Refrigeration 3

Thermodynamics 2 Lesson 6: Reversed Cycles
REVERSED CYCLES
DEFINITIONS AND USEFUL INFORMATION

 Refrigeration is a branch of science that deals with the process of reducing and maintaining the
temperature of a space or material below the temperature of the surroundings.
 Refrigeration is used to describe thermal systems that maintain process space or material at a
temperature less than available from ambient conditions.
 Joule-Thomson Effect is expansion of liquid into mixture of liquid and vapor at constant enthalpy.
 Condensers are high-pressure vapor heat exchangers.
 Evaporators are low-pressure vapor heat exchangers.
 Expansion valves or capillaries are throttling devices that transport refrigerant from high-pressure
condition (condenser) to low-pressure condition (evaporator).
 Compressors are pressure-raising devices.
 Coefficient of Performance (COP) is defined as refrigerant effect divided by network input, where
the refrigerant effect is the absolute value of the heat transferred from the lower temperature
source, and the network input is the absolute value of the heat transferred to the higher
temperature sink minus this refrigerant effect.
 COP is also defined as the ratio calculated by dividing the total heating capacity in Btu/hr
provided by the refrigeration system, including fan heat, but excluding supplementary resistance,
by the total electric input in watts times 3.412. This definition applies primarily to heat pumps.
 Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER) is a ratio calculated by dividing the cooling capacity in Btu/hr by
the power input in watts and any set of rating conditions, expressed in Btu/Watt-hr.
 EER is also defined as the amount of heat removed from the cooled space in Btu for one Watt-
hour of electricity consumed.
 EER could be expressed in terms of COP with the following equation:
Useful Refrigerating Effect, Btu / Hr
EER   COP  3.412  , where 1 Watt = 3.412 Btu/hr.
Net Energy Input, W
 Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio (SEER) is the anticipated performance of a refrigerating device
over an average season, used primarily for residential and commercial air conditioning; it also
expressed in Btu/kW-hr.
 Heating Season Performance Factor (HSPF) is the anticipated performance of a heat pump device
during heating season, primarily used for residential and commercial heat pump; expressed in
Btu/kW-hr.
 Reversed Cycle – is a system that receives heat from a colder body and delivers heat to a hotter
body, not in violation of the Second Law of thermodynamics, but by virtue of work input.
 Refrigeration cycle – is a reversed cycle whose objective is to extract heat from the low
temperature reservoir.
 Heat pump – is a reversed cycle whose objective is to supply energy to the high temperature
reservoir.
 Standard Rating of a refrigeration machine, using a condensable vapor, is the number of standard
TR it can produce under the following conditions:
 Liquid only enters the expansion valve and vapor only enters the compressor or the
absorber of an absorption system;
 The liquid entering the expansion valve is sub-cooled at 9 oF (5 oC) and the vapor
entering the compressor or absorber is superheated at 9 oF (5 oC), these temperatures to be
measured within 10 ft (3.05 m) of the compressor cylinder or absorber;
 The pressure at the compressor or absorber inlet corresponds to a saturation temperature
of 5 oF (-15 oC);
 The pressure at the compressor or absorber outlet corresponds to a saturation temperature
of 86 oF (30 oC).
 British Unit of Refrigeration – corresponds to a heat absorption rate of 237.6 Btu/min (4.175 kW)
with inlet and outlet pressures corresponding to saturation temperature of 23 oF (-5 oC) and 59 oF
(15 oC), respectively.
 KW – the unit to specify refrigeration loads, as standard practice in Europe.
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 Frigorie – the unit of refrigeration capacity, occasionally used in Europe. 1 Frigorie = 50 Btu/min
= 0.8786 kW; 1 Frigorie = 0.25 x std TR.
 Thermal Reservoir is a body with large heat capacity such that when heat is removed or added to
the reservoir, the temperature of the reservoir does not change (Faires, 1978).
 Heat Engine is a device that operates in a cycle in which the main function is to convert heat input
into positive network output.
 Power Cycles are cycles used to produce work output.
 Refrigeration Cycles are cycles used to pump heat from low to high-temperature regions.
 Heat Pump and Refrigerator are devices that operate in a cycle and transfer heat from a low-
temperature region to a high-temperature region with work input to the system.
 Cryogenics is the science of refrigerating at a very low temperature, mainly used for liquefying
gases.
 Carnot Heat Pump or Refrigerator is the only ideal machine with a highest coefficient of
performance, COP.
 Coefficient of Performance, COP, is a parameter that measures the performance of the reversed
engine or Carnot engine. For Carnot heat pump, Coefficient of Performance is the ratio of the heat
rejected to the high-temperature heat reservoir tot that of the work input. For Carnot Refrigerator,
Coefficient of performance is the ratio of the heat input from the low-temperature heat reservoir to
that of the work input to the engine.
METHOD OF REFRIGERATION
1. Ice Refrigeration
2. Mechanical Refrigeration
3. Absorption Refrigeration
4. Steam Jet Refrigeration
5. Air Cycle Refrigeration
APPLICATIONS OF REFRIGERATION
1. Food preservation
2. Ice making
3. Air conditioning for summer comfort
4. Industrial Applications
Ex.: Making “cold rubber”, to improve wearing quality
Oil refinery processes
Treatment of steel
Manufacture of chemicals
5. Cryogenics – very low temperature refrigeration
6. Heat pump – heating the building
UNITS AND CONSTANT

o Units of Force
1 kgf = 9.8066 N
1 lbf = 4.4484 N
1 lbf = 0.4536 kgf
o Units of Pressure
1 Pa = 1 N/m2 1 Atm = 101.325 kPa
1 Bar = 100 kPa 1 Atm = 1.033 kgf /cm2
1 psi = 6895 Pa 1 Atm = 14.699 psi
o Units of Energy and Work
1 Joule = 1 N-m
1 Cal. = 4.187 J
1 Btu = 252 Cal = 1055 Joules
o Units of Power
1 Watt = 1 J/s
1 Hp = 0.746 kW = 42,4 Btu/min
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o Gas Constant
Air, R = 0.28708 kJ/kg-oK
Water, R = 0.4615 kJ/kg-oK
UNIT OF REFRIGERATION CAPACITY

 Ton of Refrigeration (TR) – is the rate of cooling required to freeze one ton of water at 32 oF into
ice at 32 oF in one day.
 1 TR = (2000 lb) (144 Btu/lb) / (24 hr) = 12000 Btu/lb = 200 Btu/min
 1 TR = (12000 Btu/lb) (252 Cal/Btu) = 3024 kCal/Hr = 50.4 kCal/min
 1 TR = (200 Btu/min) (1055 J/Btu) = 211 kJ/min = 3.516 kW
PROPERTIES OF WATER
 Liquid water Cp = 4.187 kJ/kg-oK = 1.0 Btu/lb-oR
 Ice water Cpi = 2.0935 kJ/kg-oK = 0.5 Btu/lb-oR
 Steam or water vapor Cpv = 1.88 kJ/kg-oK
 Latent heat of evaporation hfg = 2257 kJ/kg = 970.3 Btu/lb
 Latent heat of fusion of ice hi = 335 kJ/kg = 144 Btu/lb
STANDARD REFRIGERATION CYCLE

 Evaporation temperature 5 oF = - 15 oC
 Condensing temperature 86 oF = 30 oC
BASIC USES OF REVERSED CYCLE

 Food preservation
 Ice production/manufacturing
 Air conditioning for summer comfort
 Industrial applications
o Making “cold rubber” (to improve wearing quality)
o Oil refinery processes
o Treatment of steel
o Chemical manufacturing
o Liquefying of gases for industrial and power purposes
 Refrigeration at a very low temperature, which is known as cryogenics
 Heating buildings (using heat pump)
REVERSED CARNOT CYCLE

 Reversed Carnot Cycle is a cycle that is used for a heat pump and refrigerator.
 Figure 5.1 below illustrates a reversed cycle.
Figure 6.1. Reversed Carnot Cycle (Schematic)
QH
Condenser
3 2
W
Expander Compressor
1
Evaporator
4
QL
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CARNOT REFRIGERATION CYCLE

 Carnot refrigeration cycle is a reversed Carnot cycle used for reducing and maintaining the
temperature of a space or materials below the surrounding temperature.
 Figure 5.2 below illustrates the Ts diagram for a Carnot refrigeration cycle.
Figure 6.2. Ts Diagram, Carnot Refrigeration Cycle

T Available Sink
Temperature
TH 3 2
To Cold Room
Temperature
Tr
TL 4 1
QL
a
s
b
Processes
 Process 1-2: Refrigerant is isentropically compressed from a cold temperature T L, slightly
lower than the cold room temperature Tr, to a temperature TH, slightly above that of some
available sink temperature.
 Process 2-3: Refrigerant discharges or rejects heat at constant temperature T H to a heat sink
with temperature To.
 Process 3-4: Refrigerant is isentropically expanded from temperature T L, which is slightly
lower than the temperature Tr of the refrigerated room or body to be cooled in order to for the
heat to flow from the refrigerated room to the refrigerant, thus cooling the room.
 Process 4-1: Refrigerant receives heat from a refrigerated room or body.
Refrigeration Cycle Analysis

