ARH 4173/5174 Pompeii Feb.

19, 2007

Vitruvius, De Architectura VI.5.1-3

1. The aspects proper for each part being appropriated, we must determine the situation of the private
rooms for the master of the house, and those which are for general use, and for the guests. Into those
which are private no one enters, except invited; such are bed chambers, triclinia, baths, and others of a
similar nature. The common rooms, on the contrary, are those entered by any one, even unasked. Such are
the vestibule, the cavædium, the peristylia, and those which are for similar uses. Hence, for a person of
middling condition in life, magnificent vestibules are not necessary, nor tablina, nor atria, because persons
of that description are those who seek favours which are granted by the higher ranks.

2. Those, however, who have to lay up stores that are the produce of the country, should have stalls and
shops in their vestibules: under their houses they should have vaults (cryptæ), granaries (horrea), store
rooms (apothecæ), and other apartments, suited rather to preserve such produce, than to exhibit a
magnificent appearance. The houses of bankers and receivers of the revenue may be more commodious
and elegant, and well secured from the attacks of thieves. For advocates, and men of literature, houses
ought to be still handsomer and more spacious, to allow the reception of persons on consultations. But for
nobles, who in bearing honours, and discharging the duties of the magistracy, must have much
intercourse with the citizens, princely vestibules must be provided, lofty atria, and spacious peristylia,
groves, and extensive walks, finished in a magnificent style. In addition to these, libraries, pinacothecæ,
and basilicæ, of similar form to those which are made for public use, are to be provided; for in the houses
of the noble, the affairs of the public, and the decision and judgment of private causes are often
determined.

3. If, therefore, houses are erected, thus adapted to the different classes of society, as directed in the first
book under the head of propriety, there will be nothing to reprehend, for they will be suitable to their
destination. These rules are no less applicable to country than to town dwellings, except that in town the
atria must be close to the gates, whereas, in the country villa, the peristylium is near the entrance, then the
atrium, with paved porticos round it looking towards the palæstra and walk. I have thus briefly described
the proportions of town residences as I promised. I shall now proceed to those of houses in the country, so
that they may afford the requisite accommodation.

Petronius, Satyricon 28-30

28. In the vestibule stood the porter, clad in green and girded with a cherry-colored belt, shelling peas into
a silver dish. Above the threshold was suspended a golden cage, from which a black and white magpie
greeted the visitors.

29. I almost fell backwards and broke my legs while staring at all this, for to the left, as we entered, not far
from the porter's alcove, an enormous dog upon a chain was painted upon the wall, and above him this
inscription, in capitals:

beware of the dog.

My companions laughed, but I plucked up my courage and did not hesitate, but went on and examined
the entire wall. There was a scene in a slave market, the tablets hanging from the slaves’ necks, and
Trimalchio himself, wearing his hair long, holding a caduceus in his hand, entering Rome, led by the hand
of Minerva. Then again the painstaking artist had depicted him casting up accounts, and still again, being
appointed steward; everything being explained by inscriptions. Where the walls gave way to the portico,
Mercury was shown lifting him up by the chin, to a tribunal placed on high. Near by stood Fortune with
her horn of plenty, and the three Fates, spinning golden flax. I also took note of a group of runners, in the
portico, taking their exercise under the eye of
an instructor, and in one corner was a large cabinet, in which was a very small shrine containing silver
Lares, a marble Venus, and a golden casket by no means small, which held, so they told us, the first
shavings of Trimalchio’s beard. I asked the hall-porter what pictures were in the middle hall. ‘The Iliad
and the Odyssey,’ he replied, ‘and the
gladiatorial games given under Laenas.’ There was no time in which to examine them all.

30. We had now come to the dining-room, at the entrance to which sat a factor, receiving accounts, and,
what gave me cause for astonishment, rods and axes were fixed to the door-posts, superimposed, as it
were, upon the bronze beak of a ship, whereon was inscribed:

to gaius pompeius trimalchio

augustal, sevir
from cinnamus his
steward.

A double lamp, suspended from the ceiling, hung beneath the inscription, and a tablet was fixed to each
door-post; one, if my memory serves me, was inscribed,

on december thirtieth and

thirty first
our
gaius dines out

the other bore a painting of the moon in her phases, and the seven planets, and the days which were lucky
and those which were unlucky, distinguished by distinctive studs.

090113

Tales from an Eruption, 79 CE

Robert Harris, Pompeii, and historical fiction
Primary and Secondary sources
Pliny the Younger’s Letters
Plinian Phase, first 18 hours after Aug. 24
Peléan Phase, day 2, “glowing avalanches”
Pumice, pyroclastic flow
Haraldur Sigurdsson’s chapt. in Dobbins and Foss
Roman names (praenomen, nomen, cognomen)

Volcanology: branch of geology.

Primary Sources: different kinds of sources. Pliny the Younger.

PS are evidence are created at or around (to within a few centuries) the time Pompeii was occupied and
can be divided into:
 A. Texts — writings of Roman authors — on stone or handed down in manuscript form: Pliny
the Younger’s account.
B. Material culture—man-made objects like pottery or metalwork, buildings, coins, works of art,
etc.

Secondary Sources are books, articles, web pages, etc., written by modern scholars (e.g., Dobbins and Foss,
Robert Harris [uses primary and secondary sources])
Robert Harris: How should you read this book?
1. For the story, 2. Brings to life the story

Names
Marcus Attilius Primus (the first)
First name, family name, additional name
Marcus Tullius Cicero (“chick-pea”): some sort of facial blemish occasioned his nick-name
2 or 3 names, a Roman citizen
1 name, a slave (Polites, Corvinus, Felix)
Slavery basically was different from modern slavery.

Geography
Harris book starts out at Misenum. They look for a spring in the hills.
Harris, 13-30, the fish-pond, the slave, and the moray eels.
Although fictional, it is based on reality. There was a Roman aristocrat who kept eels. He was known to
toss slaves into a fish-pond.
The eels of Vedius Pollio: Pliny, NH, 9.39.77
‘Vedius Pollio, a friend of the emperor Augustus, found that eels offered him an opportunity to
display his cruelty. He used to toss slaves sentenced to death into ponds of eels, not because wild animals
on land were not capable of killing a slave, but because with any other type of animal he was not able to
enjoy the sight of a man being torn to pieces, completely, in one moment.’

Augustus and the eels of Vdeius Pollio (Seneca, On Anger, 3.40)

‘One of his slaves had broken a crystal cup. Vedius ordered him to be seized and to be put to death
in an unusual way. He ordered him to be thrown to the huge eels which he had in his fish pond. Who
would not think he did this for display? Yet it was out of cruelty. The boy slipped from the captor’s hands
and fled to Augustus’ feet asking nothing else other than a different way to die—he did not want to be
eaten. Augustus was moved by the novelty of the cruelty and ordered him to be released...’

Finding water: Harris uses this to color the story. Ground with mists.

Vitruvius (VIII.1.1) on discovering water.

‘As it is the opinion of physiologists, philosophers...’
Harris is building his story on historical narrative events.

Piscina mirabilis — Harris, 31-40

Misenum, 15 m high, 70 m long, 25 m wide, capacity / volume 12,000 cubic m
This, too, is an artifact Harris is working into the story. Textual sources, archaeological evidence to
build his narrative.

Eruption of Mt. Vesuvius, 79 CE: How do we understand what happened? Here is an early drawing of
another eruption of Vesuvius.
Key Analysis
Haraldur Sigurdsson, Standford Cashdollar, and Stephen Sparks (1982). The eruption of V in 79 CE:
Reconstruction from historical and volcanological evidence, American Journal of Archaeology 86: 39-51.
Chapter in Dobbins and Foss.

Vesuvius
4190 ft.
African and Eurasian plates: they meet together across the Mediterranean. It is the pushing together of
the plates that creates the magma. The summit is just over 4000 ft high.

Volcanoes: V below, Campi Phlegraei (bottom right) near Misenum: a large area of volcanic activity.

Eruption of Mt. V, 79 CE. What ‘primary sources’ do we have to contend with to reconstruct the
eruption?
Archaeological ev from Pompeii and other sites
Geological ev from Pompeii and other sites
Textual ev (Pliny the Younger’s letters)
Comparative ev from other volcanic eruptions

Archaeological evidence: lararium from the house of Caecilius Iuncundus. Earthquake of 62?

Geological evidence: available all around Vesuvius.

Overall map:

Sequence of deposits: note archaeological evidence. Noticing the layering you can see the different types
of deposits. Cycles of the eruption deposits different materials.

Sequence at Herculaneum: H received almost 25 m of deposits (over 75 ft). Lapilli, surge, pyroclastic flow.
Lapilli (little pebbles): small bits of pumice. They occur early in the eruption.
Surge
Pyroclastic flow: F - flow, S - surge. Surge is of hot gases. It carbonizes whatever is in its path.
Temperatures are very hot.

Sequence of Pompeii: three different layers of lapilli; later surges, then pyroclasitc flow — in all 4 m.

Sequence at Oplontis; note effects of pyroclastic flow and carbonization of a tree.

Stratigraphy: top to bottom. White Pumice, gray pumice, surge, pyroclastic flow, surge, lapilli
Starting from top to bottom.

Textual Evidence: Pliny the Younger writes about his uncle rescuing civilians from the eruption. He is
writing Tacitus.
Story of Pliny the Elder’s death, his escape for Tacitus’ Histories.
Unintentional description of the different phases of the eruption.

