Am PDF

Experiment 1
AM Modulation
Objectives:
• Understanding and applying different types of AM transmission.
Equipments:
• 736 201 CF-Transmitter 20 kHz.
• 736 221 CF-Receiver 20 kHz.
• 726 09 Panel Frame-T130, two Level.
• 726 86 DC-Power Supply ± 15 V/3 A.
• 726 961 Function Generator 200 kHz.
• 501 46 Pair cables 100 cm, red/blue.
• 501 461 Pair cables 100 cm, black.
• 501 511 Set of 10 Bridging plugs, black.
• 1 524 013S Sensor-CASSY 2 – Starter.
Theoretical background:
In electrical telecommunications engineering, messages are usually in the form of

time-dependent electrical quantities, for example, voltage u(t) or current i(t). These
kinds of quantities which are described by time functions are called signals. In order
to transmit messages a parameter of the electrical signal must be suitably influenced.
In cases where a signal defined as a time function is known and the signal value can
be determined exactly at any given point in time, then the signal is called
deterministic.
In amplitude modulation (AM) the momentary value of the message signal 𝑠𝑠𝑀𝑀 (t) has
an immediate effect on the amplitude of the carrier oscillation 𝑠𝑠𝐶𝐶 (t). This takes place
in a modulator, see Fig. 1.
Figure 1: Generation of AM signal.
Here it would be:

𝑠𝑠𝐶𝐶 (t) = 𝐴𝐴𝐶𝐶 cos (2 π 𝑓𝑓𝐶𝐶 t) for the high-frequency carrier and 𝑠𝑠𝑀𝑀 (t) = 𝐴𝐴𝑀𝑀 cos (2 π 𝑓𝑓𝑀𝑀 t) for
the low frequency message signal. The combining of the carrier and message signal in
themodulator then provides the following modulation product:
𝑠𝑠𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 (t) = [𝐴𝐴𝐶𝐶 + α 𝑠𝑠𝑀𝑀 (t)] cos (2 π 𝑓𝑓𝐶𝐶 t) = [𝐴𝐴𝐶𝐶 + α 𝐴𝐴𝑀𝑀 cos (2 π 𝑓𝑓𝑀𝑀 )] cos (2 π 𝑓𝑓𝐶𝐶 t)
Where α stands for the modulator constant, which expresses the affect of the message
signal 𝑠𝑠𝑀𝑀 (t)on the amplitude 𝐴𝐴𝐶𝐶 of the carrier. Normally the equation is described in
more general terms.
For this you need the following definitions:
Δ𝐴𝐴𝐶𝐶 = α 𝐴𝐴𝑀𝑀 Amplitude deviation
M = Δ𝐴𝐴𝐶𝐶 / 𝐴𝐴𝐶𝐶 Modulation index
Amplitude deviation Δ𝐴𝐴𝐶𝐶 describes the maximum change away from the original
value 𝐴𝐴𝐶𝐶 in thecarrier amplitude. The modulation index m reproduces the ratio of the
amplitude deviation to thecarrier amplitude.
Procedure:
Double side band
Assemble the components as shown below. Set the function generator to: sine wave,
𝐴𝐴𝑀𝑀 = 2 V and 𝑓𝑓𝑀𝑀 =2 kHz.
1. Set toggle switch to CARRIER ON setting.

2. Load the CASSY Lab 2.
3. Start the measurement by pressing F9.
4. Display the output signal of the modulator M2 on CASSY lab 2 (this signal is
called the modulation product 𝑺𝑺𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 = (t) and the modulating signal 𝑺𝑺𝑴𝑴 = (t) of the
function generator (Modulation product on channel B, modulating signal on
channel A of Sensor - CASSY 2 - Starter). Shift the AF signal (modulating
signal) to the upper or lower envelope curve of theAM signal. For this purpose
see the CASSY lab 2 settings.
5. Vary the frequency 𝒇𝒇𝑴𝑴 and the amplitude 𝑨𝑨𝑴𝑴 of the modulating signal of the
frequencygenerator. What do you observe?
6. Trigger to the modulating signal 𝑆𝑆𝑀𝑀 (t). Reduce the AM signal of function
generator to approx. 1 V. Determine the modulation indexm.
where; D: the peak to peak value of the maximum of he AM signal

d: the peak to peak value of the minimum of the AM signal.
Distortion can only be detected with difficulty when determining the modulation
depth directly fromthe modulated signal. A better approach is to determine m from the
modulation trapezoid.
7. For this Sensor - CASSY 2 is operated in XY modus and the message signal
sM(t) is used for horizontal deflection. The result obtained on the screen is a
trapezoid which opens to the left. Set the function generator to: sine, 𝑨𝑨𝑴𝑴 = 2 V
and 𝒇𝒇𝑴𝑴 = 2 kHz.
Double side band suppressed carrier (DSB-SC)
8. Set the toggle switch to CARRIER OFF.

9. Set the function generator to: sine, 𝑨𝑨𝑴𝑴 = 2 V and 𝒇𝒇𝑴𝑴 = 2 kHz.
12. Display the modulation trapezoid, assess the modulation distortion.
13. Repeat the experiment. This time feed the modulating signal 𝒔𝒔𝑴𝑴 (t) via the low
pass (LP) filter in modulator M2. Set the function generator to: sine, 𝑨𝑨𝑴𝑴 = 2 V
and 𝒇𝒇𝑴𝑴 = 2 kHz.
14. Vary 𝒇𝒇𝑴𝑴 and write you observations.
Spectrum of DSB
15. Set the toggle switch to the CARRIER ON position.
16. Use a sinusoidal signal with 𝑨𝑨𝑴𝑴 = 2 V and 𝒇𝒇𝑴𝑴 = 2 kHz of the function generator as
the modulating signal 𝒔𝒔𝑴𝑴 (t). Feed the modulating signal into the input LP filter of
the CFtransmitter.
17. Measure the AM spectrum in the range from approx. 15 kHz up to 25 kHz.
For this Sensor - CASSY 2 - Starter is operated in FFT modus. For this purpose
see the CASSY lab 2 settings.
19. Repeat the experiment for 𝒔𝒔𝑴𝑴 (t): Sinusoidal, 𝑨𝑨𝑴𝑴 = 1 V and 𝒇𝒇𝑴𝑴 = 3 kHz.
20. Feed the modulating signal𝒔𝒔𝑴𝑴 (t) directly (without the LP filter) into the
modulator M2 (why?). Keep the Sensor - CASSY 2 -
21. Starter settings unchanged. Load the CASSY Lab 2.
Compare the results.
How does the upper side line respond as a function of the signal frequency 𝒇𝒇𝑴𝑴 ?
What about the lower side line?
What is the frequency response of the lower side line and upper side line?
Determine the transmission bandwidth of the𝑨𝑨𝑴𝑴 signal based on the
measurements.
Generalize your results for a randomly taken modulatingsignal.
Determine the modulation depth m from the various spectra.
Calculate the transmission bandwidths in DSBbased on the spectra.
Spectrum of DSB-SC

23. Use a sinusoidal signal with 𝑨𝑨𝑴𝑴 = 2 V and 𝒇𝒇𝑴𝑴 = 2 kHz of the function generator
as a modulating signal.
Measure the spectrum as described in the past section “Spectrum of DSB”.
The single sideband AM (SSB)
In DSB each sideband carries all of the information contents. The transmission
bandwidth could thus be reduced by half, if one sideband is suppressed. It does not
matter which sideband is used for transmission and which one is suppressed. The
upper sideband appears in the normal position, the lower one in the inverted position.
If, for example, we suppress the lower sideband in Fig. 2.4 then we obtain:
Figure 2.4: Representation of SSB.

Figure 2.5: Representation of SSB
Set up the experiment as specified below. Connect the output of the function
generator directly to the AF input of the modulator M2. Set the function generator to:
sinusoidal, AM = 2 V and f M = 2 kHz.
Figure 2.6: Single side band

SSBRC
1 Set the toggle switch to CARRIER ON.
2 Feed a sine signal from the function generator with f = 2 kHz, A = 1.5 V
3 Display the output signal of the channel filter CH2 and the modulating signal sM(t)
of the function generator on Sensor - CASSY 2 - Starter and sketch the signals.
(Modulation product on channel B, modulating signal on channel A of Sensor -
CASSY 2 - Starter).
4 Load the CASSY Lab 2.
5 Start the measurement by pressing F9.
6 Shift the AF signal to the upper or lower envelope curve of the AM signal. Vary the
frequency f M and the amplitude AM of the modulating signal. What do you observe?
Trigger to the modulating signal s M (t). Switch the modulating signal off. Measure the
nattenuated carrier amplitude AC at the input of the channel filter, as well as the
amplitude ARC of the attenuated carrier at the output of the channel filter. Calculate
the ratio k = ARC/AC. Determine the carrier suppression t in dB according to the
equation:
SSB-SC
8. Proceed as described in the paragraph “SSBRC”.
11. What features does the SSBSC signal have?
Spectrum of the SSB
SSB-RC
12. Set the toggle switch to CARRIER ON. As the modulating signal use a sinusoidal
signalwith AM = 2 V and fM = 1 kHz. Feed the modulating signal into the input
LP filter of the CFtransmitter.
13. Measure the SSB spectrum in the range of approx. 15 kHz up to 25 kHz obtained
from:
Label the spectral lines. Determine the transmission bandwidth of the AM signal
based on the measurements. Generalize the results for the case of any modulating
signals.
SSB-SC
14. Set the toggle switch to CARRIER OFF. Use a sinusoidal signal with AM = 2 V
and f M = 2 kHz as a modulating signal. Measure the spectrum as described in the
previous paragraph “SSB-SC”.
Experiment 2
AM demodulation
Equipments
• 736 201 CF-Transmitter 20 KHZ
• 736 221 CF-Receiver 20 KHZ
• 726 09 Panel Frame-T130, Two Level
• 726 86 DC-Power Supply ± 15 V/3 A
• 726 961 Function Generator 200 kHz
• 501 46 Pair cables 100 cm, red/blue
• 501 461 Pair cables 100 cm, black
• 501 511 Set of 10 Bridging plugs, black
• 524 013S Sensor-CASSY 2 - Starter
Procedure:
Assemble the components as shown in the following figure:
Figure 2.1: Synchronous AM demodulation

1. Set the phase controller on the CF transmitter to far left limit. Feed the DSB
signal from the output of the modulator M2 directly into the demodulator D2
(do not use channel filter CH2!).
2. Using a connecting lead feed the carrier signal (𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 = 20 kHz) of the CF
transmitter into theauxiliary carrier input of the demodulator D2. What have
you achieved by this?
3. Display the modulating signal 𝒔𝒔𝑴𝑴 (t) on CASSY lab 2 as well as the
demodulated signal S D (t)at the output of the LP filter of the CF receiver.
Sketch the curve of the modulating signaland the demodulated signal in
Diagram 3.3-1. Tap the auxiliary carrier for the demodulatorD2 in front of the
phase shifter of the CF transmitter.
Carrier recovery
Carrier recovery is performed in the CF receiver using a PLL circuit. The PLL circuit
is a controlloop whose function is to match the frequency and phase of an oscillator to
the referenceoscillation. Fig. 2.2 illustrates the structure of a PLL circuit.
Let's assume that the input signal S 1 (t) is supplied with the frequency f 1 to the phase
detector. Youcan be fairly certain that the VCO is not going to be so friendly as to
oscillate precisely at the samefrequency. So its frequency f 2 will initially differ from
f 1 . At the output of the phase detector an ACvoltage is generated whose frequency is
equal to the difference f 2 – f 1 . This AC voltage is nowsupplied to the input of the
VCO via the loop filter. The VCO will respond to an AC voltage at itsinput with a
corresponding change in frequency. In turn the VCO's changing frequency is
detectedby the phase detector. With a little luck the PLL locks into the frequency of
the input signal. ThePLL corrects the VCO until the input frequency and the VCO
frequency coincide. A voltage U ф arises behind the PD based on the phase shift. This
is supplied to the VCO free of interfering ACcomponents (U F ) through the loop filter.
The following relationship prevails between the controlvoltage U F and the frequency
fVCO of the VCO:
F VCO = k F · U F
The control characteristic of the VCO (CF receiver)
Remove the bridging plug between the loop filter and VCO input at the PLL. Feed a
variable DCvoltage U 1 from the function generator into the VCO input. Use this
variable DC voltage to controlthe frequency of the VCO. Sketch theresults in
Diagram 4.2.
Attention: 0 V<U F < 5 V.
Synchronous demodulation with the aid of a PLL-controlled VCO

Remove the cable connected to the auxiliary carrier input of the demodulator D2. For
this insert the bridging plug between the CARRIER RECOVERY and auxiliary
carrier input of D2. Use now for demodulation the recovered auxiliary carrier from
the PLL CARRIER RECOVERY. Assemble the experiment set-up as shown below.
Figure 2.2: Synchronous demodulation with the PLL.
DSB-SC demodulation
Assemble the experiment set-up as shown below.
Figure 2.3: DSB-SC demodulation

1. Set the toggle switch to CARRIER OFF. Repeat the experiment in accordance to
the previous paragraph “DSB”.
4. Discuss the results.
Summarize the requirements made on the auxiliary carrier in synchronous
demodulation.
SSB demodulation
Set up the experiment as specified below.
1. Start with the settings of the Sensor-CASSY 2 – Startergiven in point 4.1.
With the aid of a connecting lead feed the carrier signal (f C = 20 kHz) of the
CFtransmitter directly into the RF input of the demodulator D2. What have
you achieved by this? Setthe function generator to: sinusoidal, AM = 2 V and
f M = 2 kHz.
SSB-RC
2. Display the modulating signal s M (t) on Sensor-CASSY 2 - Starter as well as
thedemodulated signal s D (t) at the output of the LP filter of the CF receiver.
4. Adjust the phase between the original carrier of the transmitter and the auxiliary
carrier ofthe receiver. What do you observe?
SSB-SC
Remove the connecting lead between the CF transmitter and the demodulator. Now,
for thedemodulation use the recovered auxiliary carrier from the PLL circuit to
recover the carrier. For thisconnect the bridging plug between CARRIER
RECOVERY and the auxiliary carrier input of D2.
Discuss your findings.
1. Set the toggle switch to CARRIER OFF. This time repeat the experiment for
SSBSC.
Frequency and Phase Modulation
Eng. M. Al-Jarrah
7.2.1.5
Instructions
Note on EMC
The sensitive electronics of the equipment contained in the present experiment literature can be
impaired due to the discharge of static electricity. Consequently, electrostatic build up should be
avoided (particularly by utilizing appropriate rooms) or eliminated by discharging (e.g. at the panel
frames or similar).
Experiments
This manual might contain additional experiments with devices which are not included in the scope
of delivery. In this case only those experiments can be performed for which LD delivered the
required material. Additional experiments deviating from the procedures described herein are
possible if carried out by qualified personnel taking into consideration prevailing security standards.
Manuals
Read the instruction sheets provided with the devices or the software to realize the experiments.
Note
It is assumed that the students have the skill needed to operate Sensor-CASSY 2 - Starter.
Thus customers are not entitled to claim for compensation such as free-of-charge deliveries of
supplementary apparatus!!
© by LD DIDACTIC GmbH · Leyboldstraße 1 · D-50354 Hürth · www.ld-

didactic.com
Phone: +49-2233-604-0 · Fax: +49-2233-604 222 · e-mail: info@ld-
LD DIDACTIC didactic.de · Technical alterations reserved.
2
T 7.2.1.5
Equipment overview
Qty. Cat.-no. Designation

1 736 27 FM/PM-Modulator
1 736 28 FM/PM-Demodulator
Accessories
1 726 09 Panel Frame-T130, two Level
DC-Power Supply ± 15 V/3
1 726 86 A
1 726 961Function Generator 200 kHz
2 501 46Pair cables 100 cm, red/blue
2 501 461 Pair cables 100 cm, black

1 501 511 Set of 10 Bridging plugs, black
Bridging plugs with tap,
1 501 512 Set of 10 black
Measuring instrument
1 524 013S Sensor-CASSY 2 - Starter
LD DIDACTIC © by LD
DIDACTIC GmbH
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Contents
Instructions ..................................................................................................................................... 2
Note on EMC .................................................................................................................................... 2
Experiments ...................................................................................................................................... 2
Manuals ............................................................................................................................................ 2
...........................................................................
Note ....................................................................... 2
Equipment overview ....................................................................................................................... 3
Contents .......................................................................................................................................... 4
1. Angle modulation .................................................................................................................... 6

2. Frequency modulation .......................................................................................................... 17
2.1 Dynamic response of FM ..................................................................................................... 17
2.2 The characteristic of the FM modulator ................................................................................ 18
2.3 Determination of the frequency deviation ............................................................................. 22
2.4 Measurements in the frequency domain of FM .................................................................... 22
2.4.1 The spectrum of FM ......................................................................................................... 22
F
F
M
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2.4.2 Determining the carrier zero crossings by varying the frequency deviation . 25
Determine the carrier zero crossings by varying the modulating frequency f M .
2.4.3 ................ 27
2.4.4 FM spectrum for square wave modulation ....................................................................... 28
2.5 FM demodulation ................................................................................................................. 30
2.5.1 FM demodulation for loop filter τ 2 ..................................................................................... 30
2.5.3 Reference Spectrum at the input of the FM modulator ..................................................... 35
2.5.4 Spectrum at the PLL demodulator, input of VCO ............................................................. 37
2.5.5 Spectrum at the PLL-demodulator, output of the mixer stage .......................................... 38
2.5.6 Spectrum at the output of the FM demodulator low pass filter ......................................... 39
2.6 FM preemphasis .................................................................................................................. 40
3. Phase modulation .................................................................................................................. 44

3.1 Dynamic response of PM ..................................................................................................... 44
3.2 Characteristic of the PM modulator ...................................................................................... 45
3.3 The PM spectrum ................................................................................................................. 49
3.4 PM demodulation ................................................................................................................. 52
3.4.1 PM demodulation for loop filter τ 2 ..................................................................................... 52
Worksheets .................................................................................................................................... 55
1. Angle modulation ..................................................................................................................... 56
2. Frequency modulation ............................................................................................................. 58

2.1 Dynamic response of FM ..................................................................................................... 58
2.2 The characteristic of the FM modulator ................................................................................ 59
2.3 Determination of the frequency deviation ............................................................................. 63
2.4 Measurements in the frequency domain of FM .................................................................... 63
2.4.1 The spectrum of FM ......................................................................................................... 63
2.4.2 Determining the carrier zero crossings by varying the frequency deviation F 65
F
M
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Determine the carrier zero crossings by varying the modulating frequency f M .
2.4.3 ................ 67
2.4.4 FM spectrum for square wave modulation ....................................................................... 68
T 7.2.1.5
2.5 FM demodulation ................................................................................................................. 70

2.5.3 Reference Spectrum at the input of the FM modulator ..................................................... 74
3.5.4 Spectrum at the PLL demodulator, input of VCO ............................................................. 76
2.5.5 Spectrum at the PLL-demodulator, output of the mixer stage .......................................... 77
2.5.6 Spectrum at the output of the FM demodulator low pass filter ......................................... 78
2.6 FM preemphasis .................................................................................................................. 79
3. Phase modulation .................................................................................................................... 83