 Convention of sign for work done to the system and the heat rejected is being ignored for
reversed cycle.
a) Work input to the cycle – the area 12341 represents the work in put to the cycle, which is the net
heat rejected by the system.
W   TH  TL   ΔS
Where, W = work input, kJ, kW, Btu, Btu/min

TH = heat rejection temperature, oK, oR
TL = heat absorption temperature, oK, oR
S = change of entropy, kJ/oK
S = S1 - S4 = S2 – S3
b) Heat added or the refrigerating effect, Q A, or QH – the heat added to the system from cold room,
area ab12.
Q L  TL  S1  S4   TL  ΔS
Where, QL = heat rejected, kJ. kW, Btu, Btu/min

 The output of the Carnot refrigerator is the refrigeration or refrigerating effect.
c) Heat rejected, QH, the area ab23a
Q H  TL  ΔS  TL  S2  S3 
d) Coefficient of performance, COP
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Re frigeration Q L TL  ΔS TL
COP    
Work W  TH  TL  ΔS TH  TL
 This COP is the highest possible for all the reversed cycles .operating between temperatures
TL and TH.
 Irreversible ideal reversed cycles have a lower COP.
CARNOT HEATING CYCLE OR HEAT PUMP

 Used for increasing and maintaining the temperature of a space or materials higher than the
surrounding temperature.
Figure 6.3. Ts Diagram, Carnot Heating Cycle or Heat Pump

T Warm room
Temperature
TH 3 2
Tr Available sink
Temperature
To
TL 4 1
QL
a
s
b
Processes
 The sequence of operations is the same as in the refrigeration cycle; the only difference is in
the temperatures.
 The temperature TH must be above the temperature Tr of the room to be heated in order for the
heat to flow from the refrigerant to room.
 The temperature TL must be lower than the temperature of the sink available, which may be
some natural reservoir, say, air, a well, or lake, and so on.
Output of Heating Cycle (Heat Pump)

o The output of a heating cycle is the heat delivered to the room, space, or material to be heated;
it is the heat rejected by the system.
Q H  TH  ΔS  TH  S2  S3 
Coefficient of Performance of Heating Cycle or Heat Pump
Heating Effect Q H TH  ΔS TH

COPHP    
Work W  TH  TL  ΔS TH  TL
o In practice, for refrigerating cycle: TH – To = 5 to 20 oF; for heating cycle: To – TL = 10 to 20 oF.
UNIT OF REFRIGERATING EFFECT

 Ton of Refrigeration, TR, or Capacity Unit – is the amount of heat that must be removed to freeze
one ton of water at 0 oC into ice at 0 oC (at one atmosphere) in one day.
QL   2000 lb / day 144 Btu / lb  288 000 Btu / day  12 000 Btu / hr  200 Btu / min
QL  211 kJ / min  3.516 kW
 Hp per Ton of Refrigeration

Let, N = number of Tons of Refrigeration
Hp = horsepower required for N tons of refrigeration
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QL = 200 N Btu/min
W = 42.4 Hp Btu/min
QL 200 N
COP  
W 42.4 Hp
Hp 200 4.72
Then,  
N 42.4 COP COP
Ex. 6.1] A reversed Carnot cycle has a refrigerating COP of 4. a) Determine the ratio of T H and TL. b) If the
power input is 8 kW, determine the refrigerating effect in kW and TR. c) What is the COP if the cycle is
used for heating?
T Available Sink
Temperature
Given: Reversed Carnot cycle TH 3 2
To Cold Room
COP = 4 Temperature
Tr
Required: TL 4 1
QL
TH
a) The ratio s
TL a b
b) The QL if W = 8 kW
c) The COP if the device is used for heating
Solution:
TL 1 TH 1
TH COP   ;  1 
a) For the ratio , TH  TL TH  1 TL COP
TL
Tl
TH 1 1
  1   1  1.25 ans.
TL COp 4
b) For the refrigerating effect
Q L  COP W   4 8  32 kW  9.10 TR ans.
Note: 1 TR = 3.516 kW
c) For the (COP)HP

 TH 
 
T 
 COP  HP  QH 
TH

1

1
1
  L
W TH  TL T  1  TH 
1   L    1
 TH   TL 
 TH     
T 
 l 
1.25
 COP  HP  5
1.25  1
Other Solution,  COP  HP   COP  R  1  4  1  5
Ex. # 6.2] There are removed 9 kW of heat from a material by a certain refrigerator operating between
temperature limits of – 29 oC and 33 oC. If its Cop is three fourths of that of a Carnot refrigerator operating
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between the same temperature limits, determine a) the heat rejected and b) the power input, kW. c)
Determine the COP if this device is used for heating?
T
Given: A certain refrigerator 3 2 T = 33 + 273 = 306 oK
 3 H
COP    COP  Carnot To

 4
Tr
Required:
4 QL = 9 kW 1 T = - 29 + 273 = 244 oK
a) The QH L
b) The W, kW
s
c) (COP)HP a b
Solution:
a) For the QH
QL QL 9
QH   QL   QL   9  12.05 kW
COP  3  TL   3  244 
  

  
 4  TH  TL   4  306  244 
b) For the power input, W
QL
W  Q H  QL  12.05  9  3.05 kW ans.
COP
c) For the COP of a heat pump
 COP  HP  QH 
12.05
 4.1 ans.
W 3.05
Ex. # 6.3] Prove that the COPHP = COPR + 1 for a Carnot reversed cycle operating at the same temperature
limits.
QR QL  W QR
Solution:  COP  HP     1   COP  R  1
W W W
Ex. # 6.4] A reversed Carnot engine receives 316 kJ of heat. The reversible adiabatic compression process
increases by 50 % the absolute temperature of heat addition. Determine a) the COP, and the work.
TH = 1.5 TL
Given: Reversed Carnot Engine
Required: W
a) The COP
b) The W
QL = 316 kW
Solution: TL
a) For the COP
TL TL 1
COP    2 ans.
Th  TL 1.5TL  TL 0.5
b) For the W
QL 316
W   158 kW ans.
COP 2
Ex. # 6.5] A Carnot heat pump is being considered for heating in a location where outside temperature may
be as low as – 35 oC. The expected COP for the heat pump is 1.50. To what temperature could this unit
provide heat?
141
Given: Carnot heat pump TH
COP = 1.5
W
Required:
QL = 316 kW
The TH
TL = - 35 + 273 = 238 oK
Solution:
TH 
 COP  TL 
1.5 238
 714 o K
COP  1 1.5  1
VAPOR-COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM
Figure 6.4. Vapor-Compression Refrigeration System

QR
3
Condenser
2
Expansion Valve
W
1
4
Evaporator
Compressor
QA
 Basic Components
1. Compressor – a component used to compress refrigerant vapor that causes the refrigerant to
flow in the system
2. Condenser – a component that condenses refrigerant vapor while rejecting heat to a cooling
medium (either air or water).
3. Expansion Valve – a component that reduces the pressure of the refrigerant in order to attain
low temperature condition in the evaporator.
4. Evaporator – a component used to evaporate liquid refrigerant while absorbing heat from the
surrounding.
Figure 6.5. ph Diagram and Ts diagrams

2
T
p
3 p=C 2 T=C 3
p=C T=C
4 1 4 1
h s
 Processes
 Process 1-2: Reversible and adiabatic compression from saturated vapor to the condenser
pressure (s = C)
142
 Process 2-3: Reversible rejection of heat at constant pressure, de-superheating and

condensation of refrigerant.
 Process 3-4: Irreversible expansion at constant enthalpy, from saturated liquid to the
evaporator pressure.
 Process 4-1: Reversible addition of heat at constant pressure in the evaporator to saturated
vapor.
CYCLE ANALYSIS
 Compressor Power or Compressor Work
Wc  m  h 2  h1  ; w c  h 2  h 1
Where, Wc = compressor power, kW, Hp.
m = mass flow rate of refrigerant, kg/s, lb/min.
h1 = enthalpy of refrigerant at point 1 or compressor intake, kJ/kg, Btu/lb.
h2 = enthalpy of refrigerant at point 2 or compressor discharge, kJ/kg. Btu/lb.
wc = compressor work, kJ/kg, Btu/lb.
 Heat Rejected
QR  m  h3  h2  ; qR  h3  h 2
Where, QR = heat rejected in the condenser, kW, Btu/min.

h3 = enthalpy of refrigerant at the condenser exit, kJ/kg, Btu/lb.
qR = heat rejected in the condenser, kJ/kg, Btu/lb.
 Cooling Water Requirement in the Condenser

m  h2  h3 
mw 
cp  t i  t o 
Where, mw = mass flow rate of cooling water required, kg/s, lb/min.
cp = specific heat of water, kJ/kg-K, Btu/lb-R.
ti = temperature of water entering, oC
to = temperature of water leaving, oC
 Expansion Valve Process
h 3  h 4  h f 4  x 4 h fg 4
Where, h4 = enthalpy of refrigerant at point 4 or expansion valve discharge, kJ/kg, Btu/lb.

