom hole pressure below hydrostatic for that mud
column. (swabbing)

During a connection it is possible for gas to collect in

the bell nipple and flow line where the mud is stationary
and releasing gas. This can be circulated past the trap
on resumption of circulation and cause a “top
connection gas" response. This will depend upon the
nature of the mud, the presence of gas in the mud and
particular configuration of the rig components.

A trip may be considered a long connection, repeated

lifting of the drill string at higher velocities increasing
the swabbing effect. During the trip, the mud, of low gas
concentration, will be adjacent to formation of high gas
concentration. The effect will be greatest at the bottom of
the hole where the formation have been subjected to
flushing for less time than those up the hole so that the
uninvaded zone will be closer to the well bore

Fluorescence - the ultra violet light.

One of the most important instruments in in mudlogging

unit is the ultra violet light. Every sample must be
examined for fluorescence immediately after being
screened and washed to remove mud contamination.
Fluorescence resulting from gas or light hydrocarbons
may not be retained in the samples if significant times
elapses between when the samples are caught and when
they are examine.

108
The samples should be examined a second time after
drying by infra red or other type heater. Fluorescence
resulting from hydrocarbon ay be hidden from view
within samples of rocks having low permeability and the
heat used to dry the sample can cause the hydrocarbons
to migrate to the surface where they will fluorescence or
have cut fluorescence.

Cutting gas detector.

Residual hydrocarbons in dril cuttings can be detected in

the logging unit. A quantity of cuttings is placed in a
blender and water is added to make slurry. The blender
is then run until the cuttings are completely pulverized I
order to liberate any hydrocarbons that may have been
retain within the cuttings porosity. The hydrocarbons are
trapped by the lid sealing the top of the blender.

A circulating pump is then started to circulate te

resulting gas-air mixture through the gas detector for
evaluation. Cuttings gas determinations must be run
immediately after arrival of the cuttings at surface as
prolonged exposure will allow any residual light
hydrocarbons to escape. This exposure will nullify the
effectiveness of the cuttings gas test.

Calcimetry

Another sample evaluation technique that is available is

calcimetry.

109
 This test is run on carbonate samples to
determine the ratio of limestone dolomite, and insoluble.
To make these measurements, a sample of the
formation is ground to consistency of powder, weight and
placed in a sealed chamber. A constant amount of acid is
introduced into the changer where it reacts with the
carbonate components in the sample.
The reaction produces carbon dioxide gas which raises
the pressure inside the sample chamber. A sensitive
pressure transducer monitors this pressure build up and
produces an electrical signal proportional to the carbon
dioxide pressure. This signal is record on a strip chart
recorder and the resulting curve is interpreted to give the
limestone, dolomite insoluble ratios.

Pit level.

The volume changes in the circulating fluid at the

surface are recorded at the same time they occur in the
hole.

The changes that occur are not all responses to events at

the bit. The mud and/or the derrick man will be adding
or removing mud at the surface. Losses will occur at the
shale-shaker, desander and desilter, and at any leak in
the surface system. These can be identified by examining
the various components of the flow system. Mud may be
removed from the system or the pits cleaned, either will
have the same effect.

110
Changes will occur with specific rig operations – most
rigs will appear to have an increase in volume at each
connection – caused by the flow of the mud through the
surface system due to gravity (out of the flow line) or by
the desander and destiler pumps. There will be an equal
drop in volume as circulation is resumed.

Changes will occur with specific rig operations – most

rigs will appear to have an increase in volume at each
connection – caused by the flow of the mud through the
surface system due to gravity (out of the flow line) or by
the desander and destiler pumps. There will be an equal
drop in volume as circulation is resumed.
Normally, chemicals and water will be added
continuously to the mud to maintained the surface
volume as drilling proceeds – to replace the mud that is
filling the ever increasing hole volume.

Once these effects have been identified and discounted,

then any other changes in volume must be caused by
events in the hole – usually at the bit depth.
The two primary events for which we are looking are the
ingress, or flow, of fluid into the well bore and the egress,
or loss, of fluid from the well bore.

