J Syst Sci Complex (2013) 26: 104–116

HEART RATE VARIABILITY DURING

HIGH-INTENSITY EXERCISE
SARMIENTO Samuel · GARCÍA-MANSO Juan Manuel
· MARTÍN-GONZÁLEZ Juan Manuel · VAAMONDE Diana
· CALDERÓN Javier · DA SILVA-GRIGOLETTO Marzo Edir

DOI: 10.1007/s11424-013-2287-y
Received: 10 January 2012
The
c Editorial Office of JSSC & Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

Abstract The aim of this paper is to describe and analyse the behaviour of heart rate variability (HRV)
during constant-load, high-intensity exercise using a time frequency analysis (Wavelet Transform).
Eleven elite cyclists took part in the study (age: 18.6±3.0 years; VO2 max : 4.88±0.61 litres·min−1 ). Ini-
tially, all subjects performed an incremental cycloergometer test to determine load power in a constant
load-test (379.55±36.02 W; 89.0%). HRV declined dramatically from the start of testing (p <0.05).
The behaviour of power spectral density within the LF band mirrored that of total energy, recording
a significant decrease from the outset LF peaks fell rapidly thereafter, remaining stable until the end
of the test. HF-VHF fell sharply in the first 20 to 30 seconds. The relative weighting (%) of HF-VHF
was inverted with the onset of fatigue, [1.6% at the start, 7.1 (p <0.05) at the end of the first phase,
and 43.1% (p <0.05) at the end of the test]. HF-VHFpeak displayed three phases: a moderate initial
increase, followed by a slight fall, thereafter increasing to the end of the test. The LF/HF-VHF ratio
increased at the start, later falling progressively until the end of the first phase and remaining around
minimal values until the end of the test.
Key words Cycling, heart rate variability, wavelet.

1 Introduction
The cardiovascular system at rest is mostly controlled by higher brain centres and cardio-
vascular control areas in the brain through the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches of
the autonomic nervous system (ANS). Efferent sympathetic and vagal activities directed to the
sinus node are characterised by discharges largely synchronous with each cardiac cycle, which
can be modulated by central and peripheral oscillators. These mechanisms generate rhythmic
SARMIENTO Samuel · GARCÍA-MANSO Juan Manuel
Department of Physical Education, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain.
MARTÍN-GONZÁLEZ Juan Manuel
Physics Department, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain.
VAAMONDE Diana
Department of Morphological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Córdoba, Spain.
CALDERÓN Javier
Physical Activity Sciences Faculty, Polytechnic University of Madrid, Spain.
DA SILVA-GRIGOLETTO Marzo Edir
Andalusian Centre of Sports Medicine, Córdoba, Spain. Email: pit researcher@yahoo.es.
 This paper was recommended for publication by Editors FENG Dexing and HAN Jing.
 HEART RATE VARIABILITY DURING CYCLING 105

fluctuations in efferent neural discharge which manifest as short and long-term oscillations in
the heart period.
It is commonly accepted that heart rate variability (HRV) analysis is a non-invasive tech-
nique for assessing autonomic influences on the heart[1−4] . Evaluation criteria have been estab-
lished by the Task Force and accepted by the Board of the European Society of Cardiology and
the North American Society of Pacing, and Electrophysiology[5]. However, the criteria used in
different HRV series obtained during exercise vary slightly.
With physical activity, cardiovascular responses depend on the type, intensity, and volume
of exercise. The behaviour of HRV has been analysed in different types of endurance activity:
steady-state intensity[6−9] and incremental exercise[10−12].
During moderate exercise, HR is regulated initially by the ANS, with increased sympathetic
modulation and withdrawal of parasympathetic activity[4,13−15] . These changes are associ-
ated with local chemical factors and hemodynamic changes that are dependent on exercise
intensity[7,16,17] and accelerated breathing rates. Changes in breathing affect HR control in
different ways. Breathing and heart rate respond to a process involving both systems, known
as respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA). The effect of respiratory oscillation on blood pressure
can be ascribed to the cyclic variation in intrathoracic pressure, with breathing mechanically
perturbing venous return, cardiac output, and blood pressure. Such changes are detected by
baroreceptors, which cause changes in autonomic HR control[10,18,19].
During heavy exercise, the responses described above are exacerbated. Some studies indicate
that the ANS is no longer effective with these workloads[7,20−22] and that there are other
mechanisms, either mechanical[9,23,24] or functional[25] , which govern the cardiac response. Such
mechanisms imply the reflex baroreceptor action and the reflex neuronal feedback provoked by
muscle contraction[26].
We hypothesize that the nature of these mechanisms is observed when the subject reaches
a high level of fatigue and demands the organism an important effort in order to perform an
exercise. HRV is an especially sensitive indicator for minimal changes in the organism’s response
to workloads and, consequently, is an accurate indicator of how the organism reacts to fatigue
in exercises of different intensities giving us information on the response capacity, fatigue level,
and performance capacity. Thus, the aim of the present study was to describe and analyse
the behaviour of heart rate variability (HRV) during constant-load, high-intensity (HI) exercise
using a time frequency analysis (Wavelet Transform) of the time intervals between beats.

