Professional Documents
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Cpa Sea PDF
Cpa Sea PDF
A Written Report
Submitted to
A Requirement in
Subject PA 202
by
This paper focused mainly on the comparison of the SEA countries (in terms of the following
points, to wit:
• National Government;
• Structure of Local Government; and
• Election.
I. NATIONAL GOVERNMENT
1. Privy Council or the Majlis MesyuaratDijara- advises His Majesty in relation to the
exercise of the prerogative of mercy and in relation to the amendment or revocation of
any provisions of the Constitutions as well as the appointment of persons to Malay
Customary ranks, titles, honors and dignities.
5. Council of Islamic Religion formed under the Religious and Kadhis Act of 1955-
advises His Majesty on matters of Islamic Religion.
2. CAMBODIA
Prime Minister is the Head of Government in Cambodia. It is also the chairman of the
Cabinet and leads the executive branch of the Royal Cambodian Government. The PM is a
member of parliament, and is appointed by the monarch for a term of five (5) years.
➢ Executive Power is exercised by the Royal Government, on behalf of and with the
consent of the monarch.
➢ Judiciary Power is tasked with the protection of rights and liberties of the citizens, and
with being impartial arbiter of disputes.
➢ Supreme Court is the highest court of the country and takes appeals from lower courts on
questions of law.
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5. Chiefs of the orders of Mohanikay and Thammayut, and
6. First and Second Vice Presidents of the Assembly
3. THAILAND
Prime Minster is the Head of Government in Thailand. It is also the chair of the
Cabinet of Thailand. It must be a member of the House of Representatives, thus, qualifications
for the office of prime minister are the same as the qualifications of membership in the house.
The nominee and eventual prime minister is always the leader of the largest political
party in the lower house or the leader of the majority coalition formed an election.
Under current junta, the nominee for the office is selected by National Legislative
Assembly, with the House of Representatives being abolished.
o National Legislative Assembly (NLA) of Thailand (2014)- the unicameral
legislative branch of the government of Thailand during the National Council for
Peace and Order (NCPO) military junta between 2014 and 2019. It was
established after the NCPO ratified the 2014 constitution, thus making the NLA
the only parliamentary body of Thailand for the period of military rule.
▪ NCPO- a military junta that ruled Thailand between its 2014 Thai coup
d’état on May 22, 2014 and July 10, 2019. The military declared martial
law nationwide in an attempt to stop the country’s escalating political
crisis, and to force the democratically elected government out of office.
Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Thailand
Page | 5
o The ultimate responsible for the failings and performance of their ministers and
the government as a whole.
o Cannot hold office for a consecutive period of more than eight (8) years.
o Represents the country abroad and is the main spokesperson for the government at
home.
o Direct responsible for departments:
▪ National Intelligence Agency
▪ Bureau of Budget
▪ Office of the National Security Council
▪ Office of the Council of State
▪ Office of the Civil Service Commission
▪ Office of the National Economic and Social Development Board
▪ Office of Public Sector Development Commission
▪ Internal Security Operations Command
o Legislatively, all money bills introduced in the National Assembly must require
the PM’s approval.
o The PM can be removed by a vote of no confidence.
▪ Vote of No-Confidence (Motion of No-Confidence)- statement or vote
about whether a person in a position of responsibility is no longer deemed
fit to hold a position. [In the context of Parliament Motion, it demonstrates
to the head of state that the elected parliament no longer has confidence in
the appointed government.]
➢ Executive Branch- the PM is the head which exercise authority in and holding
responsibility for the governance of a state.
o Cabinet of Thailand or the Council of Ministers
▪ Composed of 35 ministers of state and deputy ministers.
▪ Responsible for the formulation and execution of policies of the
government.
➢ Legislative Branch- also called the Parliament of Thailand; the National Assembly of
Thailand is a bicameral legislature:
o The Senate (Upper House)- the current senate has 150 members. Seventy-six
members are elected, one per province from 75 provinces of Thailand and one
from the Bangkok Metropolitan Area. The other 74 are selected by the Senate
Selection Commission, made up of both elected and appointed officials. The
Senate sits for a set six-year non-renewable term. The Senate cannot be dissolved.