3.1 Dynamic response of PM ..................................................................................................... 83
3.2 Characteristic of the PM modulator ...................................................................................... 84
3.3 The PM spectrum ................................................................................................................. 88
3.4 PM demodulation ................................................................................................................. 90
DIDACTIC GmbH
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1. Angle modulation
In the frequency and phase modulation of a harmonic carrier s c (t), the modulating signal s M (t) has
an effect on the instantaneous angle:
Ψ(t)=2π f c t+ϕ
For this reason FM and PM are seen jointly as angle modulations.
Phase modulation
Given that the modulating signal is harmonic with zero-phase angle Φ = 0°:
s M (t)= A M cos(2 f M t ) (1-1)
The message signal should have a direct impact on the instantaneous phase angle Ψ(t). From this it
follows that:
Ψ PM (t)= 2π f c t + A M k cos(2π f M t) ) (1-2)
where k stands for the modulation constant of the angle modulator. This equation describes the
influence of the modulating signal s M (t) on the instantaneous phase angle Ψ(t). For the dynamic
(time) characteristic of a PM signal we obtain:
S PM ( t)= A c cos {2π f c t +A M k PM cos(2π f M t) } . (1-3)

The variable A M k pM specifies the maximum angular change which the modulating signal can evoke.
This is called phase deviation ΔΦ PM :
Φ PM (t)= k PM A M (1-4)
The instantaneous frequency f PM is obtained from the derivation of the phase angle with respect to
time:
1 𝑑𝑑
f P M =2𝜋𝜋 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 Ψ PM (t)= = f c - A M k PM f M sin(2π f M t) (1-5)
Since the frequency f PM changes in time, it is called the instantaneous frequency. The maximum
change in frequency is called the frequency deviation F and in PM amounts to:
ΔFPM = A M kPM fM = ΔΦ PM f M (1-6)
LD DIDACTIC © by LD DIDACTIC GmbH
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Normally the characteristic of the frequency deviation and phase deviation are graphically
represented as a function of the modulation frequency f M :
Fig. 1-1: Frequency and phase deviation for PM as a function of fM
Frequency modulation
Another important angle modulation method used in practice is FM. Here the modulating signal
s M (t) affects the instantaneous frequency f FM (t) of the carrier oscillation:
f F M = f c - Δ FM cos(2π f M t) (1-7)
F FM the following holds
where F FM means the frequency deviation for FM. For true:
Δ FM = k FM A M (1-8)
In order to determine the instantaneous phase angle Ψ FM (t), the instantaneous frequency f FM (t) has
to be integrated with respect to time:
Ψ FM (t)= 2π∫ 𝑓𝑓𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 (𝑡𝑡 )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹
Ψ FM (t)=2π f c + sin(2π 𝑓𝑓𝑀𝑀 t)
𝑓𝑓 𝑀𝑀
Thus in FM the phase deviation is:
𝑘𝑘 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝐴𝐴𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹
ϕ FM= 𝑓𝑓 𝑀𝑀 (1-9)
LD DIDACTIC
© by LD DIDACTIC
GmbH
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For the modulated FM signal you obtain:
If, as in the case of PM, you record the frequency and phase deviation over the signal frequency f M
you obtain the depiction according to fig. 1-2.
Note: Harmonic modulating signals s M (t) are the prerequisite when dealing with the definition of
frequency and phase deviation.
Fig. 1-2: Frequency and phase deviation in FM as a function of fM
The modulation index η

The modulation index is an important variable in the discussion of modulation spectra and the noise
of angle modulation methods. The following applies for this:
The introduction of the modulation index permits us to discuss the spectra of FM and PM jointly.
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The carrier amplitude is determined by the Bessel function J 0 (η), sidelines at f c ± f M by J 1 (η), the
sidelines at f c ± 2f M by J 2 (η), etc. The angle-modulated oscillation has a spectrum which extends
infinitely in principle. However, the amplitudes for the sidelines of a higher order rapidly drop off
particularly for small modulation indices. In practice calculation is performed with the Carson
bandwidth. Here, only those spectral components are taken into consideration with amplitudes
exceeding a fixed fraction of the carrier amplitude (1-17):
The bandwidth requirement is thus dependent on the desired transmission quality. Obviously the
modulation index is the decisive parameter in the angle modulation spectrum. Due to the oscillating
curve of the Bessel functions, there might be individual spectral lines missing in the spectrum. For
this to happen, a zero crossing has to exist in the corresponding Bessel function. This also applies
for the carrier! This feature is exploited to determine the frequency or phase deviation
experimentally. The following table provides an overview of the first five zeros in the Bessel
functions J 0 (η)… J 2 (η).
Zeros of the Bessel functions
J 0 (η) = 0 J 1 (η) = 0 J 2 (η) = 0

η η η
2.4 3.8 5.1
5 7.0 8.3
8.7 10.2 11.5
11.8 13.3 14.7
14.9 16.5 16.9
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Fig. 1-4: The spectrum of an angle-modulated oscillation
Generation of angle modulation

The simplest method of generating an FM signal involves a controllable reactance, e.g. a frequency
determining varicap-diode in a resonant circuit, see fig. 1-5. The resonance frequency f R of the
oscillation circuit is reproduced by Thomson's oscillation equation:
Here C makes up the total circuit capacitance, which is a function of the signal voltage s M (t).
Consequently, the resonance frequency f R also follows the variations of s M (t). FM is frequently
derived from PM due to the better stability of the carrier's center frequency. PM can be realized
using various methods; for example, it can be generated out of an AM signal using a method similar
to QAM.
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Fig. 1-5: Generation of FM using voltage-controlled capacitance diode sFM(t)
In PM the frequency deviation F PM climbs linearly with the signal frequency f M . While in FM the
frequency deviation is independent of f M . If you wish to convert PM into FM, all you have to do is
compensate for the proportional rise of f M by making sure that a suitable low pass filter is inserted
into the signal path. The LP operates with integrating action. Its installation in the signal path is
depicted in fig. 1-6.
Fig. 1-6: Generation of FM out of PM
On the other hand you can also generate PM out of FM by inserting a differentiator element in the
signal path, see fig. 1-7.
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Fig. 1-7: Generation of PM out of FM.
Demodulation of angle modulation

There are a number of important methods used for the demodulation of FM or PM signals:
Conversion of FM in AM with subsequent envelope demodulation (frequency
discriminators)
Conversion of FM into a pulse-width modulated oscillation with subsequent demodulation
(coincidence demodulation)
Use of a phase control circuit (PLL)
The training panel, 736 28, FM/PM demodulator uses a PLL circuit. For that reason we will take a
closer look at the application of the PLL in FM demodulation. The explanations refer to fig. 1-8.
Fig. 1-8: Principle of the PLL (1) Loop filter (2) Phase detector (3) VCO
The phase of the received signal is measured and the difference between it and the phase angle of
the VCO is determined. This task is performed by the phase detector PD. The output signal of the
PD is filtered and supplied to the VCO input. Here frequency correction of the VCO signal is
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performed. If the instantaneous frequency of the received signal changes, an AC voltage is

produced at the output of the loop filter. This AC voltage is proportional to the modulating signal.
Selecting the correct parameters for the loop filter is vital for interference-free demodulation.
Difference between the demodulation of FM and PM

When using frequency discriminators, the demodulated signal is proportional to the frequency
deviation F. In FM this is directly proportional to the amplitude A M of the modulating signal
according to (1-8):
If you use these kinds of discriminators for the demodulation of PM, then in accordance with (1-6)
you have to take into account that the frequency deviation the discriminator responds to increases
proportionally with the modulation frequency f M
How angle modulation methods respond to interference

The response of modulation methods to interference is described by the modulation gain G:
While in FM the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and modulation gain G decreases with increasing
modulation frequencies, in PM these variables remain constant for all f M . In order to make FM more
immune to interference at high signal frequencies, the amplitude A M and therewith the F FM have to
be correspondingly increased with the signal frequency. This process is called preemphasis. This is
the equivalent of a differentiation of the modulating signal, see fig. 1-9.
Fig. 1-9: Preemphasis in FM
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T 7.2.1.5
Preemphasis actually makes a PM out of the FM. This is less susceptible to interference on the
transmission channel. The effect of the preemphasis has to be compensated for using suitable
complementary circuitry on the receiver side, see fig. 1-10 (deemphasis).
Fig. 1-10: On the effect of deemphasis
Questions
1 Which carrier parameters can be used for angle modulation?
2 Which angle modulation method is least affected by noise? Why?
3 What does preemphasis mean?
4 When is deemphasis used in FM demodulation? How does it function?
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T 7.2.1.5
5 In FM with η = 1.0 how high are the amplitudes of the 1st sideline compared to AM for
m = 100%? Given that the amplitude of the unmodulated carrier is A C = 1 V. Use fig. 1-3.
6 Assuming in FM that the spectrum for a harmonic signal A 1 = 5 V and f M1 = 1000 Hz is

known. Can conclusions be drawn regarding the spectrum, which is produced for a different
harmonic modulation signal, with, for example A 1 = 3 V and f M1 = 100 Hz? Compare this
with AM!
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T 7.2.1.5
2. Frequency modulation
2.1 Dynamic response of FM
Experiment set-up: Assemble the components as shown below.
Set the carrier frequency to center position: f C = 20 kHz approx.

1. Use a sinusoidal signal with A M = 20 V pp and f M = 1.0 kHz of the function generator as
the modulating signal s M (t). Feed the modulating signal into the input of the FM
modulator.
2. Load the CASSY Lab FM_TD.
4. Draw modulating and demodulated carrier in time domain.
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5. Write your observations.
Observation
2.2 The characteristic of the FM modulator

1. Set the frequency of the carrier line to f c = 20.0 kHz.
2. Load the CASSY Lab 2 .
4. Use a DC-signal with -10 V of the function generator as input signal.
5. Feed the DC-signal into the input of the FM modulator.
6. Determine the frequency f C of the carrier from the spectrum.
7. Enhance the DC voltage in steps of 1 V and repeat each time the measurement of the carrier
frequency f c = f VCO .
8. Note all frequency values in the table.
9. Draw the characteristic carrier frequency versus the control voltage of the VCO.
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T 7.2.1.5
10. Determine the coefficient of the FM modulator:

f
kFM VCO
U1
Observation
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Observation
U 1 /V f VCO /kHz
-10
-9
-8
-7
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
20
T 7.2.1.5
U 1 /V f VCO /kHz
10
The coefficient of the FM modulator is given by the slope of the characteristic curve:
Result
k FM = .........................................
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2.3 Determination of the frequency deviation
The maximum frequency deviation depends of the coefficient of the FM modulator and the
amplitude of the modulating signal. In many experiments, we use an amplitude of the function
generator of A M = 20 V pp . Calculate the frequency deviation:
ΔF FM = k FM * (20/2)
Result
ΔF FM=...................................................
2.4 Measurements in the frequency domain of FM

2.4.1 The spectrum of FM
1. Use the experiments set-up of the chapter 2.1.
2. Remove the bridging plug from the function generator to the FM modulator.
Load the CASSY Lab 2.
3. Set the carrier frequency to 20.0 kHz with the potentiometer.
4. Reconnect the function generator to the FM modulator with the bridging plug again.
5. Use a sinusoidal signal with A M = 20 V pp (= amplitude 10 V) and f M = 300 Hz of the function
generator as the modulating signal s M (t). Hints:
- The function generator displays peak to peak values.
- Reset the DC offset to 0 V.
6. Feed the modulating signal into the input of the FM modulator.
8. Sketch the graph of the FM spectrum.
9. Interpret the result.
10. Repeat the measurement of the FM spectrum for a modulating signal A M = 20 V pp and f M
= 200 Hz.
11.
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Observation and result
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Observation
2.4.2 Determining the carrier zero crossings by varying the frequency deviation F FM .
1. Use a sinusoidal signal with A M = 0 V pp and f M = 100 Hz of the function generator as

the modulating signal s M (t).
5. Slowly enhance the amplitude of the modulating signal A M of the function generator.
6. Observe the decay of the carrier line.
7. Note the values of the amplitudes A M of the modulating signal, when the carrier line
disappears. Hint: the function generator displays peak to peak values.
8. Enter your measurements into the table and calculate the modulation
index η. Sketch the graph of the FM spectrum for the first carrier zero
crossing.
With A M the amplitude of the modulating signal in V and a fix modulating

frequency f M = 100 Hz.
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Observation
Measurement Theory
A M /V pp η η
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2.4.3 Determine the carrier zero crossings by varying the modulating frequency f M .
1. Use a sinusoidal signal with A M = 20 V pp (amplitude 10 V) and f M = 3.0 kHz of the

function generator as the modulating signal s M (t).
3. Load the CASSY Lab 2 example.
5. Slowly reduce the frequency of the modulating signal f M of the function generator.
Observe the decay of the carrier line.
6. Sketch the graph of the FM spectrum for the first carrier zero crossing.
Note the values of the frequencies of the modulating signal f M when the carrier line
disappears.
Enter your measurements into the table and calculate the modulation index η.
With f M the frequency of the modulating signal in Hz and a fix amplitude A M = 20 V pp .
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Observation
..................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................
Measurement Theory
f M /Hz η η
2.4.4 FM spectrum for square wave modulation
Use a square wave signal with A M = 20 V pp (amplitude 10 V, duty cycle 50%) and f M = 200
Hz of the function generator as the modulating signal s M (t).
Feed the modulating signal into the input of the FM
modulator. Load the CASSY Lab 2 example FM_FFT.labx.
Start the measurement by pressing F9.
Sketch the graph of the FM spectrum.
Interpret the results.
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Observation
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2.5 FM demodulation
FM demodulation for loop filter τ 2
To carry out this experiment, assemble the components as shown below.
Time response of the FM modulating system
1. Feed the modulating signal into the input of the FM modulator. Set the loop filter of the
FM demodulator to τ 2 .
2. Use a sinusoidal modulating signal s M (t) with A M = 10 V pp and f M = 500 Hz.
3. Measure at the input of the FM modulator and at the output of the FM demodulator. Load
the CASSY Lab 2 example FM_TDem.labx.
4. Start the measurement by pressing F9. Hint: If necessary, correct the frequency of the
carrier line to f C = 20.0 kHz (without modulating signal).
5. Sketch the time responses of the modulating signal s M (t) and the demodulated signal
s D (t).
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Observation
Transfer characteristic of the FM modulating system
1. Use a sinusoidal modulating signal s M (t) with A M = 2 V pp and initially f M = 500 Hz. Load
the CASSY Lab 2 example FM_FFT_Dem.labx.
3. Determine the amplitude of the demodulated signal A D with the spectrum analyser. Note
the value into the table.
4. Enhance the frequency of the modulated signal in steps of 500 Hz and repeat the
measurement.
5. Sketch the results in a diagram.
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f M /Hz A D /V
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
Observation
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FM demodulation for loop filter τ 1
***Repeat the experiment with selecting loop filter τ 1 .
1. Sketch the time response of the FM modulating system for τ 1 .
Observation
2. Sketch the transfer characteristic of the FM modulating system for τ 1 .
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f M /Hz A D /V
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
Observation
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.5.3 Reference Spectrum at the input of the FM modulator
Experiment set-up: Assemble the components as shown.
1. Feed the modulating signal into the input of the FM modulator. Set the loop filter of the
FM demodulator to τ 2 .
2. Set the function generator to a sinusoidal modulating signal s M (t) with A M = 5 V pp and
f M = 1000 Hz.
3. Measure at the input of the FM modulator with channel B of the Sensor-CASSY2. Load
the CASSY Lab 2 example FM_FFT_Dem.labx.
5. Sketch the spectrum of the modulating signal S M .
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2.5.4 Spectrum at the PLL demodulator, input of VCO
1. Use the experimental set up of the “Reference Spectrum” (previous 2.5.3). Set the loop
filter of the FM demodulator to τ 2 .
2. Measure at the input of the VCO of the FM demodulator () with channel A of the
Sensor-CASSY 2.
3. Load the CASSY Lab 2
5. Sketch the spectrum of the control signal of the VCO.
Observation
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2.6 FM preemphasis
Experiment set-up: Assemble the components as shown.
1. Set the loop filter of the FM demodulator to τ 2 .

2. Set the function generator to a sinusoidal modulating signal s M (t) with A M = 5 V pp
and initially f M = 500 Hz.
3. Time characteristic of the input signals
4. Measure at the input of the preemphasis stage with channel A of the Sensor-
CASSY2. Load the CASSY Lab.
6. Sketch the time response of the modulating signal s M (t).
7. Set the function generator sequentially to 1000 Hz and 2000 Hz. Repeat the
measurement by pressing F9 again.
8. Sketch the time response of the input signal of the preemphasis stage.
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Time characteristic of the output signals
1. For this purpose, use the experiment set-up chapter 2.6.

2. Repeat the experiment above, after carrying out the following changes.
3. Set the function generator to a sinusoidal modulating signal s M (t) with A M = 5 V pp and
initially f M = 500 Hz.
4. Set the loop filter of the FM demodulator to τ 2 .
5. Measure at the output of the FM demodulator low pass filter () with channel A of the
Sensor-CASSY2.
6. Load the CASSY Lab 2 example FM_PreDem.labx.
8. Sketch the time response of the demodulating signal s D (t).
9. Set the function generator sequentially to 1000 Hz and 2000 Hz. Repeat the measurement
by pressing F9 again.
10. Sketch the time response of the output signal of the FM
demodulator. Interpret your results.
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Observation
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7.2.1.5
3. Phase modulation
3.1 Dynamic response of PM
Experiment set-up: Connect the components as shown below.

Set the function generator to a sinusoidal modulating signal s M (t) with A M = 2 V pp and f M =
1000 Hz.
Feed the modulating signal s M (t) into the input of the PM modulator.
Measure the modulating signal with channel A of the Sensor-CASSY2.
Measure the PM signal at the output of the PM modulator with channel B of the Sensor-
CASSY2.
Load the CASSY Lab 2 example
PM_TDscope.labx. Start the measurement by
pressing F9.
Interpret your results.
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Observation
3.2 Characteristic of the PM modulator

Set the function generator to DC.
Feed a DC voltage U 1 = -1.0 …+ 1.0V into the input of the PM
modulator. Load the CASSY Lab 2 example PM_TD.labx.
Determine the phase shift X/µs between the carrier oscillations of the FM and PM output.
Use Set Marker / Vertical Line and Measure Difference of CASSY Lab2 to evaluate your
measurements.
Enter your results into the table and calculate the phase shift.
Sketch the characteristic X = f(U 1 ) of the phase modulator.
Sketch the time characteristics for -1.0 V and +1.0 V.
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U 1 /V X / µs Degree /°
-1.0
-0.9
-0.8
-0.7
-0.6
-0.5
-0.4
-0.3
-0.2
-0.1
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
Result T = 50 µs for f c = 20 kHz

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Observation
The characteristic of the PM modulator is somewhat non linear.
The control range is much more limited (+/-1 V) as compared to FM (+/-10 V).
Time characteristic for U 1 = + 1.0 V
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Observation
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Observation
3.3 The PM spectrum
Use the experiment set-up in chapter 3.1.
Measure the spectrum at the PM modulator output with channel B of the Sensor-CASSY2.
Load the CASSY Lab 2 example PM_FFT.labx.
Set the carrier frequency to 20.0 kHz with the potentiometer.
Connect the function generator to the PM modulator input.
Set the function generator to a sinusoidal modulating signal s M (t) with A M = 2 V pp and f M =
300 Hz.
Sketch the graph of the PM spectrum.
Interpret the result.
Repeat the measurement of the PM spectrum for a modulating signal A M = 2 V pp
and f M = 200 Hz.
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Observation
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Observation
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3.4 PM demodulation
3.4.1 PM demodulation for loop filter τ 2
Experiment set-up: Connect the components as shown.