If fluid is moving from the formation into the well bore,

then it will displace fluid from the annulus, causing an
increase in surface volume. This is known as flow and, if
severe, can cause the entire annulus to be filled with the
flowing liquid which will normally be lighter than the

111
mud. At this point, the well will be flowing or blowing –
an extremely dangerous condition. The reverse of this,
lost circulation (the loss of whole mud into a formation)
is also dangerous. In extreme, the annulus may be
emptied, permitting formation fluid to enter the well
bore, resulting in a possible flow or blow out.
These events are usually dramatic and associated with
the changes (or breaks) in the Rate of Penetration. They
may be verified by stopping circulation and watching the
mud level in the well bore. This is referred to as a flow
check, an on many rigs is routine occurrence on seeing a
drilling break.

Some changes in mud volume resulting from events at the

bit are not immediately apparent at the surface. These
effects are mainly due to the expansion of gas as it is
moved up the well bore: the pressure containing this gas
is steadily reduced and the gas increases in volume. The
curve describing the expansion versus depth is
exponential, most of the expansion occurring in the last
few hundred feet of the hole.

This expansion of gas will cause an increase in mud

volume at the surface, but the volume will return to
normal after the gas has been circulated out. This type of
volume change is often misunderstood because it is
associated with reduced mud weight as measured ar the
surface. The bottom hole pressure is seldom significantly
reduced, and is seldom dangerous.

112
The accuracy of this measurement becomes critical while
tripping, and a special tall slim tank – a trop tank – is
used so that a small volume change will show as a large
level change.

The job of monitoring the well does not stop with the
drilling, but continuous through all operations.
The occurrence of the volume change will be seen at
some time after the event of drilling u the gas and before
the lag time for the event has elapsed.

These are the changes that may occur while drilling –

volume changes will also occur while tripping. Most
blow- outs occur while tripping and could be spotted
during the trip before they become dangerous by careful
monitoring of the surface pit volume.

As the pipe is withdrawn from the hole, the level of the

mud will drop in the hole. The volume of mud required to
fill the hole at any time should equal the volume of metal
removed. If it takes less, then something else must have
entered the well bore – that most likely possibility is
formation fluid.

Lag time

The concept, calculation and practical application of the

lag is central in logging all the data that is transmitted
by the medium of the mud.

113
The mud actually carries the information that we require
from the bit depth to the surface – the time that the mud
takes to get from the bit to the surface is the basic
calculation made. The factors that affect the time or lag
of the mud are the flow rate of the mud and the size of
the hole.

The more mud that we pump into the hole the faster the
annular velocity – the speed of the mud in the annulus –
becomes. The faster the mud travels, the quicker it
reaches the surface.
The annulus size affects the time also – a large annular
volume will give a slower annular velocity at a given
flow rate than a small annular volume. The depth also
increase the annulus size so corrections to the lag have
to be made with increments of depth.

For a given annulus volume, the lag time in minutes can

easily be calculated as:
Annular Volume
Flow rate

It is normal to calculate lag in term of pump strokes as

the flow rate is not necessarily constant and the strokes
have to be counted to give the flow rate. The detail
calculations should be done by mud logger or engineer.

114
 WELLSITE GEOLOGIST
(Hydrocarbon production type evaluation)

The evaluation of the hydrocarbon production type can

be estimated by means :

1. The triangulation technique.

2. The B.O.Pixler ratio technique.

The show (s) evaluation (s) should be performed by both

techniques as a cross-check. The reliability of these
estimates of hydrocarbon production type varies
considerably, from fairly good in the Gulf Coast to
erratic in the North Sea.

1. The triangulation technique.

The “Gas Composition diagram" is used to graphically

represent the hydrocarbon distribution in the gas and to
determine whether it corresponds to gas or oil reservoir.
This consists of three axes at 120 degree to each other
corresponding to the ratios of C2 ,C3 and nC4 to the
total Methane equivalent, ∑C, calculated by the addition
of C1, C2,C3 and nC4. (∑C Total Methane equivalent
above background).

115
 Percent components from the show (s) must be
corrected above background percent components to
ensure an accurate plot of the graph.

Evaluation techniques:

a. Record the net increase of each ppm gas

component from the chromatograph over the
background gas.
b. To obtain the triangulation diagram, draw
three lines corresponding to the ratios parallel to the
corresponding axes on the blank gas composition
diagram that is attached.