The Senate is presided over by a president of the Senate, who is also the Vice-
President of the National Assembly. He is assisted by two vice-presidents of the
Senate. The last election to the Senate was in 2008.
Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_Thailand
Page | 6
➢ Judiciary Branch-The judiciary of Thailand is composed of four distinct systems: The
Military Court (which has expanded its power since 22 May 2014), the Court of Justice
system, the Administrative Court system and the Constitutional Court.
Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_Thailand
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MALAYSIA
Malaysia is practicing Parliamentary Democracy with Constitutional Monarchy and
His Majesty The King as the Paramount Ruler. The Federal Constitution was legislated with the
setting up of conditions for this system to exist. One of the characteristics of Parliament
Democracy is the separation of powers into three (3) parts which are the Legislative, Judiciary
and Executive.
➢ Legislative Branch- the bicameral parliament consists of the lower house—the House of
Representatives or Dewan Rakyat (Chamber of the People), and the upper house—the
Senate or Dewan Negara (Chamber of the Nation). All 70 Senate members sit for 3-year
terms; 26 are elected by the 13 state assemblies; and 44 are appointed by the king based
on the advice of the Prime Minister. Parliament has a maximum mandate of 5 years by
law.
➢ Executive Branch- the real executive power is vested in the cabinet led by the Prime
Minister. The Malaysian constitution stipulates that the prime minister must be a member
of the Lower House of parliament who, in the opinion of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong
(YDPA), commands a majority in parliament. The Executive branch of the government
consists of the Prime Minister as the head of the government, followed by the various
ministers of the Cabinet.
➢ Judiciary Branch- The highest court in the judicial system is the Federal Court,
followed by the Court of Appeal, and two High Courts, one for Peninsular Malaysia, and
one for East Malaysia. The subordinate courts in each of these jurisdictions include
Sessions Courts, Magistrates' Courts, and Courts for Children. Malaysia also has a
Special Court to hear cases brought by or against all Royalty.
Role of the King:
➢ The monarch of Malaysia is the Yang di-Pertuan Agong (YDPA), commonly referred to
as the Supreme King of Malaysia.
➢ Malaysia is a constitutional elective monarchy, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong is selected for
a five-year terms from among the nine Sultans of the Malay states.
Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Malaysia
Page | 8
➢ The head of the state who in His Majesty’s judgement is to command the confidence of
the majority of the members of that House of Representatives (Dewan Rakyat).
➢ Head of the Islam in Malaysia
➢ Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces
Meanwhile, Indonesia and Laos are Democratic Republic countries in which they
practice a form of government operating on principles adopted from a republic and a democracy
that may function on principles shared by both democracies and republics. The former refers to a
type of government where the power to govern rests with a country’s people rather a ruling
family or a single individual, thus, the citizens control how their government operates, usually
through voting. On the other hand, the latter is government system where the power rests with a
nation’s citizens which they use elected officials to represent the will of their citizens within the
government.
4. INDONESIA
➢ Legislative Power- vested in both the government and the two (2) People’s
Representative Councils.
o People’s Representative Councils-alternatively translatable as the House of
Representatives or as the House of People’s Representatives, is one of elected
national legislative assemblies in Indonesia. Together with the Regional
Representative Council, a second chamber with limited powers, it makes up a
legislative body, the People’s Consultative Assembly.
➢ Judiciary Power- independent of the executive and the legislature. Its judges are
appointed by the president.
Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_republic
Ashley Robinson, October 6, 2019. What Is a Republic vs a Democracy? Understanding the Difference.
https://blog.prepscholar.com/republic-vs-democracy-difference
Page | 9
5. LAOS
➢ Legislative Branch-The National Assembly (Sapha Heng Xat) has 149 members (144
are LPRP, 5 independents), elected for a five-year term.