.
Set the toggle switch of the PM demodulator to

τ2. Load the CASSY Lab 2 example
PM_TDem.labx Start the measurement by
pressing F9.
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Observation
3.4.2 PM demodulation for loop filter τ 1
Set the toggle switch of the PM demodulator to

τ 1 . Repeat the experiment.
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Observation
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T 7.2.2.1
Pulse Code
Modulation
by Dipl. Ing. K. Breidenbach

and Dipl. Ing. A. Oster
1st Edition, October 1996
LEYBOLD DIDACTIC GMBH . Leyboldstrasse 1 . D-50354 Hürth . Phone (02233) 604-0 . Fax (02233) 604-222 . e-mail: info@leybold-didactic.de
by Leybold Didactic GmbH Printed in the Federal Republic of Germany

Technical alterations reserved
“The sensitive electronics of the equipment contained in the present experiment literature
can be impaired due to the discharge of static electricity. Consequently, electrostatic build
up should be avoided (particularly by utilizing appropriate rooms) or eliminated by dis-
charging (e.g. at the panel frames or similar).”
TPS 7.2.2.1 Contents
Table of Contents
Equipment overview ..................................................................................................................... 5
Symbols and abbreviations ........................................................................................................... 6
1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 9
Signals ........................................................................................................................................ 9
Analog signals ............................................................................................................................. 10
Digital signals ............................................................................................................................. 10
Time and spectral domain ........................................................................................................... 10
Modulation .................................................................................................................................. 11
The communications system according to Shannon ................................................................... 11
2 Measuring instruments ....................................................................................................... 13

2.1 Oscilloscope and spectrum analyzer............................................................................. 13
The oscilloscope ........................................................................................................... 13
The spectrum analyzer .................................................................................................. 13
The time law of electrical telecommunications engineering ........................................ 14
2.2 Equipment description .................................................................................................. 16
726 94 Spectrum analyzer ............................................................................................ 16
736 061 PAM modulator ............................................................................................... 17
736 071 PAM demodulator ........................................................................................... 17
736 101 PCM modulator .............................................................................................. 18
736 111 PCM demodulator ........................................................................................... 18
2.3 A sample measurement ................................................................................................. 19
3 The pulse train as information carrier .............................................................................. 23

Theory .................................................................................................................................... 23
3.1 The time characteristic of a pulse train......................................................................... 25
3.2 The spectrum of a pulse train ....................................................................................... 26
4 Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) .................................................................................. 29

4.1 Fundamentals ................................................................................................................ 29
4.2 The time response of the PAM signal ........................................................................... 35
The lowpass input filter ................................................................................................ 35
Representing the PAM .................................................................................................. 35
Influence of the duty cycle on PAM ............................................................................. 36
Influence of the sampling frequency on PAM .............................................................. 37
4.3 The spectrum of PAM ................................................................................................... 37
Spectral investigations on PAM1 .............................................................................................................................................. 37
Spectral investigations on the PAM2 (S&H) ................................................................. 39
4.4 Displaying aliasing ....................................................................................................... 39
Undersampling in the frequency domain ...................................................................... 40
Undersampling in the time domain .............................................................................. 41
4.5 Avoiding aliasing by means of band limiting ............................................................... 41
4.6 The time integration capacity of the lowpass filter ...................................................... 41
4.7 A 2-channel PAM time-division multiplex system (PAM-TDM) ................................ 43
The idea behind PAM-TDM ......................................................................................... 43
PAM channel crosstalk ................................................................................................. 44
The sample & hold element in the PAM demodulator ................................................. 45
3
5 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)........................................................................................... 47

5.1 Fundamentals ............................................................................................................... 47
5.2 Experiment on quantization and binary encoding ........................................................ 52
Linear quantization ....................................................................................................... 52
Non-linear quantization ................................................................................................ 53
5.3 The PCM as transmission method ................................................................................ 56
5.4 The quantization noise .................................................................................................. 57
The quantization noise as a function of the number of steps ....................................... 57
The quantization noise as a function of the signal level ............................................... 58
6 Differential Pulse Code Modulation (DPCM) ................................................................... 59

6.1 Introduction................................................................................................................... 59
6.2 Signal curves in DPCM ................................................................................................ 62
Solutions ..................................................................................................................................... 65
Keywords ................................................................................................................................... 89
4
Equipment overview
A 2-channel PAM time-division multiplex system

The time integration capacity of the lowpass filter
Experiment on quantization and binary encoding

Avoiding aliasing by means of band limiting
Time characteristic of a pulse train
The PCM as transmission method

The spectrum of a pulse train
Representation of aliasing
Signal curves in DPCM

Time response of PAM
A sample measurement
Quantization noise
Spectrum of PAM
Experiments
TPS 7.2.2.1
6.2
3.2
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
5.2
5.3
5.4
3.1
Equipment
2.3
Power supply ±15 V, 3 A 726 86 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Spectrum analyzer 726 94 1 - 1 - 1 1 1 - - - - - -
Function generator 0...200 kHz 726 95 1 - - 1 1 1 1 1 2 - 1 1 1
Frequency counter 0...10 MHz 726 99 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 - 1 1 1
PCM modulator 736 101 - - - - - - - - - 1 1 1 1
PCM demodulator 736 111 - - - -. - - - - - 1 1 1 1
PAM demodulator 736 061 - - - 1 1 1 1 1 1 - 1 1 1
PAM modulator 736 071 - 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 - 1 1 1
Analog multimeter C. A 406 531 16 1 - 1 - 1 1 1 - - 1 - - -
Digital storage ocilloscope 305 575 292 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
CASSYpack-P 728 307 - - - - - - - - - (1) - - -
Measuring and evaluating 524 111 - - - - - - - - - (1) - - -
XY recorder, e.g. 575 663 (1) - (1) - (1) (1) (1) - - (1) - - -
Probe 100 MHz, 1:1/10:1 575 231 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
10 Bridging plugs, black 501 511 1 1 1 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3
Cable pair, black 100 cm 501 461 2 - 2 1 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 1
5
Symbols and abbreviations

A : Amplitude
AP : Pulse amplitude
AM : Amplitude of the modulating signal
AD : Amplitude of the demodulated signal
A(f) : Transmission factor
AM : Amplitude modulation
AR : Rectangular or square-wave amplitude
BP : Bandpass
b : Bandwidth
C : Rate of information transmission
Cmax : Line capacity or maximum transmission rate of information
d : Attenuation, ripple
DPCM : Differential pulse code modulation
DSB-AMWC : Double side band AM without carrier
∆t : Variable time shift
f : Frequency
fM : Frequency of the modulating signal
fP : Pulse frequency
φ : Phase
G (2 πf) : Complex frequency response
G (2 πf) : Amplitude frequency response
g (2 πf) : Log. amplitude frequency response
i(t) : Time-dependent current
l : Number of spectral lines between 2 zero points of the envelope curve
lb : Logarithm to the base 2
LSL : Lower side line
LP : Lowpass
m : Modulation index
M : Amount of information
PAM : Pulse amplitude modulation
PCM : Pulse code modulation
R : Frequency resolution
s(t) : Signal function in time domain, general
sD (t) : Demodulated signal
sM(t) : Information signal, modulating signal
sP (t) : Signal of a pulse train
S (n) : Amplitude spectrum, general
SP (n) : Spectrum of the pulse train
SPAM (n) : Spectrum of the PAM signal
sPAM (t) : Time characteristic of the PAM
SPAN : Frequency window
sQ : Quantified signal
SR (n) : Spectrum of rectangular or square-wave signal
sT(t) : Carrier signal
T : Period, SCAN TIME
TH : Holding time
TDM : Time division multiplex
τ : Pulse duration
6
TP : Pulse duration, pulse frame

t : adjustable time shift
τ/TP : Pulse duty-factor
USL : Upper side line
u(t) : Time-dependent voltage
V : Gain
X : Estimated value, predicted value
7
Note: The oscillographs in the experiment results were recorded with a HP 54600 A
oscilloscope (100 MHz) and further processed with the bench link
HP 34810 A software.
The oscilloscope recommended in the equipment set is a low-cost version,
with limited operation and display comfort (30 MHz display), but in principle
delivers the same results.
The experiment results given here are just examples. Therefore, the curves and
results specified in the solutions section should only be taken as guidelines.
The calculation and representation of the spectra was carried out with EXCEL
5.0.
Warning: The effect of strong electromagnetic fields from experiment arrangements

with too large a surface area can cause the sensitivity of the electrical equip-
ment to be so distorted, that temporarily no functionality is provided (e.g. dis-
play doesn't work).
Preventative and recovery measures:

– For experiment setup, don't operate RF generators (e.g. mobile phone)
either in the experiment laboratory or in its close vicinity.
– Try and keep attennas of working connection leads as short as possible.
8
TPS 7.2.2.1 Introduction
1 Introduction
Signals able messages are important. Nevertheless, when

In electrical telecommunications engineering, dealing with the area of modulation methods it is
messages are usually in the form of time-depend- standard procedure to work with harmonic sig-
ent electrical quantities, for example, voltage u(t) nals. The results which can be obtained are then
or current i(t). These kinds of quantities which are clearer and more straightforward. If the signal
described by time functions are called signals. In value for any given point in time cannot be given
order to transmit messages a parameter of the because the signal curve appears totally erratic,
electrical signals must be suitably influenced. In then the signal is called stochastic. An example
cases where a signal defined as a time function is for a stochastic signal is noise. Stochastic signals
known and the signal value can be determined can be described using methods of probability
exactly at any given point in time, then the signal mathematics, but they will not be taken into con-
is called deterministic. Examples of determinis- sideration here. Signals are distinguished accord-
tic signals are: ing to the characteristic curves of their time and
1. Harmonic oscillation signal coordinates. If the signal function s(t) pro-
u(t) = A · sin (2 π ft + φ) (1.1) duces a signal value at any random point in time,
the signal function is called time-continuous
2. Symmetrical square wave
(continuous w.r.t. time). In contrast, if the signal
u(t) = u(t + nT) n = 1, 2, 3... (1.2) has different signal values only at definite, count-
able points in time starting from 0, i.e. its time
 A für 0 < t < T / 2 characteristic shows “gaps”, then this is referred
u(t ) = 
 0 für T / 2 < t < T . to as time-discrete (discrete w.r.t. time). That
which is true for the time coordinate, can also be
Deterministic telecommunications is useless from applied to the signal coordinates. Accordingly, a
the point of view of information theory. For the signal is called value-continuous, if it can assume
message receiver only unknown, i.e. unpredict- any given value within the modulation limits. It is
Fig 1-1: Classification of signals

(a) time- and level-continuous
(b) time-discrete (sampled), level-continuous
(c) time-continuous, level-discrete (quantized)
(d) time- and level-discrete
9
MTS 7.2.2.1 Introduction
called value-discrete or n-level, if only a finite “frequency” or “spectral domain”. The equality of
number of signal values are permitted. Two im- the two types of representation can be seen in the
portant signal classes can be defined using these 4 depictions in Fig. 1-2.
terms: If you first consider the harmonic function as
Analog signals specified in (1.1), then a display on the oscillo-
A signal is called analog if it is both time as well scope results in the familiar, time characteristic
as value-continuous. according to Fig. 1-2-A. The sinusoidal time func-
tion is described by the amplitude A and the pe-
Digital signals riod duration T. However, a totally equivalent
A signal is called digital, if it is both time as well representation of this function is reproduced when
as value-discrete. the variables A and f = 1/T are used instead of the
Fig. 1-1 shows the various kinds of signals. parameters A and T. If the amplitude is displayed
In digital communications technology analog sig- on the frequency axis, then this form of represen-
nals are often converted into digital signals. The tation is called the amplitude spectrum. Thus, a
conversion process requires 3 distinct steps: single line can depict a harmonic function. Now,
1. The analog signal is converted into a time- after Fourier, every non-harmonic, periodic
discrete signal by means of sampling. function can be represented as the superimposi-
2. The value-continuous signal becomes value- tion of harmonic oscillations with fixed ampli-
discrete using a process called quantization. tudes S(n). As an example Fig. 1-2-B presents a
3. The digital signal gained in this manner is symmetrical square-wave signal with the ampli-
brought into a form suitable for further tude AR and the period of oscillation TR. We can
processing by means of encoding. see from the corresponding amplitude spectrum
These 3 conversion steps constitute the basis for SR(n) in Fig. 1-2-D that the square-wave function
all of digital communications engineering. They is produced from the superimposition of many (an
are investigated more closely in the following ex- infinite number of) harmonic oscillations. Their
periments. frequencies are odd numbered multiples of
Time and spectral domain f = 1/TR and their amplitudes decrease as a func-
In the technical sciences there exists, in addition tion of the ordinal number n, see Table on pg. 11.
to the “time domain”, signal representation in the n = 1, 2, 3, 4, ...
Time domain Spectral domain
(A) (C)
(B) (D)
Fig. 1-2: Time and spectral representation

(A) Harmonic funtion, time representation (C) Harmonic funtion, spectral representation
(B) Symmetrical square-wave oscillation, (D) Symmetrical square-wave oscillation,
time representation spectral representation
10
TPS 7.2.2.1 Introduction
ways requires that the carrier and the modulation

Harmonic Frequency Amplitude
signal interact. Both of these signals are fed into a
4 modulator. In the analog procedure it suffices to
1 fR = 1/TR S R (1) = A
π R have one element with multiplying characteris-
S R (1) tics. In digital methods the signal is sampled
2 3 fR (time-discrete). The sampling is performed by a
3
S R (1) “switch”, which also possesses modulating char-
3 5 fR acteristics. The original signal sM(t) is recovered
5
from the modulated signal through demodulation.
S R (1)
4 7 fR Consequently, modulation and demodulation are
7 mutually related, inverse processes. The complex-
S R (1) ities involved in modulation and demodulation are
n (2 n – 1) fR
2 n −1 considerable. The following reasons explain why
modulation is worthwhile:
Note: Any precise and comprehensive discus-
1. Modulation enables the matching of the
sion of the spectra not only takes the
modulating signal to the characteristics of the
amplitude spectrum S(n) into consider-
transmission channel. (radio links e.g. are
ation but also the phase spectrum φ(n).
only possible for a certain frequency band.)
However, in many practical exercises it
2. Existing transmission channels can be multi-
suffices to determine the amplitude
ply exploited using modulation, (frequency
spectrum.
or time division multiplex systems).
Modulation 3. Improved signal-to-noise ratios can be ob-
When speaking of modulation, one generally re- tained using modulation.
fers to the conversion of a modulation signal sM(t)
into a time function with altered characteristics The communications system according to Shan-
using a carrier signal. The message signal influ- non
ences a parameter of the carrier in a suitable fash- Electrical communications engineering is divided
ion. Either harmonic oscillations or pulse trains into three classical subfunctions:
are used as carrier signals. If, for example, a har- 1. Transmission of the message
monic carrier is used with the form: 2. Processing of the message
3. Relaying the message (telephone technol-
sT(t) = AT cos (2 fTt + φ ), (1.3)
ogy)
then the message signal sM(t) can have an effect If only a single transmission channel is examined,
either on the amplitude AT, the carrier frequency (i.e. no telephone technology), then we can con-
fT or the zero phase angle φ. These effects result in centrate on the remaining functions illustrated by
the analog modulation methods: the scheme in Fig. 1-3.
– Amplitude modulations (AM) The telecommunication system (A) consists of
– Frequency modulation (FM) equipment used for message transmission (B) and
– Phase modulation (PM). message processing (C). The message source (1)
In the case of analog modulation methods, the generates the information, which is to be made
modulation process means a continuous conver- available to the message recipient (7). The signals
sion of the modulating signal sM(t) into a higher generated are of the most varied physical nature,
frequency band (frequency conversion). The mod- e.g. sound, light, pressure, temperature, etc. It is
ulating signal is shifted from the baseband (AF the function of the converter (2) to convert the
range, original frequency band), into an RF fre- non-electrical signal of the source into an electri-
quency band. It no longer appears in the spectrum cal one. The transmitter (3) converts the converter
of the modulated oscillation. Digital modulation signal into one better suited for transmission via
methods work with pulse-shaped carriers. The the channel. Thus the modulation process takes
modulation spectra arising are extremely extend- place in (3). The transmission channel (4) serves
ed. Frequently, the message signal is still received either to bridge a spatial distance, or to overcome
in its original frequency band. In these cases a a period of time. The modulated signal, generally
simple low-pass demodulation can be carried out distorted by the interference source (8), reaches
on the pulse-modulated signals. A modulation al- the receiver (5), where it is then reconverted into
11
MTS 7.2.2.1 Introduction
Fig. 1-3: The telecommunications system

(A) The telecommunications system
(B) Message transmission
(C) Message processing
1 Message source (human being, measurment sensor etc.)
2 Converter (microphone, television camera, strain gauges, thermo sensor etc.)
3 Transmitter
4 Transmission channel (radio link, transmission cable, data storage system)
5 Receiver
6 Converter
7 Message recipient
8 Interference source
its original electrical signal there (demodulation).