Evaluation the plot within the following limits:

1). The scale are arranged in such a way that, if the apex
of the triangle is upward, the diagram represents the
analysis of gas from gas zone.
2). If the apex points downward, the diagram represents
the analysis of gas from an oil zone.
3). A large triangle represent dry gas or low gas/oil ratio
(GOR).
4). A small (or null at the limit) triangle represents wet
gas or high GOR oils

116
Chromatograph percent (corrected from background)
C1 = 6.5 %
C2 = 0.3 %
C3 = 0.1 %
nC4 = 0.02 %
∑C = 6.92 %
C2/ ∑C x 100= 4.3 %.
C3/ ∑C x 100= 1.44 %
nC4/ ∑C x100= 0.29 %
Large Δ, Apex ↑ - Gas zone

117
The triangulation technique. (continued)
Chromatograph percent (corrected from background)
C1 = 2.8 %
C2 = 0.44 %
C3 = 0.20 %
nC4 = 0.10 %
∑C = 3.54 %
C2/ ∑C x 100= 12.5 %.
C3/ ∑C x 100= 5.65 %
nC4/ ∑C x100= 2.83 %
Apex ↓- Oil zone

118
2.B.O.Pixler ratio technique.

The gas ratio technique is indicative of the gas, oil and

water production potential of a reservoir.
Percent components from the show (s) must be corrected
above background percent components to ensure an
accurate plot of the graph.

Evaluation technique:

119
a. Record the net increase of each ppm gas component
from the chromatograph Over the background gas.
b. Plot the ratios C1/C2, C1/C3,C1/C4, and C1/C5 on 3-
cycle from the attached sheet.

Evaluation the plot within the following limits:

1). A ratio C1/C2 between 2 and 15 indicates oil.

2). A ratio C1/C2 between 15 and 65 indicates gas.
3). The lower the C1/C2 ratio, the richer the gas or the
lower gravity.
4). If the ratio of C1/C2 is below about 2 or above 65 the
zone is non productive.
5). Positive line slopes indicate production; negative
slopes indicate water-bearing formation.
6). Unusually steep plots indicate tight zones.
7). Productive dry gas zones may show only C1, but
abnormally high shows of C1 only are usually
indicative of salt water.
8). If the C1/C2 ratio is low in the oil section and the
C1/C4 ratio is high in the gas section, the zone is
probably non-productive.
9). If any ratio (C1/C5 expected if oil is used in the mud)
is lower than preceding ratio, the zone is probably non
productive. i.e.: If C1/C4 is less than C1/C3, the
zone is probably water bearing.

120
 GAS ANALYSIS.
Example 1

FID ANALYSIS: ppm

C1 94,000, C2 53,000,
C3 15,000, C4 12,000,
C5 4,500

BACKGROUND GAS
BACKGROUND : ppm

121
C1 2,000, C2 1,000, C3 2,000,
C4 1,000, C5 500 .
NET :ppm
C1 938,000 C2 52,000, C3 13,000,
C4 11,000, C5 4,000
RATIOS ;
C1/C2 = 18.0 ; C1/C3 =72.2 ; C1/C4 = 83.5 C1/C5 =
235
CONCLUTION = GAS ZONE, TIGHT.

GAS ANALYSIS
Example-2
FID ANALYSIS : ppm
C1 812,000, C2 203.000, C3 67000,
C4 14,000, C5 3,000 ,
BACKGROUND : ppm
C1 51,000, C2 32,000, C3 16,000,
C4 - , C5 - ,
NET :ppm
C1 761,000, C2 171,000, C3 51,000,
C4 14,000 C5 3,000
RATIOS ;
C1/C2 = 4.5; C1/C3 =14.9 ; C1/C4 = 54.4 C1/C5 =
254 .

122
CONCLUTION = OIL ZONE, TIGHT.

123
124
 WELLSITE GEOLOGIST
(Abnormal Pressure)

Abnormal pressure have been found throughout the

world, in formations ranging in age from Pleistocene to
Middle Cambrian, at depths ranging from 1,000 to
20,000 feet, and in lithologies including sandstone,
shale, anhydrite, limestone, dolomite and salt.
In general, abnormal pressure occurs in basins
containing thick sections of shale which have released
water by diagenesis, where the water is unable to escape
as there must always be an impermeable seal above the
normal pressure zone for pressure entrapment.
Abnormal pressure zones can be predicted prior to
drilling from seismic velocities. The consequences of
drilling an abnormal pressure zone with insufficient
mud weight is frequently a lost hole due either to an
impermeable formation spalling (imploding) into the
bore hole and sticking the drill pipe, or t to a
blowout from fluids entering the borehole from a more
permeable formation.