Plinian phase: Letter 6.16, 19 (C9), ‘I imagine it had been raised by a sudden blast, which then weakened,
leaving the cloud unsupported so that its own weight caused it to spread sideways. Some of the cloud was
white, in other parts there were dark patches of dirt and ash.’
First part of eruptive activity. Very high cloud produces pumice, which is carried in the direction of the
prevailing winds.
Tells of the time when Pompeiians could have escaped the early phase of the eruption. Letter from
Pliny to Tacitus upon T’s request to give an account of P’s uncle during the time of the eruption.
Geologists, investing stratigraphy, found the phases preserved (including Plinian phase of the
ash-fall. Herculaneum was treated differently from Pompeii).
Not very dangerous.

Peléan phase: named after Mt. Pelée in Martinique (1902)

Letter 6.20 (C12), ‘We watched the sea apparently sucked out and driven back by the earthquake.
Certainly the shoreline had advanced and stranded many sea creatures on dry sand. On the other side, a
terrifying black cloud, split by twisted blasts of fire shooting in different directions, gaped to reveal long
feiry shapes, similar to flashes of ...’

Comparative evidence
Plinian phases at Mt. St. Helens and Mt. Etna.

Comparative ev: Peléan phase at Montserrat: the flow follows the topography.

Sequence of events: explosive eruption -- billowing column of ash, pumice and hot gases (initially) --
collapse of eruption column -- pyroclastic flow

Chronology of eruption
High column of gases and then surges of pyroclastic flow.

Plinian and Peléan Phases: Plinian goes up, Peléan goes down the side of volcano.

Differences of Geography

Why are bodies preserved? Someone covering his/her face, trying to breathe through the hot gases. Many
bodies were found on top of the first phase of the eruption. Those found were killed by the second phases
of the eruption. So many died on the second day.

090115
PPT3
The ‘Pompeii Premise’
Salvage and/or looting in antiquity.
Formation processes
Michael Schiffer, Penelope (Pim) Allison, Jean-Paul Desoeudres
Holes in walls, as at House of the Menander
Cartibulum, House of P. Casca longus (I.6.11)
Fictional accounts of Pompeii -- how are they created and how can they be avoided?

Robert Harris’ readings.

Secondary sources. How does Harris use the arguments of Sigurdsson? The phases of surges and flows is
covered in the book. Much details are prefaced.

Book
What is Marcus Attilius Primus’ initial impression of Pompeii? Fountains are overflowing with water.
The people are in their comfort zones. Much commerce going on, symbolized by fountains bubbling over.
How would you describe his view of Pompeii’s citizens (esp. the ruling classes)? Greedy and self-serving
-- the aqueducts to their own advantage. Promiscuous, wasteful, greedy people. Bafoons.

Aqua Augusta
The green line (aqueduct), the line of the ancient aqueduct. Pompeii is fed by a derivation coming out
near Palma.

Aqueduct repair
Draws on primary archaeological sources. Aqueducts were designed so that they could be prepared.
Water going through a channel deposits of calcium carbonate develop onto the interior. Most aqueducts
run underground.

Vesuvius
Wall painting from the House of the Centenary: in it Dionysus is covered with grapes; the volcano with a
top. In 79 it blew its top. The lower terrace is covered with vineyards.

Crater

Corelia and Attilius

Preservation
How well-preserved is Pompeii? It is a sort of time capsule. Called the ‘Pompeii premise.’
What is this? Pompeii is preserved from the date of August 79. Daily life was suspended and all objects
were left in place.

Michael Schiffer wrote ‘artifacts of a systemic inventory, often still usable, are left behind on occupation
surfaces when people abandon activity areas, structures and settlements’ such that ‘the archaeologist can
treat house-floor assemblages at any site as if they were Pompeii-like systemic inventories.’
Systemic inventory: all objects in use prior to abandonment are left behind.

Is the Pompeii premise valid? We don’t have everything preserved.

Formation processes
What formation processes that have created for Pompeii? The earthquake in 62. It had a big impact on
Pompeii. We don’t know how much it affected Pompeii, but it had a big impact. Several structures had to
be reconstructed.
Formation processes have created the ‘archaeological record’ at Pompeii.
Formation processes close to the time of the eruption:
Looters
Earthquake of 62, eruption of 79, property recovery and/or looting in antiquity.
Formation processes from time of rediscovery to present day: when discovered in 1748 it isn’t the same
today as it was in 1748. At first the ‘treasure hunting’ of early archaeologist. Urbanization.
Environmental factors: erosion, pollution, contaminations.
Early excavation (looting, lack of recording), more earthquakes, more volcanic eruptions, vegetation,
precipitation,, sunlight, tourism, pollution, vandalism, site maintenance.

Explanations
Did wealthy citizens leave after the earthquake of 62?
C1 (Seneca, NQ 6.1.10) ‘Let us stop listening to those who have renounced Campania, who have
emigrated after the misfortune and say they will never go there again. For who can promise them taht this
or that piece of ground stands on better foundations?’
You never no that a place will remain safe. Natural factors: earthquakes, etc. (only if covered and
preserved!).

Evidence for Looters?

C19, Duommos Pertousa -- ‘house tunneled through’ VII.2.20 (House of Popidius Priscus). Possibly
people returned to Pompeii soon after the eruption to find either their home or to loot.

Identifying Houses: www.pompeiiinpictures.com

VII.2.20 (House of Popidius Priscus0
Regio (VII), insula (2), domus (20)
Region block house

A great place to get pictures is the website above.

Evidence for Looters/

J32. 14 Aug. 1814. ‘At the basilica we finished clearing the large room ... and some broken marble slabs
were found there: both their small number and their being found all in confusion indicate that already the
ancients had salvaged some of them.’

Holes in walls
Why were they made?
Jean-Paul Desoeudres’ view
Pim Allison’s view

Casa degli amanti

The looter, Harris, 261.
House of the Menander: hole in the wall.
House of the Menander: Room 19, hole in wall and skeletons found in room.
Pim thinks it is looters returning shortly after the eruption.
Dsoeudres thinks different about room 19. The holes could be ways of escape at the time of the eruption
while people were trying frantically to get out of the house if other exits were blocked. Some skeletons
were found of people frantically trying to flee.

Salvage and reconstruction

Titus’ orders. C17, C18. -- ‘He selected by lot some senators ... to regenerate Campania, and allocated the
property of those who had died in the eruption and who had no surviving heirs to the renewal of the
afflicted towns.’

Formation processes since 1748.

Tourism, vegetation, weathering. With crowds everyday there will be wear and tear. Vegetation:
overgrown over the theater, walls, etc. Weathering: e.g., outside of a house has been damaged by the rain
-- damage to the paint. Sunlight also is a factor.
Reconstruction: columns restored, wall paintings. Several things are not original, some things are.

The Pompeii premise

How was the site left?
Why was everything not in place?
090120
Campania
The Region of Pompeii: key region for Italy
Italy 33% mountain, 42% hills, 25% plain
Natural resources = metals, building materials, fertile volcanic soils, sea, central position in Mediterranean
The Greeks in Southern Italy (Magna Graecia): Pithekoussai on Ischia, an emporion; Paestum and
Cumae, colonies.
Indigenous Italians: Etruscans, Samnites, Oscans
Roman towns: Capua (amphitheater), Baiae (resort), Misenum (fleet headquarters), Puteoli (port,
pozzolana, oysters)
Campania felix, Pliny the elder, NH 3.60

Natural Resources
Sea, central place in Mediterranean are important features. To come to Rome most of the time you’ll pass
Campania. Campania saw lots of people traveling through.

Italian Landscape
Geography of Italy
33% mountains (high mountains)
42% hill-country
25% plains
Campania consists of a lot of plains. It is a productive landscape.

All three visible here, plus Mediterranean sea (image)

Another key resource is fish. Around Pompeii they were highly prized. Salt was also manufactured,
which helped preserved the fish.

Apennine mountains—even come right down to shore in some areas.

Mountains divide country but it is moderate climate. At times of the year they are impassable. The
mountains bring rain (e.g., to the side of Campania).
Hill country is cultivated for olives and grapes. Cultivating is difficult but not impossible. Grapes and
olives do well on hill sides.
Plains: good agricultural land is intensively exploited. Plains good for olives, vines, grain, etc.
There are lots of evidence for centuriation in plains of Campania. (image) Plots of 100 iugera (allotment
of land). This is a very well cultivated area of land.

Natural Resources
Volcanic soils are very fertile: another important natural resource. This makes Campania a rich area for
cultivation.

Campania Felix
‘Next comes that luck land Campania. Beyond this bay rise the vine-covered hills whose liquid produce is
famous in every land and ennobles tipsiness—the land, in the old phrase, of ardent competition between
the divine patrons of wine and corn... These shores run with the water of hot springs and surpass all other
coastal regions in the reputation of their shellfish and other high quality seafood. Nowhere produces
richer olive oil, that other substance whose varieties vie to give pleasure to humanity.’ ~ Pliny the
Elder, NH 3.60
He criticizes the wine a bit.
The legendary fertility of Campania
Of everything not just in Italy, but in the whole world, the region of Campania is the most beautiful …
nothing is more temperate than its climate … nothing is more fertile than its land … here are the
mountains that befriend the grape … most beautiful of them all Vesuvius…
Florus Epitome 1.16 (Cooley H1)

For around Pompeii is the Murgentine vine, a very strong species … which some call Pompeian,
productive only in fertile soil
Pliny NH 14.35 (Cooley H5)

Campania produces more perfume than most other regions produce olive oil
Pliny NH 18.111.