hf4 = enthalpy of saturated liquid refrigerant at condenser pressure
hfg4 = latent enthalpy of refrigerant at condenser pressure
x4 = quality of refrigerant vapor at point 4.
 Refrigerating Effect, RE, Qe, Qe  m  h1  h 4  ; q e  h1  h 4

Qe m  h1  h 4 
TR  
3.517 3.517
For Chilled Water, Q e  RE  m cw c pw  t a  t b 
Where, Qe = refrigerating effect, kW, Btu/min.

qe = refrigerating effect, kJ/kg, Btu/lb.
TR = tons of refrigeration
mcw = mass flow rate of chilled water, kg/s, lb/min.
cpw = specific heat of chilled water
cpw = 4.187 kJ/kg-K = 1 Btu/lb-R
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tb = temperature chilled water leaving the evaporator, oC, oF.

ta = temperature chilled water entering the evaporator, oC, oF.
 Chilled Water Requirement

Qe m  h1  h 4 
m cw  
c pw  t a  t b  c pw  t a  t b 
Refrigerating Effect m  h1  h 4 
 Tons of Refrigeration, TR  
3.517 3.517
Refrigerating Effect m h h  h h
Coefficient of Performance, COP  Compressor Power  m h  h  h  h
1 4 1 4

 2 1 2 1
 Power Required per Ton of Refrigeration
Compressor Power Wc
Power per ton  
TR TR
Where, Power per ton is in kW/ton or Hp/ton.
 Volume Flow Rate at the Compressor Suction
V1  m v1
Where, V1 = volume flow rate of refrigerant at the compressor suction, m3/s, cfm.
v1 = specific volume of refrigerant at the compressor suction, m3/kg, ft3/lb.
 Volume Flow rate at the Compressor Suction per TR,

V1
VTR 
TR
Where, VTR = volume flow rate per ton of refrigeration, m3/ton, ft3/ton.
 Standard Refrigeration Cycle/system

Evaporation Temperature: 5 oF (-15 oC)
Condenser Temperature: 86 oF (30 oC)
RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE
Figure 6.6. Reciprocating Compressor

1 2 p
p2
2
V pVk = C
dp
p1 1
 Work for isentropic compression process
 k 1
  k 1

 k    p2  k   k    p2  k 
Wc   p V
 1 1  p   1 
  k  1  mRT1     1 
 k  1  1   p1 
   
144
Where, Wc = compressor power, kW, Hp.

p1 = pe = suction pressure or evaporator pressure, kPaa, psia.
p2 = pc = discharge pressure or condenser pressure, kPaa, psia.
V1 = volume flow rate at the suction, m3/s, cfm
R = refrigerant gas constant, kJ/kg-K, Btu/lb-R.
k = specific heat ratio = 1.304 for ammonia
 For polytrophic compression process
 n 1
  n 1

 n    p  n
  n    p  n

Wc    p1 V1   p   1    n  1  mRT1  p   1 
2 2
 n  1  1     1 
   
Where, n = polytrophic exponent
 Compression Efficiencies
Figure 6.7. ph Diagram, Isentropic and Actual Compression

p
2 2’
1
h
o Adiabatic Compression Efficiency or Simply Efficiency
Isentropic Work W h h
c   100 %   c' 100 %  2 1  100% 
Actual Work Wc h2'  h1
Where, W’c = actual compressor work or polytrophic compressor work
o Compressor Brake Efficiency
Ideal or isentropic compressor work W

B   100 %  c 100 %
Brake Work WB
o Compressor Mechanical Efficiency

Indicated Work WI
m  100 %   100 % 
Brake Work WB
Where, m = mechanical efficiency, %
m = compressor isentropic efficiency, %.
WI = W’c = indicated work or actual work, kW, Hp.
WB = brake work, kW, Hp.
 Piston Displacement or Displacement Volume
145
 2
VD  D LN
4
Where, VD = volume displacement, m3/min.
D = piston diameter, m, ft.
L = length of stroke, m, ft.
N = number of cycles completed per minute
N = n (nc)  for single-acting compressor
N = 2n (nc)  for double-acting compressor
n = rpm of the compressor
nc = number of cylinders
 Volumetric Efficiencies
o Actual Volumetric Efficiency, va
Volume flow rate entering the compressor V

va   100 %   1  100 %
Displacement rate of compressor VD
o Conventional or Clearance Volumetric Efficiency

 1

V1  p  k   V1 
vc   100 %   1  c  c    100 % 
 2
1  c  v    100 %
VD  p1     V2  
 
Where, va = conventional or clearance volumetric efficiency, %.
c = percent clearance
V2 = discharge volume flow rate
k = 1.304  for ammonia
o For polytrophic compression

 1

V1   p2  n    V1 
vc   100 %   1  c  c    100 %  1  c  v    100 %
VD  p1     V2  
 
Where, n = polytrophic exponent
TYPES OF REFRIGERATION COMPRESSORS

1. Reciprocating Compressor
2. Centrifugal compressor
3. Rotary compressor
a. Vane type rotary compressor
b. Screw-type rotary compressor
TYPES OF REFRIGERATION COMPRESSORS, BASED ON ENCLOSURE

1. Open-type Compressor – a compressor with crankshaft extended through the compressor housing
in which the motor is externally coupled to the shaft.
2. Hermetically Sealed Compressor – a compressor in which the motor and compressor are contained
within the same pressure vessel with the motor shaft as part of the compressor crankshaft, and
with the motor in contact with the refrigerant.
3. Semi-hermetic compressor – a serviceable hermetically sealed compressor in which the cylinder
head can be removed for servicing of the valves and pistons.
4.
DIVISIONS OF VAPOR-COMPRESSION SYSTEM
1. Low-pressure Side
 Expansion Valve
 Evaporator
146
 Suction line
o Pressure is called as low side pressure, evaporator pressure, suction pressure,
or back pressure.
2. High-pressure Side
 Compressor
 Discharge or the “hot gas” line
 Condenser
 Receiver tank
 Liquid line
o Pressure is called as condensing pressure, discharge pressure, or head pressure.
BASIC COMPONENTS OF VAPOR-COMPRESSOR SYSTEM

1. Compressor
2. Purger
3. Oil separator
4. Condenser
5. Liquid receiver
6. Expansion Valve
7. Evaporator
8. Accumulator
Purger
Figure 6.8. Components of Vapor-compression system
Condenser
Oil Separator
Liquid
Receiver
Expansion
Valve
Accumulator
Evaporator
Compressor
TYPES OF CONDENSERS FOR VAPOR-COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

1. Air-cooled type Condenser
a. Bare tube type
b. Finned tube type
2. Water-cooled type Condenser
a. Shell-and-tube type
b. Shell-and-coil type
TYPES OF EXPANSION DEVICES

1. Capillary tube – with 0.5 mm to 2 mm inside diameter, 1 m to 6 m length, and a capacity up to 10
kW.
2. Expansion Valves
a. Gate valve
b. Constant pressure expansion valve
c. Thermostatic expansion valve
d. Thermostatic expansion valve with external equalizer
e. Float valve – used with flooded evaporator
147
REFRIGERATION CYCLE WITH

SUBCOOLING AND/OR SUPERHEATING
Figure 6.9. ph Diagram, with sub-cooling and superheating

p
3 2
tc
4 1
t1
h
 Refrigerating Effect
Qe  m  h1  h 4 
RE  h1  h 4
Where, h4 = h3 = hf at tc
h1 = enthalpy at point 1, to be obtained from ph chart at p1 and t1
REFRIGERATION SYSTEM WITH HEAT EXCHANGER
Figure 6.10. Schematic Diagram and ph Diagram

QR
2
Condenser
3 p 4 2
1 3
Heat Exchanger Wc
tc
4
Compressor
Expansion
Valve t1
5 6
Evaporator 5 1
6
h
Qe
 Function of Heat Exchanger
o To make sure that no liquid enters the compressor
o To prevent bubbles of vapor refrigerant to the expansion valve
 Refrigerating Effect
RE  h 5  h 6 and Q e  m  h 5  h 6 
 Heat Rejected in the Condenser
QR  m  h 2  h 3 
 Heat Exchanger Heat Balance, E in  E out

h 3  h 6  h 4  h1
h 3  h 4  h1  h 6
148
REFRIGERANTS
 Refrigerant is a fluid used for energy exchanges in a refrigerating or heat pump system.
 Refrigerants are the transport fluids that convey the heat energy from the low-temperature level to
the high-temperature level where it can in terms of heat transfer give up its heat.
 Montreal Protocol is an international agreement, that took effect in 1989, and the New Clean Air
Act that was signed in 1990, that limit the production and regulate the use and disposal of
chlofluorocarbon (CFC) refrigerants.
 CFC is the Montreal Protocol designation for Chlorofluorocarbons that cause ozone-layer
depletion.
 HCFC or HFC is the designation for other refrigerants that are chlofluorocarbons but cause little
or no ozone destruction.
 HCFC stands for Hydrochlorofluorocarbon
 HFC stands for hydrofluorocarbon
 ODP – Ozone Depletion Potential – is the ozone-destroying power of a substance measured
relative to refrigerant 11 (R-11 or CFC-11).
 GWD – Global Warming Potential – is a relative measure of the ability of a substance to cause an
increase in the temperature of the atmosphere by absorbing solar and earth radiation that is relative
to the effect of refrigerant 11.
 Working substance of the refrigeration cycle must have a low boiling temperature.
 Boiling point of ammonia at atmospheric pressure is - 33.33 oC; and for Freon 12 is – 29.7 oC
Desirable Thermal Properties of the Refrigerants