➢ Judicial Branch-The President of the People's Supreme Court is elected by the National
Assembly on the recommendation of the National Assembly Standing Committee. The
Vice President of the People's Supreme Court and the judges are appointed by the
National Assembly Standing Committee.
As for the legal profession, there are 188 lawyers in Laos who are members of the Laos
Bar Association according to a 2016 article. However, most of the attorneys have entered
the government sector and do not practice law—seldom giving thought to practicing in
the private sector. While there is evidence of female lawyers in Laos, there is no
indication as to how women have fared in the legal field.
Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Laos
Ashley Robinson, October 6, 2019. What Is a Republic vs a Democracy? Page | 10
Understanding thehttps://blog.prepscholar.com/republic-vs-democracy-difference
6. PHILIPPINES
➢ The government has three interdependent branches: the legislative branch, the executive
branch, and the judicial branch. The powers of the branches are vested by
the Constitution of the Philippines in the following:
➢ Legislative power is vested in the two-chamber Congress of the Philippines—
the Senate is the upper chamber and the House of Representatives is the lower chamber.It
is authorized to make laws, alter and repeal them through the power vested in the
Philippine Congress.
➢ Executive power is exercised by the government under the leadership of the President. It
is composed of the President and the Vice President who are elected by direct popular
vote and serve a term of six years. The constitution grants the President authority to
appoint his Cabinet. These departments form a large portion of the country’s
bureaucracy.
➢ Judicial power is vested in the courts with the Supreme Court of the Philippines as the
highest judicial body. It holds the power to settle controversies involving rights that are
legally demandable and enforceable. This branch determines whether or not there has
been a grave abuse of discretion amounting to lack or excess of jurisdiction on the part
and instrumentality of the government.
7. SINGAPORE
8. MYANMAR
The government of Myanmar, as defined by the Constitution of 2008, functions as a
parliamentary republic. In this type of government, the heads of the Cabinet are responsible for
carrying out the laws set forth by Parliament. In 2008, Myanmar established a new Constitution
and created a new form of government, which is divided into 3 branches: legislative, executive
and judicial.
9. TIMOR LESTE
East Timor takes place in a framework of a unitary semi-presidential representative
democratic republic, whereby the Prime Minister of East Timor is the head of government and
the President of East Timor exercises the functions of head of state.
Head of the Government: Prime Minister
Reference: https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-type-of-government-does-myanmar-have.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Myanmar Page | 12
Head of the State: President
Role of the Head of Government:
•
Preside over the council of ministers
•
To direct and guide the general policy of the government and all governmental
actions
➢ Executive power is exercised by the president and the government.
➢ Legislative power is vested in both the government and the National Parliament.
➢ The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. The East Timorese
constitution was modelled on that of Portugal, though the president is less powerful than
the Portuguese counterpart.
Role of the Head of State:
• Directly elected by popular vote for a five-year term, and whose executive powers
are somewhat limited by the constitution, through this official is able to veto
legislation, which action can be overridden by the parliament.
10. VIETNAM
Reference: http://timor-leste.gov.tl/?lang=en
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Vietnam Page | 13
https://www.parlimen.gov.my/pengenalan.html?&uweb=p&view=235&lang=en
Role of the Head of the State:
➢ Elected by National Assembly for a five-year tenure and can only serve for three (3)
terms.
➢ Acts as Commander-in-Chief of the Vietnam People’s Armed Forces and Chairman of
the Council for Defence and Security
➢ Has the right to decide on executive branch
➢ The President appoints the Vice President, Prime Minister, Ministers and other officials
with the consent of the National Assembly.
➢ The President is also the Head of the Central Steering Committee for Judicial Reform.
1. BRUNEI DARUSSALAM
2. CAMBODIA
➢ Under the Lon Nol government, Cambodia was divided into 20 provinces ( khet ), 7 sub-
provinces ( anoukhet ), 147 districts ( srok ), and more than 1,200 townships
( sangkat or khum ) and villages ( phum ).