2 Methods

2.1 Participants
Eleven elite cyclists (descriptive anthropometric and physiological characteristics for the
sample are shown in Table 1) took part in this study. All subjects were informed of the nature
of the study, which complied with the ethical guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki, and all
gave their informed written consent to be included. The study protocol was approved by the
Ethics Committee of the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria.

2.2 Protocol
All subjects performed a preliminary incremental test to characterise the sample and de-
termine the workload for the HI exercise. Tests were performed using a cycloergometer with
an electromagnetic braking system (Jaeger ER800, Erich Jaeger, Germany). Before starting
the incremental load test, subjects spent 2 min at rest on the cycloergometer to determine
106 SARMIENTO SAMUEL, et al.

baseline values. After a warm-up period of 10 min (5 min at 50 W and 5 min at 100 W), all
subjects pedalled at between 80–90 rpm with load increases of 5 W every 12 s (25 min−1 ) until
exhaustion. One week later, the subjects performed a six-minute constant load-test (89.0% of
the maximum intensity obtained in the incremental test). This load was higher than the VT2
(second ventilatory threshold) load and lower than the maximum aerobic speed (379.55±36.02
W; 5.61±0.73 W·Kg−1 ).

Table 1 Subjects characteristics (n = 11). Mean and standard deviation

Age (years) 18.6 ± 3.0
Height (centimetres) 174.1 ± 6.2
Body mass (kg) 68.3 ± 7.4
Percentage fat (%) 8.7 ± 1.5
Relative workload (W·Kg−1 ) 5.61 ± 0.73
Percentage workload 88.95 ± 4.79 %
Rest Heart Rate (beats · min −1 ) 52.55 ± 8.34
Maximal Heart Rate (beats · min−1 ) 185.09 ± 6.06
Maximal Oxygen Uptake (litres · min −1 ) 4.88 ± 0.61

2.3 Measurement of Ventilatory Parameters and O2 Consumption

Subjects breathed normal air through a low-resistance valve using a mask of known dead
volume. The composition and volume of the expired air ware determined using a Jaeger Oxicon
Pro analyser (Erich Jaeger, Germany); this adheres to the standards of the American Thoracic
Society and the European Communities Chemistry Council. Gaseous exchange data were pro-
cessed breath-by-breath using LabManager v.4.53 software (Erich Jaeger, Germany). Prior to
each test, the equipment was calibrated using a gas with the following composition: 16% O2 ,
5% CO2 , and 79% N2 .

2.4 Measurement of R-R Intervals

HR was monitored beat-by-beat using a Polar S810i RR cardiotachometer (Polar Electro,
Oy, Finland) and a Jaeger ECG surface electrocardiograph (Viasys Healthcare, Erich Jaeger,
Germany). The cardiotachometric recording of HR is a validated method[27,28] . Cardiac data
were processed using Polar Precision Performance SW software v.3.00 (Polar Electro, Oy, Fin-
land). The obtained data were analysed in terms of two phases determined by the inflection
point in a double-logarithmic (log-log) plot of HR values vs. time. Values were analysed at the
following points: start, end of the first phase and minutes 2–3, 3–4, 4–5, and 5–6 after the first
phase, until completion of four one-minute intervals (second phase).

