American Zoo and Aquarium Association

Minimum Husbandry Guidelines for Mammals: Hyenas

and Aardwolves
AZA Mammal Standards Task Force, 1997
Alan Shoemaker (1) and Mike Dulaney (2)
(1) Riverbanks Zoological Park, PO Box 1060, Columbia, SC 29202 (2)
Cincinnati Zoo and Botanical Garden, 3400 Vine St., Cincinnati, OH 45220.

INTRODUCTION
The family Hyaenidae includes four species, three of which are heavy set,
dog-like carnivores that possess similar husbandry needs. For purposes of
this discussion, there are three species of hyena: the striped or common
hyena, Hyaena hyaena; brown hyena, H. brunnea; and spotted hyena,
Crocuta crocuta. An additional hyaenid, the aardwolf, Proteles cristatus, is
represented as a mono-specific genus which, because of its unique
morphology and insectivorous diet, is considered unique enough by some to
be placed within its own Family, Protelidae. In view of its external similarity
to the striped hyena as well as limited acceptance of this separate family
(Corbet and Hill, 1991), aardwolves will also be included in this discussion.

With one exception, hyaenids are solitary carnivores that function near the
top of their tropic level. While this behavior will permit the solitary species to
be housed singly, it also requires that the introduction of potential mates be
done carefully to prevent fighting, injury, or death. Their aggressive nature
and physical capabilities demand that owners exercise the utmost care when
designing cages or exhibits for any species, regardless of size, to insure that
specimens cannot escape or reach into adjacent cages, keeper or public
areas. Caution also should be exercised when handling otherwise
"tame" or hand-raised individuals.

GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
Some aspects of captive management for both hyenas and aardwolves are
similar, and are discussed below. Requirements unique to one or the other of
the two groups are listed separately.

Temperature:
Although hyenas and aardwolves may originate from tropical climates, most
are tolerant of a wide range of temperatures, at least during daylight hours.
Animals kept outside should always have access to shade, especially during
warmer parts of the year. When acclimated, most species without young
require only minimal shelter at night, although heated shelter may be needed
for animals kept in northern regions.
Aardwolves may be kept outside if they have access to a nest box with heat
lamps, or an artificial cave containing heated floor pads. In such cases, they
do well when nightly lows reach 32 degrees F (0 degrees C) without
experiencing any adverse results. When housed indoors, all hyaenids should
be protected from temperatures exceeding 85 degrees F (30 degrees C).
Indoor exhibits should have 10-15 air changes per hour of non-recirculated
air. A relative humidity of 30-70% is reasonable for this species. If kept
indoors, a separate ventilation system or solid glass barrier separating them
from visitors may be advisable in order to reduce the strong odor produced
by their anal glands as well as to protect them from the threat of disease
transmission.

Water:
Fresh clean water for drinking should be available at all times, and can be
accomplished by using a Lixit, a sturdy portable water container firmly
attached to a wall or an exhibit built-in, i.e. a small shallow pool or stream
(spotted hyenas frolic in tanks 3 feet deep). Regardless of size, water
containers should be cleaned and disinfected daily. Many hyenas enjoy
bathing and shallow pools should be incorporated into outside exhibits, as
appropriate.

Sanitation:
Hard-surface primary enclosures and food containers (if used) should be
cleaned daily and disinfected with detergent and disinfectant. Logs and play
objects should be included in this regime. Dirt substrates in outdoor exhibits
should be raked and spot-cleaned daily. Foot baths containing appropriate
disinfectants should be used prior to entering all hyaenid enclosures, or
areas containing enclosures, and their use
strictly adhered to by all personnel.

Veterinary Care:
Services of a knowledgeable veterinarian should be available prior to
obtaining any hyaenid. Periodic (at least twice annually) fecal examinations
should be performed to monitor and treat parasite infestation. A physical
exam should be performed annually and the results recorded. When the
opportunity arises, animals should be tattooed on the inner aspect of the
thigh with either the studbook or accession (ISIS) number, or receive an
transponder implant.