1. Convenient evaporation and condensation pressures
2. High critical and low freezing temperatures
3. High latent heat of evaporation and high vapor specific heat
4. Low viscosity and high film heat conductivity
Desirable Practical Properties

1. Low cost
2. Chemical and physical inertness under operating conditions
3. Non-corrosiveness toward ordinary construction materials
4. Low explosive hazard both alone and mixed with air
Thermodynamic Characteristics
1. High latent enthalpy of evaporation
2. Low freezing temperature
3. Relatively high critical temperatures
4. Positive evaporating pressure
5. Relatively low condensing pressure
Physical and Chemical characteristics

1. High dielectric strength of vapor
2. Good heat transfer characteristics
3. Satisfactory oil solubility
4. Low water solubility
5. Inertness and stability
Safety Characteristics
1. Non-flammability
2. Non-toxicity
3. Non-irritability
Effects on the Environment

1. Ozone depletion potential
2. Global warming potential
149
Other characteristics
1. Low cost
2. Easy to detect in case of leaks
LIST OF SOME SELECTED REFRIGERANTS BASED

ON SERIES OR GROUPS
 Methane Series
R-11 Trichlorofluoromethane C Cl3 F
R-12 Dichlorodifluorometahne C Cl2 F2
R-13 Chlorotrifluoromethane C Cl F3
R-14 Carbon tetrafluoride C F4
R-21 Dichlorofluoromethane CH Cl2 F
R-22 Chlorodifluoromethane CH Cl F2
R-23 Trifluoromethane CH F3
R-50 Methane CH4
 Ethane Series
R-114 1,2-Dichlorotetrafluoroethane C Cl F2 C Cl F2
R-123 2,2-Dichloro-1,1,1-trifluoroethane CH Cl2 C F3
R-124 2-Chloro-1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane CH Cl F C F3
R-125 Pentafluoroethane CH F2 C F3
R-134a 1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane CH2 FCF3
R-143a 1,1,1-Trifluoroethane CH3 CF3
R-152a 1,1-Difluoroethane CH3 CHF2
R-170 Ethane CH3 CH3
 Propane Series
R-290 Propane C3 H8
 Butane Series
R-600 Butane C4 H10
R-601 Iso-butane C4 H10
 Inorganic Compounds
R-702 Hydrogen H2
R-704 Helium He
R-717 Ammonia NH3
R-718 Water H 2O
R-728 Nitrogen N2
R-729 Air
R-732 Oxygen O2
R-744 Carbon dioxide CO2
R-764 Sulfur dioxide SO4
 Zeotropes
R-400 R-12/114
 Azeotropes: An azeotropic mixture of two substances is one which cannot be separated into its
components by distillation.
R-502 R-22/115 (48.8 % / 51.2 %)
R-400 R-12/114 (must be specified)
 Hydrocarbon Refrigerants
R-50 Methane CH4
R-170 Ethane C2H6
R-290 Propane C3H8
R-600 Butane C4H10
 CFC Refrigerants
 R-11
 R-12
 R-113
150
 R-114
 R-115
 HCFC Refrigerants (less resistant than CFC’s)
 R-22 or HCFC-22 Chloro-difluoromethane, CHCLF2
 R-123 or HCFC-123 Dichloro-trifluoroethane, CHCL2CF3
 R-124 or HCFC-124 Chloro-tetrafluoroethane, CHCLFCF3
 R-141b or HCFC-141b
 R-142b or HCFC-142b
 HFC Refrigerants (least harmful to ozone layer)
 R-125 or HFC-125 Pentafluoroethane, CHF2CF3
 R-134a or HFC-134a Tetrafluoroethane, CH2FCHF3
 R-152a or HFC-152a Difluoroethane, CH3CHF2
 R-32 or HFC-32 Difuoromethane, CH2F2
 R-23 or HFC-23 Trifluoromethane, CHF3
 R-143a or HFC-143a Trifluoroethane, CH3CF3
 Replacement Refrigerant Compounds
Current Replacement
Refrigerants Refrigerants Formula
R-11 (CFC-11) HCFC-123 CHCl2CF
R-12 (CFC-12) HFC-134a CH2FCF3
R-13 (CFC-13) HFC-23 CHF3
R-502 R402A, R404A Blend
R-22 HCFC-22 CHClF2
 Halocarbon Refrigerants – refrigerants that contain one or more of the three halogens chloride,
fluorine, and bromine.
 R-11 CCl3F Trichloromonofluoromethane
 R-12 CCl2F Dichlorodifluoromethane
 R-13 CClF3 Monochlorotrifluoromethane
 R-22 CHClF2 Monochlorodifluoromethane
 R-40 CH3Cl Methyl Chloride
 R-113 CCl2FCClF2 Trichlorotrifluoroethane
 R-114 CClF2CClF2 Dichlorotetrafluoroethane
ASHRAE REFRIGERANT DESIGNATION SYSTEM

1. The first digit on the right is the number of fluorine, F, atoms in the compound.
2. The second digit from the right is one more than the number of hydrogen (H) atoms in the
compound.
3. The third digit from the right is one less than the number of carbon, C, atoms in the compound.
When this digit is zero, it is omitted from the number.
4. Blends are designated by their respective refrigerant numbers and weight proportions, named in
the order of increasing normal boiling points of the components, for example R-22/12 (90/60).
5. Zeotropic blends that have been commercialized are assigned an identifying number in the 400
series accompanied by the weight proportions of the components, for example R-400 (90/10) for
mixture of R-12 and R-114.
6. Azeotropes that have been commercialized are assigned and identifying number in the 500 series
with no composition shown.
7. Organic refrigerants are assigned serial numbers in the 600 series.
8. Inorganic compounds are designated by adding 700 to their molecular mass
9. The letter C is used before number designations to identify cyclic derivatives. Lower case letters
are appended after numbers to distinguish isomers-refrigerants with the same chemical
composition but with differing molecular structures.
REFRIGERANT NUMBERING SYSTEM

o Refrigerant Number, Formula: R  #   C  1  H  1 (F)
151
o Methane Series: C  one atom carbon means methane series

Total number of atoms = C + H + Cl + F = 5 atoms
Form: CHClF
Name Format: Chloro Fluoro Methane
o Ethane Series: C  Two atoms carbon means ethane series
Total number of atoms = C + H + Cl + F = 8
Form: CHClF CClF
Name Format: Chloro Fluoro Ethane
Ex. # 6.6] Determine the chemical formula and the name of refrigerant, R-143
Solution:
Determination of the number of atoms of C, H, and F
R  #   C  1  H  1 (F)
For the number of atoms,
F:  F = 3 atoms
H:  (H + 1) = 4  H = 4 – 1 = 3
C:  (C – 1) = 1  C = 1 + 1 = 2  ethane series
Number of atoms = C + H + F = 2 + 3 + 3 = 8 atoms
Cl:  C = 0
For the chemical formula (CHClFCClF),  CH3CF3 or C2H3F3
For the refrigerant name,

Name: Trifluoroethane  (HFC) = hydrofluorocarbon refrigerant
Solution: From the R # formula (C – 1)(H + 1)(F)  R - 152

C = 2  ethane series
H=4
F=2
Since C + H + F = 8, Cl = 0
Chemical Formula: CH3CHF2  CH3 = 4 and CHF2 = 4
Refrigerant name: Difluoroethane  HFC = hydrofluorocarbon
Ex. # 6.8] Determine the chemical formula and the name of refrigerant, R-22.
Solution: From the R # Formula, (C – 1)(H + 1)(F)

F=2
H=1
C = 1  methane series (with 6 total number of atoms)
Cl = 1
Refrigerant name: Chlorodifluoromethane or Monochlorodifluoromethane
Chemical Formula: CHClF2  HCFC = hydrochlorofluorocarbon
Solution: From the R # Formula, (C – 1)(H + 1)(F)

F=3
H=1
C = 1  methane series (with 6 total number of atoms)
Cl = 0
Refrigerant Name: Trifluoromethane  HFC = hydrofluorocarbon refrigerant
Chemical Formula: CHF3
152
Ex. # 6.10] Determine the name and number of refrigerant, CH3CF3.
Solution: For the refrigerant number, R  #   C  1  H  1 (F)