➢ Under the Pol Pot regime, administration was essentially decentralized into several major
regions. Regions were divided into 41 districts, and the population as a whole was
organized in massive rural communes.
➢ Under the PRK regime, the pre-1975 system of administration has been restored. Based
on the People's Republic of Kampuchea's new constitution of June 1981 Local
Assemblies, popularly elected by the respective localities—province, district, sub-district,
ward—were instituted with the number of representatives fixed by law, and People's
Revolutionary Committee's chosen by the respective assemblies.
Reference: https://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Asia-and-Oceania/Brunei-Darussalam-LOCAL-
GOVERNMENT.html#ixzz6DMet9ESl Page | 14
➢ In 1987 Cambodia was divided into 18 provinces, two special municipalities (krong), and
Phnom Penh and Kampong Saom, which were under direct central government control.
The provinces were subdivided into about 122 districts, 1,324 communes, and 9,386
villages. Municipalities were subdivided into wards (sangkat).
➢ The new constitution of the State of Cambodia was adopted on 21 September 1993.
People's Committees established in all provinces, municipalities, districts, communes,
and wards were responsible for local administration, public security, and local order.
Within this system provincial officials and the governor effectively controlled the armed
forces and security services, tax collection, civil service—and through them 80% of the
Cambodian population.
➢ The country's provinces remained under the sway of the Cambodian People's Party (CPP)
and responded to the old political loyalties rather than the central authority of the State of
Cambodia. To alter this system the National Assembly passed laws to secure central
control of the economy. Effective 1 January 1994 a national budget and financial laws
were enacted to try to ensure that all revenues came totally and directly to the national
treasury. Provincial corruption and lawlessness remain severe problems, as
communications and infrastructure are extremely underdeveloped within Cambodia and
smuggling is rife.
➢ In February 2002, Cambodia held its first local elections in 23 years. The CPP claimed
victory in all but 23 of the 1,621 communes. FUNCINPEC won only seven of the village
communes. At least 20 political activists, mostly from opposition parties, were killed in
the run-up to the elections. The proportion of female candidates in the elections was 16%.
Reference: https://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Asia-and-Oceania/Cambodia-LOCAL-
GOVERNMENT.html#ixzz6DMqpid5p
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3. INDONESIA
To assure political loyalty to the regime, most of the appointed heads of local
governments, from the provinces down to kelurahan, were from the military services
(mainly the army) and police force. The regional heads were also assigned to eradicate
communism from the village level and the rural sector.
4. LAOS
➢ Laos consists of 16 provinces ( khoueng) , one special zone, Xaisomboun, and the
municipality of Vientiane.
➢ The provinces are subdivided into districts ( muong ), townships ( tasseng ), and villages
( ban ).
Reference: https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/201116/adbi-wp601.pdf
Page | 16
➢ The prime minister appoints deputy provincial governors and deputy mayors and district
chiefs.
➢ Since 1975, local administration has been restructured, with elected people's committees
in the villages functioning as basic units.
➢ Lack of control over local party members in the rural areas appears to be a source of
worry for the politburo, with its implications of corruption and even potential unrest.
5. MALAYSIA
➢ Local governments are generally under the exclusive purview of the state governments as
provided in the Constitution of Malaysia, except for local governments in the federal
territories.
➢ Local government has the power to collect taxes (in the form of assessment tax), to create
laws and rules (in the form of by-laws) and to grant licenses and permits for any trade in
its area of jurisdiction, in addition to providing basic amenities, collecting and managing
waste and garbage as well as planning and developing the area under its jurisdiction.
6. MYANMAR
➢ Myanmar is a unitary nation, ruled by a military Junta , comprising seven states and
seven divisions.
➢ Law and Order Restoration Councils (LORCs) serve as local administration, although
regional army commanders control the actual decision-making process. A LORC was
formed for each State, Division, Township Sector and Ward/Village Sector.