Finally, the converter (6) transforms the electrical
signal back into the physical signal required by
the message recipient (7). The message recipient
can take the form of the human being with eyes
and ears or a machine in a process control loop.
12
TPS 7.2.2.1 Measuring insturments
2 Measuring instruments
2.1 Oscilloscope and spectrum analyzer

The oscilloscope
The oscilloscope is amongst the most important
measuring instruments used in electrical engineer-
ing. It is used to graphically display signal voltages
u(t) in the time domain. It can also be regarded as
a two dimensional voltmeter. The signal is
displayed in the form of Cartesian coordinates.
The abcissa (x-axis) shows the time scale, (e.g.
ms/Div) and the y-axis shows the voltage scale
(e.g. V/Div). The oscilloscope provides immediate
information on the signal shape and is therefore
superior to moving coil instruments or digital Fig. 2.1-1: Functioning of the oscilloscope
voltmeters. The prerequisite for all forms of (A) Amplitude window
(T) Time window
pointer instruments and multimeters is that the time
characteristic or curve of the electrical signals is
known. As a rule only DC voltages or harmonic
AC voltages can be measured using these kinds of
instruments. The oscilloscope is used for the
voltage measurement of signals with unknown, The spectrum analyzer
random time characteristics. Here a distinction is Spectrum analyzers are used to display signals in
drawn between two different cases: the spectral domain. These analyzers operate
either digitally with the aid of mathematical algo-
1. The voltage signal is non-sinusoidal, but pe- rithms (Fast Fourier Transformation) or in analog
riodic with “higher” frequency. mode as a filter bank i.e. according to the principle
The oscilloscope is operated in repeating real time of frequency conversion. The latter principle is
mode. This operating mode is the most frequently implemented in the training panel 726 94 spec-
one used. A sawtooth generator is started each trum analyzer. For that reason we shall study this
time the signal to be measured has exceeded an in more detail with the aid of Fig. 2.1-2.
adjustable level (trigger level). This produces a The harmonic signal supplied by the VCO is fed
time-linear voltage used for the horizontal deflec- into the mixer with the input signal. Depending on
tion of the cathode ray tube. The sawtooth genera- its spectral quality and the oscillator frequency, an
tor is part of the time base. The vertical deflection AC voltage signal appears at the mixer output
is controlled by the measurement signal itself. The which lies in the passband of the bandpass filter.
result is a standing image of the voltage signal on The IF signal at the output of the bandpass filter is
the screen. In real time operation the oscilloscope produced for the individual spectral components of
has a slow-motion function. Thus, processes the input signal for correspondingly different VCO
which are too fast for the human eye can made frequencies. If its frequency is linearly dependent
visible. on its control voltage, then this can be used for the
2. The voltage signal to be measured is non-pe- X-deflection of a display unit. Thus the x-axis also
riodic, or has a very long period duration. achieves linear frequency scaling. The rectified,
The signal to be measured is digitalized and input amplified output voltage of the IF filter is used for
into a storage system. The contents of the storage Y-deflection. Consequently each spectral
unit can then be output periodically. Processes amplitude of the input signal can be measured by
which are too long can be displayed in the storage adjusting the VCO. The spectrum analyzer thus
mode. constitutes an application of the superhetero-
The oscilloscope masks out the amplitude and time dyne principle used in radio technology, whereby
windows from the signal characteristic, see Fig. the bandfilter can be regarded as a spectral
2.1-1. window. The position of this window in the
13
MTS 7.2.2.1 Measuring insturments
Fig. 2.1-2: Design of a spectrum analyzer according to the superheterodyne principle

(A) Signal path
1Input amplfier/ attenuator V1
2Mixer
3Bandpass (BP)
4Rectifier
5Output amplifier V2
(B) Oscillator
7VCO
8Sawtooth generator
(C) Display unit
frequency domain is determined by the VCO longer mixer output signal is in the passband of the
frequency. The width of the window is determined downstream bandpass (BP). The frequency
by the selected bandwidth of the bandpass filter, change with respect to the time unit depends on:
see Fig. 2.1-3.
The time law of electrical telecommunications

engineering
The use of analyzers according to the
superhetrodyne principle requires that the time law
of electrical telecommunications be observed.
According to this law, the pulse response of a
lowpass system becomes longer, the smaller its
bandwidth b is, see Fig. 2.1-4.
This statement can also be applied to the
bandpasses present in the spectrum analyzer. The
time law is similar to the uncertainty relation in
nuclear physics. It states that it is impossible to Fig. 2.1-3: The functioning principle of a spectrum
decrease both the duration T as well as the band- analyzer
1 Bandpass with bandwidth b
width b of a signal. When tuning the VCO, the (spectral window)
slower it takes for the VCO frequency change, the 2 Signal spectrum
14
Fig. 2.1-4: The time law of electrical telecommunications engineering

(A): Input signals: pulses with equal amplitude A and period T
(B): Lowpasses with critical frequencies fc1 and fc2; fc1< fc2
(C): Output signals: pulse of varying period and amplitude
1. (Periods of the sawtooth generator (SCAN promise between spectral RESOLUTION and
TIME) fault-free reproduction of the amplitude. For the
2. Absolute frequency domain passed through by relationship between the SCAN TIME T, band-
the VCO (SPAN). width b and frequency window SPAN the follow-
If, for example, a spectrum analysis has to be per- ing approximately applies:
formed over a wide frequency domain, and, in
addition, a very short sawtooth period is selected, b=
20
( f max − f min )
then the result of this is a very large change in fre- T (2.1)
quency per unit time. The mixer output signal
passes through the mid-frequencies of the BPF Where:
with corresponding speed. According to the time f max : maximum frequency
law the selected bandwidth of the BPF now has to f min : minimum frequency
be “sufficiently” large if the BPF is to attain the b : bandwidth of the filter
input amplitude. However, at greater bandwidth of T : sawtooth period SCAN TIME.
the bandpass filter the analyzer's spectral reso- The difference fmax – fmin is called frequency
lution capacity drops. For that reason, work with window = SPAN.
the spectrum analyzer always involves the com-
15
2.2 Equipment description
726 94 Spectrum analyzer

The spectrum analyzer is depicted in Fig. 2.2-1.
A. Setting the signal path
Always set the gain settings V1 and V2 as high as
possible to increase the sensitivity of the signal
path. However, overdrive - recognizable by the
lighting up of the OVER-LEDs, must be avoided
(overdrive falsifies the measurement results).
B. Setting the oscillator component
Frequency tuning is performed with the aid of a
sawtooth-controlled VCO. The sawtooth genera-
tor is set with the controllers SCAN TIME and
SCAN MODE. The selection of the SCAN
TIME depends on the time law of electrical tel-
ecommunications engineering (2.1).
1. Setting the upper limit of the frequency: This
is carried out in SCAN MODE fmax using the
corresponding controller.
2. Setting the lower frequency limit: This is car-
ried out in SCAN MODE fmin using the corre-
sponding controller.
The frequencies can be read off directly at the
connected COUNTER (TTL). In SCAN MODE
RUN the VCO runs through the set frequency
range once (important when using the XY re-
corder). An LED indicates when the upper fre-
quency limit is reached. Fig. 2.2-1:The spectrum analyzer
Only in the SCAN MODE STOP is the locking
mechanism of the RESET function disabled. In
this setting manual operation using a toggle switch C. Connection of the display unit
is possible. The setting “UP” of the toggle switch The following external measuring instruments can
enables the VCO to run in the fmax direction, while be used as display units:
the setting “DOWN” causes a corresponding – Analog voltmeter
reduction in frequency. – Storage oscilloscope
Attention: For the run through time T = 1/25 s – XY recorder.
the set frequency window is passed Note: The analyzer operates in manual mode
through in RUN auto-repeat mode. as a frequency-selective voltmeter. This
This enables us to also use the spectrum operating mode is particularly suitable
analyzer as a sweep generator. for quantitative evaluations.
16
736 061 PAM modulator 736 071 PAM demodulator

Fig. 2.2-2 shows the front panel of the PAM Fig. 2.2-3 shows the front panel of the PAM
modulators. demodulator.
Fig. 2.2-2: The PAM modulator Fig. 2.2-3: PAM demodulator

1 Input filter channel 1 1 Demultiplexer
Lowpass filter with 3.4 kHz frequency 2 Variable skew ∆t
limit. Gain + 1. max. (simulation of channel cross-talk)
Input voltage: 20 Vpp. 3 Sample and hold element with adjustable
2 Socket field for connection of the hold time TH
function generator 4 Demodulator lowpass channel 2
3 Input filter channel 2 Lowpass filter with 3.4 kHz critical
Lowpass filter with 3.4 kHz frequency frequency gain + 1. max.
limit. Gain + 1. Max. Input voltage: 20 Vpp.
input voltage: 20 Vpp. 5 Loudspeaker with integrated push-pull
4 Clock generator 1 kHz < fP < 15 kHz, stage
pulse-duty factor 0.1..0.9 6 Demodulator lowpass channel 1
5 Controller for fP lowpass filter with 3.4 kHz critical
6 Controller for pulse-duty factor frequency gain + 1. max.
7 Modulator for PAM1 channel 2 Input voltage: 20 Vpp.
8 Modulator for PAM2 channel 2
9 Modulator for PAM1 channel 1
bl Modulator for PAM2 channel 1
17
736 101 PCM modulator 736 111 PCM demodulator

Fig. 2.2-4 shows the front panel of the PCM modu- Fig. 2.2-5 shows the front panel of the PCM
lators. demodulator.
Fig. 2.2-4: PCM-Modulator Fig. 2.2-5: PCM demodulator

1 DC voltage source 1 Serial/parallel converter
(10-turn potentiometer) for static 2 LEDs for the display of the higher order
modulation experiments bits (investigations on binary coding
2 Predictor module to form prediction with DC voltage source of the PCM
value in DPCM operating mode modulator)
3 A/D converter (8 bit, coding is carried out 3 D/A converter (8 bit, encoding carried
according to magnitude and polarity) out according to magnitude and
4 Parallel/serial converter. The data stream polarity)
at the output of the PCM modulator 4 Predictor module to form the prediction
contains all the synchronization signals value in the DPCM operating mode
needed for the receiver. 5 Expander with 13-segment
5 LEDs to display the selected bits characteristic
6 Pushbutton for on/off switching of a 6 Pushbutton for operating mode
selected bit (permits introduction of selection. Switching sequence: PCM
bit errors, or the artificial reduction of linear quantization, PCM non-linear
the resolution). quantization, DPCM.
7 Pushbutton for the selection of a bit. Selection is indicated via the LEDs.
With each press of the button the 7 Toggle switch to change display of the
selection changes to the next higher bit. higher order bits from channel 1 to
The selected bit flashes for approx. 2s. channel 2.
8 Pushbutton for the selection of the
operating mode. Switching sequence:
PCM linear quantization, PCM non-
linear quantization, DPCM.
The selection is indicated via the LEDs
9 Compressor with display of the 13-
segment characteristic
18
2.3 A sample measurement
Fig. 2.3-1: Experiment setup for learning to handle the spectrum analyzer
Required equipment and material Experiment procedure

1 Spectrum analyzer 726 94 Set up the experiment as specified in Fig. 2.3-1.
1 Frequency counter 0...10 MHz 726 99 Using the frequency counter and the oscilloscope
1 Analog multimeter C. A 406 531 16 set a square-wave signal with AR = 5 V and
Additionally required: fR = 2 kHz on the function generator. The TTL in-
1 Function generator 0...200 kHz 726 95 put A of the frequency counter remains perma-
1 Power supply ±15 V, 3 A 726 86 nently connected to the analyzer via bridging plugs.
1 Digital storage oscilloscope 305 575 292 In order to test the signal frequency fR plug a con-
2 Probes 100 MHz, 1:1/10:1 575 231 necting lead into the analog input and actuate the
1 10 bridging plugs, black 501 511 toggle switch.
2 Cable pairs, black 100 cm 501 461 Record the spectrum of the square-wave signal in
the frequency range of approx. 1.5 kHz....20 kHz.
Additionally recommended: 1. Manual operation with the analog voltmeter.
1 XY recorder e.g. 575 663 Connect an analog voltmeter 10 V DC to the
Preliminary remark analyzer output.
The measurement station described here consists
of a spectrum analyzer, oscilloscope and frequency Analyzer settings
counter. Signals in the time and spectral domain
can be measured with this measurement station. V1: 1
V2: 5, 10
This station will be used in many of the following
experiments.
fr / kHz: 20 b/Hz: 500
SPAN/kHz: 0.5...20 T/s: 20
19
When V1 = 2, 5, 10 the input stage is over-

driven, the OVER LED lights up and the
measurement results are falsified.
Now record the spectrum of the square-wave
signal by starting the VCO in SCAN MODE
RUN. In the spectral energy range the output
signal demonstrates a brief increase. Then
stop VCO and manually adjust it around the
frequency of the spectral line using the
pushbutton up/down. Read off the spectral
amplitude S(n) on the voltmeter. In this man-
ner enter all the amplitudes S(n), the running Diagram 2.3-1: Spectrum of the square-wave signal
index n and the corresponding frequencies f τ
into the Table 2.3-1. Also the analyzer settings AR = 5 V, = 0.5
TP
are to be noted down there. Plot the spectrum
in a graph in Diagram 2.3-1.
Discuss your results.
2. Automatic operation with the XY recorder
Table 2.3-1: Spectrum square-wave signal
or the storage oscilloscope.
Signal parameter Analyzer settings In automatic operation the scanning process is
performed without interruption. Also the gain
AR : 5 V V1 : 1 settings V1, V2 remain unchanged.
τ/TP : 5/10 b : 500 Hz
fR : 2.00 kHz fr : 20 kHz 2.1 Using an XY recorder
T : 20 s Connect the X+ input of the recorder to the X
socket of the analyzer. Connect the Y+ input
Measurements Theory of the recorder to the analyzer output; x–,
y– to earth. Both recorder axes have to be
f S(n) SR (n) SR (n) calibrated. The x-axis is set to fmax. The y-axis
n V2
kHz V V V is aligned to the highest spectral amplitude
1 (test it out!). The analyzer cycle is triggered
by switching to SCAN MODE RUN.
2
2.2 Using the storage oscilloscope
3 The simplest operation is the recording of
spectra with the storage oscilloscope in the
4
ROLL mode. Then all of the problems involv-
5 ing triggering are avoided. The holding time
base is set so that its period is greater than the
6 SCAN TIME set on the analyzer. The
7 analyzer output is connected to a Y-input of
the oscilloscope. By selecting a suitable Y-
8 gain setting the screen surface is optimally
9 exploited for the spectral display. Once the
spectrum is completely reproduced on the
10 screen, the ROLL modus can be disabled by
pressing the SINGLE pushbutton. The screen
contents are then “frozen”. When in SINGLE
storage mode you have to trigger externally on
20
the falling edge of the sawtooth signal (socket

X). Try out the most effective trigger filter.
Repeat the recording of the spectra one after
the other for the bandwidths b = 100 Hz,
b = 50 Hz, b = 10 Hz, b = 5 Hz. What do you
observe?
21
22
TPS 7.2.2.1 The pule train
3 The pulse train as information carrier
Theory
Objectives
Structure and features of the pulse spectrum.
Bandwidth requirements of digital modulation
methods.
Introduction
All forms of digital modulation use pulse trains
as carriers. That is why they are called pulse
modulations. Examples include: PAM; PDM;
PPM; PCM. Each pulse train is unmistakably
characterized by the following 3 parameters:
The pulse amplitude AP (peak/peak value). Fig. 3-1: Time characteristic of a pulse train
AP : Pulse amplitude
The pulse period TP, which is also referred to τ : Pulse duration
as pulse frame. TP : Pulse period
The pulse duration τ, also called pulse width.
Instead of the pulse period TP, its reciprocal value,
the pulse frequency fP = 1/TP can also be equally
employed. The ratio between the pulse duration τ ∞
τ
and pulse period TP determines the pulse-duty fac- s P ( t ) = AP + ∑ SP (n) cos( 2 π n f p t ) (3.1)
tor τ/TP. Consequently a pulse train can also be TP n =1
expressed by the set of parameters AP, fP and τ/TP.
In the following this form of representation will Fourier series expansion according to (3.1) de-
continually be made use of in agreement with the scribes the pulse train as the superpositioning of
controllers on the PAM modulator training panel, an infinite number of cosine oscillations, whose
namely fP and τ/TP. In Fig. 3-1 a pulse train sP(t) frequencies are whole multiples of the pulse fre-
is depicted as a time characteristic. quency fP. Furthermore, there is an equal compo-
In accordance with the 3 pulse parameters there nent of the quantity AP·€τ/TP present. Each of these
are basically 3 possibilities to impose useful infor- cosine oscillations has a precisely defined ampli-
mation onto the carrier: tude SP(n). The total of all amplitude values SP(n)
1. The modulating signal changes the pulse am- taken together forms the amplitude spectrum of
plitude AP. The result is pulse amplitude the pulse train. Theory provides the following for-
modulation (PAM). mula for this spectrum:
2. The modulating signal changes the pulse fre-
quency fP. The result is called pulse fre-
quency modulation (PFM). τ sin ( πτ n f p )
3. In pulse phase modulation the modulating S P (n) = 2 AP
signal changes its phase-temporal position TP πτ n f p
(PPM) or its pulse duration (PDM) with re-
spect to the pulse frames.  τ 
(3.2)
sin  π
 TP 
n
In order to understand various forms of pulse
τ  
modulation it is important to examine the spectral = 2 AP
peculiarities of pulse trains. The pulse function TP  τ 
according to Fig. 3.1 can be subjected to Fourier  π n

series expansion. As a periodic signal with re-  TP 
spect to time it possesses a discrete line spec-
trum. From equation (3.2) we can see that the ampli-
tudes of the spectral lines are proportional to the
23
MTS 7.2.2.1 The pulse train
Table 3-1: Pulse spectrum

τ
Ap = 6 V ; = 0.2 ; f P = 2 kHz
TP
fP S P (n)
n
kHz V
1 2 2.25
2 4 1.82
3 6 1.21
4 8 0.56
5 10 0.00
Fig. 3-2: Spectrum of a pulse train with envelope curve
si(πτ f )-function 6 12 0.38
7 14 0.52
8 16 0.45
pulse amplitude AP. In addition to this they are 9 18 0.25
also affected in a complicated manner by the
pulse-duty factor τ/TP. If, for example, the pulse 10 20 0.00
amplitude AP is doubled, then all of the spectral
11 22 0.20
amplitudes also increase by double. However, if
the pulse-duty factor τ/TP is reduced by half, then 12 24 0.30
all of the spectral components are changed in ac-
cordance with the (sin x)/x function. As a rule the 13 26 0.28
variables ΑP and τ/ΤP are constants in an unmodu- 14 28 0.16
lated pulse chain. The amplitude spectrum of a
pulse train has an envelope curve which is ex- 15 30 0.00
pressed by the following kind of function: 16 32 0.14
sin ( π τ f ) 17 34 0.21
si ( π τ f ) = (3.3)
(π τ f ) 18 36 0.20
Functions of this kind are called splitting func- 19 38 0.12
tions, because in optics they arise in diffraction.
Characteristic for these kinds of curves are the 20 40 0.00
number of zero points arising in the characteristic
of the envelope curve. As an example Fig. 3-2
shows the spectrum with the envelope curves for 3. Why do digital modulation methods require
a pulse train with the parameters: AP = 6 V, τ/TP = large transmission bandwidths?
2/10, fP = 2 kHz. 4. According to (3.1) the spectral lines always
The following Table reproduces the amplitude arise in intervals of whole number multiples
values SP(n) calculated using (3.2) and the fre- of the pulse frequency fP. The lower the pulse
quencies of the spectral lines. frequency, the denser the spectrum becomes.
What happens to the spectrum, if you allow
Questions the pulse frequency fP to “drift” toward
1. What is the structure of the spectrum of a fP = 0 Hz? Note: This limiting value means
pulse train? that there is now a single pulse arising out of
2. What kind of characteristic curve is the enve- the periodic pulse train. The following pulse
lope curve of the pulse spectrum? only appears after the time period TP = 1/fP
24
has elapsed. When fP → 0 you obtain TP → ∞. ure the pulse amplitude AP in V. Set the pulse fre-
This means that there is no following pulse. quency to fP = 2 kHz with the aid of the fP control-
5. What happens when, for a single pulse, the ler. Use the frequency counter!
pulse duration τ approaches 0, and at the
3.1 The time characteristic of a pulse train
same time pulse amplitude AP tends toward ∞
Display the pulse train at the upper output of the
so that the following
pulse generator (G) on the oscilloscope.
lim Settings:
τ →0 ∫ P
τ s ( t ) dt = 0 Y1: 2 V/div
TB: 0.2 ms/Div.
applies?
Trigger channel 1, DC
Required equipment and accessories:
Exercise 3.1:
1 PAM modulator 736 061
Display the time characteristic of the pulse train
Additionally required: true-to-scale in Diagram 3.1-1. Note down all of
1 Power supply ±15 V, 3 A 726 86 the pulse parameters (AP, TP, τ).
1 Frequency counter 0-10 MHz 726 99
Exercise 3.2:
1 Spectrum analyzer 726 94
Classify the pulse signal.
1 Analog multimeter C. A 406 531 16
1 Digital storage oscilloscope 305 531 292
1 10 bridging plugs, black 501 511
2 Cable pairs, black 100 cm 501 461
1 Probe 100 MHz, 1:1/10:1 575 231
Additionally recommended:
1 XY recorder e.g. 575 663
Experiment procedure
Set up the experiment as specified in Fig. Ex3-1.
Set a specific pulse-duty factor of τ/TP1=1/10 us-
ing the τ/TP controller and the oscilloscope. Meas- Diagram 3.1-1
Fig. Ex3-1: Experiment set-up for the investigation of pulse trains
25
3.2 The spectrum of a pulse train