The degree of susceptibility of the Hyaenidae to viruses commonly

impacting canids and felids is not well understood, and many practices are
based upon successes with other carnivore species. Taxonomically
hyaenids are more closely related to felids than canids. Most carnivores
should receive Fromm D canine distemper of embryo origin that
derive from modified live virus (MLV) products. Although opinions vary,
annual vaccinations should probably include prophylaxis against both
canine distemper, a paramyxovirus, and feline distemper, a parvovirus
(Berger et al, 1992). The large colony of spotted hyenas maintained at the
Univ. of California-Berkeley for 10 years are vaccinated against canine
distemper, the adults on an annual basis, the young at 2, 3, 4 and 12 month
intervals (Berger, et al, 1992). Berger et al (1992) also recommend
protection against rabies. Only killed virus (KV) rabies products are
recommended (Berger et al, 1992).

Like the poorly understood nature of viral susceptibility impacting hyaenids,

the use of modified live virus (MLV) products versus killed virus products
varies among practitioners. Rettig and Divers (1986) prefers MLV products
on viverrids for more reliable protection while Berger et al (1992) uses KV
products to minimize the possibility of vaccine induced viral infection. Given
the endangered status of one hyaenid, coupled with the increased scarcity of
others from wild or captive born sources, KV products are probably the safer
of the two approaches even if more frequent levels of vaccination are
required. For more information, owners should consult Fowler (1986) and
Berger et al (1992).

Primiparous females frequently experience dystocia and should be

monitored closely at birth (Berger et al, 1992). Impending birth may often be
recognized by the pregnant female's refusal to eat, or by frequent urination
and spotty defecation.

SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS
For purposes of the following discussions, hyaenids are divided into two
groups: the true hyenas and the aardwolf. These are based on husbandry
and behavioral needs, and taxonomic relationship should not be inferred.

HYENAS

Hyenas are large, dog-sized carnivores well adapted to a scavenging mode

of existence. Their massive jaws and teeth are unusually capable of cracking
large leg bones and ribs, and smaller bones are commonly ingested whole.
Adults have a head and body length of 41-54", a tail length of 7-10", a
shoulder height of 23-37", and an average weight of 55-135 lb. Obesity can
be a problem among female spotted hyenas in captivity, some overweight
individuals exceeding 150 lb. Brown hyenas are the smallest
of the three species while female spotted hyenas are 10% heavier than
males. Also, the genitalia of female spotted hyenas mimics that of the male.
The clitoris is large and highly erectile, and two sacks containing fibrous
tissue closely resemble a scrotum and are located in the same area.
Although very hardy under the simplest of husbandry regimes, hyena
exhibits must be stout enough to withstand their destructive tendencies.
Longevities exceeding 20 years are not uncommon. Spotted hyenas have
reached 41 years of age (Jones, 1982) and brown hyenas 30 years
(Shoemaker, 1992).

Diet:
Hyenas do well on felid diets that are based on beef or horse products. Diets
of this type that already have the appropriate vitamins and minerals added
may be obtained from commercial sources. Similar diets may also be
prepared in-house. Whole animal carcasses (rodents, rabbits, or fowl) freshly
killed or thawed, may be substituted upon occasion to vary the diet. Because
of problems with obesity, hyenas may be fasted one or two days a week.
In the past, some owners fed hyenas muscle meat from freshly butchered
livestock. Although this source of feed is still used occasionally,
practitioners are cautioned that diets consisting primarily of whole or ground
muscle meat may be inadequate in vitamin/mineral content. Owners should
also be wary of carcasses obtained from road kills or donations because of
the potential for contamination. Feed animals from such sources should be
inspected to insure that they are free of disease. Diets containing
high percentages of fowl, including chicken or turkey necks, should be
avoided because of inadequate levels of calcium and phosphorous.
When more than one animal is maintained within the same cage, at least two
feeding areas should be used to reduce aggression. Because hyenas are
highly adapted to consuming bones, successful breeders recommend
including several bones in their diet every day (Berger and Frank, 1992). Beef
and sheep are best; where available, pig bones will suffice if frozen to
prevent trichinosis. All bones are crushed and ingested without difficulty.
Young can be hand raised on milk formulas that are developed for kittens. At
Berkeley, neonates are fed 70 ml of formula four times a day, gradually
changing to 200 ml of formula twice a day (Berger et al, 1992).