Reference: https://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Asia-and-Oceania/Lao-People-s-Democratic-Republic-LOCAL-
GOVERNMENT.html#ixzz6DN5bXZXf Page | 17
➢ The main distinction between the two kinds of units, which are functionally the same, is
that the states represent an area where a national ethnic minority is the local majority,
while the divisions have no such communal basis.
➢ The states are Arakan (Rakhine), Chin, Kachin, Karen (Kayin), Kayah, Mon, and Shan.
➢ The divisions are Irrawaddy, Magwe, Mandalay, Bago (Pegu), Sagaing, Yangon
(Rangoon), and Tenasserim. States and divisions are segmented into 317 townships.
➢ Village tracts consist of villages, and towns are divided into wards.
7. PHILIPPINES
Reference: https://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Asia-and-Oceania/Myanmar-LOCAL-GOVERNMENT.html#ixzz6DNDaySKq
Officially local government in the Philippines, often called local government
units or LGUs, are divided into three levels;
Page | 18
8. SINGAPORE
9. THAILAND
1. Old form under the Local Government Act, Buddhist Era 2457 (1914) – Under this
form, the subdistricts (tambon) are established in the districts and minor districts. Each
subdistrict is led by a subdistrict chief kamnan) and is divided into villages ( mu ban).
Each village is led by a village chief (phuyai ban; literally "village elder")
Page | 19
municipalities ( thetsabannakhon), 179 town municipalities (thetsabanmueang)
and 2,233 subdistrict municipalities ( thetsabantambon);
2. administrative organisations (ongkanborihan) which are divided into 76
provincial administrative organisations - PAO (ongkanborihansuanchangwat)
and 5,332 subdistrict administrative organisations - SAO
ongkanborihansuantambon), these are for the local communities, which are not
connected to a thetsaban.
A Fourth Tier also exists as Hamlet (xóm, ấp) and Village (làng, thôn, bản).
However, this is not an official tier.
1. VIETNAM
2. BRUNEI
3. THAILAND
• There are 750 seats in parliament but Thailand's electorate only votes for the 500 lower
house seats as the members of the 250 upper house seats are appointed by the military.
• Of the 500 seats, 350 are elected using a first-past-the-post system, and the remaining 150
MPs are allocated according to the proportional formula.
4. MALAYSIA
• Elections in Malaysia exist at two levels: federal level and state level.
• Federal level elections are those for membership in the Dewan Rakyat, the lower house
of Parliament.
• State level elections are for membership in the various State Legislative Assemblies.
• The heads of executive branch at both the federal and state levels, the Prime
Minister and Menteri Besar/Chief Ministers respectively, are indirectly elected, usually
filled by a member of the majority party/coalition in the respective legislatures.
• At the federal level, voters elect the 222-member House of
Representatives (Malay: Dewan Rakyat, literally "Hall of the People") of
the bicameral Parliament.
• Members are elected from single-member constituencies drawn based on population
using the first past the post system. The party that has the majority of the House of
Representatives will form the federal government.
• The Constitution of Malaysia requires that a general election must be held at least once
every five years. However, the Prime Minister can ask the Yang di-Pertuan Agong to
dissolve the Parliament at any time before this five-year period has expired.
• A general election should be held no later than two months in West Malaysia and three
months for East Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak) after the dissolution of the Parliament.
• At the state level, voters elect representatives to the Dewan Undangan Negeri (State
Legislative Assembly). The number of representatives varies between the different states,
with as many as 82 electorates in Sarawak and as little as 15 in Perlis. Members are
elected from single-member constituencies drawn based on population using the first-
Page | 22
past-the-post system. State assembly constituencies are usually smaller (in area and
population) than the parliamentary constituencies. The party that forms the majority of
the state assembly will form the state government.
• Usually, state elections are held simultaneously with the parliamentary election but each
state can decide when to hold its election. This is because state assemblies are dissolved
by their respective Ruler or governor on the advice of the chief minister of the state
• Although there used to be elections for members of local governments such as municipal
councils, no local government elections are held in Malaysia. Local government
elections were suspended after the Indonesia-Malaysia confrontation in 1964.