Table 3.2-1: Pulse train spectrum
With the settings on the pulse generator kept un-
changed connect the spectrum analyzer parallel to Signal parameters Analyzer settings
the oscilloscope.
Record the spectrum of the pulse train defined by AP : 5.2 V V1 : 1
the parameters AP, fP, and τ/TP1 by measuring out τ/TP : 1/10 b : 100 Hz
the amplitudes S(n) and the frequencies fn of the fP1 : 2.00 kHz fr : 20 kHz
individual spectral components. T : 40 s
Measurements Theory
Analyzer settings
f S(n) SP (n) SP (n)
V1: 1 n V2
kHz V V V
V2: 5, 10
1
fr / kHz: 20 b/Hz: 100
2
SPAN / kHz: 1.5 ... 20 T/s: 40
3
4
Enter your measurement results into the Table
3.2-1. Display your measurement results in Dia- 5
gram 3.2-1. Sketch the characteristic of the enve-
lope curve. Note down the pulse parameters in the 6
spectrum. Use (3.2) to calculate the theoretical 7
amplitude values SP(n) of the spectral compo-
nents. Compare your measurement values with 8
the theoretical values. 9
How many spectral lines lie in front of the first
zero point of the splitting function? 10
Where do the zero points of the pulse spectrum's
envelope curve lie?
In general how many spectral lines lie between
two respective zero points of the envelope curve?
Note: Carefully check the set pulse-duty fac-
tor. Even small deviations of τ/TP result
in large changes in the splitting func-
tion according to (3.3).
Diagram 3.2-1:
Pulse spectrum A = V, τ /TP = , fP = kHz
26
Repeat the spectrum recording at the same pulse

frequency fP = 2 kHz for the pulse-duty factors
τ/TP2 = 2/10 and τ/TP3 = 3/10. Use the following
Tables and Diagrams.
Table 3.2-2: Pulse train spectrum Table 3.2-3: Pulse train spectrum
Signal parameters Analyzer settings Signal parameters Analyzer settings
AP : 5.2 V V1 : 1 AP : 5.2 V V1 : 1
τ/TP2 : 2/10 b : 100 Hz τ/TP3 : 3/10 b : 100 Hz
fP : 2.00 kHz fr : 20 kHz fP : 2.00 kHz fr : 20 kHz
T : 40 s T : 40 s
Measurements Theory Measurements Theory

f S(n) SP (n) SP (n) f S(n) SP (n) SP (n)
n V2 n V2
kHz V V V kHz V V V
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 10
Diagram fP = 2 kHz 3.2-2: Diagram 3.2-3:

Pulse spectrum A = V, τ /TP= , fP = kHz Pulse spectrum A = V, τ /TP= , fP = kHz
27
Set the analyzer to fr = 50 kHz. Repeat the spec-

trum recording for τ/TP = 1/10 for the pulse fre-
quencies: fP2 = 3 kHz, fP3 = 4 kHz. Use the
following Tables and Diagrams.
What do you observe?
Tabelle 3.2-4: Pulse train spectrum Table 3.2-5: Pulse train spectrum
AP : 5,2 V V1 : 1 AP : 5,2 V V1 : 1
τ/TP : 1/10 b : 100 Hz τ/TP : 1/10 b : 100 Hz
fP2 : 3.00 kHz fr : 50 kHz fP3 : 4.00 kHz fr : 50 kHz
T : 40 s T : 40 s

f S(n) SP (n) SP (n) f S(n) SP (n) SP (n)
n V2 n V2
kHz V V V kHz V V V
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 10
Diagram 3.2-4: Diagram 3.2-5:

Pulse spectrum A = V, τ /TP= , fP = kHz Pulse spectrum A = V, τ /TP= , fP = kHz
28
TPS 7.2.2.1 Pulse Amplitude Modulation
4 Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
Training objectives
The amplitude as information carrying parameter
in PAM modulation methods. The function of lin-
ear gate circuits and S&H elements. Investigation
of the PAM spectrum. The modulating effect of
switches. Sidebands in regular and inverted posi-
tion. Sampling theorem. Sub-sampling and
aliasing in the spectral domain. Acoustic effects
of aliasing. Aliasing in the time domain. Occur-
rence of non-linear distortions caused by sub-
aliasing. Recording amplitude frequency Fig. 4.1: Modulation using a switch
responses. Bandwidth limitation of the modulat-
ing signal as a prerequisite for sampling. Signal-
varying features of lowpass filters. PAM
ently holds true: The multiplication of sM(t) with
demodulation. Time multiplex formation through
sP(t) supplies the PAM signal sPAM(t) with the ex-
pulse modulations. Setup of a 2-channel time-
ception of constant factor k :
multiplex system. The functions of the multiplex
and demultiplex mechanism. Investigating chan- sPAM(t) = k sM(t) sP(t) (4.1)
nel crosstalk.
In this case we are dealing with a bipolar PAM
4.1 Fundamentals because both positive as well as negative signal
The conversion of an analog signal into a digital values can arise. By superpositioning a DC volt-
signal requires 3 steps: age on the modulating signal sM(t) a unipolar
1. Sampling PAM can be produced. The pulse amplitude of the
2. Quantization switching pulse train has no effect at all on the
3. Coding PAM signal. From this it follows that:
The 1st step, called sampling supplies the PAM 1
k= .
signal. Using an electronic switch, which is trig- AP
gered by a pulse train sp(t), the signal sM(t) present
at the input is “chopped” into pulses with the The PAM spectrum
width τ, see Fig. 4.1 and 4.2. This process is called What does the amplitude spectrum SPAM(n) corre-
time discretization. sponding to (4.1) look like? For this we replace
The PAM signal only arises at definite, discrete sP(t) with the Fourier expansion (3.1). If you as-
times. It is “zero” in the pulse intervals. Thus the sume a cosine oscillation with the signal ampli-
following applies: tude AM as the modulating signal sM(t), then by
– The PAM signal is time-discrete and value- insertion and conversion you obtain the time char-
continuous. acteristic of the PAM signal represented in Fouri-
– The PAM signal is neither an analog nor a er expansion:
digital signal.
PAM is not suitable as a transmission method be- ∞
τ τ
cause it is very prone to distortion due to the na- s PAM 1 ( t ) = AM cos( 2 π f M t ) + ∑ AM ⋅
ture of value-continuous signals. PAM achieves TP n =1 TP
practical importance as an intermediate stage in 
the generation of many other kinds of pulse τ 
sin  nπ 
modulations. Fig. 4.2 shows how PAM modula-  TP 

tion is produced for the special case of a harmonic cos [ 2 π ( nf P ± f M ) t ]
input signal sM(t).  τ 
The PAM signal consists of pulses which have the  nπ 
 TP 
curve of the input signal. The following appar- (4.2)
29
MTS 7.2.2.1 Pulse Amplitude Modulation
Fig. 4.2: How PAM is generated
When modulation is performed with a cosine in- If fM is increased still further, then the subspectra
put signal, the spectrum of PAM contains an infi- even overlap! A lowpass demodulation is now
nite number of harmonic oscillations, each of impossible. Not only the desired spectral compo-
which group themselves in pairs around the sup- nents of the modulating signal but also the spec-
pressed carrier lines of the pulse train as lower or tral lines of higher subspectra can no longer pass
upper side lines, at intervals of the signal fre- through the filter's passband. This fault, called
quency fM. The modulating signal sM(t) evaluated aliasing, occurs due to the overlapping of
with the factor τ/TP also occurs in the spectrum. subspectra. As a consequence of this, non-linear
For the amplitudes of the nth subspectrum the distortions appear in the output signal of the de-
following holds true: modulation lowpass filter.
τ sin ( π n τ f P ) The sampling theorem

S PAM (n) = AM (4.3) In order to avoid aliasing the following must hold
TP (π nτ f P ) true for the sampling rate:
fP > 2 f M (4.4)
If you compare the PAM signal according to (4.2)
with the Fourier expansion of the pulse train ac- Then at least two sampling values (samples) are
cording to (3.1) then we recognise: apportioned to each period of the input signal. The
– Instead of the direct component APτ/TP in the receiver can then reconstruct the input signal sM(t)
pulse train in PAM the modulating signal completely from these 2 samples per period.
sM(t) evaluated with the pulse-duty factor
τ/TP appears in the original frequency posi-
tion. For that reason the input signal can be
recovered through simple lowpass filtering of
the PAM signal (lowpass demodulation).
– In the case of bipolar PAM there are no more
carrier lines (at n ·fP). The upper and lower
sidelines USL, LSL are produced. This is
similar to double sideband amplitude modu-
lation without carrier (DSB-AMWC). Fig. 4.3
shows the curve of a PAM spectrum.
Characteristic for the PAM spectrum is (at the
pulse frequency fP) the periodic repetition of the
spectrum of the modulating signal sM(t). If the sig-
nal frequency fM is increased at a constant pulse
frequency fP, then the sidelines of all the
subspectra are shifted further away from their
suppressed carriers. When fM = fP/2, the respec-
tive lower sidelines of the subspectraum n + 1 and
the upper sidelines of the subspectrum n coincide. Fig. 4.3: The PAM spectrum
30
The regulations described here for the time to 3.4 kHz. According to Shannon a pulse fre-
discretization of signals are normally summarized quency of fPmin = 2 · fMmax = 6.8 kHz is needed
in the form of Shannon´s sampling theorem: when sampling with the Nyquist rate. For de-
Each time function limited to a particular modulation an ideal lowpass filter would have to
bandwidth is specifically determined by its dis- be available. In Fig. 4.4a the amplitude response
crete sampling values if the sampling process of this kind of ideal lowpass filter has been
supplies at least 2 samples per oscillation at the sketched. Its gain is constant in the passband 0 < f
maximum occurring signal frequency. < fg. When the upper critical frequency fg is
reached, the gain suddenly falls to the value
The following concepts are useful with respect to GI = 0. In Fig. 4.4b the amplitude response of a
the sampling rate fP: real lowpass filter is displayed. The passband is
Oversampling fP > 2 fM. In the case of oversam- not “smooth”, i.e. the gain is frequency-depend-
pling the reconstruction of the modulating signal ent, a ripple exists. Furthermore, the edge at the
sM(t) in the receiver is possible using a real low- end of the passband in only finitely steep.
pass filter. Due to the finite edge steepness of real lowpass
Sampling with the Nyquist rate fp = 2 fM. filters it is impossible to carry out sampling with
Demodulation is only possible with an ideal the Nyquist rate. For that reason commercial sys-
lowpass filter with infinitely steep edges, (theo- tems operate with a slight oversampling rate at the
retical limiting case). upper frequency limit of fMmax = 3.4 kHz. They
Undersampling fp < 2 fM. In the case use a pulse frequency of fP = 8 kHz.
of undersampling aliasing arises during recon-
struction of the signal sM(t) on the receiver side. Another form of PAM
PAM, which is generated solely with an electronic
Avoiding aliasing through bandwidth limitation switch, is described by the multiplication of
It is in the nature of messaging that the spectral the modulating signal sM(t) with the pulse train
composition of the modulating signal is unknown sP(t). The curve of the original signal is contained
(fMmax is unknown). Therefore in real systems in the pulse amplitudes of this kind of PAM1 sig-
undersampling is avoided by employing band- nal. Another type of the PAM is obtained if the
width limitation. For economic reasons a finan- curved pulse is converted into square-wave pulses
cially feasible compromise is sought after for the with variable amplitude. The generation of this
sampling rate and thus for the highest signal fre- kind of PAM is performed using sampe & hold
quency to be transmitted. In communications en- circuits (S&H elements). Fig. 4.5 shows the
gineering it is standard procedure to limit the curves of the modulated signals of both kinds of
desired signal to the frequency range from 300 Hz PAM signals.
f f
kHz kHz
a) b)
Fig. 4.4: Amplitude frequency responses of bandpass filters
(a): ideal lowpass filter
(b): real lowpass filter
31
Fig. 4.5: PAM time curves of the 1st and 2nd kind
The varied time curve for the PAM2 has conse- In contrast to PAM1, PAM2 is distorted line-
quences for the corresponding spectrum. The for- arly.
mula (4.5) expresses the PAM2 as Fourier The degree of attenuation distortions experienced
expansion. by the modulating signal sM(t) = AM cos (2 π fMt)
during the generation of the PAM2 signal can be
τ sin( π f M τ ) defined by the ripple d. The following applies for
s PAM 2 ( t ) = AM ⋅ cos( 2 π f M t ) a predetermined pulse duration τ and a minimum
TP π fMτ signal frequency fMmin = 0 Hz:
∞ τ sin [ π ( nf P ± f M )τ ]  τ f M max 
+ ∑ AM (4.6)
TP [ π ( nf P ± f M )τ ] d = si ( π f Mmax τ ) = si  π 
n =1  TP f P 
 
⋅ cos[ 2 π ( nf P ± f M ) t ] Why is the PAM2 generated? Because this method
does indeed provides us with linear distortions
(4.5) which do not arise with PAM1.
A comparison of the two PAM types shows that: 1. Possibility of increasing the pulse-duty factor
1. Both PAM types contain the modulating sig- in the receiver
nal sM(t) = AM cos (2π fMt). In PAM1 this The shorter the pulse duration τ selected for the
spectral component is only evaluated with the individual pulse trains, the more communication
constant factor τ/TP. In the case of PAM2 channels can be accommodated by a single com-
there is the additional evaluation factor si(π mon pulse frame of the duration TP. If the aim is
fMτ). This brings about an additional, signal- to transmit a lot of channels in time-multiplex
frequency dependent attenuation. transmission methods, then pulses are needed
2. In both types of PAM an infinitely extended with a small pulse-duty factor τ/TP. According to
line spectrum arises with sidelines for the fre- (4.2) and (4.5) the amplitudes of the demodulated
quencies f = nfP ± fM. signals are also proportional to the pulse-duty fac-
3. According to Fig. 4.5 both types of PAM are tor downstream from their receiver lowpasses.
bipolar and thus suppress the carrier lines. However, the advantage of being able to supply
Upper and lower sidelines are produced, many channels commonly over one transmission
which are evaluated with signal-frequency link at a low τ/TP is offset by the disadvantage of
independent factors for the case of PAM1. smaller receiving amplitudes. And it is precisely
The PAM2 also shows a signal-frequency this disadvantage which can be corrected with
dependent attenuation in the sidelines, which PAM2 by increasing the pulse-duty factor on the
rises with increasing signal frequency fM. receiver.
32
Fig. 4.6: Principle of TDM using PAM methods

(A) Signal sources (D) Transmission channel (F) Demultiplexer
(B) Band limiting filter (E) Synchronization clock (G) Lowpass demodulator
(C) Multiplexer
2. Triggering the AD converter for PCM Channel crosstalk is defined as a scale for the
The square-wave pulses being applied at the out- transmission characteristics of a multiplex sys-
put of the pulse converter stage all have a time- tem. Ideally all the channels would be completely
constant pulse amplitude, which is dependent on isolated from each other. In reality one has to as-
the instantaneous value of the modulating signal. sume that the adjacent channel can only be sup-
This is the prerequisite for subsequent A/D con- pressed to a finite degree. The (logarithmed)
version. PAM2 is thus the precursor to PCM. quotient of the unwanted overcoupled power to
the desired power is the definition of crosstalk at-
The time division multiplex method
tenuation, see Fig. 4.7 and Eq. 4.7.
During the sampling of a signal time gaps arise in
which no information is transmitted on the trans- AD
mission channel. The time between any 2 sample d = 20 log (4.7)
APAR
pulses of a signal source can be used to transmit
information from other sources. By time shifting Where in (4.7):
the samples of the information sources required APAR : Amplitude of the unwanted overcoupled
for transmission, and placing them onto the trans- signal
mission line in interleaved form, we obtain multi-
ple exploitation of the transmission channel, AD : Amplitude of the desired signal received
known as time division multiplexing (TDM).
The principle of TDM can be schematically de-
picted by 2 rotating switches, see Fig. 4.6.
The switch (C) on the transmitter side is called the
multiplexer. It connects in sequence all the n
sources to channel (D). At the end of the transmis-
sion channel there is another rotating switch F, the
demultiplexer, which distributes the incoming
samples to the n-receiver. Obviously both
switches have to operate synchronously. Other-
wise the messages will reach the wrong receiver,
resulting in channel crosstalk. The switching cy-
cle of the multiplexer/ demultiplexer defines
the so-called pulse frames.
Fig. 4.7: For the definition of channel crosstalk
(A) : Modulator side
(B) : Channel
(C) : Demodulator side
33
(1) FMUX (2) TDM t = t1 (2) TDM t = t2
Fig. 4.8: Differences in spectral channel occupancy for frequency-division and time-division multiplexing
(1) : Channel occupancy for FMUX
A(f): Frequency response of the Txd-channel with lowpass response
S1(f)...Sn(f): Spectra of the sources s1(t)...sn(t)
(2) : Channel occupancy for time-division multiplexing for the time points t1 and t2
A(f): Frequency response of the Txd-channel
It also interesting to consider the difference be- 6. In line-bound telecommunications coaxial or

tween frequency division multiplexing and time- symmetrical multi-wired lines are frequently
division multiplexing methods in terms of their used. Transmission channels of this kind
relevant spectra, see Fig. 4.8. have lowpass characteristics. How do these
In the case of frequency-division multiplexing, transmission lines influence digital signal
n-various sources are frequency interleaved, but transmission?
transmitted simultaneously via a joint channel. A 7. What is the function of the lowpass as a PAM
practical example for this kind of FMUX system demodulator based on. In other words how
is the line-bound transmission of telephone sig- does the PAM demodulator regenerate a
nals. The spectral occupancy of the transmission time-continuous signal curve out of pulsating
channel is depicted in Fig. 4.8-1. Due to the fact PAM signals?
that all n sources simultaneously work on the 8. What are the advantages of the TDM method.
channel, all signal spectra Sn(f) are simultaneous- How does this method differ from frequency
ly available. If the sources are different, as is nor- division multiplexing (F-MUX)?
mally the case, then the corresponding spectra 9. Which quality is particularly important in the
also differ. In time-division multiplexing the case of TDM systems?
channel is also used in its entire bandwidth, but
here with the periodically repeating (equal) sub-
spectra of the respectively sampled source signal.
1 PAM demodulator 736 071
Since the n-various source signals are sampled
one after the other, the spectral occupancy of the Additionally required:
channel changes cyclically (see Fig. 4.8-2). 1 Function generator 0...200 kHz* 726 95
1 Power supply ±15 V, 3 A 726 86
Questions
1 Frequency counter 0-10 MHz 726 99
1. What functions do the individual components
1 Digital storage oscilloscope 305 575 292
of the training panels from Fig. Ex4-1 have if
3 10 bridging plugs, black 501 511
they are based on the Shannon's communica-
2 Cable pairs, black 100 cm 501 461
tions system? 2 Probes 100 MHz, 1:1/10:1 575 231
2. How is PAM brought about? 1 Spectrum analyzer 726 94
3. How do unipolar and bipolar PAM signals 1 Analog multimeter C. A 406 531 16
differ?
4. How is modulating effect of the sampling Additionally recommended:
switch demonstrated? 1 XY recorder e.g. 575 663
5. Can the spectrum of the PAM signal be de-
duced when the modulating signal sM(t) is
known?
* 2 function generators are required for 4.7!
34
Set up the experiment as specified in Fig. Ex4-1.
Set the pulse generator (G) to τ/TP = max. and
fP = 15 kHz. Feed into the input filter CH1 a sinu-
soidal signal first with fM1 = 500 Hz and then
fM2 = 5 kHz while keeping the amplitude
AM = 6 V constant.
4.2 The time response of the PAM signal
The lowpass input filter
Measure the amplitude A0 at the output of the
lowpass CH1. Calculate the gain V of the lowpass
from AM and A0. Use the equation:
A0
V=
AM
What is the lowpass input filter used for?
Representing the PAM
Feed a sinusoidal signal with fM = 2500 Hz and
AM = 6 V into the input filter of CH1.
Settings on the PAM system