Costal Campania (pic)

Reputation of ‘felix’ for its:
soils
crops
harbors and towns
luxury residences
Cf. Guzzo p. 3-8 in Dobbins and Foss

Many cultures of Italy, 10th-9th cent. BCE

Period marked by increase in size of major centers, increase in total number of sites.
Real growth at the expense of others.
Indigenous groups

Italy (map)
Colonization of South Italy, Sardinia, and Sicily in 8th cent. BCE.
Greeks are the first to settle in south Italy.
Phoenicians, about the same time, come and settle (Sardinia and western Sicily).
Central Italy: Etruscans and Latins.

Ischia
Settlement at Pithekoussai. 9th-8th cent. BCE. Earliest Greek emporion?
Greeks and Phoenicians were seeking other places for metals. Iron was a key resource to acquire.
Euboean traders

Pithekoussai, Cup of Nestor

Late geometric up from Rhodes, c. 725 BCE
Greek graffito: ‘I am the cup of Nestor from which one can drink with pleasure, but whoever drinks from
this cup will immediately be seized by desire for Aphrodite of the beautiful crown.’

(close-up) in 8th cent. BCE starting of Greek influence. Bay of Naples was meeting point for Etruscans,
Greeks and Italians.

Pithekoussai: trade between Etruscans, indigenous Italians, and Greeks. The Italians learned the alphabet
from the Greeks and Phoenicians.

Nagna Graecia (Great Greece) (map)

Greek colonization 9th-6th cent. BCE
Coastal settlements in Sicily and Southern Italy

Hercules (Herakles)
Found Herculaneum while returning from Spain
Petra herculis -- rock of Hercules (that he picked up a huge rock and threw it into the sea -- pic)
No ev of Herculaneum before 4th cent. BCE.

Poseidonia (Paestum): town of Poseidon. A Greek colony later taken by the Romans (renamed Paestum).
Two temples (pic) dating from early 5th cent. (c. 500 BCE). Important to note Greek settlements at the
time Pompeii was founded. Tomb from Paestum. Influence -- Symposium (drinking party) Drinking
games images shown in the tomb.

Samnium and the Samnites (pic): Southern Italy in 3rd cent. BCE. The Samnites have connections with
the Oscans. Samnites are north of Vesuvius.

Saepinum (pic) -- hill towns of interior. There is a fortification wall, 4th cent. BCE.

Origins of games
From S. Italy in 4th cent. BCE, to rest of Roman world (earliest in Rome, 3rd cent.)
Samnites (figure). Around Campania there is a good concentration of theaters.

Origins of Gladiatorial Combats: appear to be S. Italian, not Etruscan. Tomb paintings showing 1-on-1
combat (Italian, not Etruscan)

Capua
Cf. H1 -- major city of Campania
Early amphitheater: was rebuilt but is hard to date. Colosseum is identical to this one.

Pompeii Amphitheater
Earliest datable one, c. 70 BCE
Inscription: ‘Quintus Valgus and Marcus Porcius, duumviri, built this structure...’

Map: bay of Naples -- northern side

Misenum: key area

‘Piscina mirabilis’ -- Misenum, 15 m high, 70 m long, 25 m wide, capacity / volume -- 12,000 cubic m.

Harbor at Misenum and Puteoli

Today the Alexandrian grain ships came into view. For the Campanians they are a welcome sight. The
whole population of Puteoli stands on the quayside, and even in a crowd of big ships they try to spot the
Alexandrian ships by the type of their rigging (Senece, Letter 77.1-2).
This grain supply was an important part.

In 37 BCE Agrippa, created a naval base for the fleet of Misenum between sea and Lacus Lucrinus.
Portus Julius ..

Puteoli
Campi Phlegraei
Pozzolana (Roman concrete) was an important resource -- the binding agent in Roman concrete. It
allowed them to pour concrete in water.
Ingredients: water, aggregate (pebbles), binding agent.

Dome at Baiae: earliest example of dome (early 1st cent CE). Creating interior spaces. Egyptian and
Greek structures were mostly outside places. For the Romans indoor life was made possible with the
invention of dome spaces or enclosed spaces. Pic: bath building.

Dome
A vault built on a circular base (with opening at the center to lighten the load and to let light in).
Roman architects learned this over time
They start with a very thick supporting nbase; as time goes by this base gets lighter
Earliest examples from Campania (where Roman concrete is invented).

Camp Phlegraei (Phlegraian fields): e.g., Solfatara (hot springs) -- magma close to the surface

Cumae -- an early Greek colony thought to be close to the underworld. Vapors came out of the hot
springs.
Sibyl
Prophecy

Lake Avernus: thought to be the entrance into the underworld. It was a key religious point.

Lucrine Lake: wealthy area for breeding shell-fish and oyster.

Villas near Pompeii: 160 villas. There are important sea villas near Baiae.

Wall painting of villa (on bay of Naples?)

090122
History of Pompeii
Pompeii: Foundation to Roman colony
PPT 5

Outline

Pompeii: 7th BCE to Aug 24, 79 CE

Roman colony in 80 BCE after Social wars of 91-88 BCE
Colonia Cornelia Veneria Pompeianorum
Walls - three phases of earth limestone and tufo
Forum: Temple of Apollo (5th BCE); Basilica (2nd BCE); Capitolium (70 BCE) Baths: Stabian, 2nd c.
BCE; Forum, 2nd c. BCE; hypocaust.
Amphitheater, 70 BCE
Other public amenities: gymnasium (2nd c. BCE); walls; streets; market; shops
Theater, 2nd c. BCE
Hellenization, cultural phenomenon of 2nd-1st BCE Italy

Traditional History of Pompeii Disputed in the readings

Early 6th cent BCEFoundation by Oscans
6th and 5th cent Etruscan and Greek influences
Late 5th cent Samnite take-over
ca. 400 BCE First Samnite (‘limestone’) period
ca. 180 BCE Second Samnite (‘tufa’) period
91 BCE Pompeii joins Social War against Rome
80 BCE Pompeii becomes a Roman colony

Cf. Descoudres’ ch. 2 in Dobbins and Foss; Berry 66-77.

ca. 180 BCE the entire region of the Bay of Naples the Romans take over. 91 BCE Pompeii joins Social
War. 80 BCE -- a Roman colony. Land was taken away from Pompeians for Roman soldiers.

Sarno Valley Settlements

Pompeii near mouth of river valley. Sarno river in image.

Sarno River has been affected by the eruption quite a bit. See R pic.

Primary Sources -- Artifacts

Carafa’s ch. in Dobbins and Foss
Few dozen finds before early 6th cent. -- when it was originally founded.
Is there an earlier settlement? Yes, but it is difficult to explain what sort of settlement it was. Carafa cites
another source: much of the excavation focuses on life at time of eruption, seldom desiring to dig below
the 79 CE eruption evidence.
Sherd of black-glazed pottery with framentary inscription, 6th cent BCE (from below house I.9.12) (pic)
Etruscan influence?

Primary Sources -- Texts

Isidore, Etymologies 15.1.51 (Cooley A2) -- ‘Pompeii was founded in Campania by Hercules, who had led
a procession (pompa) of cattle from Spain as victor.’
Hercules comes back from his labors in Spain. The rock ‘thrown’ into the bay of Naples.
Other ideas about the name:
Oscan word for ‘five’
Nomen ‘Pompeius’ -- family name that may have been one associated with the town.
Union of five prior settlements
Natural placename
If it was founded by Hercules it would have been in the Bronze Age, ca. 1200 BCE. But this is a stretch on
the basis of 5th cent BCE texts.

Strabo, Geography 5.4.8 (Cooley A5) ‘The Oscans used to occupy both Herculaneum and Pompeii ... then
the Etruscans and the Pelasgians, and after that the Samnites; these peoples were also thrown out of these
places.’
~This is consistent with Italy during the furthest extent of Etruscan conquest -- 530 BCE and later
(pic). The changes certainly comes out with Strabo’s reading.

Oscan period
6th–2nd cent BCE
Walls -- some of it dates to the early period. By the 4th cent. BCE all of the wall is built. Later with the
Pax Romana and Augustus, the city expands beyond the wall, esp. in the SW corner.
SW corner -- Altstädt, old city SW corner of the site (pic)
Image of SW corner. Clear, open space. Called the Forum of Pompeii. It is in the center of the SW
corner. There is a Temple of Apollo. It is a key focus in this area of the city in the early period. The form
of the temple has been rebuilt and was restored in 2nd cent BCE.

Temple of Apollo -- probably had wooden columns, terracotta (roofing), podium, steps. Although it
changes with the people, the god to whom it is dedicated usually stays the same.
Greek-style temple adjacent to forum.
Restored several times.
Greek influence
Peripteral -- columns all the way around it. Greek influence in this style.
One cella
Roman influence
Stairs -- not in original design. This is a Roman influence, coming in around 2nd cent BCE.

Dedications outside the temple -- inscriptions -- date to the later periods.

Altar -- the focus of worship. On it were sacrifices made to the gods. The fat burns off into the air for the
god. The flesh would be eaten by the participants. Worship is outdoors at this temple.

Triangular forum (foro triangolare)

Doric temple to Hercules? Athena? Disputed to whom the temple is dedicated. Few steps up to the
platform, but not much remains in the center.
Triangular form -- next to the theater -- close to the old part of the city.

Walls
Constructed in tufo, earth, and limestone in phases: tufo, a local volcanic material.
Ashlar masonry -- They are constructed with regular courses of stone (cut with same dimensions?) Earth
(dirt) fills in the space.

Towers of N side, slope as defense on S.

Defense was an important part in the earlier periods

Tower X, near the Vesuvius Gate.

The Nola Gate (Porta di Nola), 3rd cent BCE, rebuilt later.

A24. Vibius Popidius, son of Vibius, chief magistrate (meddix tuticus) saw to this being built and officially
approved it.
Inscription found on inner arch of the Nota Gate.

