EJERS, European Journal of Engineering Research and Science
Vol. 4, No. 3, March 2019
Formulation of White Board Marker Ink Using Locally
Sourced Raw Materials
Dagde. K.K, Nwosa G. I and Ukpaka. C. P.
Abstract—
This research work was conducted to demonstrate the
mechanism of white board marker ink production using locally
sourced raw materials such as charcoal and used lube oil. In the
production of the ink, the charcoal served as a pigment, used
lube oil served as the primary binder or resin, ethanol served as
solvent and gum Arabic served as an additive. The charcoal was
obtained from processing of Mango, Oil bean (Ugba) and rubber
trees, which were further crushed to their finest particles
respectively and the used lube oil was obtained from mechanical
engineering servicing unit of automobile engines. The crushed
charcoal samples were characterized to determine the physio-
chemical properties of some mineral elements such as Ca, Cu, P,
K, C, S, N. however the mineral component that controlled the
production of this ink was the Carbon content. The different ink
samples were formulated in terms of odour, colour, hazardous
reaction, pH, density and viscosity and compared with that of
international standards. Results obtained showed a good match,
indicating the reliability and the quality of the produced white
board marker ink. The pH results for Ugba ink = 5.43, Rubber
ink = 6.79, and Mango = 7.41. Empirical models were used to
predict concentration with that of experimental values, a plot of
concentration against time in terms of production yield revealed
that the order of magnitude was rubber>Ugba>Mango whereas
in terms of penetration and writing ability
Ugba>rubber>mango. Furthermore, the research demonstrates
the significance of the characteristics of the charcoal and the
used lube oil in the quality of the end product. Finally, the
research revealed that ink produced from the oil bean (ugba)
charcoal and lube oil was best in terms of write-ability and
quality in the production of white board marker ink.
Index Terms—charcoal; production; marker ink; used lube
oil.
I. INTRODUCTION
Schools in modern days have evolved from the use of black
board chalks to the use of white boards on which marker inks
are used, especially the private schools and some local and
international parastatals. Today marker inks are
commercialized because of the advent of the white board;
however most of these markers are very expensive. Thus this
research is being carried out to produce ink using charcoal
and engine oil so as to check its reliability as against other
inks being produced. This work will invariably produce ink
that will compete favorably with the quality of marker in the
market.
White board marker inks are made of dry- erasable ink,
which is easy to clean when used on slick, non-porous writing
materials, the use of marker these days are not restricted to
schools alone, churches, companies and individuals that see
the importance of this ink prefer it to chalk. Marker inks are
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.24018/ejers.2019.4.3.1108
preferred majorly because of their convenience. [1] in his
work Introduction to Japanese Calligraphy said Inks
generally fall into four classes: Aqueous Liquid, Paste,
Powder, Colorants and Pigment. Inks are used more
frequently than dyes because they are more color-fast, For the
purpose of this work, our concentration is to produce non-
porous white board marker ink with charcoal obtained from
three main types of wood namely mango, rubber and ugba
(oil bean) trees.
The mango wood is a hard, dense wood obtained from the
mango tree, it matures quickly reaching 80 to 100 feet in
about 15 years, the mango tree has a life span of about seven
years, after which it doesn’t produce much of good fruits
anymore hence making it adequate to be hewn down and
converted into Lumber, its wood is a biofuel whose tree grow
as high as 30m in height. When the tree is trimmed the leaves
are used for animal feed and the wood for fuel [2],
furthermore according to [3], the mango branches are pruned
for use as firewood and some are made into charcoal. During
the characterization of mango wood and mango wood
charcoal, it was noted that their approximate analysis was
used for ash content (American Standard for testing materials,
1996), volatile matter (American Standard of Testing
Materials, 1996) and fixed carbon (American Standard of
Testing Materials, 1994) determination in dried weight,
density of mango wood and charcoal, when measured in
apparent density form. Hardness of the charcoal was
determined by a tensile tester (shimadzu Authograph, model
AG-25TB).
Ugba tree also called oil bean tree is a typical African tree
known by it scientific name as Pentaclethra macrophylla. It
has been cultivated since 1937 in tropical African countries.
The African oil bean which is mostly found in the Southern
and Eastern part of Nigeria, grows approximately 6m wide
and 21m high, with its bark ranging from a reddish - brown
to a gray color, with irregular patches that usually flakes off.
[4]. According to [5], the mesocarp of the p macrophylla
serve as snacks or desert and it is obtained by first boiling for
a period of about, twelve hours, dehulled sliced and tied in
plantain leaves .and left for about 2 to 6 days to ferment. After
fermentation it may then be mixed with palm oil, spiced and
eaten with sliced cassava.
The bark or pod enclosing the seed because of its hardness
are used to make beads, hand bangles, bags, traditional
dancing materials etc, the wood is also very important which
can be used as firewood and charcoal which is what we are
interested in. From AOAC reports we have the following, [6].
The Rubber tree is a South American tropical tree of the
spurge family (Euphorbiaceae). Mostly cultivated on
plantations in the tropics and subtropics, especially in
107