• The suspension was never lifted and instead made permanent under the Local
Government Act 1976. Under the Act, or the laws of individual states where relevant,
local government members are appointed by the state government.
• Election process
➢ Dissolution of the parliament- if dissolved election is called, should
happens every 5 years.
➢ Notice of election- national election commission will issue notice of
nomination and notice for Election Day.
➢ Nomination and campaign- public campaign
➢ Polling – vote casting usually last from 8am- 5pm
• Election occurs when a particular seat in the Dewan Rakyat becomes vacant. Such a
vacancy can occur when, a member of parliament (MP) dies, and an MP is disqualified
from being a member of the Dewan Rakyat; •a seat is declared vacant because the MP
has been absent from every sitting of the Dewan Rakyat for a period of six month months
without leave of the Dewan Rakyat, and the members of the Dewan Rakyat have decided
to declare the seat vacant. The exception is if the vacancy occurs when the tenure for the
current Parliament or state assembly is less than two years, where the seat is simply left
vacant until the next general election.
5. CAMBODIA
• Cambodia is a one party dominant state with the Cambodian People's Party in power.
• Cambodia's legislature is chosen through a national election.
• The general election is held every five years in the fourth Sunday of July.
• The Parliament of Cambodia has two chambers. The National Assembly of
Cambodia (Khmer: រដ្ឋ សភា, Rotsaphea) has 125 members, each elected for a five-year
term by proportional representation.
• The Senate (Khmer: ព្រឹទ្ធសភា, Protsaphea) has 62 members, mostly indirectly elected.
• Since the signing of the 1991 Paris Peace Accords ending decades of civil war
and foreign occupation, and with the final elimination in 1998 of armed insurgency
groups inside the country, five national elections have taken place in Cambodia in 1993,
1998, 2003, 2008 and 2013.
• The first national elections were administered by United Nations Transitional Authority
for Cambodia (UNTAC) in July 1993.
Page | 23
• the first commune-level election was held in February 2002 and the Cambodian
Senate was elected for the first time by the elected commune council officials in January
2006.
• Three main political parties have dominated Cambodian politics over the last decade:
➢ the Cambodian People's Party (CPP).
➢ The United Front for an Independent, Neutral, Peaceful, and Cooperative
Cambodia (FUNCINPEC)
➢ the Cambodia National Rescue Party (CNRP).
6. INDONESIA
• History
➢ Early elections (1955)
Indonesia's first general election elected members of the DPR and
the Constitutional Assembly of Indonesia (Konstituante). The election was
organised by the government of Prime Minister Ali Sastroamidjojo.
Sastroamidjojo himself declined to stand for election, and Burhanuddin
Harahap became Prime Minister.
The election occurred in two stages:
The election of the members of the People's Representative Council, which took
place on 29 September 1955. Twenty-nine political parties and individuals took
part;
The election for the members of the Constitutional Assembly, which took place
on 15 December 1955.)
➢ Beginning of the New Order (1971)
The first election after the establishment of the "New Order" took place on 5 July
1971. Ten political parties participated.
- It was held on 7 June 1999 under the government of Jusuf Habibie. Forty-eight political
parties participated.
-Under the constitution, the new President was elected by members of both houses of
Parliament in a joint sitting.
• Facts on Indonesian elections
➢ One of the worlds complicated and most expensive electoral system
➢ Third biggest democracy in world
Page | 24
➢ 8 agencies/ organization overseeing the election the POLICE, NATIONAL
ELECTION COMMISSION, BROADCASTING COMMISSION,
HONORARY ELECTION, FINANCIAL TRANSACTION REPORTING
AND ANALYSIS CENTRE, CURRUPTION ERRADICATION
COMMISSION, CONSTITUTIONAL COURT, ELECTION OVERSIGHT
BODY.
➢ The Indonesian people did not elect the head of the state until 2oo4, since the the
president elected for a 5-year term, As are the 575 members of the people
representative council, 136 seats for regional representative council, provincial
and municipal council.