Ashlar (block) masonry

L: Sarno limestone -- primary building material (but not always reliable) 4th-3rd cent BCE
R: Nuceria tufa -- primary building material (but not always reliable) 2nd cent BCE

The Growth of Rome (map)

Roman territory in:
500 BCE
290 BCE -- Rome expanding control
240 BCE
The Samnite Wars -- resulted from Rome expanding control.
First Samnite War -- 343–341 BCE
Second Samnite War -- 326–304 BCE
Third Samnite War -- 298–290 BCE
A7. Livy 9.38.2. ‘At about this same time (310 BCE) a Roman fleet commanded by Publius Cornelius,
whom the senate had put in charge of the coastal area, sailed to Campania. It came ashore at Pompeii,
and the marines set out to plunder the territory of Nuceria. They quickly reduced the area from which
they could easily retreat to the ships, but the booty was so enticing that they eventually went too far and
aroused the enemy. When they were roaming through the fields they met no resistance, although they
could have been slaughtered, but when they were marching back in a careless line and had almost reached
the ships the locals attacked, stripped them of their booty, and even killed some. The many who survived
the slaughter were driven back to the ships in a panic.’

When the area is pacified in 3rd cent BCE, Pompeii becomes an allied town, but doesn’t have all the same
rights as Rome has. As Rome grows, it takes advantage of neighboring cities to supply grain and wine to
the city. Pompeii isn’t participating at a full level in the Roman system.
The Basilica just south of Temple of Apollo.

Basilica
Most elaborate structure in forum in 2nd cent BCE is the basilica.
Decorated tribunal for auctions
Commercial center, exchange building -- stored wine for shipping
Period of population increase in Italy, plentiful labor, sale of wine to Rome and elsewhere.
Pompeii a natural distribution point for goods from inland being exported.
Pic (Peregrinus) -- Graffiti found in Basilica. Good source of graffiti here.
Gaius Pumidius Dipilus was here 3 December 78 BCE. Basilica built before 78 BCE, probably built late
2nd cent BCE.
Auge loves Allotenus
Phileros is a eunuch.
Epaphra, you’re a hairless wonder.
Samius to Cornelius ‘go hand yourself.’
Peregrinus

Theater quarter -- signs of good growth in 2nd cent BCE

Large outdoor theater with Greek plays performed. -- Comic plays, some originally Greek, others from
south Italy.
Theater would have held 5,000 spectators
‘Hellenization’ -- south Italy was largely populated with Greek people. Pompeii was more diverse, not
simply a town with Greek influence, but rather from the local cultures as well.

Gymnasium
For young men to play sports
Athletic competition valued in Greek society

Stabian Baths
2nd cent BCE
Others in different regions of town.
For hygiene and luxury.
Originate as part of Greek culture, but later become absorbed in Roman culture.
Men and women areas of the facility, hot and warm rooms.
2nd cent BCE
• A hip place -- starting to develop as a town. Thriving out of the old city and more toward the east with
new structures emerging, etc.

Social Wars 91-88 BCE

B1. Appian Civil Wars 1.39.
When the revolt broke out [sc. in Asculum] all of the peoples in the vicinity revealed their preparations
for war, Marsi, Paeligni, Vestini, Marrucini. Next came the people of Picentia, the Frentani, the Hirpini,
the people of Pompeii and Venusia, the Apulians, the Lucanians, and the Samnites. All of these peoples
had been disaffected before ... They sen ambassadors to Rome. Their complaint was that they had
cooperated in all ways with the Romans in the development of their empire but were not deemed worthy
of Roman citizenship. The Senate responded quite harshly, saying that ...
Catapult balls and slingshot found. Probably used by the Roman army during the siege of 89 BCE. There
are traces of the Social Wars at Pompeii. Beseiged by Sulla. Cannon ball marks on the walls in the north
side of the city.

Eituns Dipinti: written in Oscan. ‘For the next crossing, the soldiers (must go) between tower 12 and the
Salt Gate, where Maraius Atrius, son of Vibius is commander.’
‘Between the houses of Mamercus Castricius and of Maraius Spurius, son of Lucius.’
‘Between the public building and the [temple of?] Minerva

Roman colony
Pompeii bombarded by P. Cornelius Sulla’s forces in 89 BCE -- it doesn’t seem to be invaded by Sulla (but
he did invade Herculaneum and Stabiae), thus the town is spared destruction.
As Sulla is settling his veteran soldiers, a colony arrives in 80 BCE -- 9 years later (in 80 BCE) Sulla returns
and provides land to soldiers. We can imagine the citizens who have owned some property, esp. during
Social Wars, had their property taken away. They paid the price. Land was then redistributed to these
veteran soldiers.
Possibly 2,000 people
Land redistribution

Pompeii receives a new name: COLONIA CORNELIA VENERIA POMPEIANORUM

Colonia -- colony
Cornelia -- family name of the Roman general, Sulla
Veneria -- Venus -- goddess of love, protector of Sulla
Pompeianorum -- of the Pompeians.

090127
Pompeii from Colony to Eruption

Pompeii: 6th c BCE to Aug 24, 79 CE

Zanker’s three divisions:
Hellenistic early 2nd – early 1st c BCE
Roman Colony 80 BCE
City of Roman Empire after 31 BCE
Forum
Capitolium, 70 BCE
Building of Eumachia, early 1st CE
Arches
 Statues
Romany colony in 80 BCE after Social wars of 91-88 BCE
Colonia Cornelia Veneria Pompeia..

Colonia Cornelia Veneria Pompeianorum

Amphitheater, 70 BCE, riot with Nucerians in 59 CE
Other public amenities: gymnasium (2nd c. BCE); streets; fountains; bakeries; market; shops; brothels
Theater, 2nd c. BCE, rebuilt by Marcus Holconius Rufus in 2 BCE
Hellenization, cultural phenomenon of 2nd-1st BCE Italy

Growth of the plan of the site of Pompeii

Geertman -- 3 main phases, chronology uncertain
The old city is the red area (SW corner), the earliest inhabited zone. This corner of Pompeii where
we find the oldest buildings and materials. The outer part, within the city (East), could possibly be
farmland. Over time the old city expands into other places within the city. Phase 1 is the old city. Just
north of phase 1 is phase 1 a/b -- the oldest houses of Pompeii. It takes the alignment of the forum.
Phase 2: between orange and blue lines. Streets align different from phases 1 and 3. Chronology is
uncertain in these phases, according to Geertman. It is difficult to date phases 2 and 3. There are few
places dug below 79 CE.

Areas of expansion by 2nd c BCE. Area of phase 3 is built after Pompeii becomes a colony (after 80 BCE).
Area 2 is filled in by the end of the 2nd c BCE.

Social Wars 91-88 BCE

B1. Appian Civil Wars 1.39.
When the revolt broke out ..

Forum
before 80 BCE.
Comitium -- assembly building for voting, prior to the Sullan colony, with a colonnade.
Portico
Forum is heavily transformed with a new look after 80 BCE.

Portico of Popidius, 80s BCE -- during the interim period between social wars and the colonists
A23, Vibius Popidius son of Epidius, q(uaestor?) saw to the building of the porticoes.
He is an official of the town, a quaestor, who sees the building of this. A benefactor (?) possibly.
In the forum in front of the administrative buildings. (Study plan of Pompeii) See Cooley/Cooley
and DF (ch. on the forum)

So the town is developing along with what is similarly happening with the areas around the Bay of Naples
with Greek influence (before the colonization).

Portico of Popidius: tufo colonnades. This a key part of the forum. There are offices of the magistrates.
Comitium; assembly building. The portico is at the south of it.

Colonia Cornelia Veneria Pompeianorum

Colonia colony
Cornelia family name of the Roman general, Sulla
Veneria Venus – goddess of love, protector of Sulla
Pompeianorum of the Pompeians

Capitolium -- from around 80 – 75 BCE. Work focuses on this part of the forum -- concentrating on
religion.
Focus for Roman religion
Dates shortly after 80 BCE founding of colony
Jupiter, Juno, Minerva. Main temple in Rome is on the Capitoline Hill, the temple dedicated to
Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. In Pompeii, it is not a brach of the one in Rome. It is set up on a platform,
typical of a Roman temple. The head of a statue of Jupiter found has been placed in the back of the
temple.

Capitolium Plan: the middle has a columns. The back has an enclosed area for Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva.
Sacrifices were held outside -- the community could come to participate in the rituals.

Cella with the bust of Jupiter. So the character of the town is changing.

Earthquake of 62 CE: picture of the Capitolium temple twisted and split by the earthquake. It shows how
the Capitolium was before 62. Depicts arches. Unsteady donkeys buckling under the shaking. Need of
rebuilding.

The covered theater or odeion. One of the new buildings after 80 BCE. Donated by Quinctius Valgus and
Marcus Porcius (new residents who are wealthy), men who had profited under Sulla.

Amphitheater. Valgus and Porcius also saw the building of the amphitheater. Built between 80-70 BCE.
It is in the eastern part, phase 3. This is a large area of open land which gets filled in after 80 BCE.
B10: Inscription. ‘Gaius Quinctius Valgus son of Gaius and Marcus Porcius son of Marcus, duumviri, for
the honor of the colony built this structure for the purpose of entertainment with their own money and
donated it to the citizens for the perpetual use.’
Some marble seating after 70 BCE. The structure of the amphitheater was not greatly modified. It
is placed next to the city walls to give it structural support. Placed in the SE corner. Keeps traffic of the
city from the center down to a minimum (?).