Southeast Asia and western Africa, it has soft wood; high,
branching limbs; and a large area of bark. The milky liquid
(latex) that oozes from any wound to the tree bark contains
about 30 percent rubber, Latex can also be concentrated for
producing dipped goods, such as surgical gloves.
Natural rubber is an indispensable material for many
industrial applications such as in tires and medical devices
[7]. Although more than 2500 plants produce latex, currently
the Pará rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis Muell.Arg.) is the
only main commercial source for rubber production [8]. Even
when compared with oetrochemically synthesized rubber,
natural rubber showed better advantage interns of its
spasticity, adhesion and durability. Rubber trees are
susceptible to several fungal infections including South
American leaf blight (Microcyclus ulei) and different
cultivars show different sensitivity, [9].
Inks are used for different purposes ranging from printing,
colouring, etc, to writing; Different inks are produced to suit
different purposes and conditions. The basic raw materials for
ink production are pigments, binders, solvents and additives,
and these materials are either sourced for and purchased
locally or overseas by manufacturers.
Ink, also called masi, is a mixture of several chemical
components, which has been used in India since at least the
4th century BC. According to [10], the practice of writing
with ink and a sharp pointed needle was common in early
South India for Several Jain sutras (a religious hand written
compilation). The knowledge of the inks, their recipes and the
techniques for their production comes from archaeological
analysis or from written text itself. As referenced by [11].
Since the 23rd century BC, Chinese inks can be traced with
the utilization of animal, natural plant (plant dyes), and
mineral inks based on materials such as graphite that were
blended with water and applied with ink brushes. The earliest
Chinese inks, similar to modern ink sticks, showed up around
256 BC in the end of the Warring States period and it was
obtained from soot and animal glue. Resin from the pine tree
presents the best inks for drawing or painting on paper or silk.
They must be between 50 and 100 years old.
The traditional Chinese method of making ink was to grind
a mixture of hide glue, carbon black, lampblack, and bone
black pigment with a pestle and mortar, then pour the mixture
into a ceramic dish where it could dry. To use the dry mixture,
a wet brush would be applied until it reliquaries, [12].
In the mid 1990’s dry erase markers became popular and
these markers are better than chalk in so many different ways
especially that they are easy to erase, they can be applied to
the board with less pressure and they are unaffected by water.
It is worthy of note to say that this type of markers is made
basically for non porous surfaces such as mirrors, metals, and
opaque glass materials. The ink is made from color pigments.
Chemical solvents and a polymer also called a release agent.
According to [13], charcoal is the solid carbon residue
following the pyrolysis (carbonization or destructive
distillation) of carbonaceous raw materials. Principal raw
materials are medium to dense hardwoods such as beech,
birch, hard maple, hickory, and oak. Others are softwoods
(primarily long leafy and slash pine), nutshells, fruit pits,
coal, vegetable wastes, and paper mill residues. Charcoal is a
highly porous and brittle material used primarily as a fuel for
outdoor cooking. In some instances, its manufacture may be
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EJERS, European Journal of Engineering Research and Science
Vol. 4, No. 3, March 2019
considered as a solid waste disposal technique, [14].
Furthermore charcoal production undergo a lot of processes
as is shown by [15].
A good quality charcoal should have a moisture content of
about 5-15% of the gross weight of charcoal, and an ash
content of about 3%. According to the Ukra Biofuel news
report, the surface area per gram of materials can range from
500 to 1400 square meters. The conventional process of
producing charcoal, is through methods such as earth pits or
brick kilns, in which the energy required to produce the
carbonization, is obtained from the combustion of a part of
the wood, which leads to a considerable decrease in the net
production of carbon, [16].
II. MATERIALS AND METHODS
The materials used for this research includes engine oil,
ethanol, gum Arabic, seal containers, empty refillable
marker, mango wood, Oil bean (Ugba) wood, rubber wood,
gas burner, cylinder, incinerator, pH meter, redwood
viscosity equipment, pycnometer.
A. Pyrolysis
In order to achieve an end product called charcoal, woods
of mango, Oil bean and rubber were pyrolized differently.
This was required in order to trap the carbonated gas present
in the woods from polluting the environment.
B. Crushing
The pyrolyzed product of wood was firstly broken down to
smaller particles using a rod. The smaller particles were
subjected to a crusher which crushed the charcoals to fine
particles.
C. Sieving
The crushed materials were sieved differently using a
7.5um sieve. This was done to enable the charcoal be in its
finest state.
D. Ink Production
The addition of pigment with ethanol in its required mass
and volume were added together in order to dissolve the
pigment. The dissolved pigment with ethanol was added with
some amount of gum Arabic and required volume of used
lube oil. A mix ratio of 6ml of charcoal to 20ml of used lube
oil was mixed in a container and then 20ml of ethanol was
added to the solution and a pinch of gum Arabic was added
and then the solution was stirred until a homogenous solution
was obtained. The product was continuously stirred and
further sieved with a white handkerchief to further remove
the residue that was present in the solution. Alternatively, in
place of engine oil, some quantity of distilled water was used
in order to checkmate the best production. It was discovered
that production of ink using distilled water was not a better
one than engine oil because distilled water is not a binder and
as such, was not suitable for use.
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equation of the form 𝑌 = 𝐾𝑋 n which can be rewritten in