2.5 Time-Frequency Analysis of Heart Rate Variability

The cardiac signal was examined by analysing the intervals between beats; this provided a
measurement of HRV Wavelet transform (WT) provides a general signal processing technique
that can be used in HRV analysis[29,30]. WT utilises short windows at high frequencies and
long windows at low frequencies and can be successfully applied to non-stationary signals for
analysis and processing. It indicates which frequencies occur at what time, showing good time
resolution at high frequencies and good frequency resolution at low frequencies.
The wavelets are families of functions, defined both spatially and temporally, which are
generated by the scaling and translation of a function called mother wavelet or base function[31] .
t−b
Ψ a,b (t) = |a|−1/2 Ψ , (1)
a
 HEART RATE VARIABILITY DURING CYCLING 107

where Ψ is the mother wavelet, and the scaling and translation parameters a and b vary
continuously with regard to the group of real numbers (R) as long as a does not equal 0
(a = 0). The value of the scale enables dilatation and compression of the mother wavelet, while
the parameter of scale a corresponds to frequency information. The translation parameter b
locates the wavelet function in time along the length of the signal. Further mathematical details
on this procedure can be found in [32].
A discrete wavelet transform (DWT), with a Daubechies (Db8) type base function, was
initially used to eliminate the trend of the signal over time. A linear interpolation was then
applied to the remaining signal in order to obtain a uniform sampling. Finally, the digital RR
signal was subjected to continuous wavelet transform (CWT) using a Morlet-type base function
with ω = 6 and ω =20, which provided good quality time and frequency resolution, where ω
is a dimensionless frequency which defines the number of cycles of the Morlet wavelet. Large
values for ω are associated with improved frequency resolution, though at the expense of poorer
time resolution. For this reason, several values of the parameter ω were used, and it was found
that ω = 20 best fitted our purposes.
The value of power spectral density at each moment of the test was based on the sum of the
coefficient wavelets at each moment. The properties of a time series at different scales can be
summarized by discrete wavelet variance, which breaks down the variance of a time series on a
scale-by-scale basis. However, the number of wavelet coefficients at each scale, obtained by the
DWT, decreases by a factor of 2 for each increasing level of the transform, limiting the ability
to carry out statistical analyses on the coefficients. This limitation can be overcome if the
downsampling in the DWT is avoided by using the maximal overlap discrete wavelet transform.
The analysis was performed using Matlab software (Mathworks Inc., Natick, MA, USA). The
frequency ranges for the bands were: VLF < 0.04 Hz; LF 0.04 Hz to 0.15 Hz; HF 0.15 Hz to
0.4 Hz; VHF > 0.4 Hz.

2.6 Statistical Analysis

Standard statistical methods were used for the calculation of means and standard devia-
tions. Normal Gaussian distribution of the data was verified by the Shapiro-Wilk test. All
variables were compared by repeated-measures ANOVA followed by a Bonferroni post-hoc test.
Statistical significance was set at p <0.05. The statistical package SPSS 12.0.1 for Windows
was used for all calculations.

3 Results
HR and VO2 increased from the outset until the end of HI (Table 2). Their behaviour
displayed two clearly-differentiated phases: an initial phase (92.3±41.7seconds) with a rapid
increase in HR (Δ=35.9%; p <0.001) and VO2 (Δ=121.5%; p <0.001); and a second phase of
slow increase in HR (Δ=10.7%; p <0.001) and VO2 (Δ=14.1%; p <0.006), which lasted until
the end of the test (6 min). After the third minute of the second phase, increases in HR were
significant with regards the initial measurement (start) but not with regards the immediately
prior measurement.
Changes in cardiorespiratory response were accompanied by a significant drop in HRV (Ta-
ble 3) in both frequency bands (LF and HF), and in VO2 (Table 2).
108 SARMIENTO SAMUEL, et al.