The main indicators of “abnormal pressure” zone while

drilling are :
- Increases in - drill rate,
- flow line temperature,
- background gas,
- connection gas,
- trip gas
- chlorides in mud

125
 - size of cuttings ( “spoon shaped)
- volume of cutiing
- acoustic interval travel time.

Decreases in - shale bulk density

- corrected “d” exponent number
- mud weight
- acoustic interval travel time.

All indicators are monitored by the mud loggers and

wellsite geologist and are responses to geological and
mechanical conditions. Sonic, density and resistivity
logs can be used to confirm the presence of abnormal
pressure and to estimate the pressure gradient.
The formation fracture gradient, which can determine
casing points when heavy mud is used, can be estimated
from seismic velocity profile or gravity data.
The formation fracture gradient, which can determine
casing points when heavy mud is used, can be estimated
from seismic velocity profile or gravity data.
The Welsite geologist probably be the person at the
wellsite who is most familiar with the use, and
limitations, of this geological and geophysical data.
He should be alert for possible indications of abnormal
pressure zones and give the drilling personnel all help
possible in predicting them and picking appropriate
casing points.

126
“DRILL ABNORMAL PRESSURE SAFELY” by L.J.
McClure is a good reverences to predicted the abnormal
pressure.

Geologic Principles of the Abnormal pressure.

A definition of abnormal and normal pressure.

Normal formation pressure is defined as being equal to
the hydrostatic pressure exerted by a column of water to
specific density and extending from the surface to the
depth of the formation.

Hydrostatic pressure is the unit weight times the vertical

height of the column of fluid. Size and shape of this fluid
column have no effect on hydrostatic pressure but it is
affected by concentration of dissolved solids in the fluid
column and different or varying temperature gradients.

The basin with salt water having for example a total

chloride content of 80,000 ppm (parts per million) has a
specific gravity of 1.086. the water exerts a pressure of
approximately .468 pound per square inch (psi) per foot
depth.

Therefore a column of this weight water at a depth of

10,000 ft exerts a pressure of 4,680 psi. The pressure of .
468 psi/ft. is the fluid pressure gradient (FPG) or that
weight salt water. An FPG that exceeds the calculated
hydrostatic pressure gradient is define as abnormal; if

127
the FPG is less than such a calculated hydrostatic
pressure it is said to be subnormal.

The normal FPG in most of the basins of the world is

about .442 psi/ft. which is equal to 8.5 ppg mud weight.
As practical rule we can generally consider that
normally-pressure formation will require 9.0 to 10.0
ppg mud weights to drill safely.

Abnormal pressure cannot exist without some kind of a

seal or permeability barrier, either vertical or
transverse. Such a seal can be any material or
combination of materials in the earth’s crust that will
prevent movement or escape of substantial values of
fluids.
A pressure seal can be physical, chemical, or a
combination of the two. Some of the vertical type seals
are massive salt beds, anhydrite, gypsum, marl,
chalk, dense limestone or dolomite, and low-porosity
non permeable siltstones or sandstones with
calcareous or siliceous cementation. Some
transverse or lateral seals are faults and salt-shale
diapirs.

----

128
 WELLSITE GEOLOGIST
(Electrical logging)
Introduction.
Wireline logging is one of the most important
operations performed during the drilling phase of any
well . Wireline logs shows a complete record of the
physical properties of the rocks and fluids through the
drill hole was made and was encountered. Much detail
and character of the section is determined that cannot be
determined by other logging methods.
Nowadays improvement of the wireline logging is known
as Logging While Drilling (LWD), determine and result
the same as the wireline logging method, however the
media is using the mud pressure or pulls of mud. This
operation either wireline logging or LWD be conducted
to assure as much success as is possible under existing
hole conditions. From now to next on both of the logging
will call Electric logging.