terms of concentration and time as

𝐶 = 𝐾𝑇 𝑛 (1)

where C is Concentration of ink sample and t is time of

flow. This can further be expressed mathematically to
linearize the equation to be able to obtain k and n values

Fig. 1. Block diagram for local ink production 𝐿𝑜𝑔𝐶 = 𝐿𝑜𝑔 𝑘 + 𝑛 𝐿𝑜𝑔 𝑡 (2)

b. Exponential Model
E. H
P Test This research further utilized the exponential model to
develop an empirical or theoretical model, using an
pH test was conducted on the different products of ink for equation of the form
rubber, ugba and mango charcoal respectively, using a pH
meter and their values recorded. Comparing the result of the
𝑌 = 𝐾𝑒 𝑎𝑥 (3)
pH of the three charcoals to that of ink produced with
crystalline dye which has a pH value of 7.94, showed that
Writing the above equation in terms of concentration and
production of ink with Ugba (Oil bean) charcoal, rubber
time gives
charcoal and mango charcoal was better since the pH of the
three products is 7.0 by approximation which indicates that
𝐶 = 𝐾𝑒 𝑎𝑡 (4)
they are all neutral and not harmful to human health but that
of the crystalline dye ink is alkaline in nature.
Where the equation above can be rewritten using the
inverse exponential method as
F. Viscosity Test
In order to ascertain the viscosity of the products, redwood 𝐿𝑛 𝐶 = 𝐿𝑛 𝐾 + 𝑎𝑡 (5)
viscosity equipment was used to ascertain the volumetric
flow rate of the products. The values of the volumetric flow
were traced on a chart that has a relation of viscosity and III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
volumetric flow rate. The result of the various tests as well as the initial and final
concentration of the ink is as shown.
G. Density Test
Pycnometer was used to conduct density test of the A. Results Characterisation
different samples. The empty pycnometer was initially The result of the atomic absorptive spectrometer analysis
weighed to ascertain its weight. Thereafter, the samples were is depicted in Fig. 2 below as.
weighed accordingly to know the weight of the product by as
well subtracting the total weight of the product from the
weight of the empty pycnometer. The final density 0f the
different ink samples obtained for the three charcoal products
were obtained using the formula.

H. Volumetric Flowrate Test

This test is required in order to know the time required by
a fluid to flow. Using redwood viscosity equipment, the
samples were poured into the equipment. At a given time in
the stop watch, the ball of the equipment was raised to allow
for a flow. The ball of the equipment was dropped at the
above mention time in order to stop the flow. The volume of
the flow was recorded as well as the time taken for the flow.