F=3
(H + 1) = 3 + 1 = 4
(C – 1) = 2 – 1 = 1
C = 2  Ethane Series
Therefore, R number is R-143
Refrigerant Name: Trifluoroethane
SOLVED PROBLEMS
Prob. # 6.11] A refrigerating system, operates on a reversed Carnot cycle. The higher temperature of the
refrigerant in the system is 49 oC and the lower temperature is –12 oC. The capacity is 20 tons. Neglect
losses, determine a) the COP; b) the heat rejected from the system, in kW; c) the network, kw; and d) the
Hp.
T
Given: Reversed Carnot Cycle T = 322 oK
H
TL = 261 oK
s
Required:
a) The COP
b) The heat rejected
c) The work
d) The Hp
Solution:
a. For COP
QL TL 261
COP     4.28 ans.
Q H  Q L TH  TL 322  262
b. For Heat Rejected,
QL 20  3.517 
QH   QL   20  3.517   86.75 kW ans.
COP 4.28
c. For the work input

W  QH  QL  86.75  70.32  16.43 kW ans.
d. For the Hp input

 1 Hp 
W  16.43 kW     22.02 Hp ans.
 0.746 kW 
Prob. # 6.12] A refrigeration system operates on the reversed Carnot cycle. The minimum and maximum
temperatures are – 25 C and 72 C, respectively. If the heat rejected at the condenser is 6000 kJ/min., draw
the Ts diagram and find: a) power input required; and b) the tons of refrigeration required.
QR
Given: Refrigeration system
Condenser
Expansion Valve
W
153
Evaporator
Compressor
QA
T
TH = 345 oK
TL = 248 oK
Required:
a. The power input required
b. The tons of refrigeration
Solution:
a) For the power input required
QL TL 248
COP     2.56
Q H  Q L TH  TL 345  248
COP  Q H  2.56 6000
QL    4314.61 kJ/min
1  COP 3.56
Therefore, W  Q H  Q L  6000  4314.61  1685.4 kJ/min  28.09 kW
Q H 6000
Other Solution: ΔS    17.39 kJ/min - K
TH 345
W  ΔS TH  TL   17.39 72  25  1686.83 kJ/min  28.11 kW
QL ΔS TL  17.39 248

b) For the TR, TR     20.44 tons
3.517 3.517 60 3.517
Prob. # 6.13] A reversed Carnot cycle has a refrigeration COP of 4. a) What is the ratio Tmax / Tmin? b) If the
work input is 6 kW, what will be the maximum refrigerating effect, kJ/min., & TR.
Given: Reversed Carnot Cycle

T
Tmax
Tmin
Required: s
Tmax
a. The ratio
Tmin
b. The refrigeration effect
Solution:
TL 1 TH 1
COP   ; 1 
a. For ration Tmax / Tmin, TH  TL TH TL COP
1
TL
154
TH 1 1
  1   1  1.25
TL COP 4
b. For QL, Q L  COP W   4 6   24 kW
Prob. # 6.14] The enthalpy at the entrance of the condenser is 1850 kJ/kg and exit is 450 kJ/kg. The
compressor has an enthalpy of 1550 kJ/kg at entrance. Determine the COP.
Given: Refrigeration system p

3 p=C 2
h1 = 1550 kJ/kg h2 = 1850 kJ/kg
h3 = 450 kJ/kg h4 = h3
p=C
Required:
4 1
The COP of the system h
Solution:
Refrigerating Effect h 1  h 4 1550  450
For the COP, COP     3.67
WC h 2  h1 1850  1550
Prob. # 6.15] an evaporator has a temperature of 3 C with entrance enthalpy of 352.75 kJ/kg. At 3 C, hf =
319.56 kJ/kg and hg = 642.45 kJ/kg. Find the quality after expansion.
p
Given: Evaporator of a refrigeration system 3 p=C 2
h1 = hg = 642.45 kJ/kg h4 = 352.75 kJ/kg
hf4 = 319.56 kJ/kg h4 = hf4 + x4(hg4 – hf4)
p=C
Required: The quality after expansion
4 1 h
Solution:
 h  hf 4 
x4   4  100 %    352.55  319.56  100 %   10.28 %
 h g4  h f 4   642.45  319.56 
 
Prob. # 6.16] The refrigerating effect of 100 TR is 120 kJ/kg. Determine the mass flow of refrigerant.
Solution: TR = 100 Qe = 120 kJ/kg
3.517 TR 3.517100 
m   2.93 kg/s
h1  h 4 120
Prob. # 6.17] A 90 TR system has a compressor input of 0.97 kW per ton of refrigeration and COP of 5.
What is the efficiency of the compressor? QR
Given: Refrigeration system Condenser

Qe = 90 TR
W = 0.97 kW/TR COP = 5
Expansion Valve
COP = 5 W = 0.97 kW
Evaporator
Required: Compressor
The compressor efficiency
QA = 90 TR
155
Solution:
p
3 p=C 2
p=C
4 1 h
For the compressor work
Qe 90 3.517
Wc    63.288 kW
COP 5
Compressor Input, W’C , '

WC  0.97 90   87.3 kW
W   63.288 
For the compressor Efficiency, η c  
C 
 W' 
100 %     100 %   72.5 %
 C   87.3 
Prob. # 6.18] A 100 TR system is used to produce chilled water from 22 C to 2 C. Determine the volume
flow rate of water in lps.
Given: Refrigeration system

QR
Condenser
3
2
Expansion Valve 1
QA = 100 TR W
4
Evaporator
Compressor
tcw2 = 2 oC tcw1 = 22 oC
Required:
The volume flow rate of water, in lps.
Solution:
Solving for the mass flow rate of water, kg/s,
Qe 100 3.517 
mcw    4.199 kg / s
c p  t cw1  t cw 2  4.187 22  2 
Solving for the volume flow rate of water, lps
Vcw  4.199 kg/s 1 liter/kg  4.199 lps 
Prob. # 6.19] The difference in temperature between the water leaving the evaporator and evaporator temperature is 5 C.
If the temperature of water leaving is 32 F, what is the evaporator temperature?
Solution: t e  t cw 2  5  0  5   5 o C
156
Prob. # 6.20] The heat rejected from condenser is 300 kW. The water required to cool the refrigerant is 5
lps. Determine the temperature of water leaving the condenser if water enters at 25 C.
Solution: tc2
tc1 = 25 oC
Q
Q R  mc p  t c 2  t c1  ; t c 2  R  t c1
mc p
300
t c2   25  39.33 o C
5 4.187 
QR = 300 kW
p
Prob. # 6.21] An air conditioning plant with a capacity of 400 kW 3 p=C 2
of refrigeration has an evaporating and condensing temperature of
3 oC and 37 oC, respectively. If it uses refrigerant 12, what will be
the mass of flash gas per kg of refrigerant circulated and what
mass of refrigerant 12 must be circulated per second? Find also
the volumetric rate of flow under suction condition.
p=C
Solution: h1 = hg @ 3 C = 352.755 kJ/kg 4 1
hf @ 3 C = 202.780 kJ/kg,
v1 = vg @ 3 C = 0.05047 m3/kg h
h3 = hf @ 37 oC = 235.503 kJ/kg
Qe = 400 kW
For the value of x4

 h  hf 4 
x4   4  100 %    235.503  208.780 100 %   21.82 %
 h g4  h f 4   352.755  202.780 
 
Therefore, mass of flash vapor = 0.2182 kg/kg refrigerant ans.
For the mass flow rate of refrigerant
Qe 400
m   3.41 kg/s ans.
h1  h 4 352.755  235.503
For the volumetric rate at suction condition
V1  mv1  3.41 0.05047  0.172 m 3 / s  172 lps. ans.
Prob. # 6.22] A vapor compression refrigeration system has a p

30 kW motor driving the compressor. The compressor inlet 3 960 kPaa 2
pressure and temperature are 64.17 kPaa and –20 oC,
respectively; and discharge pressure of 960 kPaa. Saturated
liquid enters the expansion valve. Using Freon 12 as tc
refrigerant, determine the mass flow rate of the refrigerant in
kg/s and the capacity of the unit in TR.
Solution:
64.17 kPaa
4 1 t1 = - 20 oC
From the Freon-12 Table and Chart,
h1 = 345 kJ/kg h2 = 398 kJ/kg h
h3 = h4 = 238.5 kJ/kg
Solving for the mass flow rate
157
Wc 30
 
m   0.566 kg / s
h 2  h 1 398  345
For the refrigerating capacity

  h 1  h 4   0.566  345  238.5  60.279 kW
Qe  m
For the Tons of Refrigeration, TR

Qe 60.279
TR    17.144 tons. ans.
3.516 3.516
Prob. # 6.23] A vapor compression refrigeration system is 2

designed to have a capacity of 100 tons of refrigeration. It COP’ = 5.85
produces chilled water from 22 oC to 2 oC. Its actual COP is
5.85 and 35 % of the power supplied to the compressor is 1 Wc’
TR = 100
lost in the form of friction and cylinder cooling losses. 4
Determine a) the size of the electric motor required to drive
the compressor in kW; and b) the volume flow rate of chilled
water in lps. c) Find the cooling water required in the tc1 = 22 oC
tc2 = 2 oC
condenser for a temperature change of 10 oC.
Solution:
For the refrigerating effect, kW
QA = 100(3.516) = 352.6 kW
For the compressor power, or indicated power of the compressor