Table 2 Means and standard deviation of HR and VO2 max during both phases of the protocol
Phases First phase (n = 11)
Variables Start End
HR(beat · min−1 ) 127.2 ± 6.9 169.9 ± 8.6∗#
VO2 (1 · min−1 ) 1.95 ± 0.1 4.32 ± 0.5∗#
Phases Second phase (n = 11)
Variables Phase 1 + 1min Phase 1 + 2min Phase 1 + 3min Phase 1 + 4min
HR(beat · min−1 ) 176.2 ± 6.0∗# 181.2 ± 4.3∗# 184.7 ± 4.7∗ 188.1 ± 7.0∗
−1 ∗# ∗# ∗
VO2 (1 · min ) 4.75 ± 0.4 4.90 ± 0.5 4.90 ± 0.6 4.92 ± 0.6∗
∗ Denotes significant difference (p <0.05) using repeated-measures ANOVA with respect to
the start measurement. # Denotes significant difference (p <0.05) using repeated- measures
ANOVA with respect to the immediately previous measurement.

Table 3 Average values and standard deviation (%) of changes in Total Power (TP),
Low Frequency (LF), and High Frequency (HF) in the two phases of the test
TP(%)a 100 24.4±21.4∗ 10.7±12.1∗ 4.2±9.1 4.2±9.1 3.3±8.0
b
LF(%) 98.4±1.4 92.9±17.9 95.7±7.0 90.3±8.6∗ 73.8±26.4∗ 56.9±20.2
HF(%)b 1.6±1.4 7.1±17.9∗ 4.3±7.0 9.7±8.6∗ 26.2±26.4 43.1±20.2
a b
Represents the relative value (%) with respect to PT at the start of the test. Represents
the relative value (%) with respect to PT at each moment of the test. ∗ Denotes significant
difference (p <0.05) using repeated-measures ANOVA.

The behaviour of the HRV frequency spectrum over the course of the test can be seen
in Figure 1, where the spectrogram (CWT) is shown with the weighting of frequencies (in
greyscale) of one of the subjects during the test. As well as changes in power spectral density
for each frequency, the graph also shows the pattern displayed by the peaks of the two bands
(HF>0.15 Hz; LF<0.15 Hz), represented by the line corresponding to the DWT (Daubechies
base function ω = 8) applied to the HF-VHF band. However, the DWT did not detect the
appreciable changes recorded for HF-VHF peaks at the start of the test.

Continuos Wavelet Transform of HRV (mother function: Morlet6)

1.4

1.2

1
Frequency (Hz)

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

750 800 850 900 950 1000 1050

Time (s)

Figure 1 Frequency spectrum (CWT Morlet base function with ω = 6 in greyscale and
outline mode of four levels) of HRV. Shows the changes in frequency compo-
nents (Hz) plotted against time (s). Superimposed is the DWT (Daubechies
base function ω = 8) with peaks of maximum energy in the HF-VHF band
shown in Hz by the solid black line. The X axis shows the time of the test
(Start: 720 s) and the Y axis shows the frequencies (Hz)
 HEART RATE VARIABILITY DURING CYCLING 109

Figure 2 shows the typical pattern, represented by one of the sample subjects, of values for
PT (upper left), HF-VHF (upper right), LF (lower left), and the LF/HF ratio (lower right).
This pattern, with individual idiosyncrasies, was observed in all subjects under evaluation.

x 10
4 PT HF
1000

900
2.5
800
Power Spectral Density (P.S.D.)

Power Spectral Density (P.S.D.)

2 700

600
1.5
500

400
1
300

200
0.5
100

0 0
750 800 850 900 950 1000 1050 1100 1150 1200 750 800 850 900 950 1000 1050 1100 1150 1200
Time (s) Time (s)

x 10
4 LF Ratio LF/HF

600
2.5

500
2
Power Spectral Density (P.S.D.)
Power Spectral Density (P.S.D.)

400
1.5

300

1
200

0.5
100

0 0
750 800 850 900 950 1000 1050 1100 1150 1200 750 800 850 900 950 1000 1050 1100 1150 1200
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 2 Typical pattern observed for PT values (upper left), HF-VHF values
(upper right), LF values (lower left), and the LF/HF ratio values (lower
right). This pattern, with individual idiosyncrasies, was observed in all
subjects under evaluation

Figure 3 shows the relationship between the frequency spectrum of the HF-VHF band,
expressed by the total of the wavelet coefficients, and heart rate (top) and respiratory frequency
(bottom) for one of the sample subjects. It should be noted how there is a drastic change in
spectral density with regards to functional parameters; that is, from a certain cardiorespiratory
level (HR > 178 and over 40 breaths/minute), drastic changes (fall in spectral density) in the
high frequency band are observed.