I. Determination of Kinetic Parameters for the

Ugba, Rubber and Mango wood charcoal inks
Power and Exponential Model.
The Power and Exponential model equations were used to
determine the kinetic parameters for the oil bean (Ugba),
Rubber and Mango inks.
a. Power Model
This model employed the method of least squares to fit an
Fig. 2. Graph of Analysis on the Characteristics of Ashes of Oil Bean
Charcoal, Mango Tree Charcoal and Rubber Tree Charcoal
Fig. 2 above shows the mass of each of the elements of the
charcoals. The graph shows that the elemental composition of
Oil Bean Charcoal is higher than that of Mango Tree
Charcoal and Rubber Tree Charcoal. indicating that the
charcoal of Oil Bean Tree will produced a better ink compare

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Vol. 4, No. 3, March 2019

to the other charcoals due to its high chemical composition of carbon

Fig. 3. Graph showing the Carbon Content of Oil Bean Charcoal, Mango
Tree Charcoal and Rubber Tree Charcoal.

Fig. 3 demonstrates the concentration composition of

carbon content in each of the species sampled. The result
revealed that ugba (oil bean) wood contains the highest
amount per hundred gram of carbon upto1500mg/100g,
where as mango wood charcoal contains 700mg/100g and
finally the rubber wood charcoal contains 600mg/100g. The
order of magnitude in terms of carbon content shows Ugba
(Oil bean) wood charcoal mango wood charcoal rubber wood
charcoal. The variation observed in the concentration of the
carbon content can be attributed to the variation in the type of
wood species sampled.

TABLE I: COMPARISON OF MANGO WOOD CHARCOAL INK, RUBBER WOOD CHARCOAL INK AND UGBA (OIL BEAN) WOOD CHARCOAL TO
DOLLAR-DRY ERASE INK AND HI-SHINE INK
Substance Mango Rubber Ugba(Oil Dollar- Hi- Percentage (%)
Charcoal charcoal Bean) dry Ease Shine Deviation
Ink Ink Charcoal Ink Ink
Ink
Colour Black Black Black Black Black
Odor Almost Almost Almost Almost Almost
odorless odorless odorless odorless odorless
Hazardous
Reaction Non Non Non Non Non

PH 7.41 6.79 5.43 5.0 5.0 0.33 0.26 0.08

Density 0.868 0.916 0.876 0.850 0.98 0.02 0.07 0.03
(g/cm3)
Viscosity 4.5 6.8 7.2 7.5 7.3 -0.67 -0.10 -0.04
(M.pas)

color, odor, hazardous reaction, PH, density and viscosity,

Table I shows a detailed comparison of the physiochemical
properties of the three local inks manufactured with two
international based inks. The comparison showed a close
match for Mango charcoal ink and Rubber charcoal ink but
the best match for Ugba (oil bean) charcoal ink in terms of
with percentage deviation ranging from 0.33 to -0.67 for
Mango ink, 0.26 to 0.10 for Rubber ink and 0.08 to -0.04 for
oil bean ink.