Sampling frequency fP 15 kHz
Pulse-duty factor t/tp maximum
Delay trigger of the
minimum
demultiplexer ∆t
Settings on the oscilloscope

Input attenuator channel 1 2 V/DIV
Time base 100 µs/DIV 1
Trigger Channel 1
Simultaneously display the input signal of the

lowpass on channel 1 and the output signal on
channel 2 of the oscilloscope. How great is the
phase shift between the signals?
Display the lowpass output signals one after an-
other on channel 1 of the oscilloscope, with the
signals listed below on channel 2 of the oscil-
loscope:
– the modulated signal sPAM1(t) at the output
PAM1
– the modulated signal sPAM2(t) at the output
PAM2 Fig. Ex4-1: Experiment setup PAM system
1for τ/TP > 50% connect both channels as
specified in the drawing
35
– the demodulated signal sD(t) at the output of Influence of the pulse-duty factor on PAM
the lowpass filter CH1 on the PAM demo- Repeat the experiment for τ/TP = 2/10 with the
dulator pulse frequency fP unchanged.
Enter the signals true-to-scale in Diagrams 4.2-1 Enter the signals true-to-scale in Diagrams
... 4.2-3. 4.2-4 ... 4.2-6.
Diagram 4.2-1 Diagram 4.2-4

Modulating signal sM(t) and modulated signal sPAM1(t) Modulating signal sM(t) and modulated signal sPAM1(t)

Modulating signal sM(t) and modulated signal sPAM2(t) Modulating signal sM(t) and modulated signal sPAM2(t)

Modulating signal sM(t) and demodulated signal sD(t) Modulating signal sM(t) and demodulated signal sD(t)
By carefully adjusting the signal frequency you Compare the results from 4.2-2 and 4.2-3 with
can try to obtain a standing image. each other.
Which condition does the quotient fP/fM have to What do you expect in quantitative terms?
fulfil for this?
We recommend using the storage mode of the
oscilloscope for better observation.
36
Influence of the sampling frequency on PAM 4.3 The spectrum of PAM

According to the sampling theorem the modulat-
Spectral investigations on PAM1
ing signal sM(t) can be recovered, if the sampling
All of the measurements are performed at the out-
frequency amounts to at least double the signal
put PAM1 of the PAM modulator. Feed into the
frequency. In the following we will deal with the
input filter CH1 a sinusoidal signal with
technical problems which result from this.
fM = 600 Hz (check using the frequency counter)
Reset the pulse-duty factor τ/TP to max. and lower
and AM = 5 V.
the sampling frequency fP to approx. 7.2 kHz. In-
– Connect the input of the spectrum analyzer
crease the modulation frequency fM to 3.4 kHz and
with the output PAM1.
set the time base to 1 ms/DIV on the oscilloscope.
Measure the demodulated signal sD(t). Enter the
signal true-to-scale in the Diagram 4.2-7. Analyzer settings
V1: 1
V2: 10
fr / kHz: 20 b/Hz: 100
SPAN / kHz: 1.5...20 T/s: 40
With the aid of the oscilloscope set the pulse

generator (G) to τ/TP = 2/10, pulse frequency
fP = 2 kHz. Remeasure with the frequency coun-
ter!
Diagram 4.2-7 Measure out the PAM spectrum in the range from
sD(t) for fM = 3.4 kHz and fP = 7.2 kHz
approx. 500 Hz to 12 kHz and enter the measured
values S(n) from the output of the analyzer into
The modulating signal can no longer be recov- Table 4.3-1 with the corresponding frequencies.
ered. Instead of this beats appear. How do these The amplitudes of the spectral lines are obtained
arise? from:
Note: The lowpass filter is not ideal; it also S(n)
SPAM (n) =
permits frequency components above V1 ⋅ V2
its limiting frequency to partially pass
through. Measure fP and fM. If you use Note: Due to the beat effects in the analyzer it
these in Equation 4.2 and only take the is possible that the output signal begins
two lowest frequency components into oscillating, particularly when operating
consideration, you can calculate the at V2 = 10. In order to obtain as accurate
beat frequency using the following ad- a reading as possible for the output volt-
dition theorem. age S(n), we recommend a slight read-
justment of the frequency.
a+b a−b Calculate the spectral components SPAM(n) using
cos ( a ) + cos ( b ) = 2 ⋅ cos ⋅ cos
2 2 (4.3). Also enter the calculated values for SPAM(n)
into Table 4.3-1. Plot the characteristic of the
Connect the loudspeakers and carefully increase PAM spectrum in Diagram 4.3-1. Indicate the
the sampling frequency. As of what frequency subspectra with the index n. Draw a distinction
does the beat frequency become audible? here for the lower and upper sidelines, e.g. LSL1,
USL1, LSL2, USL2 etc.
37
Repeat the experiment for fM = 800 Hz. Keep all

the other settings unchanged. Use Table 4.3-2 and
Diagram 4.3-2.
Table 4.3-1: PAM spectrum Table 4.3-2: PAM spectrum

Signal parameter Analyzer settings Signal parameters Analyzer settings
AP : 5.2 V V1 : 1
AP : 5.2 V V1 : 1 τ/TP : 2/10 V2 : 10
τ/TP : 2/10 V2 : 10 fP : 2 kHz b : 100 Hz
fP : 2 kHz b : 100 Hz AM : 5V fr : 20 kHz
AM : 5V fr : 20 kHz fM : 800 Hz T : 40 s
fM : 600 Hz T : 40 s
f S(n) S PAM (n) S PAM (n) f S(n) S PAM (n) S PAM (n)
n Name n Name
kHz V V V kHz V V V

PAM Spectrum AM = V, τ/TP= , fP = kHz PAM Spectrum AM = V, τ/TP= , fP = kHz
fM = Hz fM = Hz
38
Compare the PAM spectra with the pulse spectra Table 4.3-3: PAM2 Spectrum
from Chapter 3.
How does the USL respond as a function of the Signal parameters Analyzer settings
frequency of the modulating signal fM? And what
about the LSL? AP : 5.2 V V1 : 1
τ/TP : 9/10 V2 : 2
Spectral investigations on the PAM2 (S&H) fP : 2 kHz b : 100 Hz
Feed in sequence 4 harmonic signals sMi(t) = AM AM : 5V fr : 20 kHz
cos (2 π fMit) with AM = 5 V amplitude and the T : 40 s
specified signal frequencies fMi into the input fil-
ter CH1 of the PAM modulator. Here “i” stands Measurements Theoy
for the running index i = 1, 2, 3, 4
f S(n) SPAM(n) SPAM(n)
fM1 = 300 Hz Name d
kHz V V V
fM2 = 500 Hz
sM1(t)
fM3 = 700 Hz
sM2(t)
fM4 = 900 Hz.
sM3(t)
Connect channels CH1 and CH2 in parallel, see
Fig. Ex 4-1. sM4(t)
Set a sampling frequency of fP = 2 kHz and a
pulse-duty factor of τ/TP = 0.9. Record the spectra
of PAM2 for the above-mentioned input signals
sMi(t).
Analyzer settings
V1: 1
V2: 2
fr / kHz: 2 b/Hz: 50
SPAN / kHz: max T/s: 40
Diagram 4.3-3:
From the spectrum enter only the spectral compo- PAM spectrum AM = V, τ/TP= , fP = kHz
nents of the modulating signals sMi(t) with ampli- Displaying linear distortion in PAM2
tude and frequency into Table 4.3-3. Sketch the
spectrum into Diagram 4.3-3. Comment on the
results! Repeat the experiment, but this time record the
What are the consequences of your results? spectrum PAM1 (linear gate). Enter your results
Calculate the attenuation d of the spectrum of the into Table 4.3-4. Sketch the spectrum in Diagram
input signal sM(t) in the spectrum of PAM2 ac- 4.3-4. Compare your results.
cording to (4.6):
d = si ( π f M max τ )
 τ f M max 
= si  π ⋅  (4.6)
 T fP 
 P 
Enter your values for d also in Table 4.3-3. How

large is the anticipated amplitude drop at the limit
of Nyquist sampling, i.e. for fM = fP/2 = 1 kHz and
for τ/TP = 100% ?
39
Table 4.3-4: PAM1 spectrum Analyzer settings

Signal parameter Analyzer settings V1: 2
V2: 5, 10
AP : 5,2 V V1 : 1
τ/TP : 9/10 V2 : 2 fr / kHz: 20 b/Hz: 100
fP : 2 kHz b : 100 Hz
AM : 5V fr : 20 kHz SPAN/kHz:12 kHz T/s: 40
T : 40 s approx.
Measurements Theory
Calculate theoretically the amplitude values ex-
f S(n) SPAM(n) SPAM(n) pected (4.3). Also note down the results in Table
Name d
kHz V V V 4.4-1. Display your measurement results in Dia-
gram 4.4-1. Mark the position of the suppressed
sM1(t)
carrier lines in the spectrum with striped lines.
sM2(t)
sM3(t) Table 4.4-1: PAM spectrum
sM4(t) Signal parameters Analyzer settings

AP : 5,2 V V1 : 1
τ/TP : 2/10 V2 : 10
fP : 2 kHz b : 100 Hz
AM : 5V fr : 20 kHz
fM : 1200 Hz T : 40 s
Measurements Theory
f S(n) SPAM(n) SPAM(n)
n Name
kHz V V V
Diagram 4.3-4:
PAM spectrum AM = V, τ/TP= , fP = kHz
4.4 Displaying aliasing

A distortion-free demodulation of PAM signals is
only possible when the sampling theorem has
been fulfilled.
Undersampling in the frequency domain
Record the PAM spectrum for a pulse train with
fP = 2 kHz, τ/TP = 2/10, and a sinusoidal input sig-
nal with AM = 5 V, fM = 1200 Hz (check the fre-
quencies with the frequency counter). Enter the
measured values S(n), f, and the designations of
the spectral lines into Table 4.4-1.
40
SPAM/V
Diagram 4.4-2
Diagram 4.4-1: Demodulated signal sD(t) at fP = 15 kHz and fM = 47 kHz
PAM spectrum AM = V, τ/TP= , fP = kHz
Undersampling in the time domain nect the output of the filter to the input of the
In order to be able to investigate the effects of analyzer.
undersampling in the time domain, the condition
fP ≥ 2 fM has to be violated.
Analyzer settings
In real systems the sampling frequency is selected
so that the sampling theorem is still fulfilled for V1: 1
the highest signal frequency expected. But what V2: 1
happens if an even higher signal frequency occurs
for which the system has not been designed? In fr/kHz: 5 b/Hz: 50
order to investigate this, feed the signal from the
SPAN / kHz: max T/s: 40
function generator directly into the modulation
input of CH1.
Set the sampling frequency fP to 15 kHz. Connect Record the amplitude response point-by-point by
the loudspeaker (PAM demodulator CH1) using a measuring the output amplitude Ao of the filter as
bridging plug. Display the modulating signal at a function of the frequency f. Enter your measured
the input of the sampler and the demodulated sig- values into the Table 4.5-1. Select the frequency
nal at the output of the PAM demodulator on the steps from approx. 300 Hz up to the point where
oscilloscope. the upper critical frequency is reached. From here
Select a sinusoidal signal with AM = 6 V as the on smaller frequency steps are selected! Plot the
input signal. Slowly change the frequency fM from amplitude response G1 = Ao/Ai in Diagram 4.5-1.
approx. 2 kHz...200 kHz. Note: The amplitude response can be recorded
Now take a close look at the case of fM1 = 47 kHz. with particular ease using an XY recorder.
Sketch the signal curves sM(t) (input signal) and
the demodulated signal sD(t). Note down all of the Optional
signal parameters. Use Diagram 4.4-2. Repeat the experiment. For this connect all four
Consider the curve of the demodulated signal filters of the PAM modulator and demodulator in
sD(t). How is it possible at all for an output signal series! Use Table 4.5-2 and Diagram 4.5-2. De-
to be produced at the output of the lowpass filter scribe the differences in the curves of the ampli-
when this has a critical frequency of only 3.4 kHz? tude responses G1(f) and G2(f). Determine the
Demonstrate how the frequency of the demodu- 3 dB critical frequency of the filter.
lated signal is produced!
4.5 Avoiding aliasing by means of band
limiting
Remove the bridging plugs from the input and
output of the band limiting filter CH1 of the PAM
modulator. Instead connect the input of the filter
to the VCO output of the spectrum analyzer. Con-
41
Table 4.5-1: Amplitude frequency response Table 4.5-2: Amplitude frequency response
Ai : 1.0 V V1 : 5 Ai : 1.0 V V1 : 5
V2 : 2 V2 : 2
b : 50 Hz b : 50 Hz
fr : 5 kHz fr : 5 kHz
T : 40 s T : 40 s
Measurements Measurements
f A0 f A0
V2 G1 V2 G2
Hz V Hz V

Amplitude freq. response A = V, τ/TP= , fP = kHz Amplitude freq. response A = V, τ/TP= , fP = kHz
42
4.6 The time integration capacity of the

lowpass filter
Remove the bridging plugs between the input fil-
ter and the sampler. Feed a bipolar square-wave
signal with AR = 6 V and fR = 500 Hz directly into
the sampler of the PAM modulator. Set a sam-
pling frequency of fP = 2 kHz and a pulse-duty
factor of t/TP = 3/10.
Display the signals at the output PAM1 of the
sampler sPAM(t) and at the output of the PAM Diagram 4.6-3:
demodulator sD(t) on the oscilloscope. Sketch the sPAM(t) and sD(t) for fP = max.
signals in the Diagram 4.6-1. What do you notice
when comparing the signals? 4.7 A 2-channel PAM time-division multi-
plex system (PAM-TDM)
The idea behind PAM-TDM
Set up the experiment as specified in
Fig. Ex4.7-1.
Feed in a triangular-shaped signal with
fM1 =200 Hz and AM1 = 5 V in channel 1 (CH1)
and a sinusoidal signal with fM2 = 300 Hz;
AM2 = 6 V into channel 2 (CH2).
Sampling frequency fP = 15 kHz, maximum
pulse-duty factor. Display the input signals simul-
Diagram 4.6-1: taneously on the oscilloscope and sketch these
sPAM(t) and sD(t) for fP = 2 kHz
into Diagram 4.7-1.
Repeat the experiment. Increase the sampling fre-

quency to fP = 6 kHz. Sketch the signals into Dia-
gram 4.6-2. Observation?
Diagram 4.7-1:
Input signals for PAM-TDM system
Display the signal sPAM1(t) on the oscilloscope.

Diagram 4.6-2: Set the time base to 1 ms/DIV. Here you can see
sPAM(t) and sD(t) for fP = 6 kHz the curve contours of the triangular and sinusoidal
signal. Sketch the PAM-TDM signal in Diagram
Repeat experiment 1 but this time with maximum 4.7-2.
sampling frequency. Sketch the signals into Dia-
gram 4.6-3. Observation?
43
Adjust the pulse-duty factor. Is it possible to in-

crease the pulse-duty factor above 0.5 in this two-
channel system?
Describe how the PAM-TDM signal is generated.
For this it is critical to phase-shift the carrier sig-
nals and their pulse widths τ out of the generator
G. How would the phase-shift and the maximum
pulse width have to respond for a three-channel
system? Is there any general law of formation? If
Diagram 4.7-2: so, what is it?
PAM-TDM signal for the input variables according to Now display the respective input and output sig-
Diagram 4.7-1
nal of the demodulator lowpass filter of CH1 and
CH2. Sketch the signals from CH2 in Diagram
4.7-4 and from CH1 in Diagram 4.7-5.
Extend the display by setting the time base to Describe the effect of the demultiplexer. The
0.2 ms/DIV. Now you can see how the curve dis- CLOCK signal is important for this.
play is produced.
Sketch the signal in Diagram 4.7-3.