Amphitheater -- change in culture of town. Gladiatorial entertainment was new to the Pompeians. Later
it became known as the place of the riot with the Nucerians in 59 CE.
Built before Rome’s Colosseum. Built away from the center of the city -- outskirts of the city. [It is
thought it was erected, after the colony, which fit with the veteran soldiers -- to feel at home in the new
colony (this is a guess).]

Rome and Pompeii

Ways to study interactions?
Parallel histories
Parallel economies
Parallel societies -- Roman colonists coming to live in Pompeii

Sulla B6
Cicero B17-22 -- owned property in Pompeii.
Augustus E39
Under Augustus, the public face of the town changes again. -- Less association with Sulla and more
with Augustus.
 Focus of attention on the emperor and imperial family. -- Statues erected in the town which
resemble Augustus.
Aug encouraged the expression of loyalty from his subjects. -- Usually quite positive.
Upper classes seem to have voluntarily offered it as well.

Buildings associated with Augustus: Under Augustus, the public face of the town changes again. Focus of
attention on the emperor and imperial family.
Triumphal Arch
Statues
Building of Eumachia

Augustus gave M. H. Rufus the honorary title of military tribune. He was mayor of Pompeii. Statue
erected in honor of him. He has a military breast plate and a toga. He is raising his right hand carrying a
spear. This statue is a near-replica of a statue in Rome, one of Mars. Replace the head it looks like Rufus.

090129
Forum of Pompeii
Pompeii form project, dir. by John Dobbins: pompeii.virginia.edu
key chs. in Dobbins and Foss: Adam, 98-116; Ling, 119-28; Dobbins, 150-83
Building techniques: ashlar masonry, opus incertum, opus reticulatum, opus testaceum, opus mixtum
Tour of all buildings on N, S, W, and E sides

What do we expect to find in public space?

Answer both in detail and in overview.
People in the forum.
Buildings for trade and commerce. People would be selling items, horses coming in with wagons, people
coming and going.
Religion / Temples: priests, sacrifices, ceremonies.
Government buildings: business of the city is carried out -- voting, etc.
Some sort of officials associated with government to keep order (a kind of law enforcement).
Public monuments
Bars -- simply a place to get quick food. Places to stand with hot plates, etc.
Vandalism
News / gossip / public notices
Inscriptions
Politicians
Justice
Vistas -- axial views, framed public views and spaces

Forum -- numbers refer to (pic)

arches
Equestrian statues of imperial family members
Equestrian statues of local magistrates
Honorific statues
Imperial monuments
Things populating the center of the forums.

Temple, north side: where the Capitolium. Dobbins argues Pompeii had a temple to Jupiter. But after the
colony was established, 80 BCE, there was a temple dedicated to Jupiter, Juno, Minerva. Set on a high
podium, typical Italian style.
Forum and Capitolium (?): Lararium relief slab from the house of Caecilius Iucundus (V.1.26): this is after
the earthquake. Local style. R: slave carrying the ox to the altar to be slaughtered. Tools for sacrifice next
to him. At the altar is the priest.

Southside of the Forum

Portico of Popidius, 80s BCE acc. to Dobbins
A23: Vibius Popidius son of Epidius, q(uaestor) saw to the ..
Comitium: building for assembly or voting. A standard building to have in an Italian town
Office for magistrate? -- one room building.

Westside of the Forum

Basilica -- c. 89-90 BCE, though more commonly it is late 2nd BCE.
Temple of Apollo -- 6th-5th c BCE -- the main cult building in the early days of Pompeii’s history.
In one of the small buildings on the west side are the mensa ponderaria -- weights and measures.
Inscription below it.
Market building -- now a storehouse. Originally possibly a market building.
Latrine -- latrines and baths are often found together. They didn’t have toilet paper, but a lufa -- a sponge
on a stick, ‘communal sponges.’

East side
Pompeii Forum Project
Concentration on E. side -- Dobbins has concentrated much work in this location
Methods
Buildings
Macellum (1)
Imperial cult building (sanctuary of the public Lares) (2)
Sanctuary of Augustus (Temple of Vespasian) (3)
Eumachia building (4)

Macellum -- facade, archway

Arch of Tiberius. Fish scales found at Macellum. Plan shows space for shops. Shrine in rear. Note
architectural vista created by arch, colonnade. Dobbins dates to 30s CE.
Statues of imperial family members?

Imperial Cult building -- the last building constructed in the forum, acc. to Dobbins. Sophisticated use of
space, statues in the niches. Probably built after 62 CE.

Sanctuary of Augustus
Construction of shrine probably begun under Augustus, later remodeled. Probably had a statue of
Augustus. Altar out front in middle. ~ Imagery is characteristic of Augustus (cf. Ara Pacis). Frieze of a
sacrificial motif.

Eumachia Building, c. 10 CE. This was a community center, possibly where wool merchants traded.
Dates c. 1-10 CE. Allusions to Augustus’ building program in Rome. Livia.

090203 PPT8

Administration, Elections, Literacy

Who was in charge of Pompeii? How did elections work? Could people read -- and how do we know?
Ordo decurionum (order of decurions), Comitium (assembly), duoviri viis aedibus sacris publicisque
procurandis = aediles (two men in charge of roads and religious and public buildings), duoviri iure
dicundo = mayor (two men w. judicial power), duoviri iure dicundo quinquennales = censor (two men w.
judicial power every five years), quattuorviri = two aediles and two ‘mayors’ (four men). Cf. Franklin, p
522 (Dobbins and Foss), Cooley 111-136.
Programmata, election posters, c. 2800 known in Pompeii.
Inscriptions -- carved writings
Grafitti -- handwritten messages, c. 1100 (?) -- see PPT

City Administration
Ordo decurionum -- about 100 male citizens -- public offices open to free-born males only. They oversaw
town finances, buildings, religions.
G10 -- To Septumia, daughter of Lucius, granted by decree of the town councilors a burial place and 2,000
sesterces for the funeral. Antistia Prima, daughter of Publius, her daughter, built (this monument). -- A
place given for her burial outside the city walls. She may have made some benefactions to the town.

Picture of a monument.

Elected Magistracies -- Franklin, 522 (in DF)

Duoviri viis aedibus sacris publicisque procurandis = aediles -- two men in charge of roads, religious, and
public buildings) -- ‘mayors’
Other jobs: issue permits, provide games
H65: by permission of the aediles, Gnaeus Aninius Fortunatus occupies (this space) -- a stall outside the
amphitheater.

Duoviri iure dicundo -- mayors -- two men w. judicial power.

Other jobs: carry out the decrees of the town council, preside over the assemblies, oversee public funds,
provide games.
H64: (Forum) Aulus Clodius Flaccus, son of Aulus, and .... duumvirs with judicial power, saw to the
standardization of the measures in accordance with a decree of the town councillors.

picture: Table w. measures to get the right measurements.

B11: (Stabian Baths) Gaius Uulius, son of Gaius, and Publius Aninius, son of Gaius, duumvirs with
judicial power, contracted out the construction of the sweating-room (laconicum) and scraping-room
(destrictarium) and the rebuilding of the porticoes and exercise area (palaestra), by decree of the town
councilors, with that money which by law they were obliged to spend either on games or on a monument.
They saw to the building work, and also approved it. -- These guys were obliged to spend money when
mayor -- with their own money.

Duoviri iure dicundo quinquennales = censor -- two men w. judicial power every 5 years
Other jobs: take census, elect or dismiss members of ordo
B10: Gaius Quictius Valgus, son of Gaius, and Marcus Porcius, son of Marcus, quinquennial duumvirs,
for the honor of the colony, saw to the construction of the amphitheater at their own expense and gave the
area to the colonists in perpetuity.

Career Path -- cursus honorum.

F87: To Marcus Alleius Luccius Libella, father, aedile, duumvir, prefect, quinquennial
F89: (state outside Stabian Baths) To Marcus Holconius Rufus, son of Marcus, military tribune by popular
demand, duumvir w. judicial power five times, quinquennial twice, priest of Augustus Caesar, and patron
of the colony.

Women -- they could not hold public office, but could hold religious office.
E42: Eumachia, daughter of Lucius, public priestess, in her own name and that of her son, Marcus
Numistrius Fronto, built at her own expense the chalcidicum, crypt and portico in honor of Augustan
Concord and Piety and also dedicated them.
She was trying to pave the way for a good career in politics for her son.

Politics before 80 BCE -- comitium, assembly or voting building; administrative offices (see pic)

Election notices -- programmata -- painted poster: pic -- posters painted on the walls of buildings in red.
Example: location of 100+ programmata for Gnaeus Helvius Sabinus, candidate for aedile in 79 CE (F29)
-- distributed on main streets of the town (pic). Many of the signs, generally now, have faded. There have
been preservation efforts (plexiglass, etc.).

Programmata -- election notices. About 2800 found. Pompeii held elections each March. Term of office
began July 1 for the new officers.
Typical notice: ‘I ask you to elect _______ aedile, duumvir, etc.’ ‘His neighbors urge you to elect
Marcus Lucretius Fronto aedile.’ F1: ‘I beg you to elect Satrius quinquennial’ -- SATRIUM QUINQ OVF
(oro vos faciatis)

Common abbreviations (Cooley 118)

OVF
IIVIR
ID
VB
DRP
AED VASPP

Who supports candidates? Individuals, households, neighborhoods, occupational groups. F60: ‘The
millers ask for and desire Gnaeus Helvius Sabinus as aedile, together with his neighbors.’ ‘All the fruit
sellers with Helvius Vestalis ask you to elect Marcus Holconius Priscus duumvir with judicial power.’ --
Personalized notice.

Reasons to vote: F8 ‘I beg you to elect Gaius Julius Polybius aedile. He brings good bread.’ F10 ‘Marcus
Casellius Marcellus, a good aedile and great giver of games.’