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TABLE II: COMPARISON OF MANGO TREE CHARCOAL INK, RUBBER TREE CHARCOAL INK AND UGBA (OIL BEAN) TREE CHARCOAL TO DOLLAR-DRY ERASE
INK AND HI-SHINE INK AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURE AND DYNAMIC VISCOSITY

Dynamic Viscosity Of
Dynamic Viscosity of

Dynamic Viscosity of

Charcoal

Deviation for Ugba Ink

Rubber Charcoal Ink

Dollar-Dry Erase ink

Mango Charcoal Ink

DynamicViscosityof
Dynamic Viscosity
Temperature (oC)

Percentage(%)
Hi-Shine Ink
(Oil Bean)
of Ugba

Ink
20 8.675 7.578 5.567 5.623 5.751 0.01
25 8.234 7.564 4.826 5.241 4.875 -0.09
30 7.985 6.345 4.223 4.345 4.177 -0-03
35 6.457 5.634 3.912 3.836 3.615 0.02
40 5.569 4.341 3.323 3.243 3.156 0.02

Table II shows the effect of temperature on the dynamic C. Volumetric Flow Rate
viscosity of the locally produced inks as compared with two
TABLE III: Volumetric Flow Rate of various Ink Samples
foreign inks. The results show a decrease in dynamic
Volumetric Flow Volumetric Flow Volumetric Flow
viscosity of the inks as temperature increases. The dynamic
Rate of Ugba (Oil Rate of Rubber Rate of Mango
viscosity of Mango charcoal ink and Rubber charcoal ink had
Bean) Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal
a higher range when compared to that of Dollar-dry erase ink
(cm3/min) (cm3/min) (cm3/min)
and Hi-shine ink. The result while that of oil bean tree shows
12 12 11
a good match. From these result, it can be clearly stated that
8.5 10.5 7.5
ink of oil bean charcoal is of better standard when compared 8.3 14.5 8.0
with international standard. 7.5 8.75 7.25
7.8 7.9 7.4
B. Variation of Concentration of Ink with Time
From the plot of Fig. 5, it would be seen that concentration
increased with increasing time for the various species From Table III, it is seen that the volumetric flow rate of
sampled. Results reveal that the concentration of ink obtained the charcoals progressively decreased from the first two
from rubber wood charcoal was greater than that of oil bean values in all the three products but increased at a particular
and mango wood charcoals. However, the ink obtained from stage and later diminished again.
oil bean charcoal gave the best result as the required D. Space Time
concentration should not be too high. The variation also The result of the space time in Table IV shows that the space
observed here can be attributed to the variations in the time for oil bean increased without any fluctuation but that of
characteristic parameters of the various species sampled or rubber and mango experienced an fluctuation in their space
more. time.

TABLE IV: SPACE TIME OF THE DIFFERENT CHARCOALS

Ugba (Oil Bean) Mango Charcoal Rubber Charcoal
Charcoal (min) (min) (min)
67 73 67
94 107 76
96 100 55
103 110 91
107 108 101

E. Empirical Analysis of Values Obtained for the

Fig. 4. Variation of Concentration of Ugba, Rubber and Mango Wood
Charcoal Ink with Time.
Different Ink Types using the Exponential model.
Fig. 5, compares the empirical concentration with time for
the oil bean, Rubber and Mango charcoal ink indicates the
result for the concentration with time using the exponential
model. The exponential model data were compared as
shown in Fig. 5. Results obtained showed that the equation
of the exponential model as 𝑦 = 12.02𝑒 0.221𝑥 which is