4 Discussion
The data obtained confirmed that WTs are an accurate and highly-sensitive method of
detecting small changes in the HRV signal due to exercise, enabling a more detailed examination
of certain specific aspects of the acute response to intense, medium-duration endurance exercise
(3 to 19 min) which are not perceptible using other evaluation instruments.
110 SARMIENTO SAMUEL, et al.

4.1 Heart Rate Response

At the outset of abrupt high-intensity exercise, HR increases rapidly in proportion with work
rate. The initial increases were rapid and intense (Start: 127.2±6.9beat ·min−1 ; Phase-Iend:
169.9±8.6 beat ·min−1 ; p <0.001), reaching values greater than 90% of HRmax at the end of the
first phase. The subjects started the test with a relatively high HR after warm-up (Table 2).
During the second phase, HR continued to show a slight, but statistically-significant increase
until the end of the test (Table 2).

HF−VHF vs. HR
2000
Figure A
1800

1600
High & Very High Frecuency (P.S.D.)

1400

1200

1000

800
178 beats/min−1
600

400

200

0
120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190
Heart Rate (beats/min−1)

HF−VHF vs. BF
6000
Figure B

5000
High & Very High Frecuency (P.S.D.)

4000

3000

2000 40 breath/min−1

1000

0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Breathing Frecuency (breaths/min−1)

Figure 3 The upper figure shows the spectral density of the HF-VHF band (Y axis) and
heart rate (X axis). The lower figure shows spectral density for the HF-VHF
band (Y axis) and breathing frequency (X axis). Both figures relate to the same
subject from the sample
 HEART RATE VARIABILITY DURING CYCLING 111

4.2 Effect of High-Intensity Exercise on HRV

HRV, expressed in terms of total power spectral density (PT) and determined on the basis
of wavelet coefficients, decreased dramatically after the first few seconds after starting tests. At
the end of the first phase PT fell by 75.6±21.4% (p <0.05) compared to baseline values. At the
end of the first phase (90.6±30.5 seconds), parasympathetic control may have disappeared, or
fallen to minimal levels, whilst sympathetic activity may also have been seriously compromised;
the changes observed in HRV would depend very directly on other mechanical and functional
variables.
With strenuous exercise, ANS initially increases mainly due to the muscle chemoreflex,
whereas central command increases HR and cardiac output through vagal withdrawal[13]. Con-
sequently, HRV decreases in total power and in the two major frequency bands: low frequency
(LF) and high frequency (HF)[4,13−15] . This response initially involves parasympathetic with-
drawal and augmented sympathetic activity[4,13−15] .
The reason for the increased sympathetic activity at the start of exercise is not fully un-
derstood at present. While a number of authors, including Vı́ctor, et al.[33] , Rotto, et al.[34] ,
and Sinoway, et al.[35] link metabolic acidosis to increased sympathetic activity, Vissinget, et
al.[36] suggested that no parallel exists between the functional responses. Nevertheless, plasma
epinephrine levels increase sharply at around 60% VO2 max [37−39] . Some researchers believe
that sympathetic activity remains unchanged up to 100% of ventilatory threshold and increases
abruptly at 110%[40] and that total parasympathetic withdrawal does not occur even during
high-intensity exercise[21,41] .
Retention of parasympathetic tone during exercise could be a beneficial response for the
organism, allowing it to respond rapidly to changes in blood pressure[42]. However, Rowell &
O’Leary[21] suggest that, during progressive exercise, sympathetic activity does not increase
until parasympathetic restraint is exhausted. These changes in autonomic tone have been
associated with changes in central command baroreflex and activation of muscle afferents[43,44] .
Other authors suggest that parasympathetic activity only decreases significantly at 50% VO2 max
while sympathetic activity increases slightly at lower intensities (50%–60% VO2 max ) and more
markedly when the intensity is moderate[45,46] .
Here, intensity was pronounced, causing significant changes in the athletes’ organisms. Dur-
ing heavy exercise, eliciting increases in sympathetic activity, marked functional parasympa-
thetic tone exists[42,45] .