Women and elections: 51 mention women. F56 ‘Iunia asks for you to elect Gnaeus Helvius Sabinus as
aedile.’ But only freeborn adult male citizens could run for office and vote in the assembly.

Negative campaigning? ‘The girls at Asellina’s, including Zmyrina, ask you to elect Gaius Lollius Fuscus
aedile for roads, and sacred and public buildings.’ C Lollium fuscum v a s p p Asellinas rogant nec
sine Zmyrina.

Who puts up the signs? Professional sign-painters! Many notices signed by Aemilius Celer. F79
‘Neighbors beg you to elect Lucius Statius Receptus duumvir with judicial power, a worthy man. Aemilius
Celer wrote this, a neighbor. You jealous one who destroys this, may you fall ill.’ -- A curse on those who
take down the election notice.

Assessing literacy. Absence of statistics from which we can derive percentages. But evidence is suggestive
of literacy by many ‘average’ people. Graffiti: more than 11,000, programmata: more than 2,800. Hard to
compare to other societies because Pompeii is unique. Seems many in Pompeii could read. Other places
in the known world didn’t have as much privileges, although Pompeii is in a unique situation since it was
preserved many centuries.

Graffiti: cf. D86-104. Brothels in Pompeii -- 25. ‘Here Phoebus the perfume seller had a really great
screw.’ More examples ppt.

Conclusions: very active local politics -- different from Rome under the empire. Most prominent people
in town participated in Pompeii’s politics. -- Reasonably widespread literacy. There were active politics
even up to the eruption. James Franklin source -- many candidates for aedile, but just two for duumvir.
Aedile was a competitive race, but duumvir was not!

090205 PPT9

Religion
State religion, household religion
Early cults: temple of Apollo, 6th BCE, Temple of Minerva (?), 6th BCE, Temple of Isis, 2nd BCE;
unknown temple, 2nd BCE, extramural sanctuaries (Dionysos, Jupiter Meilichios, Neptune?), all of
uncertain pre-Roman date
Cults of Roman colony: Capitolium, c. 78 BCE, Temple of Fortuna Augusta
Pompeii’s religious officials: pontifex (priest), sacerdos (priest), flamen (pl. flamines), augur.

Main Questions
Why does so much evidence for religion survive?
What did the religion of Pompeii involve?
How can we use this evidence to better understand Pompeii’s society?
What are the differences between public and private religion?

Basic Ideas
Participants: gods, priests, others
Festivals: public, private

What is religion?
Clifford Geertz: religion is ‘a system of symbols which acts to establish powerful, pervasive, and
long-lasting modds and motivations by formulating conceptions of a general order of existence.’ -- I.e.,
people have concepts of their existence and religion is the symbol of establishing those concepts, images,
rituals, places you see. A system of symbols which creates structure. Fairly abstract, but this can apply to
all religions.
Gods unseen in the ceremony, priests carrying out the ceremonies, and others who attend the
ceremonies. Two kinds of festivals: public and private. Public: e.g., at Temple of Apollo, etc. Private:
within your own home. It is very different form the public sphere.

Them and us: Religion was part of Roman government, unlike present division between church and
state. Ancient religion was not so separated from other aspects of life as religion is today. There was no
single religion of the Roman empire, but there were normal features of ancient religious practices.
Active experience: Etruscan religion -- pic: watching the flight of birds and gathering the message from
the gods in interpreting the flight of the birds. Augurs. Haruspex -- inspecting the liver of an animal in
order to determine the will of the gods.
Active experience: Roman religion, sacrificing a sow, tradition, penates

Passive experience: rituals of Isis worship, Herculaneum.

The Sacrifice -- involved six steps.

1. Procession of victims to the altar
2. Prayer of the main official, and offering of wine and incense as a libation at the altar.
3. Pouring of wine and meal over the head of the animal by the main official.
4. The killing of the animal by slaves
5. The examination of the entrails (organs like kidneys, livers, hearts) for omens by trained entrail
observes.
6. The burning of parts of the animal on the altar for the gods, and the consumption of the rest of the
body parts by participants in the sacrifice as part of the sacred meal.

Practice -- Marcus Aurelius, 162-181 CE. Who/what do you see? Emperor is chief priest in Roman
religion. Marcus Aurelius is offering the sacrifice here.

Public Religion -- Interior of the Temple of Vespasian at Pompeii and its altar. Children present.

Tiberius: emperors as gods. Worshipped this way, but emperor is not exactly equivalent to a major god.
Imperial cult: for wealth and safety of the imperial family...

Divisions in Roman Religion: State festivals and family ceremonies. Public and private cult are not the
same thing. Participants are priests as representatives of the community and you as a representative of
yourself and/or family. Also included, the sacrifice.

Household religion: house of the Vettii at Pompeii, 79 CE. Lararium -- household shrine. Lares --
household gods. Snake, bull’s head (top), bowl, tool.

Lararium in the house of the Menander, 79 CE.

The Villa of the Mysteries at Pompeii -- has wall paintings c. 50 BCE. Initiation into religious cult. Pic:
bride is whipped so her egg can ‘drop’ in order to have children.

Sanctuary of Dionysos, outside Pompeii -- probably from pre-Roman times. Not well-preserved.

Temple of Venus -- had an overview and was near the coastline. A nice visible marker for those coming
into the town.

Temple of Fortuna Augusta -- E32: ‘M. Tullius, son of Marcus, ... built the temple of Augustan Fortune on
his own land and at his own expense.’ Temple, c. 19-10 BCE. Elites are using religion to forward their
careers -- erecting temples, showing particular interests in certain deities. Most people had passive
involvement with festivals, ceremonies.

Neighborhood religion in streets. Altar (VI 1.1.9).

Ashlar (block) masonry

Sarno limestone (4th–3rd c. BCE), nuceria tufa (2nd c. BCE)

Development of Roman architecture -- changes a bit in 1st BCE. The use of concrete can take many forms
-- was starting to be used. ‘Roman’ style. Ingredients of concrete: water, aggregate, binding agent.
Binding agent: fine volcanic ash from Pozzolana, found near Naples. It was a key ingredient.

Construction techniques -- opus incertum (uncertain construction) -- aggregate is laid in an uncertain.

2nd-1st c. BCE. Also found in walls and in the amphitheater.
Opus reliculatum -- comprised of diamond-shaped stones. Used 1st c. BCE, 1st c. CE.
Opus testaceum -- often brick on outside, rubble on inside. 1st c. CE onward. (pic)
Opus mixtum -- a mixture of brick and reticulatum. 1st c. CE onward.
Variations with concrete -- 1 side face, 2 sides, multiple materials.
Disadvantage of concrete -- facing was commonly stucco or marble to cover up the material.
Stucco could be painted any color. The ‘skin’ of the walls. The material is the ‘bones.’ Cheap way to do
these things.

090210
Test format: Test 1
Map
Blank map of Pompeii -- identify about 5 things
Blank map of Bay of Naples -- identify about 5 things
familiarize yourself with the things in the map.
Blank Pompeii and Campania

Slides
5 to 6 slides, 3 minutes each
Name, date, significance -- what does it tell us about Pompeii? More analysis -- better.
all slides posted already on web
Example -- amphitheater
IDs
5 to 6, 3 minutes each
Name, date, significance
All in Cooley/Cooley reading.
E.g., ‘Vibius Popidius son of Epidius, q(uaestor?) saw to the building of the porticoes.’ An
elite citizen. C. 90-80 BCE.

Essay
Two essays, answer one. Have an idea, a thesis statement, some supporting evidence.

PPT10
Roads, Aqueducts, Water Towers
Westfall ch. (DF)
Jansen, Trere -- fine
Roads: via, decumanus (E-W), cardo (N-S), decumanus maximu, cardo maximus
Aqueducts: Castellum aquae (water distribution structure)
Source for Pompeii is Serino aqueduct, c. 27 BCE
Elements of water supply: wells, cisterns, public fountains.

Types of Roads
Via -- typically big enough for two vehicles to pass
 Decumanus -- E-W -- Decumanus maximus (meets Cardo maximus at the forum)
Cardo -- N-S -- Cardo maximus
Roman town is usually on a grid plan. Paid for by aediles and other government officials.
Plan of Timgad, c. 100 CE -- it has the main N-S and E-W roads.

Pompeii isn’t laid out as the typical Roman town. It was an Oscan town, with Greek and Etruscan
influence. Later the Romans expanded the town after they made it into a colony. It was laid out with a
grid plan with varying dates. No roads really intersect at the forum. This reflects pre-Roman phases. This
isn’t the standard plan for a Roman town.

Monumental Arch -- focal point on the road. Here at the northern edge of the forum. Archway of
Tiberius over the entrance to the forum, with a colonnade on the east side. Mostly for people-traffic.
Blocks set up as barriers for carts, etc.
Side streets in residential areas. Notice what is different: narrower, and not designed for heavier
traffic. It is bumpy, less attention given to it, typical of a Roman style (for less busy streets to be bumpy).
Narrow street with is much less regularly arranged.

Map: Ruts in the roads. They have been measured to be assessed. Not a successful strategy since the ruts
may have been repaired with the roads. There is no systematic wear and tear in these roads. Focus
elsewhere: slope of roads, material.

Typical Roman road -- four layers of bedding.

Unstable/Marshy Roman road
Pompeii: flat paving stones coming from Vesuvius.

Areas of Pompeii: mixed with residential and commercial -- no strict separation.

Neighborhood religion: street altar at VI.1.19.