Logging logs provide data on:

1. Formation tops as correlation result.
2. Lithology information.
3. Qualitative evaluation of reservoir
4. Quantitative evaluation of reservoir parameters
and fluid content.
5. Direct data on hole size and indirect data on
condition of the hole
6. Structural information (Dip meter)
7. Velocity information
8. Density information

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Additional operation includes fluid sampling, formation
pressure, sidewall coring, and seismic check shot
surveys.

The geologist is in chart of the open hole logging

operation on both wildcat and development wells and is
responsible for obtaining the best possible logs for
correlation, qualitative, quantitative and engineering
use.
Electrical logging is performed on a Service Contract
basis now “first call –first served” with no equipment
reserved.
It is imperative that the wellsite geologist plan the
logging operation to reduce the total standby time and
rig time lost waitting on the logging unit.

If any standby time charges are incurred or if any rig

time is lost waiting for the logging tools, the fact should
be noted in the remarks section of the logging report with
all details.
Logging program.
The basic logging program should consist of some type
of :

 Resistivity log
 Porosity logs and
 Gammaray, and
 Spontaneous Potensial logs (in water based mud).

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The selection of logs to be run is determined from the
well Evaluation Program.
The type of resistivity log used is dependent on several
factors.
 When logging with fresh water based mud the
Dual Induction log/Spherical Focus log
(DIL/SFL) should be run.
 When logging time is at a premium due to hole
conditions or economics, the Induction Spherical
Focus/Sonic will provide both resistivity and
porosity from one logging run.
 When logging with salt water based mud,
especially in high resistivity formations or large
boreholes, the Dual Lateral log/Micro spherical
log (DLL/MSFL) should be run

The porosity logs should be a Formation Density

Compensate/Compensate Neutron log (FDC/CNL)
combination log for lithology, porosity and gas detection
and Sonic log for zones in which the FDC/CNL doesn’t
function well i.e., bad bore holes. The Litho Density Tool
(LDT) is an improved of the FDC and may be substituted
for it, where available. However, if run in heavy barite
muds, especially if the borehole is rough, the Pe curve of
the LTD log is questionable. The well Evaluation
Program will specify the other special purpose log to be
run, such as Dipmeter, log spaced sonic, micro-type logs

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(Electro-Magnetic Propagation tool if available), bore
hole geometry logs, spectral gamma ray tool, etc.

Guides and Procedures for Electric logging.

Preparation.
Prior to logging, the Wellsite Geologist will
furnish the logging engineer with the following:
a. Company, well name, well number, field name,
state or province, and country.
b. DF, GL, elevations.
c. Coordinates; latitude and longitude.
d. Density and viscosity mud, mud nature,
e. Fluid loss and pH of the .mud
e. Total depth and depth of last casing shoe.
f. ID and OD of bottom joint of casing.
g. A sample of mud, taken from the flowline
immediately before circulation is suspended.
h. Have mud engineer determine the mud
properties and provide a sample of the mud cake
and mud filtrate.
i. Rm, Rmc, and Rmf values should be measured
by the electric logging engineer.

Bottom hole temperature.

Three maximum reading thermometers should be
run on every sonde lowered into the borehole. If a zoned
is unable to reach bottom, the maximum temperature,
dept, and time should be recorded.

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Spontaneous Potential Curve.
The Spontaneous Potential curve should be
observed by the logging engineer while going into the
hole. The “sand line” should be adjusted toward the left
so that backup trace display will be reduced as much as
possible. Mostly a scale of 10 mill volts per division is
run, unless notified by wellsite geologist.

Induction logs
The induction log is the only resistivity
measurement that can be made in non-conductive mud. It
is the preferred resistivity log except when formation
resistivities are high and the mud is salty and borehole is
large. The common combination of induction logs are:
DIL/LL8/GR/SP/Caliper,
;DIL/SFL/GR/SP/Caliper, ;ISF/Sonic/GR/SP.
Not commonly, the DLL and DIL are both run in
important wildcats if the conditions for the use of either
are marginal. The GR, caliper and SP scales should be
set for area conditions.

Laterolog
The laterolog is a good resistivity log if formation
resistivities are high. And the mud is salty. The usual
combination is DLL/MSFL/GR/Caliper/SP. Both the DLL
and the DIL are sometimes run in important wildcats
when the conditions for the use of either are marginal
and the combination can provide additional data.