4.3 Effect of High-Intensity Exercise in LF

From the start of the test, the absolute values of LF fell rapidly (77.8±22.6%), in a manner
similar to that of PT. However, in the first few moments, LF continued to account for most
of the total HRV power spectral density (98.3±2.3%). This fall in LF was accompanied by
a progressive reduction in peaks in this frequency band. During the second phase, the power
spectral density continued to fall throughout the test, reaching final values of <4% of total
baseline variability.
The reduction in LF (ms2 ) values with medium- and high-intensity loads has been reported
in other studies[18,47] . Only one published study recorded increases in LF values during a ramp
test[48] , but it should be noted that VLF (0.00–0.004 Hz) values were included within the LF
band.

4.4 Effect of High Intensity-Exercise in HF-VHF

HF-VHF data are valuable in this type of test, in that they are closely linked to respiratory
response and to the mechanical characteristics of the activity. In all the assessed subjects, the
112 SARMIENTO SAMUEL, et al.

pattern of spectral density divided into three phases: an initial sharp fall (20 to 30 seconds);
a period of minimal values lasting for part of the second phase of the test; and a progressive
increase when levels of fatigue become pronounced (≈170 beat ·min−1 ). This final increase in
spectral density was almost three times the minimum value observed throughout the duration
of the test (second minute) and was accompanied by greater instability in values.
The relative weight (%) of the two frequency bands (LF and HF-VHF) varied with exercise
in proportion to the intensity of effort and the duration of the test. Despite the continuous
decrease in total power spectral density, the greater weight of variability was always observed
in the LF band. With fatigue, however, the relative weight (%) of HF-VHF increased, while
that of LF fell, thus modifying the LF/HF ratio. Detection of the intensity or timing HF-VHF
weighting increases could provide a means of controlling the training load and assessing athletes.
Fatigue and the accompanying mechanisms exert a mechanical effect on the sinus node
through forced hyperventilation, prompting a progressive increase in HFpeak . The HF-VHF
peaks tend to behave in a similar manner to respiratory frequency[11,12,49] . In the HI tests, the
HFpeak behaved idiosyncratically in the first phase (Figure 1), exhibiting two distinct patterns
in this period. Over the course of the first seconds, (≈30 ) peaks tended to increase slightly,
continuing to increase until the end of the phase. Later, during the second phase, HF-VHF
peaks increased progressively until effort ceased. It should be recalled that the HFpeak is strongly
associated with breathing. However, it must be noted that there is no consensus, up-to-date,
on the mechanisms affecting at these intensities the observed changes, especially with regards
to low-frequency band when the subject reaches a level of cardiorespiratory response that is
close to the anaerobic threshold.
The increase in HF in high-intensity physical effort has also been reported in [7, 9, 10–12, 49,
50], and is almost always linked to increases in respiratory frequency and amplitude. Increased
hyperventilation can exert mechanical effects on the sinus node that manifest themselves in in-
creased values for HF-VHF (peak and absolute values).This increase in HF may be attributable
to the critical situation undergone by the cardiac system in extreme states of fatigue. This
seems to indicate that, at extremely intense levels of effort, HR is not modulated by the vege-
tative system, but rather that it responds to non-neural effects such as muscular mechanisms
and the intense forced respiratory dynamic.
It is also worth noting that during the second part of the test, VE and breathing frequency
(BF) maintained consistently high values, and the ventilatory parameter that took longest to
reach its maximum values was VE (247.36±79.91 seconds). The tidal volume (TV) very soon
reached its maximum value (157.73±62.65 seconds), while BF continued rising until virtually
the end of the test (272.36±91.10 seconds).
Figure 3 shows that the increase in the power spectral density of HF-VHF occurred at 133
seconds into the test. The HR at this point was 176–177 beats·min−1 while BF was 47–48
resp·min−1 . VC had already reached its maximum level and VO2 was around its maximum
response level. In this particular subject, however, BF was still at 60% of its maximum value,
while VE was at 70%. This confirms that the increase in respiratory rhythm is especially
important for the HRV response in the HF-VHF band.
The pattern confirms the close relationship existing between cardiac response and ventilatory
response (RSA). The number of beats per breath at this point was significantly lower than
baseline. The figure of five to eight beats normally found at the start of the test fell to three
beats per breath, or fewer, in the moments leading up to the conclusion of the test. Cottin,
et al.[7] also found a lower number of beats per breath during intense exercise, adding that
working at an intensity of > VT2 did not alter cardiorespiratory synchronisation.
It should also be mentioned that, at the end of the test, the subjects frequently tried to
keep up the work rate using anomalous movements in mechanical response (force applied to the
 HEART RATE VARIABILITY DURING CYCLING 113