Drainage of rainwater through streets -- few the streets had drainage systems below the streets. The water
ran down the streets and out of the town. Flowing water carries manure, and other objects easily carried
by water.
Slope carried water out of town.
Stepping stones, sidewalk -- there wasn’t a sewer system below the roads.

Water Supply
Sources of Water (Jansen, ch. 16, DF)
- Sarno River -- possibly to wash clothing, drinking water for animals (flock of sheep, goats, horse,
donkey)
- Wells (water at 20 + m) 20-30 m below the surface. Digging wells was difficult. The soil was mixed with
hard and soft soil.
- Rainwater runoff system
Water led from roof to cisterns below ground. Below the house, lined with waterproof masonry
(cement). Terracotta pipe is led down the roof and into the cistern.

Impluvium (rectangular basin) and puteal (cistern head). In this pool would be two pipes. One leading
out to the street for overflow or for dirty water. Water stored in cistern is for drinking and cooking, etc.,
not for animals.

Aqua Augusta (after 27 BCE) -- Augustus’ building project. Aqueduct (green line). Just under 100 meters
of the aqueduct, outside Pomepii.
Pic: aqueduct. Pompeii aqueduct has small channel. There is access for workers. Reading in Hodge
(article, 1996).

At Pompeii, daily amount of water from aqueduct estimated at 6460 m3

Μost of the aqueducts supplying Rome are 124,000 and higher
Pont du Gard at Nimes, 124,000m3
Carthage
The amount...

Aqua Augusta and Pompeii

Enters west of Porta Vesuvii, highest point in city.
Castellum Aquae -- castellum is located at the highest location of the city: runs on a gravity flow, a smooth
gradient downhill. Three distribution centers on the side.
Pipes to fountains, baths, private homes, industries, and latrines
Not so much but a reasonable amount.

090212
Baths
Rooms in a Roman bath: apodyterium, tepidarium, caldarium, frigidarium, palaestra
4 publicly funded baths in Pompeii: Forum baths, Stabian baths, central baths, suburban baths
3 privately funded baths: Sarno Baths, Republican Baths, Praedia of Iulia Felix
Heating system -- hypocaust
Campania -- origins of the baths?
Kolosk-Ostrow ch. DF.
Cost of attending bath = affordable
Stabian Baths built by 140 BCE, undergo several renovations. Forum Baths built c.80 BCE, undergo
renovations.
Dedications, additions to baths both by town, private individuals.

Test: 5 to 6 slides, 3 min. each: name, date, significance

Earthquake frieze: depicts earthquake, 62 CE.

IDs: 5 out of 6 slides, 3 min. each

E.g., Plinian phase excerpt.

Castellum Aquae
Aqueducts put in c. 27 BCE. Castellum Aquae (Water Castle), the distribution tank, is the highest point
from which the water flows. Three holes -- we don’t know to where the water would have flowed.
Tradition interpretation: west pipe went to the forum, central pipe went to the baths, east pipe went to the
residential areas. But recent research says this is incorrect.
~ Castellum Aquae was a small building in which the water flow was divided and distributed among
three large led pipes. As the building was situated at the highest point of the town, water was easily
conducted to the several districts through pressurized pipelines. // Just inside the Vesuvius Gate. Water
from the Serino aqueduct was piped via the Castellum Aquae to public baths, fountains and houses of
Pompeii.

Water Flow
Vitruvius (1st cent BCE), De Architectura 8.6.1-2: ‘ There are three methods of conducting water, in
channels through masonry conduits, or in lead pipes, or in pipes of baked clay. If in conduits, let the
masonry be as solid as possible, and let the bed of the channel have a gradient of not less than a quarter of
an inch for every hundred feet, and let the masonry structure be arched over, so that the sun may not
strike the water at all.* When it has reached the city, build a reservoir with a distribution tank in three
compartments connected with the reservoir to receive the water, and let the reservoir have three pipes,
one for each of the connecting tanks, so that when the water runs over from the tanks at the ends, it may
run into the one between them.’
* Sun’s heat will cause the water to evaporate or cause algae to grow.
2. From this central tank, pipes will be laid to all the basins and fountains; from the second tank, to
baths, so that they may yield an annual income to the state; and from the third, to private houses, so that
water for public use will not run short; for people will be unable to divert it if they have only their own
supplies from headquarters. This is the reason why I have made these divisions, and also in order that
individuals who take water into their houses may by their takes help to maintain the conducting of the
water by the contractors.

Was Vitruvius’ system in use in Pompeii’s Castellum? Supply to Pompeii was limited. Much smaller
compared to Rome. There wasn’t an endless supply of water coming to Pompeii. Castellum Aquae: it
doesn’t seem to have functioned quite like the Vetruvian model. The pipes are situated at different
heights, causing flow to differentiate. Recent research, A. Trevor Hodge, Christoph Ohlig -- not as much
water in the city as previously thought? A question of mathematics: size of gutter, the three delivery pipes,
water distribution in the city. Likely it was rationed during a specific time of day. Time distribution to
different parts to the town.

Standpipe (water tower) and fountain on the via di Nola. Where did the water go? Where was it stored?
Water towers helped to decrease the water pressure.

Standpipes: water pressure builds up due to change in altitude. Standpipes are a series of water towers
which break the pressure of the incoming water by forcing it up into a small reservoir and then allowing it
to fall again. Masonry and design of standpipes is very regular across the city. This suggests that they are
maintained by the town. Around 15 of these towers.
The takes and pipes of Pompeii were made of lead (lead poisoning!). This is why Roman civilization
went down. But not the case. Not as bas as we think. This is hard water -- not treated water. The
impurities flowing through the system, attaching to the aqueducts and piping. They would form a bond
within the inside of the take wall, thus forming a lining barrier between the lead and wall.

Map: distribution of fountains is regular. Suggests that there were convenient locations for residents to go
and retrieve water.
Fountains: principal sources of water for most residents. About 32 street fountains. There were
lava blocks with masonry holding it together. Inside there was waterproof lining. The water was brought
in through the led pipe, flowing into the tank. Outflow at the top and small hold at bottom, sealed with
wood.
Continuous supply of water -- you couldn’t regulate (stop) the flow. But there was time
distribution throughout the town. So there would be times during the day to go get water at your
neighborhood fountain. Likely interpretation.

Baths at Pompeii: location of Stabian Baths (c. 140 BCE), Forum Baths (c. 80 BCE). General function of a
Roman bath: bathing, social gathering place. People would go frequently during the week and the baths
were inexpensive.
 Who used baths? Many people: for cleansing. Use of oils, perfumes and scrapers. There were
separate facilities for men and women (i.e., separate in time or space) -- discussed in the literary sources.
Most of the population could afford them (Vipascum -- some evidence for the cost of going to the baths).
[]

How did bathing work? There were three different rooms: caldarium, tepidarium, frigidarium. This
order: you would start with (1) the apodyterium (store your clothing), head to (2) the palaestra for
exercise and workout; later (3) to the tepidarium, the hot room, then (4) caldarium, warm room, and (5)
frigidarium, cold room to cool off. Caldarium and tepidarium had fire buring in the walls or underneath
for the water to become hot/warm.
This seems to be a logical order. Exercise, then warm to hot to cold room.
What did you see in baths? Baths used for functions other than getting clean. Place to see the
dentist, barber. Blood-letting cups found. Probably ancient ‘doctor’ would be there, too. There are rooms
found in the baths where these sorts of activities would have taken place.
Stabian baths. Peristyle around the palaestra. Men’s caldarium: hypocaust -- heating from below.
Small stacks before floor with a praefurnium -- furnace -- just outside Tepidarium gets subsidiary heat.
Tegulae mammatae, hot air pipes ...
Pools would be in the baths also. Place to cool down and be refreshed. Outdoor pool as well.
Forum baths, smaller than the Stabian Baths (which are c. 140 BCE), are later c. 80 BCE. Smaller
space to build. Possible the Forum Baths were restricted during certain times for women to come and
then men.
The basin in the caldarium, labrum, with inscription: D106, ‘When Gnaeus Melissaeus Aper, son of
Gnaeus, and Marcus Staius Rufus, son of Marcus, were duumvirs with judicial powers the second time,
they saw to the making of the basin, by decree of the town councillors, at public expense. It cost 5250
sesterces.

D107: ‘Marcus Nigidius Vaccula, at his own expense.’ He provided three bronze benches and a bronze
brazier -- a portable furnace. D107: ‘Marcus Nigidius, Vaccula, at his own expense.’ Vaccula, ‘little cow’
-- image of a cow on the brazier.

090217 PPT11
Gladiatorial Games in Pompeii
Gladiatorial games originate in South Italy (near Pompeii)
Amphitheater at Pompeii, 70 BCE. Gladiator’s barracks. ‘House of the gladiators’ (V.5.3).
Terms: munerarius -- official responsible for games; lanista -- owner of gladiatorial org.; ludus --
gladiatorial school; factio -- faction, organization of gladiators; ludi, munera -- gladiatorial games; venatio
-- beast hunt; Neronian -- gladiator trained in the imperial school at Capua.
Riot at Pompeii, 59 CE. Games banned for 10 years.
Parslow’s article in DF; Cooley, ch. D (c. pp. 44-65).

Some intriguing issues

Who paid for the games at Pompeii? Why? Who fought as a gladiator at Pompeii? Did people die?
What do we learn about gladiatorial events from the record of a mid-sized town? Did women fall for hot
young gladiators?