Qe 351.6
W'    60.10 kW
COP' 5.85
For the compressor BP
W' 60.10
WB  WC ' 0.35WB    92.46 kW
0.65 0.65
Compressor mechanical efficiency = 65 %’
For the size motor, Use, say, 100-kW motor
For the mass flow rate of chilled water

Qe 100  3.516 
m   4.2 kg / s
c p  t c1  t c2  4.187  22  2 
tc = 10 oC
mw
QR
Condenser
3
2
Expansion Valve 1
W
4
Evaporator
Compressor
QA
158
For the volume flow rate
Vc   4.2 kg / s   1 li / kg   4.2 lps
Consider the Condenser, By energy balance of the system
QR  Qe  Wc  351.6  60.10  411.7kW
For the mass flow rate of cooling water
QR 411.7
mw    9.833 kg / s
c p  t c  4.187  10 
Prob. # 6.24] A belt driven compressor is used in a refrigeration system that will cool 10 lps of water from
13 oC to 1 oC. The belt efficiency is 98 %, motor efficiency is 85 %, and the input of the compression is 0.7
kW per TR. Find the a) TR produced, b) actual COP, c) mass flow rate of cooling water warmed from 21 oC
to 32 oC, and d) power input of the motor if overall efficiency is 65 %.
Solution: QR Motor
3 Condenser
2 m = 85 %
b = 98 %
Expansion Valve
1 Wc’ = 0.7 kW per TR
4 Evaporator Compressor
QA tc1 = 13 oC
tc2 = 1 oC mc = 10 kg/s
a) For the Qe and TR
Qe  mc c p  t c1  t c2   10  4.187   13  1  502.44 kW
Qe 502.44
TR    142.9 tons
3.516 3.516
b. For the actual COP, WB  0.7  142.9   100.03 kW
 WB   100.03 
Wc '    overall     0.65   78.05 kW
 b motor   0.98  0.85  
Q 502.44
COP '  e   6.43 ans.
Wc ' 78.05
c. For the mass flow rate of cooling water in the condenser
QR  Qe  Wc '  502.44  78.05  580.49 kW

QR 580.49
mw    12.60 kg / s
c p  t  4.187  32  21
d. For the power input to the motor
100.03
Powe Input   120.08 kW
0.98  0.85 
159
Prob. # 6.25] Calculate the bore and stroke, in mm, of a single-acting, 6-cylinder, ammonia (NH 3)
compressor running at 1200 rpm to compress 200 kg/hr of refrigerant that vaporized at – 15 oC. Given the
following: D/L = 1.0; v = 70 %; vammonia = 8.15 ft3/lb at 5 oF = v1. (Board problem 1988)
Solution:
For the specific volume 1,
 1 m  2.205 lb 

v1  8.15 ft 3 / lb 
3.28
ft

1 kg
  0.5093 m / kg
3
  
For the volume flow rate 1,
V1  m v1  200  0.5093   356.51 m3 / hr  5.942 m3 / min
For the volume displacement,

V 5.942
VD  1   8.49 m3 / min
v 0.70
 
VD    D2 LN    D3  1200   6   8.49
4
  4
For the bore and stroke,

1
 4  8.49   3
D   0.1145 m  114.5 mm  L
   1200   6  
Prob. # 6.26] A 10 tons ice plant using ammonia refrigerant operates between evaporator and condenser
temperatures of – 20 oC and 35 oC, respectively. The ice plant isw to produce at – 12 oC from water at 30 oC
in 24 hours. Assuming losses to be 18 % of the heat absorbed from the water, determine:
a) The mass flow rate of refrigerant per second;
b) The QR in the condenser; and
c) The power required by the compressor.
Solution: p
3 p=C 2
T
30 oC
d 35 oC
b
0 oC
c p=C
- 12 oC
a 4 1
- 20 oC
s h
Qe
a) Determination of mass flow rate of refrigerant
QH2O  mice c pw  t d  t c   hfice  c pi  t b  t a   ,
Where, td = 30 oC
tc = 0 oC
tb = 0 oC
ta = - 12 oC
cpw = specific heat of water = 4.187 kJ/kg-oK = 1.0 Btu/lb-oR
cpi = specific of ice = 2.0935 kJ/kg-oK = 0.5 Btu/lb-oR
hfice = heat of fusion of ice = 335 kJ/kg = 144 Btu/lb
Qwater = heat absorbed from water or heat rejected by the water
160
10 907.03
Then, Q H 2 O   4.187 30  0  335  2.0935 0  12   50.99 kW
24 3600
Qe = refrigerating effect or capacity, kW

Qloss = energy losses, kW
Qe  QH2O  QLoss  50.99  0.18  50.99   60.2 kW
From Ammonia, NH3, Tables & Chart,

h1 = 1427.23 kJ/kg @ - 20 oC
h2 = 1736 kJ/kg @ s2 = s1
h3 = h4 = 366.07 @ 35 oC
Qe 60.2
m   0.0562 kg / s
h1  h4 1437.23  366.072
b) For the QR
QR  m  h2  h3   0.0562  1736  366.072   76.99 kW
c) For the compressor power, Wc  m  h2  h1   0.0562  1736  1437.23   16.79 kW
Prob. # 6.27] A refrigeration compressor has a specific volume of 0.0482 m 3/kg at entrance and 0.017 m3/kg
at the exit. If volumetric efficiency is 90 %, determine the percent clearance of the compressor.
1
 p k V 
v  1  c  c  2   1  c  c  1 
p
 1  V2 
Prob. # 6.28] A 78 mm x 78 mm, single-acting, double-cylinder NH 3 compressor is to run 400 rpm with a
condensing pressure of 934.575 kPag and evaporator pressure of 125.715 kPag. Assuming a volumetric
efficiency of 80 %, determine the refrigerating capacity of the compressor, in TR.
h1 = 1442.6 kJ/kg p
v1 = 0.528 m3/kg
3 pc = 934.575 kPaa 2
h3 = 322.471 kJ/kg
 V
VD    D2 LN; V1  v VD ; m  1
4
  v1
m  h1  h4 
Qe  R.E. 
3.516 pe = 125.715 kPaa
4 1
h
Prob. # 6.29] In a refrigeration plant, the enthalpy of the refrigerant as
Qeit leaves the evaporator, it is 336
kJ/kg. Assuming a mass flow rate of 4.3 kg/min. Determine the refrigerating in kW.
RE = m (h1 – h4)
Prob. # 6.20] 500 kg of beef is to be cooled from an initial entry temperature of 20 oC to a final temperature
of – 15 oC in 8 hours. Find the total amount of heat removed if freezing occurs at – 2 oC. Additional data: cp
before freezing = 3.22 kJ/kg-oK; cp after freezing = 1.68 kJ/kg-oK; latent heat of fusion = 232.44 kJ/kg.
 500 
Q  3.22  20  2   2323.44  1.68  2  15  
 8 
161
Prob. # 6.21] A reversed Carnot cycle requires 3 Hp and extracted energy from a lake to heat a house. If the
house is kept at 70 oF and requires 2000 Btu/min, what is the temperature of the lake?
Prob. # 6.22] A refrigeration system operates on an ideal vapor-compression using R-12 with an evaporator
temperature of 49.3 oC and requires a 74.6 kW motor to drive the compressor. What is the capacity of the
refrigerator in TR?
h2 = 382 kJ/kg
p
h3 = 243.15 kJ/kg
h4 = 243.15 kJ/kg 3 p=C 2
h1 = 338.14 kJ/kg
p=C
4 1
h
Prob. # 6.23] Magnolia dairy products plant must cool 4000 gallons of fresh milk received from the farm
per day from an initial temperature of 80 oF to a temperature of 38 oF in 5 hours. If the density of milk is 6.6
lb/gallon, specific gravity is 1.03, and specific heat is 0.938. a) What must be the capacity of the
refrigerating machine in tons? b) How much brine must be circulated if the change in temperature is 15 oF,
SG = 1.182, the specific heat is 0.729?
Prob. # 6.24] An inventor claims to have developed a refrigeration unit which maintains the refrigerated
space at 20 oF within a room where the temperature is 80 oF. He claims a coefficient of performance of 8.5.
How do you evaluate his claim?
Prob. # 6.25] Fish weighing 1100 kg with a temperature of 20 oC is brought to a cold storage and which
shall be cooled to – 10 oC in 11 hours. Find the required plant refrigerating capacity in TR if specific heat of
fish is 0.7 kJ/kg-oK above freezing and 0.3 kJ/kg- oK below freezing point that is – 3 oC. Latent heat of
freezing is 55.5 k Cal/kg.
CASCADE REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS

 Cascade refrigeration system combines two vapor-compression units, with the condenser of the
low-temperature system discharging its heat to the evaporator of the high-temperature system.
 It can normally furnish refrigeration down to about – 100 oC.
 Cryogenics – is the science of low temperature.
TYPES OF CASCADE SYSTEM