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Sonic logs
The sonic log is a good porosity log in a large
variety of situations. It can be run alone or combine with
the DIL or ISF. An integrated sonic log is valuable
geophysical data and should be obtained on all wildcats
and in field wells as interest requires. The travel time of
casing is a good log calibration check and should be
obtained by running the log up into un-bond casing at
the top of a run.

Density and Neutron Logs.

The density and neutron logs are excellent for
porosity, lithology, and fluid determination (gas versus
oil or water). The LDT tools also provide a measurement
of photoelectric absorption coefficient which helps in
lithology identification. Always specify the lithology type
(sandstone, limestone, or dolomite) to be used for
recording density and neutron porosities. These logs
should not run faster than 1800’/hour.
Microresistivity logs
Microresistivity logs are useful for mudcake
indication (microlog), Rxo determination and to obtain
and indication of permeability of permeability (used in
conjunction with deeper reading resistivity logs.

Spectral Gamma Ray logs

Spectral Gamma Ray logs an additional tool for
correlations, indicating special minerals and indicating
rock characteristic’s (fracturing). They should be run
slowly, no faster than 900’/hour.

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Dipmeter.
Dipmeters should be checked to ensure that the
initial calibrations are done and that a good digital tape
of the data is obtained. Field prints of the raw data
should be obtained and icluded with the other logging
runs

Tension curves
Tension curves should be shown on all logs,
specially in wells where bad hole conditions cause
logging problems.

Calliper logs.
Caliper logs should include a short strip inside
casing both while going into the hole and while pulling
out of hole.

Sidewall coring
The operation of sidewall coring, also call
sidewall sampling, is an important supplement to ditch
sample examination and interpretation of wireline
logs/electrical logs. This tool provides fairly accurate
sampling of any particular formation from specified
depths which the geologist may wish to reevaluate on the
basis of his lithology log or the character of electrical
logs. The primary use is to evaluate hydrocarbon shows
actually seen in the ditch cuttings, recorded by wellsite
geologist or interpreted from electrical logs. Zones of

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interest where no conventional cores were taken, or
recovered, or zones without sample returns may be thus
checked. Ambiguous litholologies may be taken for paleo
or source bed analysis. The sidewall sampling is carried
out by means of a sampling gun containing hollow
cylindrical bullets which are shot into the formation and
retrieved by wires. The gun is run into the hole on a
wireline logging and the individual bullets are fired
electrically. A small diameter (4-3/8”) gun carries 24
bullet and a larger diameter gun (5-1/4”) carries 30
bullets. Positioning is done by both electrical
logging/wireline depth readings and Spontaneous
Potential or GR readings Bullet are fired in sequence
beginning with the bottom of the gun upwards. Each
bullet hangs downward after it is fired and pulled out of
the formation and thus does not interfere with the next
shot. Bullets have several different designs for use in
hard, medium, or soft formations. Recovery is related to
bullet design so if possible the geologist must give the
logging engineer some idea as to the expected hardness
of formation, before the logging unit leaves its base
camp. If hole temperature greater than 280° F are
anticipated, the logging company should be notified in
advance so they can load the guns accordingly. After
sidewall cores are shot and presented to the geologist in
glass jars, with the depth recorded, he will examine them
under the microscope and UV light, being careful to note
the odor immediately as each jar is opened. The samples
are described and description recorded in sample
description form. Sidewall core can be analyzed for

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porosity, permeability and fluid saturations, so
recoveries having suspected oil or gas show should not
be completely destroyed during the process of
description.

Due to the percussion the core is subjected to and the

shallow penetration of only 1” to 2” beyond the well
bore, such sidewall core analysis is generally not
accurate but may be of considerable value in some
instances.

Rotary Sidewall coring

Due to the percussion the sidewall core analysis
is generally not accurate, later “Rotary Sidewall coring
was introduced to used instead of percussion gun fired
Sidewall core.

The principal of the rotary sidewall coring system is the

same as conventional coring. It use small coring bit, and
the system will cut the formation on the wall of bore
hole, however samples size diameter, the target and the
depth samples same as percussion sidewall core.

As Sidewall core tool the Rotary Sidewall core is also

running in the hole use electrical wireline. Since no
pressure to the rock formation, the samples of Rotary
Sidewall core analysis should be considered more
accurate than percussion Sidewall core samples.