Exhibit needs:
Hyenas are kept in both indoor and outdoor situations. Normally active
animals with large territories, a single specimen should have at least 200
square feet, and should be increased by 50% for each additional animal.
Indoor exhibits may employ combinations of glass, gunite, solid masonry
products, or bars for barriers, the last requiring adequate space to protect
the public from being bitten. They may also be kept outdoors in moated
exhibits that have a retaining wall, or behind 9 gauge chain link
fencing. Although not good jumpers or climbers, hyenas swim well and are
prodigious diggers, and as a special precaution, chain link fencing should
extended 3 feet (1 meter) into the ground and extended at least 42 inches (1.2
meters) horizontally into the exhibit. Because of their nocturnal habits,
particularly striped and brown hyenas, a nest box or cave should be
provided for sleeping needs. Periodic feeding of small items will stimulate
activity during daylight (visitor) hours, and stereotypic behavior can be
reduced or avoided by the addition rocks, trees, and other impervious
objects which can be periodically replaced to increase interest.
Social needs:
Hyenas vary widely in their social needs, and groups should be developed
according to the behavioral characteristics of each species. Because female
spotted hyenas are larger than males, they dominate them in competitive
situations. Spotted hyenas are also the most social of the three species and
can be kept in groups containing several members of both genders if
specimens are obtained when young. A group containing 5-6 adults is
probably as large as can be maintained without too much
aggression developing, or causing ultimate injury to the lowest ranking
individual (L. Frank, pers.comm.). Once a group has become stable and its
members' social ranking established, it is not wise to remove individuals
from the group unless absolutely necessary. Adult females are especially
intolerant of other females and fighting may develop even after only brief
separations. In order to maintain the status quo, medical treatment should be
conservative when possible. Indeed, it is "routine" for subordinates to have
bite wounds about their shoulders and ears but due to their particularly thick
skin, such injuries are usually superficial. Striped and brown hyenas are
more solitary and do best when kept in pairs. Although establishing pairs of
striped hyenas is generally easy, the female being dominant over the male,
establishing a pair of brown hyenas can be difficult. Brown hyenas have a
unique social order in nature that is seldom broken in captivity (Mills, 1982;
Owens and Owens, 1979). In nature some young males leave the "clan" to
live solitary lives. Other males remain with their natal group. Those males
that remain with the natal clan become non-breeders, tolerating periodic
visits of nomadic males. Conversely, nomadic males periodically visit
various clans to breed with estrus females. In captivity, most males assume
the role of a clan male. If breeding does occur, reproduction usually
ceases long before either animal is old, the male showing little interest in
mating. Females of all species have 1 - 3 young per litter. It is common for
spotted hyenas to rear only one young at a time, the largest cub often killing
the smaller ones. An isolated cubbing den should be provided for females
approaching parturition, and escape tunnels are useful when young spotted
hyenas are being introduced to their dam's clan. Gestation is 90-110 days,
the spotted hyena having the longest gestation.

Remarks:
Hand raised hyenas may become very tame toward humans. Nevertheless,
they are very capable of injuring their owners and care should be taken
before entering the cage of such animals.

AARDWOLF

The aardwolf is the smallest member of the Hyaenidae, having a head and
body length of 21-31", a tail length of 8-12", and standing 17-19" at the
shoulder (Novak and Paradiso, 1983). Adults weigh 15-22 lb. The body hair is
rather long and coarse, and those on top of the neck and back can be
erected during times of excitement or when the animals are startled to make
the animal appear much larger than normal. Aardwolves are capable of
making loud growls or roars which, when coupled with mane erection, make
them appear quite formidable. Though used primarily as a means of
marking their territory, a foul smelling odor can be ejected from anal glands
in defensive situations. The aardwolf is primarily an insectivore, feeding on
termites and ants. Unlike hyenas which have immensely powerful jaws and
up to 34 teeth, the aardwolf has weak jaws that contain only widely spaced,
vestigial cheek teeth. Only the canines of their 24 teeth remain "normal" in
size, the others appearing to be of little use. The canines are sharp
and pointed, and are probably used for defense and in social interactions
(Nowak and Paradiso, 1983). In the wild aardwolves inhabit open, sandy
plains or bush country. When not in search of food, they spend the day in
underground dens, often taking over burrows abandoned by aardvarks,
Orycteropus afer, or crested porcupines, Hystrix africaeaustralis (Nowak
and Paradiso, 1983). Though generally found as single animals or in pairs,
there have been occasions where family groups of up to six animals have
been observed. After a gestation period of 90 - 100 days, a litter of 2-3 (range
1-5) young are born in the underground den site.