 Closed Cascade system is the system in which the fluids in the high-pressure and low-pressure
systems may be different.
 Direct-Contact Heat Exchanger is the system in which the same fluid is used for the system.
CLOSED CASCADE CONDENSER
Figure 6.11. Closed Cascade Refrigeration System p 7 6

QR
High
7 Pressure
Condenser 6 Loop
Expansion Heat Exchanger 5 WH

Valve 5
8 8
High-pressure
Compressor h
2
3
Expansion
Valve Evaporator 1 WL
4 162
Low-pressure
Compressor
Qe
p 3 2
Low
Pressure
Loop
4 1
CYCLE ANALYSIS
h
 Refrigerating Capacity
Qe  m L  h1  h 4  ,  q e  h1  h 4
 Tons of Refrigeration
Qe
TR 
3.517
 Compressor Work or Power Input
Wc  WL  WH  m L  h 2  h1   m H  h 6  h 5 
 Heat Rejected in the condenser

QR  mH  h 6  h 7 
 Coefficient of Performance
Q h1  h 4
COP  e 
Wc  h 2  h1    h 6  h 5 
 Energy balance in the heat exchanger

Heat rejected by the low-pressure loop = Heat absorbed by the high-pressure loop
Q RL  Q AH  m L  h 2  h 3   m H  h 6  h 7 
 Heat exchanger pressure for optimum performance

p2  p1  p 6 
Where, Qe = refrigerating capacity or refrigerating effect, kW
qe = refrigerating effect, kJ/kg
mL = mass flow rate of refrigerant in the low-pressure loop, kg/s
mH = mass flow rate of refrigerant in the high-pressure loop, kg/s
Wc = total compressor work or power input, kW
WL = work or power input to the high-pressure compressor, kW
WH = work or power input to the low-pressure compressor, kW
COP = coefficient of performance
DIRECT CONTACT HEAT EXCHANGER SYSTEM
Figure 6.12. Direct Contact Cascade Condenser p

QR
7 6
7
Condenser 6 High-Pressure
Expansion Loop
Cascade Evaporator 5 WH
Valve 3 5 2
8 High-pressure
Compressor 8
2
3 Low-Pressure
Expansion Loop
Valve Evaporator 1 WL
4 4 1
Low-pressure
Compressor 163 h
Qe
CYCLE ANALYSIS
 Refrigerating Capacity
Qe  m L  h1  h 4  ,  q e  h1  h 4
 Tons of Refrigeration
Qe
TR 
3.517
 Compressor Work or Power Input

Wc  WL  WH  m L  h 2  h1   m H  h 6  h 5 
 Heat Rejected in the condenser

QR  mH  h 6  h 7 
 Coefficient of Performance
Q h1  h 4
COP  e 
Wc  h 2  h1    h 6  h 5 
 Energy balance in the heat exchanger
Heat rejected by the low-pressure loop = Heat absorbed by the high-pressure loop
Q RL  Q AH  m L  h 2  h 3   m H  h 6  h 7 
 Heat exchanger pressure for optimum performance

p2  p1  p 6 
Where, Qe = refrigerating capacity or refrigerating effect, kW
qe = refrigerating effect, kJ/kg
mL = mass flow rate of refrigerant in the low-pressure loop, kg/s
mH = mass flow rate of refrigerant in the high-pressure loop, kg/s
Wc = total compressor work or power input, kW
WL = work or power input to the high-pressure compressor, kW
WH = work or power input to the low-pressure compressor, kW
COP = coefficient of performance
Ex. # 6.26] A refrigeration system for low temperature application has two-stage system that employs
ammonia refrigerant and serves a 30-ton evaporator at – 30 oC. The system uses a direct-contact cascade
condenser, and the condenser temperature is 40 oC. Determine a) the cascade condenser pressure, in kPaa,
for minimum compressor work; b) the mass flow rate in the low and high-pressure loops, in kg/s; and c) the
total compressor work.
Solution: QR p
7 7 6
Condenser 6
High-Pressure
Expansion 5 WH
Cascade Evaporator Loop 40 oC
Valve
8 High-pressure 3 5 2
Compressor
2 8
3
Expansion Low-Pressure
Valve Evaporator 1 WL Loop
4
Low-pressure 4 1
- 30 oC
Compressor
Qe = 30 TR 164 h
From Ammonia table,

pe = 119.9 kPaa pc = 1557 kPaa
h1 = 1422.86 kJ/kg h2 = 1600 kJ/kg
h3 = 200.47 kJ/kg h5 = 1461.81 kJ/kg
h6 = 1638 kJ/kg h7 = h8 =390.59 kJ/kg
a. For the cascade evaporator pressure
p 2  p1p6   119.9   1557   432.07 kPaa
b. For mass flow rate in the low-pressure and high-pressure loops
Qe 30  3.517 
m L  m1    0.0863 kg / s
h1  h 4 1422.86  200.47
mL  h 2  h 3   0.0863  1600  200.47 

mH    0.1128 kg / s
h5  h8 1461.81  390.59
c. For the total compressor power input
Wc  m L  h 2  h1   mH  h 6  h 5 
Wc   0.0863  1600  1422.86    0.1128   1638  1461.81  35.16 kW
AIR-CYCLE REFRIGERATION SYSTEM
CLOSED OR DENSE-AIR SYSTEM

 Applied for air-craft air-conditioning because of its light weight and less space requirement,
 Not efficient as the vapor compression system
 Refrigerator usually maintained at pressure above atmospheric level.
 Compressor is either reciprocating or centrifugal
Figure 6.13. Closed or Dense-Air System

QR
Condenser
We Wc
Expander Compressor
Refrigerator
165
Open-Air System
 Refrigerator is actual space to be cooled with air expanded to atmospheric pressure.
 Air is circulated through the cold room and then compressed to the cooler pressure.
Figure 6.14. Open-Air System QR
Condenser
We Wc
Expander Compressor
Refrigerator
Figure 6.15. pV and Ts Diagrams
p 2
3 2 T QR
pVk = C
3 1
pVk = C 4 1 4 Qe
V s
Processes
Process 1-2: Isentropic compression process
Process 2-3: Constant pressure heat rejection process
Process 3-4: Isentropic expansion
Process 4-1: Constant pressure absorption of heat process
Cycle Analysis
 Refrigerating Capacity
Q e  mcp  T1  T4  , kW or Btu/min
 Heat Rejected
Q e  mcp  T2  T3  , kW or Btu/min
Where, m = mass flow rate of air, kg/s or lb/min.

cp = specific heat of air = 1.0062 kJ/kg-oK
T = absolute temperature, oK or oR
 Compressor power
 Isentropic compression,
  k 1 
 
   k 1 
 

 k   p 2  k    k   p 2  k  
Wc   
 p1V1    1   
 mRT1    1
k  1 p  k  1 p 
   1      1  

 
 
 

 Polytropic Compression
  n 1 
 
   n 1 
 

 n   p 2   n    n   p 2   n  
Wc    p1V1 

  1    mRT1  
  1
 n 1  p1    n 1  p1  

 
 
 

166
 Expander Work
 Isentropic Expansion
  k 1 
 
   k 1 
 

 k   p 4   k    k   p 4  k  
Wc    p3V3 

  1    mRT 
3  
  1
 k 1  p 3    k 1  p3  

 
 
 

 Polytropic Expansion
  n 1 
 
   n 1 
 

 n   p 4   n    n   p 4  n  
Wc    p3V3 

  1    mRT3 


  1
 n  1  p
 3    n  1  p
 3  

 
 
 

 Net Work of the cycle
Wnet  Compressor Work  Expander Work
 Coefficient of Performance
Re frigerating Effect mcp  T1  T4  T1  T4

COP   
Net Work mcp   T2  T1    T3  T4    T2  T1    T3  T4 
Ex. # 6.27 An open air refrigeration system carries a load of 35 kW with a suction pressure of 103 kPaa and
a discharge pressure of 690 kPaa. The temperature leaving the refrigerator is 5 oC and that leaving the
cooler is 30 oC. The compression is polytropic with n = 1.33 and the expansion is also polytropic but with n
= 1.35. Determine the power required and the COP.
Given: Open Air Cycle

p 2
3 2 p2 = 690 kPaa T QR
pV1.33 = C
T3 = 303 oK 3 T1 = 278 oK
1
pV1.35 = C 4 1 p1 = 103 kPaa 4

Qe
V s
Required:
The Power required and the COP.
Solution:
n 1 0.33
Solving for T2, T2  T1  p 2 

n  690 
 278  
1.33
 445.65 o
K
 p   103 
 1 
n 1 0.35
Solving for T4, T4  T3  p 4  n  103 
 303  
1.35
 185.05 o
K
p   690 
 3
Solving for the mass flow rate
Qe 35
m   0.374 kg / s
c p  T1  T4  1.0062  278  185.05
Solving for the compressor work,
167
 n 1   0.33 
 n   p 2  n   1.33   690  1.33 
Wc    mRT1 