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equation of line for the oil bean charcoal ink while the value
of the best fit is given by the square root of 𝑅2 = 1, 𝑦 =
19.86𝑒 0.155𝑥 , representing the equation of line for the
Rubber charcoal ink, with the best fit 𝑅2 = 1 and 𝑦 =
16.79𝑒 0.154𝑥 and , representing the equation of line for the
Mango charcoal ink, with the best fit 𝑅2 = 1. Result
revealed that the theoretical exponential model could be
used to predict the concentration of the various species of
inks. Although the different ink products followed the same
trend, there is a slight difference in their exponential
performance. This result showed that the Rubber charcoal
ink had the highest concentration but the Ugba (oil bean)
charcoal ink had the best concentration required for writing.
Fig. 5. Concentration against time for the Ugba, Rubber and Mango
charcoal ink
Fig. 6. Concentration of Ugba, Rubber and mango wood charcoal ink with
Time
Fig. 6 shows the graph of the empirical or theoretical
computation for the values of the concentration of the
different ink samples. The graph shows that the Rubber wood
charcoal ink gave the highest concentration, however the
Ugba (oil bean) charcoal ink gave the best concentration
suitable for writing on a white non porous board.
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EJERS, European Journal of Engineering Research and Science
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F. Comparison between Experimental and Theoretical
Concentration of ugba (oil bean) charcoal ink
Fig. 7. Concentration of ugba (oil bean) charcoal ink with Time
Fig. 7 demonstrates the relationship between concentration
of theoretical and experimental values upon the influence of
time for the Ugba (oil bean charcoal ink.). the theoretical
power model and experimental data were compared as shown
in Fig. 7, Results obtained showed the equation of the power
model as 𝑦 = 0.061𝑥 + 0.644 which is the equation of
straight line whereas the value of the best fit was given by the
square root of 𝑅2 = 0.974 . in terms of the experimental
expression, the equation of the straight line gave 𝑦 =
0.063𝑥 + 1.275 and the square root of the best fit 𝑅2 =
0.983. The result revealed that the experimental data was
more reliable than the theoretical data. The behavior of both
the theoretical and the experimental showed a reasonable
agreement, because they followed the same trend, although
there was a slight difference in their percentage of
performance. This result indicates that the power model could
be used in monitoring, predicting and simulating the
characteristics of ink concentration with respect to time.
The theoretical expression used was given as 𝐿𝑜𝑔 𝐶 =
𝐿𝑜𝑔 3.117 + 0.725 𝐿𝑜𝑔 𝑡, whereas the experimental
expression used is 𝐿𝑜𝑔 𝐶 indicating C values as experimental
data.
G. Empirical Concentration for ink obtained from
Rubber Wood Charcoal
Fig. 8. Concentration for ink obtained from Rubber Wood Charcoal
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Fig. 8 demonstrates the relationship between the I. I. Empirical Concentration for ink obtained
concentration of Rubber wood Charcoal based ink and time. from Mango Wood Charcoal ink
Increase in concentration was observed with increase in time
as demonstrated using the Power Model equation. The
equation of line for power model, revealed that
y=1.512x+2.700 with the square root of the best fit R2=0.996.
The variation in the concentration of the Rubber wood ink can
be attributed to the variation in time.
H. Comparison between Experimental and Theoretical
Concentration of Rubber Charcoal ink using Power
Model.