7. LAOS
• Under the constitution of 1947 (as subsequently amended), Laos was a parliamentary
democracy with a king as the nominal chief executive.
• The monarch was assisted by a prime minister (or president of the Council of Ministers),
who was the executive and legislative leader in fact.
• The prime minister and cabinet were responsible to the national assembly, the main
repository of legislative authority, whose 59 members were elected every five years by
universal adult suffrage.
• With the establishment of the Lao People's Democratic Republic in December 1975,
governmental authority passed to a national congress made up of 264 delegates elected
by newly appointed local authorities.
• The congress in turn appointed a 45-member Supreme People's Council to draw up a
new constitution. Pending the completion of this task effective power rested with
Kaysone Phomvihan, a longtime Pathet Lao leader who headed the government as
chairman of the Council of Ministers and was also secretary-general of the Lao People's
Revolutionary (Communist) Party.
• The Lao national legislature, the Supreme People's Assembly (SPA), adopted new
election laws in 1988, and the first national elections under the current government took
place in March 1989 (local elections were held in 1988).
• Kaysone Phomvihan was elected president and Khamtai Siphandon was named prime
minister. The newly elected SPA set out to draft a constitution, which was finished in
mid-1990, and adopted on 14 August 1991 by the SPA.
• Khamtai Siphandon was elected president in 1998, and reelected in 2001.
• The executive branch consists of the president, prime minister and two deputy prime
ministers, and the Council of Ministers (cabinet) which are appointed by the president
with the approval of the National Assembly.
• The legislative branch is the 109-member National Assembly which is elected by
universal suffrage for a period of five years.
Reference: https://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Asia-and-Oceania/Lao-People-s-Democratic-Republic-
GOVERNMENT.html#ixzz6DN6e9b1c Page | 25
• The judicial branch is the Supreme People's Court Leaders. The constitution calls for a
strong legislature elected by secret ballot, but most political power continues to rest with
the party-dominated council of ministers, who are much aligned with the militar
• The last elections were held on March 20th, 2016.
• The Lao People's Revolutionary Party (LPRP) took 144 seats in the 149-member
National Assembly while the five remaining seats went to independents. Nearly 73% of
members were elected to the National Assembly for the first time. During the election
campaign, many candidates focused on development, promising to serve the interests of
the nation and the people.
8. MYANMAR
• Myanmar is a unitary republic, with elected representatives at the national and, state or
region levels.
• On the national level, the head of state, the President, is elected indirectly through
an Electoral College. According to the 2008 constitution, the term durations of
the legislature, the President, and the Cabinet are five years.[1]
• Voting occurred in all constituencies, excluding seats appointed by the military, to select
Members of Assembly to seats in both the upper house (the House of Nationalities) and
the lower house (the House of Representatives) of the Assembly of the Union, and State
and Region Hluttaws.
• Ethnic Affairs Ministers were also elected by their designated electorates on the same
day, although only select ethnic minorities in particular states and regions were entitled to
vote for them.
• The country has so far had 16 general elections since 1922; the last election was
in 2015 and the next is expected in 2020.
• All elections are regulated by the Union Election Commission.
• The 2008 constitution, drafted by the junta that handed power to President Thein Sein in
2011, reserves a quarter of all seats in parliament for the military.
• That means that only 75 percent of the seats in parliament were contested in the polls. So
to hold an outright majority of 51 percent in parliament, the NLD has to win more than
two-thirds of the seats contested.
• Seats in parliament
There are 440 seats in the lower house. 110 of them are reserved for the military.
There are 224 seats in the upper House. 56 of them are reserved for the military.
There are also 14 legislatures for the regions and states of Myanmar.
Page | 26
• Presidency
The upper house, the lower house, and the military bloc in parliament put forward one
presidential candidate each. The combined houses votes on the three candidates. The
presidential candidates do not have to be elected members of parliament.
The winner becomes president and forms a government, the losers become vice
presidents with largely ceremonial responsibilities.