Generating the envelope curves in Diagram 4.7-2 Demultiplexed and demodulated signal CH2
Fig. Ex4.7-1: Experiment setup for the 2-channel PAM-TDM system
44
Display the output signal from the lowpass CH2

on the oscilloscope and sketch it in
Diagram 4.7-8. What do you notice?
Diagram 4.7-5:
Demultiplexed and demodulated signal CH1
PAM channel crosstalk

Adjust the skew ∆t (demultiplexer control in the Diagram 4.7-8:
PAM demodulator). What do you observe? Output signal of the lowpass filter CH2
Display the CLOCK signal and the DMUX trigger
signal on the oscilloscope. Set ∆t so that the trig- Adjust ∆t so that the demodulated signals from
ger signal is delayed by 90° with respect to the CH1 and CH2 are interchanged completely. How
CLOCK signal. Sketch the signals in Diagram large does ∆t have to be now? Measure the skew
4.7-6. again.
As you have seen, the PAM-TDM system can be
influenced by the incorrect triggering of the
demultiplexer. On the other hand, a precise trig-
gering cannot be technically achieved so that a so-
called channel crosstalk always arises. In order
to measure the crosstalk, set ∆t to a minimum
level. Alternately apply the input of one channel
to ground, while the input signal of the other re-
spective channel remains unchanged. Try to
measure the amplitude APAR of the signal errone-
ously subject to crosstalk at the output of that re-
Diagram 4.7-6: spective PAM demodulator whose corresponding
Clock delay by 90° PAM modulator is set to 0 V. Determine the
crosstalk attenuation d using:
Display the input signal of the demodulator
lowpass filter from CH2 on the oscilloscope and AD (4.7)
sketch this signal in Diagram 4.7-7. Compare the d = 20 log
APAR
envelope curve with the one from Diagram 4.7-4.
Here AD stands for the output amplitude of the
desired signal. Apply the input of CH1 to 0 V.
Feed a sinusoidal signal with AM = 6 V and
fM = 300 Hz into CH2. Display the output signals
of both demodulator lowpasses on the oscillo-
scope. Sketch the signals into Diagram 4.7-9. Cal-
culate the crosstalk attenuation for this case
according to the formula above.
Diagram 4.7-7:
Input signal of the lowpass filter CH2
45
bridging plug at the lowpass input. Display the

PAM2 signal on the oscilloscope and sketch it in
Diagram 4.7-11. How many channels can be
transmitted simultaneously at this pulse-duty fac-
tor?
Diagram 4.7-9:
Crosstalk from CH2 to CH1
Now connect CH2 to 0 V and feed the sinusoidal

signal into CH1. Display the output signals of
both demodulator lowpasses. Sketch the signals in
Diagram 4.7-10. Calculate the crosstalk attenua- Diagram 4.7-11:
tion for this case using the above formula. PAM-TDM signal for a duty cycle of 10%
Display the input and output signal of the

demodulator lowpass filter CH2 on the oscillo-
scope. Vary the holding time TH. What do you
observe?
Set the holding time to maximum. Display the
demodulated signals from CH1 and CH2 on the
oscilloscope and sketch these in Diagram 4.7-12.
What occurs to you with respect to the ampli-
tudes? Do the amplitudes coincide with the
theory?
Diagram 4.7-10:
Crosstalk from CH1 to CH2
The sample & hold element in the PAM demodu-

lator
According to formulas 4.2 and 4.5, the amplitude
of the demodulated signal is linearly dependent on
the pulse-duty factor. You have noticed that the
channel bundling, i.e. the number of channels in a
TDM system, decreases with increasing pulse-
duty factor. It is desirable that high amplitudes Diagram 4.7-12:
and large concentrations of channels (bundling) Demodulated signals; CH1 without an increase of the duty
be achieved. However, due to the dependency on cycle, CH2 at maximum duty cycle
the pulse-duty factor both objectives cannot be at-
tained simultaneously. This problem is solved by
transmitting a high concentration of channels with
low pulse-duty factors and then increasing the
pulse-duty factor in the demodulator using the
sample and hold stage (S&H).
Set the pulse-duty factor to 10%. Alternate from
PAM1 to PAM2 by changing the bridging plug at
the PAM modulator. Connect the input of the
lowpass filter CH2 in the PAM demodulator with
the output of the S&H stage by reconnecting the
46
TPS 7.2.2.1 Pulse Code Modulation
5 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Training objectives: ing). The quantization becomes more precise with

Linear and non-linear quantization, companding. an increasing number of steps and there is a de-
Varying bit significance in PCM signals. Binary crease in the quantization noise. However, small
coding. Multi-stepped nature of codes. Determi- quantization intervals are more at risk from exter-
nation of information volume and flow. nal noise causes. This primarily affects the inter-
Quantization noise for various resolution levels of vals of small signal values.
the AD converter. Clarifying the advantages and
Encoding
reasons for the TDM method. The tasks and con-
Evidently a sampled, discrete value signal of this
trol of the multiplex-demultiplex facility are in-
kind is unsuitable for transmission via a real,
vestigated. Word and frame synchronization.
noise distorted transmission channel. The digital
Channel crosstalk is demonstrated.
signal at the output of the quantifier requires a
5.1 Fundamentals shape better suited to the relationships prevailing
The PAM-signal generated by sampling is dis- on the channel. The conversion process required
crete w.r.t. time and value-continuous. In order to for this is called encoding. Coding constitutes the
convert this into a digital signal, quantization allocation of a specific mapping between the ele-
and coding have to be performed on the signal. ments of two different character sets. Among the
various types of codes the binary codes play an
Quantization important role. These involve only the elements 0
By quantization we mean the narrowing down of and 1 (high and low) as character sets. These bi-
all possible signal values to a finite number. nary digit are also called bits. Technically the two
Whereas the PAM signal can assume any random character elements are represented by 2 voltage
signal value sPAM(t) between the modulating lim- levels (e.g. TTL-level), 2 frequencies, 2 ampli-
its of the PAM modulator, the quantified signal tudes or similar. A well-known binary code used
sQ(t) generally demonstrates a stepped shape. The the binary system for the representation of num-
modulating range of the PCM modulator is bro- bers in the decimal system:
ken down into a fixed number of intervals. Each
interval is represented by assigning one signal
value only. This is set representatively for all sig- Decimal system Binary system
nal values, which occur in their respective inter-
val. The quantization process takes an infinite 0 0000
number of all possible, continuous signal values 1 0001
and reduces them to a finite number. This quanti-
zation process also referred to as value discreti- 2 0010
zation, always results in an additional error. This
3 0011
inevitable quantization error can be considered as
a noise phenomena and is thus called quantiza- 4 0100
tion noise. The quantization distortion is influ-
enced by the input signal type. In addition to this, 5 0101
the magnitude and number of quantization inter- 6 0110
vals also play a decisive role. The quantization
intervals can be either equidistant discrete or log- 7 0111
arithmic steps. In the case of equidistant quantiza- 8 1000
tion intervals this is referred to as linear
quantization. In the case of logarithmic steps this 9 1001
is called non-linear quantization (see compand-
47
MTS 7.2.2.1 Pulse Code Modulation
Fig. 5.1: How a PCM signal is generated
The dual code is called multi-stepped, because in Companding

the transition from one binary character to the The term companding is composed out of the
next, it is possible that several bits have to be con- words compression and expansion. The idea be-
verted at the same time (see for example the tran- hind companding is the desire to improve signal-
sition from 3 to 4) in the decimal system. Fig. 5.1 to-noise ratio (SNR). A signal-to-noise ratio kept
graphically illustrates the generation of a PCM constant over a large modulation range is of great
signal. The sampling of the modulating signal advantage precisely in cases of fluctuating signal
sM(t) in the PAM modulator supplies the sPAM2(t) amplitude. Here you can imagine music which
signal. Quantization is performed through the al- alternates between low and loud volume levels.
location of representative voltage values to the Distortion during low volume sections are per-
respective quantization intervals. In each case, ceived to be stronger than those occurring during
these lie in the middle of the relevant intervals. loud passages. The principle of companding is
One can see the quantization errors, e.g. in sam- based on increasing the low amplitudes on the
ples 2 and 5 or 7 and 10. In both cases the alloca- transmitter end. High amplitudes, less subject to
tion is performed to the same representative distortion, are decreased. The compression car-
value! A binary coding starting with the code ried out on the transmitter end has to be alleviated
word 000 for the negative peak value of sPAM2 as again on the receiver end. This so-called expan-
well as a conversion to TTL-level finally supplies sion process returns the low amplitude values
the PCM signal. back to their original levels. Companding is also a
PCM demodulation takes place by means of re- standard method of improving the signal-to-noise
conversion into a PAM signal. This is followed by ratio in PCM systems. In PCM the noise arising
the well known PAM demodulation using a low- through the transmission can be completely elimi-
pass filter. Each signal value sQ(t) of the quanti- nated as long as it remains below the critical
fied signal is converted into a sequence of 0 V and threshold. Of course this advantage is offset by
5 V pulses. A PCM demodulator arranged down- the quantization distortion. These can be dealt
stream from the transmission channel only has to with like superpositioned distortion so that
be able to clearly distinguish between these two companding can also have positive effects on the
voltages. Let us assume that the critical threshold signal-to-noise ratio. In the case of the pulse
of the receiver is at 2.5 V. Then, noise continues modulation methods, in particular PCM,
to have no impact on the signal transmission as companding is especially useful as it does not lead
long as its level stays below this critical threshold. to any expansion of the required transmission
48
Compressor characteristic Expander characteristic
Fig. 5.2: 13 Segment characteristics
band. There are primarily 3 methods used for N: Number of discrete signal values through
companding in PCM: which the signal is represented
(volume range of the quantified signal).
1. Companding the instantaneous value with
lb N: the logarithm of N determined to the base 2
subsequent regular quantization
(N = number of steps)
2. Irregular quantization
3. Regular encoding and decoding with code An example should help elucidate the concept of
conversion information volume. Let us begin with a modulat-
ing signal sM(t) whose upper limit frequency lies
A logarithmic characteristic fulfills to a great ex-
at fMmax = 5 kHz so that a sampling rate of
tent the requirement for a constant signal-to-noise
fP = 10 kHz is sufficient for the sampling theorem.
ratio. It is frequently approximated by a 13-seg-
The N = 256 possible steps of the quantified sig-
ment characteristic. This offers advantages dur-
nal are represented by pulse groups or words
ing the implementation of irregular quantization
made up of 8 individual pulses each. The trans-
as coding procedure because the number of differ-
mission duration is T = 10 s. Then the information
ent quantization intervals are reduced and further-
volume amounts to:
more the ratio of the intervals is selected so that
the number of normals remains small. The 13 seg- M = 10 kHz · 10 s · 8 Bit
ment compressor and expander characteristics are = 800 kBit.
illustrated in Fig. 5.2. A standard graphic representation of M as a vol-
With the companding method described here the ume of the so-called information cuboid can be
signal-to-noise ration is increased by 24 dB. seen in Fig. (5.3).
The amount of information M constitutes a “con-
Some information theory
servation variable”. The following applies to this
Through sampling and quantization, information
variable:
becomes a countable, measurable quantity. Infor-
Signal conversions, which do not alter the volume
mation theory works with the concept of infor-
of the information cuboid also do not restrict the
mation volume. The information volume M can
transmission quality. Changes in fP, T, or N are
be calculated from the variables fP, T, and lb N:
permitted as long as M (the volume of the infor-
M = fP T lb N (5.1) mation cuboid) remains unchanged.
Where: If we relate the information volume to the trans-
fP : Sampling rate (according to the sampling mission duration T then we obtain the informa-
theorem fP > 2 fMmax holds true) tion flow C:
T: Time duration during which the signal is
transmitted
49
(5.2)
The maximum information flow Cmax which a

transmission channel is capable of transmitting is
called channel capacity. It is dependent on the dis-
turbance response of the channel.
The time-division multiplex method
In addition to the PAM, PPM, PDM as well as
PCM are also suitable for the time-division multi-
plex principle. The PCM method has the greatest
practical significance and should therefore be in-
troduced in brief using the example of the PCM Fig. 5.3: The information cuboid
30/32 system. Here we are dealing with a com-
mercially utilized time-division multiplex system
for the transmission of 30 telephone channels as
well as a synchronous signal and a telephone
C = fP 8 · 32 bt/s
switching signal. Each telephone channel trans-
= 2.048 Mbit/s.
mits signals in the frequency range between
300 Hz and 3.4 kHz. According to the sampling The pulse frame broken down into 32 equally
theorem this requires a minimum sampling rate of large time segments is depicted in Fig. 5.4. The
fP = 2 fMmax = 6.8 kHz. Since there is no steep- segment 0 alternately carries either an alarm sig-
edged bandlimiting filter, the sampling rate for nal or the synchronous signal required for frame
practical reasons has been fixed at fP = 8 kHz. As recognition. The segments 1...15 and 17...31
a result the pulse frame has a duration of TP = 1/fP transmit the telephone signals. The time segment
= 125 µs. All 32 channels are sampled within this 16 is reserved for the telephone switching
time period. The signals of all the channels are signal.
each quantified with 8 bits. Consequently there The advantage of PCM-TDM over PAM-TDM is
has to be C = fP · 8 · 32 bits transmitted per sec- in the greater disturbance insensitivity of the dig-
ond. Accordingly, the information flow, C, in ital signals and the possibility of signal recovery
PCM30/32 must amount to: or regeneration.
Fig. 5.4: The pulse frame of the PCM 30/32
50
Questions 1 4 1/2 digit DVM

1. What is the advantage of encoding? Name or Cassy interface (see below)
several binary codes! 1 Digital storage oscilloscope 305 575 292
2. How many amplitude values can be encoded 1 Probe 100 MHz, 1:1/10:1 575 231
with 8 bits? Which modulation range is pro- 3 10 bridging plugs, black 501 511
duced for linear quantization? The magnitude 2 Cable pairs, black 100 cm 501 461
of the quantization intervals amounts to
Additionally recommended:
approx. 80 mV.
1 CASSY interface
3. Are the sampling and quantization processes
1 Measuring and evaluating 524 111
reversible?
1 XY recorder e.g. 575 663
4. If you want to reduce the resolution of the
PCM modulator from 8 bit to 5 bit, which bits
do you have to disable? Experiment procedure
Use the experiment set-up according to
Fig. Ex5.2-1.
By pressing the MODE button several times
1 PAM demodulator 736 071
switch to the operating mode: PCM, linear
1 PCM modulator 736 101
quantization (recognizable when the appropriate
1 PCM demodulator 736 111
LEDs light up).
1 Function generator 0...200 kHz 726 95
– Enable all of the bits. For this press the
1 Frequency counter 726 99
pushbutton SELECT until all (red) LEDs on
Additionally required: the PCM modulator indicate ACTIVE.
1 Power supply ±15 V, 3 A 726 86 The toggle switch on the PCM demodulator must
be set to CH2.
Fig. Ex5.2-1: Experiment setup for quantization and binary coding
51
5.2 Experiment on quantization and binary

encoding
Table 5.2-1: Linear quantization characteristic
In the following experiments the characteristics U1 U2
are recorded point-by-point. It is simpler and Code
V V
faster to display the characteristics with an XY
recorder or the CASSY interface. For this, con- –9.5
nect the DC voltage source of the PCM modulator
to the X input of the recorder. The output voltage –9
of the PCM demodulator is connected to the Y
–8
input of the recorder. After calibrating the axes of
the XY recorder the characteristic can be recorded –7
by slowly changing the input voltage in the range
from –10 V < U1 < +10 V. Since the CASSY in- –6
terface possesses an XY recorder emulation func- –5
tion, a similar procedure can be followed here.
Furthermore, the characteristics can also be de- –4
picted in the XY-mode of the oscilloscope. For
this it is sensible to feed a triangular signal into
–3
the PCM modulator with AM = 9 V and fM = 50 Hz –2
and to display this on the x-axis of the oscillo-
scope. Display the output signal of the PCM –1
demodulator on the y-axis. In order to record the 0
respective characteristics, operate the PCM sys-
tem as described in the following experiments for 1
point-by-point characteristics recording. The hys-
teresis-like characteristic curve which is visible 2
on the oscilloscope, is produced because of the 3
phase-shift of the signals.
4
Linear quantization
1) Recording the linear quantization character- 5
istic
The DC voltage now supplies the input voltage U1 6
of the PCM modulator. The quantified voltage is 7
U2 and can be tapped at the DA converter of the
PCM demodulator. Set to -9.5 V on the 10 stage 8
potentiometer. Alternately measure U1 and U2 us-
9
ing the multimeter and note down the voltages to-
gether with the binary coded bit sequence of the 9.5
PCM modulator in Table 5.2-1. The bit sequence
is displayed by LEDs whereby the least signifi-
cant bit (LSB) is at the top.
Now increase the input voltage U1 in steps of
approx. 1 V and repeat the recording of the meas-
urement value until the upper modulation limit of
the PCM modulator is reached.
Display the curve of U2 versus U1 as a
quantization characteristic in Diagram 5.2-1.
Disable the three least significant bits and change
the input voltage from approx. –9.5 V to +9.5V.
Diagram 5.2-1:
Linear quantization characteristic 8 bit
52
Measure the output voltage of the PCM Non-linear quantization

demodulator and plot this versus the input voltage By pressing the MODE pushbutton on the PCM
in Diagram 5.2-2. Here it is important to make a modulator several times switch to the operating
precise recording of the humps. Compare this mode: PCM, non-linear quantization (recogniz-
with the results in Diagram 5.2-1. able by the corresponding LEDs lighting up). The
PCM demodulator remains in linear operation.
1) Recording the companding characteristic
1a) Compressor characteristic
Record the compressor characteristic. Proceed in
the same manner as for the recording of the linear
quantization characteristic.
Plot the curve of U2 versus U1 as a compressor
characteristic in Diagram 5.2-3.
Diagram 5.2-2 Table 5.2-3: non-linear quantization,

linear quantization characteristic 5 Bit
compressor characteristic
2) The magnitude of the quantization intervals U1 U2 U1 U2
What does multi-stepped coding mean? To find V V V V
out vary U1 by 0 V. How large are the amplitude
intervals in mV? Repeat the experiment for any –9.5 0
given input voltage U1 in the range from –9 1
–10 V ... +10 V. Note down the values in Table
–8 2
5.2-2. What does linear quantization mean?
What is the relationship between the code and the –7 3
output voltage U2? Test this for several values
–6 4
from Table 5.2-1.
–5 5
Table 5.2-2: Size of the quantization interval

–4 6
–3 7
U1/V ∆U/mV
–2 8
–1 9
9.5
Diagram 5.2-3:
Non-linear quantization, compressor characteristic
53
1b) Expander characteristic 2) Recording the non-linear transmission char-

For this set the PCM modulator to linear acteristic
quantization, the PCM demodulator to non-linear In the previous experiment points you have sepa-
quantization. rately recorded compressor and expander charac-
Plot the curve of U2 versus U1 as an expander teristics respectively. Each of the two
characteristic in Diagram 5.2-4. transmission functions, by themselves, lead to sig-
nal distortion. However, in standard operation
they are both active simultaneously.
In order to record the non-linear transmission
characteristic switch the PCM modulator and
demodulator to non-linear mode. Record the
transmission characteristic. Note down the values
in Table 5.2-5.
Table 5.2-4: Non-linear quantization, expander Table 5.2-5: Non-linear transmission

characteristic characteristic
U1 U2 U1 U2 U1 U2 U1 U2
V V V V V V V V
–9.5 0 –9.5 0
–9 1 –9 1
–8 2 –8 2
–7 3 –7 3
–6 4 –6 4
–5 5 –5 5
–4 6 –4 6
–3 7 –3 7
–2 8 –2 8
–1 9 –1 9
9.5 9.5

Non-linear quantization, expander characteristic Non-linear transmission characteristic 8 Bit
54
Disable the three least significant bits and vary the 3) The magnitude of the quantization intervals
input voltage from approx. –9.5 V up to +9.5 V. The compander characteristic is composed of 13
Measure the output voltage of the PCM segments with varying gradients. For a modula-
demodulator and plot this versus the input voltage tion range of ±10 V the interval limits listed in
in Diagram 5.2-6. Here it is important to make a Table 5.2-6 are produced for the individual lines.
precise recording of the humps. Compare this Your job is now to measure the quantization steps
with the results in Diagram 5.2-2. within the individual intervals. For this feed a
voltage U1 for each interval and measure the size
of the interval ∆U as performed above.
How do the quantization steps respond with re-
spect to each other?
Diagram 5.2-6
Non-linear transmission characteristic 5 bit
Table 5.2-6: The magnitudes of the

quantization intervals
Interval U1/V ∆U/mV
–10 V ... –5 V
–5 V ... –2.5 V
–2.5 V ... –1.25 V
–1.25 V ... –0.625 V
–0.625 V ... –0.312 V
–0.312 V ... –0.156 V
–0.156 V ... +0.156 V
0.156 V ... 0.312 V
0.312 V ... 0.625 V
0.625 V ... 1.25 V
1.25 V ... 2.5 V
2.5 V ... 5 V
5 V ... 10 V
55
5.3 The PCM as transmission method

Set up the experiment as shown in Fig. Ex5-3.