Fig. 10 Concentration for ink obtained from Mango Wood Charcoal ink

Fig. 10 is a graph depicting the relationship between the

concentration of Mango wood Charcoal based ink and time.
Increasing concentration showed increase in time as
demonstrated when the Power Model equation used. The
equation of line for the power model, revealed that
y=1.421x+2.461 while the square root of the best fit
R2=0.996. The variation in the concentration of the Mango
. wood ink can be attributed to the variation in time.
Fig. 9 Concentration of Rubber Charcoal ink with Time
J. Comparison between Experimental and Theoretical
Fig. 9 illustrates the relationship between concentration of Concentration of mango wood charcoal ink using the
theoretical and experimental values upon the influence of Power Model.
time for the Rubber wood charcoal ink, the theoretical power
model and experimental data were compared as shown in Fig.
9 results obtained showed the equation of the power model as
y=0.062x+0.662 which is the equation of line while the value
of the best fit is given by the square root of R2=0.947. In terms
of the experimental expression, the equation of the line gave
y=0.064x+1.321 and the square root of the best fit R2=0.912.
the result revealed that the theoretical data is more reliable
than the experimental data, however the behavior of both the
theoretical and the experimental show a good match, because
they followed the same trend, although there is a slight
difference in their percentage of performance. This result
shows that the power model can be used for monitoring,
predicting and simulating the characteristics of ink flow with
respect to time. The theoretical expression used is given as
Log C=Log 3.245+0.733 Log t. Whereas the experimental
expression used is Log C indicating C values as experimental
data.
Fig. 11 Concentration of mango wood charcoal ink with Time.

Fig. 11 illustrates the relationship between concentration of

theoretical and experimental values upon the influence of
time for the Mango wood charcoal ink, the theoretical power
model and experimental data were compared as shown in
Figure 4.10. results obtained showed the equation of the
power model as y=0.062x+0.628 which is the equation of line
while the value of the best fit is given by the square root of
R2=0.947. In terms of the experimental expression, the
equation of the line gave y=0.067x+1.224 and the square root

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of the best fit R2=0.977. the result revealed that the
experimental data is more reliable than the theoretical data,
however the behavior of both the theoretical and the
experimental show a good match, because they followed the
same trend, although there is a slight difference in their
percentage of performance. This result shows that the
experimental model can be used for monitoring, predicting
and simulating the characteristics of ink flow with respect to
time. The theoretical expression used is given as Log C=Log
2.998+0.739 Log t. Whereas the experimental expression
used is Log C indicating C values as experimental data.
IV. CONCLUSION
The pyrolysis that was done on the different woods gave a
better result since the end product called charcoal was derived
after the process. The result of the PH, Viscosity, Volumetric
flow rate and Density test that was conducted on the produced
oils showed a range of values for the ink produced.
Furthermore, a better match in oil bean charcoal ink was
observed when compared to the ink of international standard
but higher values in the case of Mango and Rubber charcoal
ink was recorded. Finally, The comparison showed that the
ink of oil bean charcoal is a better product.
The model developed showed that the final concentration
of produced ink can be predicted theoretically in future
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We wish to thank the Lord, God Almighty for his grace and
mercies He has shown from the beginning of this research to
the end. We are also grateful to the Head of Department,
Chemical/petrochemical Engineering, Rivers State
University, Prof. Ukpaka. C. P. for his understanding,
guidance, constructive criticisms, patience and
encouragement. Thanks also go to Chief Tony Nwosa, Prof.
Millionaire Abowei and to all the lecturers and staff of the
Department of Chemical/petrochemical Engineering for their
inputs from the beginning of the research to the end.
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[14] Scott, A. C. & Damblon, F. (2010). Charcoal Taphonomy ans
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[15] Novak, M. & Wilensky, U. (2007). Net logo/connected chemistry/solid
combustion model..
[16] Ramos, G., & Perez-Marquez, D. (2014). Design of Semi- Static
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Kenneth Kekpugile DAGDE, a Nigerian and
holder of B Tech, M Tech, Ph.D in chemical
engineering from Rivers State University, Nigeria.
An academician with over 19 years varied
experience in Chemical Process modeling,
simulation and optimization with over fifty
research publications in both local and
international journals. A registered Engineer and a
member of Nigerian Society of Chemical
Engineers. Friendly disposition and multitask
ability.
Author’s formal
photo

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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.24018/ejers.2019.4.3.1108 114