• Cabinet
The president forms a cabinet, but the military controls three of the most powerful
ministries. They are the interior, defence and border security ministries.
9. PHILIPPINES
• Presidential elections are held every six years
• Congress, Senate and local elections are held in the years of presidential elections and
three years before and after them.
• Overseas Filipinos were allowed to vote in presidential elections for the first time in
2004.
• The voting age is 18 in the Philippines
• Elections are run by the Commissions of Elections (Comelec) and monitored by the
watchdog gro`up National Citizens Movement for Free Elections (Namfrel).
• The constitution established a Commission on Elections that is empowered to supervise
every aspect of campaigns and elections.
• comelec is composed of a chairperson and six commissioners, who cannot have been
candidates for any position in the immediately preceding elections. A majority of the
commissioners must be lawyers, and all must be college-educated. They are appointed by
the president with the consent of the Commission on Appointments and serve a single
seven-year term.
• The Commission on Elections enforces and administers all election laws and regulations
and has original jurisdiction over all legal disputes arising from disputed results.
• The constitution also empowers the commission to "accredit citizens' arms of the
Commission on Elections." This refers to the National Movement for Free Elections
(NAMFREL), a private group established in the 1950s, with advice and assistance from
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the United States, to keep elections honest. NAMFREL recruited public-spirited citizens
(320,000 volunteers in 104,000 precincts in the 1987 congressional elections) to watch
the voting and monitor ballot-counting, and it prepared a "quick count," based mostly on
urban returns, to publicize the results immediately. Because the Commission on Elections
can take weeks or even months to certify official returns, the National Movement for Free
Elections makes it harder for unscrupulous politicians to distort the results.
• To counter the unwholesome influence occasionally exercised by soldiers and other
armed groups, the commission may depute law enforcement agencies, including the
Armed Forces of the Philippines. In dire situations, the commission can take entire
municipalities and provinces under its control, or order new elections.
• Most of the seats in the bicameral legislature, consisting of the House of Representatives
and the Senate; a minority of House members known as sectoral representatives are
appointed by the president.
• The final decision on all legislative elections rests with the electoral tribunals of the
Senate and House of Representatives. Each electoral tribunal is composed of nine
members, three of whom are members of the Supreme Court designated by the chief
justice. The remaining six are members of the Senate or the House, chosen on the basis of
proportional representation from parties in the chamber.
• The 1987 constitution establishes a new system of elections. The terms of representatives
are reduced from four years to three, and the presidential term is lengthened from four
years to six
• The Constitution's transitory provisions are scheduled to expire in 1992, after which there
is to be a three-year election cycle
10. SINGAPORE
• There are currently two types of elections in
Singapore: parliamentary and presidential elections.
• According to the constitution of Singapore general elections for parliament must be
conducted within 3 months of the dissolution of parliament, which has a maximum term
of 5 years from the first sitting of parliament.
• Presidential elections are conducted every 6 years.
• The parliament of Singapore is unicameral with 89 seats. Since the legislative assembly
election in 1959,
• the People's Action Party has had an overwhelming majority, and for nearly two decades
was the only party to win any seats, and has always formed the government of Singapore.
Reference: http://factsanddetails.com/southeast-asia/Philippines/sub5_6f/entry-3903.html
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Presidential Election
Presidential elections have been held since 1993. Under the "Presidential Elections Act", to
run for president, one must obtain a "certificate of eligibility" from the Presidential Elections
Committee. To obtain this certificate:
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o in any other similar or comparable position of seniority and responsibility in any
other organisation or department of equivalent size or complexity in
the public or private sector which has given him such experience and ability in
administering and managing financial affairs as to enable him to carry out effectively
the functions and duties of the office of President.
• The Parliamentary elections include the general elections and by-elections. The
Parliament has a term of 5 years but may be dissolved at any time before the expiry of its
5-year term by the President on the advice of the Prime Minister. The general election
must be held within 3 months of the dissolution of the Parliament.
Legislation governing the conduct of the Parliamentary elections comprise:
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