Sampling frequency fP PCM
Pulse-duty factor τ/Tp PCM
Delay of the multiplexor con-
minimal
trol ∆t
Settings on the PCM system

PCM modulator "linear PCM"
PCM demodulator "linear PCM"
ACTIVE BITS all ON
Channel selection switch "CH1"
Settings on oscilloscope
Time base 10 µs/DIV
Trigger CLOCK
Feed the DC voltage of the PCM modulator into

the lowpass input filter CH1 of the PAM modula-
tor. Display the output signal of the PCM modula-
tor.
Vary the DC voltage. Demonstrate the relation-
ship between the formation of the serial data
packets and the “high bits” display. The data
packets, in which practically no change occurs
through the variation of U1, belong to CH2. There,
0 is continuously transmitted since no voltage is
present at the input. Note that a slight amount of
crosstalk makes itself particularly audible on
channel 1 at high voltages. Which of the bits is the
LSB in the data packets? Which one is the parity
bit? Is there a bit which continuously designates
CH1? If so, which designation is normally used
for this bit? Which bit is constantly low and which
one is constantly high for the two channels?
Which functions do these bits assume?
Note: a data packet consists of 11 bits.
Fig. Exp. 5-3: Experiment setup PCM as transmission
method
56
Set a DC voltage of 5.5 V. Sketch the signal curve 5.4 The quantization noise
of the PCM output signal in Diagram 5.3-1.
The quantization noise as a function of the
number of steps
Through the quantization process a value-continu-
ous signal is converted into a step-shaped signal.
The difference between the input and the output
signal of the quantifier is of a random nature and
is called quantization noise.
Feed the same triangular-shaped signal with
AM = 6 V and fM = 200 Hz into both PAM chan-
nels (CH1 & CH2). Using CH1 of the oscillo-
scope display the modulating signal from CH1 or
Diagram 5.3-1:
PCM output signal, CH1: 5.5 V, CH2: 0 V CH2 on the oscilloscope. With CH2 measure the
PAM output signal of the PCM demodulator.
Determine the rate of information transmission C Settings on the oscilloscope

for fP = 10 kHz. How high would the maximum
possible line capacity Cmax be of the PCM link? Input attenuator channel 1 2 V/DIV
Remove the DC voltage source connection to the Input attenuator channel 2 2 V/DIV
PAM modulator and feed a sinusoidal signal with
fM = 500 Hz and AM = 6 V there instead. Why do Time base 10 ms/DIV
we not obtain a steady bit pattern? For this briefly Trigger Channel 1
switch to a low signal frequency fM ≈ 0.5 Hz!
What relationship exists between the PCM words
and the sampling pulses of the PAM modulator? Display the quantization noise on the oscilloscope
Disable the parity bit. What effect do expect in the by forming the differential CH1 – CH2 in dual
demodulated signal of CH1? Display this on the channel operation. For this invert channel II and
oscilloscope and sketch it in Diagram 5.3-2. switch to ADD. Sketch the quantization noise in
Diagram 5.4-1.
Diagram 5.3-2.: Diagram 5.4-1

Demodulated signal with loss of parity bit Quantization noise for s = 8 bit
57
The quantization noise corresponds to the fine

structure of the signal. The coarse structure is pro-
duced through the phase shift of the input signal
with respect to the quantified signal. Since we are
dealing here with the difference between two
phase-shifted triangular signals, this is constant in
terms of magnitude. The polarity sign alters with
the frequency of the triangular oscillation.
Repeat the experiment, but this time disable the 4
LSBs. Thus you have reduced the resolution from Diagram 5.4-4
N1 = 28 = 256 to N2 = 24 = 16 steps. Display the Quantized signal for non-linear quantization and
AM = 80 mV
quantified signal in Diagram 5.4-2 and the
quantization noise in Diagram 5.4-3.
Diagram 5.4-5
Quantization noise for non-linear quantization and
AM = 80 mV
Diagram 5.4-2
Input signal and quantized signal, 4 bit Switch the PCM system back into linear mode.
Measure the quantified signal and the quantiza-
tion distortion and sketch these into Diagram 5.4-
6 and 5.4-7 respectively. Evaluate the change in
quantization noise with respect to that obtained in
non-linear mode.
Diagram 5.4-3
Quantization noise, 4 bit
The quantization noise as a function of the signal

level
Companding is used in PCM methods to keep the Diagram 5.4-6
signal to quantization noise constant over a large Quantized signal with linear quantization and AM = 80 mV
modulation range. An improvement over linear
quantization is achievable particularly at low am-
plitudes.
Switch both the PCM modulator as well as the
PCM demodulator to “non-linear PCM” operating
mode. Now reduce the amplitude of the modulat-
ing signal to approx. AM = 80 mV. Measure the
quantified signal and the quantization distortion
and sketch these in Diagrams 5.4-4 and 5.4-5 re-
spectively.
Diagram 5.4-7
Quantization noise with linear quantization and AM= 80 mV
58
TPS 7.2.2.1 Differential Pulse Code Modulation
6 Differential Pulse Code Modulation (DPCM)
Training objectives
Decorrelation. Meaning of statistical (sampled
value) signal description. Reducing the rate of in-
formation transmission.
6.1 Introduction
Whereas in analog communication systems (e.g.
FM radio or TV) the information signal process-
ing is to a great extent completed with the signal
conversion process, in digital transmission the
possibility of signal information reduction
opens up. Here we refer to the expanded task of
signal processing. In order to be able to under-
stand this process, we have to take a closer look at
the properties of signals. Particularly graphic are Fig. 6.1: The message level
the relationships brought about during the process (A): redundant, irrelevant
(B): redundant, relevant
of optoelectronic picture conversion using a tel- (C): non-redundant, irrelevant
evision camera. The picture is converted into a (D): non-redundant, relevant
line scanning pattern on the picture sensor. The
picture sensor can be the storage plate of a picture
recording tube e.g. Vidicon or a semiconductor
chip in CCD technology. It is important to re- a scene from a wild west film. The camera is
member that the original information of the image shooting a scene from a desert landscape. The
is reduced by determining a line scanning pattern. upper half of the shot - the sky - appears consist-
Only a picture which is rastered with a line scan- ently blue. The lower half of the picture - the
ning pattern is formed on the screen of a TV re- desert sand - is consistently sand colored. The pic-
ceiver. Normally this has no detrimental effects ture sampling in the top half then supplies the
because the human eye as the information re- same information point-to-point blue, blue, blue,
ceiver blends the closely positioned discrete lines blue, blue ......blue, blue (with constant bright-
into a homogenous whole picture. The limited, ness). But at some point the line scanning pattern
spatial resolution capability of the human eye per- finally registers on the horizontal line the brim of
mits this kind of rastered picture representation the hero's hat riding into the scene. Now for the
and determines the number of lines needed for first time a new signal value is output from the
this. Any substantial increase in the number of television camera. The signal characteristic most
lines has no marked advantage for the human eye. important here differentiates the signal values ac-
The picture rastering performed by the TV camera cording to whether they are known to the receiver
reduces the picture information to the minimum (redundant) or unknown (non-redundant). In
needed by the human eye. Unimportant informa- fact only the unknown portion of a signal needs to
tion, i.e. information which the human eye is inca- be transmitted, the redundant components can be
pable of resolving, is not further processed. The added again automatically by the receiver without
selection process isolating the important (rel- any information loss occurring. In short a signal
evant) from the unimportant (irrelevant) infor- can be represented in the so-called message level,
mation is called irrelevance reduction. Also the see Fig. 6.1.
quantization process in the PCM modulator can be The horizontal line divides the redundant part of
understood as irrelevance reduction. But apart the information from the non-redundant part. The
from the relevancy and irrelevancy criteria there vertical line distinguishes according to relevance
is still another signal property, which is part of and irrelevance. For the receiver only the shaded,
signal information reduction. Let's go back to the unknown part of the information is important. The
line or grid like scanning of an image and imagine DPCM constitutes a method of reducing the re-
59
MTS 7.2.2.1 Differential Pulse Code Moidulation
Fig. 6.2: Basic setup of a DPCM system

(1): Sampling (PAM modulator)
(2): Decorrelation, formation of the predicted value (PCM modulator)
(3): Quantization, coding (PCM modulator)
(4): Channel
(5): Decoding, D/A conversion (PCM demodulator)
(6): Recovery of the redundancy (PCM demodulator)
(7): Recovery of the time continuation (PAM demodulator)
dundancy of the information signal. Fig. 6.2 dem- are vital for the prediction, the DPCM can only
onstrates one possible operating principle for a work for input signals with known sample values.
DPCM link. The quantization is no longer carried Consequently, in the following experiment it only
out for each individual PAM value. Only the dif- makes sense to work with triangular signals. The
ference between the current PAM value and a pre- information important for the prediction of the
dicted value X, which is formed in the DPCM next respective sample lies solely in the constant
modulator, is quantified. This predicted value also ascent of the triangular function. The only thing
called estimated value or prediction value, is that must be decided is whether this ascent is
generated in a predictor from the previous PAM negative or positive. The DPCM resolves a signal
values. Thus the signal's past history goes into out of its statistical context. This kind of process
it. is called the decorrelation of the signal. An ex-
In order for the predictor to be able to form the ample for statistical context is the sequence of
prediction value correctly, the statistics of the certain letters in words. For example in the Eng-
modulating signal have to be known. Conse- lish language u normally follows the letter q (
quently, the principle of the DPCM is based on the question, frequency, quantization etc.). Following
possibility of being able to make probability state- the previous letter q the "u" is redundant, it does
ments regarding the occurrence of particular PAM not necessarily have to be transmitted; a possible
values. The process resembles weather forecast- receiver could insert a "u" after each incoming
ing. Based on the weather of the last few days and "q", in order to make the information readable. An
with the current weather situation taken into ac- important area of application for DPCM, which is
count, a probable weather forecast is made for the also called predictive source coding, is digital
following day. Since the signal's sampled values image processing. To that extent the example of
60
the film scene used above has practical implica-

tions. Due to the enormous volume of data, meth-
ods on bit rate reduction are indispensable in the
area of digital image processing. There are vari-
ous possibilities for the integration of the DPCM
modulator. As such redundancy reduction can
also be integrated into the quantization process,
for example. Fig. 6.2 provides a schematic depic-
tion of a DPCM link which can be implemented
with the 4 training panels.
Fig. 6.3: Functional diagram of a previous sample
predictor
S1, S2 : switches working in opposition
Questions C1, C2 : storage capacitors
1. What is meant by the expanded task of signal CLOCK : synchronization (sampling
processing? frequency fP)
2. Where is DPCM used?
3. Does DPCM make sense in the transmission
of a determined signal, for example, in the The DPCM modulator contains a differential am-
case of the triangular signal? plifier and an analog storage unit. The switches S1
and S2 synchronized at the sampling frequency fP
operate in counter sense. Together with storage
Required equipment and accessories capacitors C1 and C2 they form the "PREDIC-
1 PAM modulator 736 061 TOR". The formation of the prediction value is
1 PAM demodulator 736 071 quite simple. The PAM pulses occurring in
1 PCM modulator 736 101 rhythm with the sampling frequency fP are alter-
1 PCM demodulator 736 111 nately charged in the storage media C1 und C2 by
Additionally required the switching operation of S1. S2 is used to read
1 Function generator 0...200 kHz 726 95 out the last respective PAM value. While in the
1 Power supply ±15 V, 3 A 726 86 switch position according to Fig. 6.3 the current
1 Digital storage oscilloscope 305 575 292 PAM value is read into the capacitor C1 via the
2 Probes 100 MHz, 1:1/10:1 575 231 switch S1, the last PAM value is read out of the
3 10 bridging plugs, black 501 511 capacitor C2 via S2. Consequently the differential
1 Pair of cables, black 100 cm 501 461 amplifier can constantly form the difference be-
tween the current sampling value n and the previ-
Additionally recommended: ous sample n – 1. Since only 1 value (n – 1) from
1 Frequency counter 0-10 MHz 726 99 the signal's history is used for the formation of the
estimated value X, this method is called Previous
Operational description of predictors in PCM Sample Prediction. The function of the DPCM
modulators and PCM demodulators demodulator is inverted. However, in contrast to
The PCM modulator and PCM demodulator train- the modulator, the DPCM signal must be added to
ing panels are microprocessor controlled. Their the prediction value.
function in DPCM operation can be explained us-
ing the analog equivalent circuit diagram shown
in Fig. 6.3.
61
Use the experiment setup as shown in Fig. Ex6-1.
Set a triangular signal with approx. 500 Hz and
A = 3 V on the function generator. Check the sig-
nal amplitude and frequency with the counter and
oscilloscope.
DPCM is one method of reducing redundancy. In
the predictor used here it is always the difference
to the previous value which is transmitted. At the
start of the transmission it is important that the
predictors in the PCM modulator and in the PCM
demodulator begin from the same prediction
value. During switch-on the prediction value is
initialized with 0. But since the two systems can-
not be switched on simultaneously, the following
switch-on sequence has to be adhered to.
Switch on sequence of the DPCM system:
1. Connect the PAM input of the PCM modula-
tor to 0 V.
2. Switch the PCM modulator to DPCM mode.
3. Switch the PCM demodulator to the DPCM
mode.
4. Disconnect the PAM input of the PCM
modulator from 0 V.
5. Drop the amplitude of the modulation signal
to 0 V (on the function generator).
6. Feed a modulation signal into the PAM input
of the PCM modulator and set to the desired
amplitude.
Step 5 has to be performed every time before

making changes to the "ACTIVE BITS", after
completing the change the signal amplitude can
then be changed again.

Sampling frequency fP PCM
Pulse-duty factor τ/TP PCM
Delay of the demultiplexor
triggering ∆t minimal
Settings on the PCM system

PCM modulator DPCM
PCM demodulator DPCM
ACTIVE BITS all ON
Channel selection switch CH1
Fig. Ex6-1: Experiment setup for DPCM
62
Settings on the oscilloscope

Time base 100 µs/DIV
Trigger Channel 1
Feed the triangular signal into the input filter of Diagram 6.2-3:
the PAM modulator. Output value of the DPCM modulator
6.2 Signal curves in DPCM

Connect channel 1 of the oscilloscope to the input
signal of the PAM modulator. Display the follow-
ing signal curves with channel 2 of the oscillo-
scope:
PAM input signal
Predictor value of the DPCM modulator
Output value of the DPCM modulator
Input value of the DPCM demodulator
Predictor value of the DPCM demodulator
PAM output value of the DPCM demodulator Diagram 6.2-4:
Sketch this in the corresponding diagrams 6.2-1 to Input value of the DPCM demodulator
6.2-6.

Input signal of the PAM Predictor value of the DPCM demodulator

Predictor value of the DPCM Modulator PAM output value of the DPCM demodulator
63
Describe the result in the individual measure-

ments.
Now feed a triangular signal with fM = 70 Hz and
AM = 3 V . Display this signal and the DPCM sig-
nal on the oscilloscope and sketch this in Dia-
gram 6.2-7.
Diagram 6.2-7:
Optimum predictor
Describe the differences of the DPCM signal with

respect to the other measurements. Why is the dia-
gram entitled "Optimum Predictor"?
64

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Experiment 1

In electrical telecommunications engineering, messages are usually in the form of

Here it would be:

1. Set toggle switch to CARRIER ON setting.

where; D: the peak to peak value of the maximum of he AM signal

Double side band suppressed carrier (DSB-SC)

8. Set the toggle switch to CARRIER OFF.

22. Set the toggle switch to CARRIER OFF.

Figure 2.4: Representation of SSB.

Figure 2.6: Single side band

Figure 2.1: Synchronous AM demodulation

Synchronous demodulation with the aid of a PLL-controlled VCO

Figure 2.3: DSB-SC demodulation

© by LD DIDACTIC GmbH · Leyboldstraße 1 · D-50354 Hürth · www.ld-

Qty. Cat.-no. Designation

2 501 461 Pair cables 100 cm, black

Equipment overview ....................................................................................................................... 3

1. Angle modulation .................................................................................................................... 6

3. Phase modulation .................................................................................................................. 44

1. Angle modulation ..................................................................................................................... 56

2. Frequency modulation ............................................................................................................. 58

2.5 FM demodulation ................................................................................................................. 70

3. Phase modulation .................................................................................................................... 83

For this reason FM and PM are seen jointly as angle modulations.

s M (t)= A M cos(2 f M t ) (1-1)

Ψ PM (t)= 2π f c t + A M k cos(2π f M t) ) (1-2)

S PM ( t)= A c cos {2π f c t +A M k PM cos(2π f M t) } . (1-3)

LD DIDACTIC © by LD DIDACTIC GmbH

Fig. 1-1: Frequency and phase deviation for PM as a function of fM

For the modulated FM signal you obtain:

Fig. 1-2: Frequency and phase deviation in FM as a function of fM

The modulation index η

Zeros of the Bessel functions

J 0 (η) = 0 J 1 (η) = 0 J 2 (η) = 0

2.4 3.8 5.1

8.7 10.2 11.5

11.8 13.3 14.7

14.9 16.5 16.9

Fig. 1-4: The spectrum of an angle-modulated oscillation

Generation of angle modulation

Fig. 1-5: Generation of FM using voltage-controlled capacitance diode sFM(t)

Fig. 1-6: Generation of FM out of PM

Fig. 1-7: Generation of PM out of FM.

Demodulation of angle modulation

performed. If the instantaneous frequency of the received signal changes, an AC voltage is

Difference between the demodulation of FM and PM

How angle modulation methods respond to interference

Fig. 1-9: Preemphasis in FM

Fig. 1-10: On the effect of deemphasis

2 Which angle modulation method is least affected by noise? Why?

3 What does preemphasis mean?

4 When is deemphasis used in FM demodulation? How does it function?

6 Assuming in FM that the spectrum for a harmonic signal A 1 = 5 V and f M1 = 1000 Hz is

Experiment set-up: Assemble the components as shown below.

Set the carrier frequency to center position: f C = 20 kHz approx.

3. Start the measurement by pressing F9.

4. Draw modulating and demodulated carrier in time domain.

2.2 The characteristic of the FM modulator

10. Determine the coefficient of the FM modulator:

2.3 Determination of the frequency deviation

2.4 Measurements in the frequency domain of FM

1. Use the experiments set-up of the chapter 2.1.

Observation and result