pedal and cadence) and forced functional responses (cardiorespiratory and muscular responses).
Sumi, et al.[9] , Blain, et al.[51] , and Lunt, et al.[52] linked oscillations at the end of the test with
the subject’s pedal cadence during this phase. The authors emphasise that there is a high
correlation coefficient between the peak of HF and the pedalling frequency, demonstrating that
the work rate manifests itself in HRV and specifically with the development of the HF spectrum.

4.5 LF/HF Ratio Analysis

The LF/HF ratio increased sharply during the first minute of the test (20 –40 , but subse-
quently declined, reaching minimum values when the value of VO2 stabilised. Similar findings
are reported in studies using an intensity > VT2[40,46,53] .
In summary, this means a proportional increase in the weight of VHF and HF bands with
regards to the total variability of the signal which, as explained in previous paragraphs, coincide
with a significant decrease of vegetative control and a coupling of the signals in the high-
frequency bands with the mechanical workload that the athlete performs during the pedaling
action.

5 Conclusion
A basic problem in HRV analysis is non-stationarity of the heart rate signal, which holds
particularly true for exercise conditions. Standard spectral HRV analysis (i.e., FFT) should
not be applied to exercise conditions. The use of WTs analyses shows much promise in this
area. The use of WT allows for the detailed assessment of the evolution of the cardiac response
enabling us to individually establish the moments in which the organism establishes functional
modifications in order to respond to the impact of the intensity load.
With wavelet transforms, changes in HRV signal of energy (total, LF, and HF-VHF) and
the evolution of peaks of the two assessed bands (LFpeak and HF-VHFpeak ) may be used for
instantaneous and continuous control of the organism’s functional response, enabling us to
detect minimal adaptive changes in the organism as a response to exercises of different intensity
and duration. It can be stated, overall, that the relative weight (%) of the two frequency bands
(LF and HF-VHF) varied with regards to exercise in proportion to the intensity of the effort
and the duration of the test. Despite the continuous decrease in total power spectral density,
the greater weight of variability was always observed in the LF band. With fatigue, however,
the relative weight (%) of HF-VHF increased, while that of LF fell, thus modifying the LF/HF
ratio.
Most of the studies on HRV and exercise justify these changes from the modification to
the vegetative response as effect of fatigue and its influence on the cardiac rhythm. Special
attention is given to the marked decrease of HRV with workload increase and to the decrease
in vagal withdrawal. Yet, part of the changes that take place in HRV, specially when fatigue is
elevated, are directly related with the type of activity and the effect the mechanical work has
on respiratory rhythm, ventilation, hemodynamic changes, and cardiac response.
In our study, the use of TW allows us to observe how HRV indices are very directly influenced
by both cycling cadence and power output at the end of exercise. This cardiolocomotor coupling
has been proposed to optimize blood flow to contracting muscles and minimize the energy cost
of cardiac muscle contraction[54] .

6 Practical Applications
Being able to assess the HRV profile for each moment of an exercise, independently from
114 SARMIENTO SAMUEL, et al.

work intensity, enables the sports technician to establish the individual evolution of fatigue
during the execution of an effort. From a functional standpoint, this methodology enables us to
perform a very precise analysis as to how the cardiorespiratory system instantaneously adjusts
to the exercise demands showing specific responses of the frequency spectrum when fatigue
starts to compromise the mechanical response.

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