The Origins of Gladiatorial Combats

They appear to be S. Italian, not Etruscan. Roman: later spread to the Greek world. Tomb painting from
Lucania (4th / 3rd BCE). ~ Around Campania, gladiatorial games originated. Although Romans adopted
many things from the Greek world, gladiatorial games did not come from the Greeks. Greek terms for
gladiatorial terminology comes from Latin.
Terms:
Muerarius -- sponsor of the games and who pays for them.
Lanista -- trainer of the gladiators, a key figure in the events
Ludus -- gladiatorial school where training takes place. Important school at Capua, not far from Pompeii.
Neronian -- gladiator trained at imperial ludus in Capua

Amphitheaters
Amphitheater -- ‘to see on all sides’ -- you’ll be able to see what is going on no matter what side you are
sitting.
Harena -- ‘sand’ -- the center was covered with sand for good footing during the matches.

Construction
Earliest datable amphitheater built in Pompeii, c. 70 BCE (see earlier notes) It was located in the SE
corner, placed up against the walls. It was dug into the ground, piled up a mound and later put up
concrete. Reconstruction was periodic (D1-5). D2 ‘Titus Atullius Celer, son of Gaius, duumvir, instead of
games and lights, saw to the construction of a seating sector, by decree of the town councilors.’ Instead of
entertainment, he contributed to some of the reconstruction of one of the seating sectors.
The first four rows were for dignitaries (those wealthy); the middle seats open to much of the
population; women and slaves probably were in the highest seats. This was to keep different social groups
from mixing. It could hold around 20,000 with its capacity.

Sponsorship
What paid for the games at Pompeii? Annual magistrates and the town. D17 ‘The gladiatorial troupe of
Aulus Seuttius Certus will fight at Pompeii on 31 May. There will be a hunt and awnings. Good fortune
to all Neronian games.’
Organization of the games (Pompeii): Muerarius --> Lanista --> Gladiator. Gladiators were grouped
together in factions (factio). This may have been the equivalent of a sports team grouping.

Advertisement -- D11: ‘Twenty pairs of gladiators sponsored by Decimu Lucretius Satrius Valens, lifetime
priest of Nero Caesar, and 10 pairs of gladiators sponsored by Decimus Lucretius Valens, his son, will
fight in Pompeii on April 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12. There will also be a suitable wild animal hunt. The awnings
will be used.’
Here we have pairs of gladiators fighting each other. Not in groups.

Events:
Beast hunts -- venationes, typically in the morning
Execution of criminals -- noxii, typically midday.
Gladiatorial games -- munera, usu. in afternoon.
Bottom image -- beast hunts. Execution of criminals (bottom and third pic). Top -- musicians play
between ‘intermission.’

Advertisement -- D11: ‘Celer wrote this.’ ‘Aemilius Celer, wrote this by himself in the moonlight.’

Calendar of games -- many are held during the spring. Shaded areas are in other regions.

The ludus -- training school next to the theater, the open area. Not the Palaestra by the amphitheater.
The ludus had owners, managers, doctors, trainers (as in Spartacus).

Training -- barracks, where they stayed. Central court, peristyle, iron shackles.
People who became gladiators: not from the upper classes. Slaves, criminals, the poor, free men. Illegal
for senatorial and equestrian family members to fight as gladiators, yet they do anyway: passed in 11 CE
and later in 19 CE -- suggests there was status associated with gladiators. It was difficult for the
equestrians and senatorial families not to become involved.

Gladiators
Retiarius -- netter
Secutor -- chaser; fights with curved shield and sword.
Murmillo, Thracian -- other types of gladiators.

Female Gladiators -- a relatively rare form of entertainment.

In the arena -- one finger raised indicates submission (‘I give up’). Crowd and munerarius determine
whether gladiator survives. Crowd signals: two fingers = spare the gladiator; thumb gesture = kill.

Chance of getting killed? Outside Nucerian Gate. Cooley, D26. Tomb 14 EN -- Games at Nola of Marcus
Cominius Heres for 4 days. Princeps, Neronian 13 [12] fights, 10 victories, winner. Hilarus, Neronian, 14
fights, 12 victories, winner. Creunus, 7 fights, 5 victories, released [M -- manumitted]
Outside Nucerian Gate: M Attilius T (rookie), vicit (won). Hilarus, Neronian, 14 fights, 12/13 wins,
manumitted (M).
M Attilius I) I V L Raecius Felix, 12) 12, M

Who dies?
Not gladiators as much as condemned criminals and prisoners of war. They are often given few weapons
with little chance of winning -- brutal death.

Gladiators and Roman Society

Artifacts indicate that the culture of the arena was transmitted to all levels of Roman society. Souvenirs
were made (mugs, action figures!).

The Crowd could get out of hand. Riot between Pompeii and Nuceria in 59 CE. Riot recorded in Tacitus,
Annals, 14.17:
‘At around the same time [59 CE] there arose from a trifling beginning a terrible bloodbath among the the
inhabitants of the colonies of Nuceria and Pompeii at a gladiatorial show given by Livineius Regulus ...
.During an exchange of taunts-characteristic of these disorderly country towns-abuse led to
stone-throwing, and then drawing of weapons. The Pompeiians, where the show was held, came off better.
Many wounded and mutilated Nucerians were taken to Rome. Many bereavements, too, were suffered by
parents and children. The emperor instructed the senate to investigate; they passed it to the consuls. When
findings were reported, the senate barred Pompeii from holding any similar gathering for 10 years. Illegal
associations in the town were dissolved; and the sponsor of the show and his fellow-instigators of the
disorders were exiled.’

Cooley D34.

Gladiator graffiti: House of the Gladiators (V.5.3), ‘Crescens, the netter of young girls by night.’ D47,
‘Celadus the Thracian, thrice victor and thrice crowned, makes all the girls sigh.’ House of the Dioscuri
(IV.9.6), D38, ‘Campanians in our victory you perished with the Nucerians.’
Grafitti: gladiator with victory palms. So-called tomb of Umbricius Scaurus (drawing, c. 1854).
090219

Temple of Isis

Isis from Egypt. Merchant traders brought the cult to Campania. Temple of Isis in Pompeii was next to
the two theaters SW corner. Identity of Isis in Pompeii: She was often associated with Venus and Fortuna
in the Roman world. Goddess associated w. fertility and resurrection. Protectress of sailors. She was also
a protectress of sailors. In the Latrine: painting of a guy pooping and Isis Fortuna watching over him.
Cacator, cave malum -- ‘crapper; beware of evil.’ Snakes are associated with Isis, too.
The cult came to Pompeii c. 2nd c. BCE. Date of construction and reconstruction. C5:
inscription at the entrance. After the earthquake this was one of the first buildings reconstructed.
Portico: used for processionals, Egyptian influences. Wall painting: Anubis dressed as a priest.
Another painting: Harpocrates and priest. Candle holders found for ritual ceremonies. Other paintings:
naval seas are very frequent.
Purgatorium and altar: Greek and Roman influences -- reliefs of Cupid, Perseus rescuing
Andromeda. Altar next to the entrance.
Cella: Statue of Bacchus was found. He was dedicated in a niche in the rear wall off the cella.
Ekklesiasterion: function -- dining area, or space for public meetings (?). Mythological imagery.
See J10.
Sacrarium, room 5: Most sacred area of the temple, possible the cult’s treasury. Decoration was
twofold: for initiates, non-initiates. Simplicity of rendering suggests the painter was an initiate rather than
a professional.
Connections to public life: worshipers support of electoral candidates. Both of these notices date
from the last decade before the eruption. E7: ‘All the worshipers of Isis ...
Patronage: from 7 marble inscriptions. E5: ‘Lucius Caeilius erected (this statue); space granted by
decree of the town councilors.
Initiates: both male and female participation in the cult from all levels of society. Inscriptions
found on the door off the Ekklesiasterion. Busts of three women, found in the sacrarium. Sistra, cult
rattles, found in the Ekklesiasterion. Sistra were also found in homes.
Purpose: wide spread popularity of the Egyptian goddess. Acceptance of a foreign cult, with no
evidence of the legal persecution which occurred in Rome. The importance of the temple is reflected
through the location of the tmeple and the speed of reconstruction after the earthquake. Rare state of
preservation.

---
Test 1 Maps -- blank Pompeii and Campania.
5 out of 6 slides. 3 mins. each. Name, date, significance. All in Cooley reading.

IDs: ‘Eumachia, daughter of Lucius, public priestess, in her own

Essays

Tombs and Mortuary Analyses

Possibilities of paleopathological studies, problems undertaking them at Pompeii and Herculaneum, Via
dei Sepolchri (Streets and Tombs)

Questions: Where were people buried? How did Pompeians think about tombs? How did burial
practices change over time? How can death inform us about life?

What can we learn from human bones? Gender, age, diet, disease
Paleopathology of Pompeii: Lazer’s ch in DF. 296 skeletons at Herculaneum (most found in 1982). 1150
skeletons at Pompeii. In Herculaneum, skeletons preserved in shelter near beachfront of Herculaneum.
Was thought that everyone here escaped, but many bodies were found at the beachfront, bunched
together in barrel vaulted chambers. There was one ‘ring lady’ -- wearing expensive jewelry. On her
fingers were rings.
Wear are bodies preserved? Most are preserved in the pyroclastic flow.
Paleopathology: no age bias seen in skeletons. General health compares to that of modern population of
Naples. DNA analysis has not worked well, possibly due to heat from eruption. -- 200-300 degrees
temperature. Debate over homogenous/heterogeneous population exists among modern researchers. --
Homogenous, same ethnic background; heterogeneous, varied background.

Location: most Greek and Roman cities had prohibitions against burial within the city. Only by special
decree could one obtain burial within city limits. At Pompeii, outside the gates of the main city, there are
cemeteries.
Necropolis outside of Herculaneum Gate. Tombs near the gate were given by decree.
Tomb of Mamia: schola tomb outside Herculaneum Gate