  1    0.374 0.28708    1   72.54 kW
1 n   p1     0.33   103 

   
Solving for the expander work,
 n 1   0.35 
 n   p 4  n   1.35   103  1.35 
We    mRT3 
 
  1    0.374 0.28708    1  48.783 kW
1 n   p3     0.35   690  
   
For the net work,
Wnet  W  W c  We  72.547  48.783   23.764 kW ans.
Qe 35
For the COP, COP    1.47 ans.
Wnet 23.764
Ex. # 6.28] An air refrigeration system is required to produce 52,5 kW of refrigeration with a cooler
pressure of 1448 kPaa and a refrigerator pressure of 207 kPaa. Leaving air temperatures are 29 oC for
cooler and 5 oC for refrigerator. Expansion is isentropic and compression is polytropic with n = 1.34.
Determine the COP.
Given: Air Refrigeration cycle

T1 = 5 + 273 = 278 oK
T3 = 29 + 273 = 302 oK
Required:
The COP of the cycle
Figure: p 2
3 2 p2 = 1448 kPaa T QR
PV1.33 = C
3 1
PV1.35 = C 4 1 p1 = 207 kPaa

4 Qe
V s
Solution:
 Solving for T4
 k 1   0.34 
 
 p  k   
 207  1.34 
T4  T3  4   302    184.36 o K
 p3   1448 
 Solving for the mass flow rate
Qe 52.5
m   0.5572 kg / s
c p  T1  T4   1.0062   278  184.36 
  0.40 
  
 1.4    1448   1.4  
 Solving for Wc, Wc     0.5572   0.28708     1  115.69 kW

 0.4   207 
 
 Solving for We
  0.34 
  
 1.34    207   1.34  
We     0.5572   0.28708   302     1  74.17 kW

 0.34   1448 
 
 Solving for the net work
Wnet  Wc  We  115.69  74.17  41.52 kW
168
 Solving for the COP

Qe 52.5
COP    1.26
Wnet 41.52
PROBLEMS
1. What are the ideal Carnot COP and the Hp requirement per TR for a refrigeration system
operating between the standard temperature limits of – 15 oC and 30 oC? (Ans. 5.74, 0.82)
2. A building with a heating load of 43.96 kW is to be heated, with a reversed refrigeration system, to
20 oC when the outside temperature is – 17.78 oC. Find a) the ideal COP and b) the ideal Hp
required at the compressor to furnish this heat load to the building. Assume that a 10-degree
temperature difference is needed. [Ans. a) 5.12, b) 9.6]
3. A R-12 system is operating between – 7 oC and 38 oC. If the liquid is sub-cooled to 27 oC, find the
amount of flash vapor formed in the expansion valve, in kg/kg refrigerant. [Ans. 0.203]
4. Compare the refrigerating effect obtained from ammonia operating between 0 oF (- 7 oC)
evaporating temperature and 100 oF (38 oC) condensing temperature, with a) no sub-cooling and
dry compression from saturated vapor, and b) sub-cooling to 75 oF (24 oC) and dry compression.
[Ans. a) 1062.2 kJ/kg, b) 1129.64 kJ/kg]
5. Ammonia is used for a refrigeration system between 185.56 kPaa and 1166.27 kPaa. Find a) the kg
of refrigerant circulated per minute per ton, b) the isentropic work of compression, and c) the COP.
Dry saturated vapor enters the compressor. [Ans. a) 0.1923, b) 269.85 kJ/kg, c) 4]
6. A certain new refrigerant is known to have a c p/cv = k ratio of 1.16, and its specific volume at – 12
o
C is computed to be 0.071 m3/kg at a pressure of 330.86 kPaa. a) Compute the ideal power
required to compress 0.038 kg/s of this refrigerant to 992.57 kPaa. b) Compute the temperature of
the refrigerant on discharge from the compressor.
7. In the expander turbine of an air-cycle machine, air at 32 oC and 496.29 kPaa expands to 82.73
kPaa. a) Find the temperature of the air after ideal expansion. b) Compute the actual turbine power
produced for 0.91 kg/s airflow. d) Find the useful refrigeration possible if the cool turbine exhaust
air warms to 21 oC.
8. A refrigeration system operating on a reversed Carnot cycle rejects 100 kW. The minimum and
maximum temperatures are – 20 oC and 75 oC, respectively. Determine a) the power input, in Hp;
and b) the TR developed.
9. Nine kilowatts of heat are removed from a body by a refrigerator operating between two
temperature limits of – 28 oC and 33 oC. If its COP is three-fourths of that of a Carnot refrigerator
working between the same temperature limits, find a) the heat rejected and b) the power input, in
Hp. c) What is the COP if this device used as a heat pump.
REFERENCES
1. Burghardt, M. David & Harbach, James A. Engineering Thermodynamics, 4th Edition. Harper-
Collins College Publishers, New York, USA, 1993
2. Sontag, Richard E., Borgnakke, Claus, & Van Wylen, Gordon J. Fundamentals of Thermodynamics,
5th Edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New york, USA, 1998.
169
3. Todd, James P. & Ellis, Herbert B., An Introduction to Thermodynamics for Engineering
Technologists. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, USA, 1981.
4. Reynolds, William C & Perkins, Henry C., Engineering Thermodynamics. McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York, USA, 1977.
5. Burghardt, M. David, Engineering Thermodynamics with Applications, 2nd Edition. Harper & Row,
Publishers, Inc., New York, USA, 1982.
6. Faires, Virgil Moring & Simmang, Clifford Max, Thermodynamics, 6th Edition. Macmillan Publishing
Company, New York, USA, 1978.
7. Gutay, Miguel M., Engineering thermodynamics (A Reviewer/Text SI Units). Merriam & Webster,
Inc., Manila, Philippines, 1985.
8. El-Wakil, M. M., Power Plant Technology. McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, USA, 1984.
9. Alcorcon, Ronnie S., Power & Industrial Plant Engineering. VIB Publishers, Cebu City, Philippines,
1998.
10. Keenan, Joseph H.; Keyes, Frederick G.; Hill, Philip G.; and Moore, Joan G.. Steam Tables (SI Units).
John Wiley & Sons Publications, New York, 1969.
170

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Thermodynamics 2 Lesson 6: Reversed Cycles

DEFINITIONS AND USEFUL INFORMATION

UNITS AND CONSTANT

UNIT OF REFRIGERATION CAPACITY

STANDARD REFRIGERATION CYCLE

BASIC USES OF REVERSED CYCLE

REVERSED CARNOT CYCLE

Figure 6.1. Reversed Carnot Cycle (Schematic)

CARNOT REFRIGERATION CYCLE

Figure 6.2. Ts Diagram, Carnot Refrigeration Cycle

Refrigeration Cycle Analysis

Where, W = work input, kJ, kW, Btu, Btu/min

Where, QL = heat rejected, kJ. kW, Btu, Btu/min

c) Heat rejected, QH, the area ab23a

d) Coefficient of performance, COP

CARNOT HEATING CYCLE OR HEAT PUMP

Figure 6.3. Ts Diagram, Carnot Heating Cycle or Heat Pump

Output of Heating Cycle (Heat Pump)

Coefficient of Performance of Heating Cycle or Heat Pump

Heating Effect Q H TH  ΔS TH

UNIT OF REFRIGERATING EFFECT

 Hp per Ton of Refrigeration

b) For the refrigerating effect

Q L  COP W   4 8  32 kW  9.10 TR ans.

c) For the (COP)HP

COP    COP  Carnot To

c) For the COP of a heat pump

Given: Carnot heat pump TH

VAPOR-COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

Figure 6.4. Vapor-Compression Refrigeration System

Figure 6.5. ph Diagram and Ts diagrams

 Process 2-3: Reversible rejection of heat at constant pressure, de-superheating and

Where, QR = heat rejected in the condenser, kW, Btu/min.

 Cooling Water Requirement in the Condenser

 Expansion Valve Process

Where, h4 = enthalpy of refrigerant at point 4 or expansion valve discharge, kJ/kg, Btu/lb.

 Refrigerating Effect, RE, Qe, Qe  m  h1  h 4  ; q e  h1  h 4

For Chilled Water, Q e  RE  m cw c pw  t a  t b 

Where, Qe = refrigerating effect, kW, Btu/min.

tb = temperature chilled water leaving the evaporator, oC, oF.

 Chilled Water Requirement

 Power Required per Ton of Refrigeration

 Volume Flow Rate at the Compressor Suction

 Volume Flow rate at the Compressor Suction per TR,

 Standard Refrigeration Cycle/system

RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE

Figure 6.6. Reciprocating Compressor

 Work for isentropic compression process

Where, Wc = compressor power, kW, Hp.

 For polytrophic compression process

Where, n = polytrophic exponent

Figure 6.7. ph Diagram, Isentropic and Actual Compression

o Adiabatic Compression Efficiency or Simply Efficiency

Where, W’c = actual compressor work or polytrophic compressor work

o Compressor Brake Efficiency

Ideal or isentropic compressor work W

o Compressor Mechanical Efficiency

 Piston Displacement or Displacement Volume