Diet:
Due to the shear numbers of insects consumed in the wild, captive
aardwolves, like other insectivorous mammals, should be fed a palatable,
high-protein gruel. A mixture of ground meats, dry and/or canned dog food,
and evaporated milk, supplemented with vitamins, is used by most
institutions maintaining this species. Because of the high caloric content of
meat-based diets in comparison to natural ones comprised primarily of
insects, captive aardwolves may become overweight unless the diet is
monitored carefully.

Exhibit Size:
Being the size of a medium-sized dog, aardwolves do not need a large
exhibit. Because of their general shyness, however, priority should be given
to the number of hiding places included within the exhibit. For a pair of
adults, housing should measure at least 10 feet by 10 feet as long as it
contains 1-3 nest boxes, dens, or caves, although larger enclosures may be
necessary for some pairing because of compatibility problems.
Aardwolves do not seem able to jump more than a few feet off the ground,
and do not climb well. When kept outside, a shallow dry moat or low (6 feet/2
meter) wall is usually enough to keep them contained. Aardwolves are
prodigious diggers and this form of behavior should be considered if the
animals are to be on natural substrate. Chain link fencing buried three feet
into the ground and then extending three feet into the enclosure
should be adequate to handle this situation.
Social grouping:
Depending on enclosure size, aardwolves can be housed singly, in pairs, as
single sexed small groups, or as extended family groups. Because some
pairs will not be compatible, facilities planning on breeding this species
should be prepared to try several combinations. Unlike husbandry
techniques commonly employed when breeding other carnivores, it is not
always necessary to separate male aardwolves from females prior to
parturition. Males often act as protectors of the "nursery" den.
Gestation averages 90 - 100 days (Nowak, 1983).

Remarks:
Aardwolves are predominantly crepuscular or nocturnal. They can be kept
indoors using reversed light cycles to stimulate activity during peak visitor
hours. Facilities keeping this species in outdoor exhibits will see the bulk of
their animal activity at dawn and dusk, with little being observed during
midday.

LITERATURE CITED

Berger, D.M.P.; Frank, L.G. and S.E. Glickman 1992. Unraveling ancient
mysteries: Biology, behavior, and captive management of the spotted
hyena, Crocuta crocuta. 1992 PROCEEDINGS JOINT MEETING AAZV/AAWV:
139147.
Corbet, G.B. and J.E. Hill 1991. A WORLD LIST OF MAMMALIAN SPECIES,
THIRD EDITION. Oxford University Press, London.
Divers, B.J. 1986. Hyaenidae. ZOO ANIMAL MEDICINE, M. Fowler (ed.): 827-
831. Fowler, M. 1986. ZOO ANIMAL MEDICINE, W.B. Saunders Co., Phila., PA.
Jones, M. 1982. Longevity in captive mammals. DER ZOOLOGISCHE
GARTEN. 52: 113-128.
Mills, M.G.L. 1982. The mating system of the brown hyaena, Hyaena brunnea,
in the southern Kalahari. BEHAVIORAL ECOLOGY AND SOCIOBIOLOGY.
10:131-136.
Owens, D.D. and M.J. Owens 1979 Communal denning and clan associations
in brown hyenas (Hyaena brunnea Thunberg) of the central Kalahari Desert.
AFRICA JOURNAL OF ECOLOGY. 17:35-44.
Nowak, R.M. and J.L. Paradiso 1983. WALKER'S MAMMALS OF THE WORLD.
The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and London.
Rettig, T. and B.J. Divers 1986. Viverridae. ZOO ANIMAL MEDICINE, M.
Fowler (ed.):822-827.
Shoemaker, A.H. 1992 1992 INTERNATIONAL BROWN HYENA STUDBOOK.
Riverbanks Zoological Park, Columbia, SC 25 pp.