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Formation Fluid Sampling.
Samples of formation fluid and accurate
formation pressure from any open section in the hole can
be obtained by wireline means after a well is drilled and
logged. This can be done by one or two different types of
tools, the “Repeat Formation Tester” (RFT) or the
“Formation Interval Tester” (FIT). The former tools is
open hole, the latter can also be used in cased hole as it
perforates, tests, and cements during a single operation.
These testers have fluid sampling capabilities, and
although formation pressures can be taken at ultimated
of points, only 1 or 2 fluid samples can be taken per run.
The decision to test a zone should be based on all
available lithologic information, mudlogs and electrical
logs. These tests are usually run in zones having
hydrocarbon shows in sidewall cores, mudlogs/lithology
logs or on the electrical logs. If a valid pressure is not
recorded in 5 to 15 minutes, it is usually better to try
another adjacent point rather than wait longer for a
possible pressure recording.

The MDT electrical logs is the improvement of the two

tools (RFT and FIT ).

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Coring

Introduction.
Conventional cores are taken primarily for
reservoir parameter and fluid content determination. The
reservoir parameter information is often used to
calibrate the electric logs. On wildcats wells the wellsite
geologist has the responsibility of determining when to
core, within the limitations of hole conditions and
practicability. It is also fairly common to cut a
“terminal” core at total depth on rank wildcats for age
dating, degree of maturation, source rock information,
gravity control, establishment of “economic basement”,
etc.
Upon your arrival at the wellsite, always check with
drilling supervisor that the appropriator core bit and
barrel will be available when you need them. At remote
locations and rank wildcats this usually means having
them at wellsite when you arrive.

Core handling.
The core will be examined by many other people,
and portions will be removed and sent to core
laboratories, research laboratories, paleo and
geochemical labs, government bureaus, partners, etc.
Always draw any arrows on the core or core box
pointing UP, toward the top (youngest) portion of the
core that comes out of the barrel last.
Always draw a black line down the length of the
core, draw arrows on the line pointing up, and then,

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standing at the bottom (oldest) end of the core, draw
parallel red line t the right of the black line. Remember
that if you stood in the core hole and looked up at the
core red is on the right.

Before coring, have the drillpipe strapped out of the

hole to ensure that the driller’s depth is correct.

While coring, have samples caught. Even though the

volume will probably be to small for regular wet sample
there should be enough for examining with a microscope.
This could be of value in case of no core recovery.
Also, have ROP recorded in one foot increments for use
on the graphic core log and to help determine intervals
of any lost core.
Watch the pump pressure for an increase corresponding
to a decrease in ROP, which will indicate that the core
barrel is jammed and must be pulled out of the hole.
Remember that gas shows in the mud will always be
small due to the slow penetration rate and small volume
of formation cut.

While pulling out of hole, make up core boxes. Because

some of the core may not be recovered, and because the
core comes out of the barrel (oldest) part first, it is not
good practice to number the core boxes with permanent
numbers prior to retrieving the core.
A recommended method is to label the left end only of the
boxes with a small “core catching” number, one box for
every three feet of core cut, plus one extra box for each

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30 feet of core (i.e. boxes numbered 1-11 for a 30 foot
core). Label the right end of each box with a “T” for the
top of that piece of core.

In the mudlogging unit ,rearrange the core in the core

boxes, if necessary. If less than full recovery, always
assume that the portion lost was from the bottom of the
core ( the deepest, oldest part ), unless known otherwise.

After all the core has been placed in core box , the last
end out of the barrel toward the “T” on core box. Fit the
core. Place rubble between the ends of the core.
First draw a black line down the full length of the core.
On each separate piece of core draw an arrowhead on
the black line pointing up toward the top (youngest)
portion of the core. Then marking the black line into one
foot lengths and writing the depths on the core.
Then, standing at the bottom (oldest) end of the core,
draw a parallel red line to the right of the black line.
Remember that if you stood the core hole and looked up
at the core, red is on right and the arrows point up. This
system of marking the core ensure that any portion of it
can always be oriented for top and bottom

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The core is now ready to be sampled for well-site
analysis. Select a small, representative core chip from
each foot of core and label it consecutively from no.1 at
the top of the core. A foot by foot brief litho logical
description should be made by the well-site geologist.

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