Science-9

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Key
Concepts

Unit 1: Living Things and Their Environment

Module 1: Respiratory and Circulatory Systems

 Air pathway — nose nasal passages trachea bronchi bronchioles alveoli

 Inhaling makes the diaphragm muscle contract and moves the ribs up, creating more airspace.
 Exhaling makes the diaphragm muscle relax and moves the ribs down, creating less airspace.
 Air enters the circulatory system from the lungs to the heart. It is then driven into bloodstream.
Oxygen processes nutrients that releases CO2, then leaves the body when exhaled.
 The heart is responsible for the pumping of blood throughout the body.
 Blood vessels carry the blood throughout the body. Blood vessels have 3 different types:
1. Arteries - carry oxygenated blood from the heart throughout the body.
2. Veins - carry deoxygenated blood from the body back to the heart.
3. Capillaries - the site where gases and nutrients are exchanged and is the smallest.
 The blood carries the materials such as nutrients and oxygen throughout the body.
 Pulmonary Circulation - Movement of blood from the heart, to the lungs, back to the heart.
 Coronary Circulation - Movement of blood through the tissue of the heart.
 Systemic Circulation - Movement of blood from the heart to the rest of the body, except lungs.
 The heart is an organ, about the size of your fist, that pumps both left and right sides. Each
side has two chambers. Atria at top, and Ventricles at bottom. The Valve acts as one-way
door.
 Heart rate or pulse is the number of times your heart beats in a minute (BPM/beats per minute)
 When at rest, heart rate slows down as the body doesn’t need much oxygen.
 Cigarette smoking harms organs in the body, causing illnesses. Asthma, heart diseases, etc.
 The best way to prevent diseases is to have a healthy lifestyle, regular exercise, enough rest,
and avoiding vices like smoking. These diseases can easily be detected with health-check up.

Module 2: Heredity: Inheritance and Variation

 In incomplete dominance, no allele is dominant over the other. This results in a third phenotype
expressed in the heterozygote which is a combination of both alleles.
 In codominance, both alleles are expressed equally. Both traits are visible in the heterozygote.
 Multiple alleles happens with blood types. In humans, there are four blood types: A, B, AB, O.
Blood type is controlled by three alleles: A, B, O. O is recessive, A and B are codominant.
 Punnett square - the method by which one can determine the possible
genotypes and phenotypes when two parents are crossed.
 Males have 44 body chromosomes and 2 sex chromosomes, X and Y.
 Females are the same except that they have both X sex chromosomes.
 Sex-linked traits are linked through the X chromosomes.
 Sex-limited traits are those that are expressed exclusively in one sex.
 Sex-influenced traits are expressed in both sexes but more often in
one sex than in the other sex.
 DNA - composed of chains of nucleotides that wrapped each other in the form of a double
 helix.
 Phospate backbone supports four bases: guanine, cytosine, adenine, and thymine.
 Gametes are reproductive cells that unite during sexual reproduction to form a zygote.
 Antigen is a substance that stimulates the production of antibody.
 DNA - deoxyribonucleic acid (double helix) while RNA - Ribonucleic acid (single helix).

Module 3: Biodiversity and Evolution

 Population pertains to the number of organisms of the same species living in a certain place.
 Species - organisms that have certain characteristics in common and are able to interbreed.
 Biodiversity refers to the variety of life in an area.
 Carrying capacity refers to the number of organisms of one species that a place can support.
 High index of diversity can withstand environmental changes better than low index of diversity.
 Environmental conditions limits a certain population from increasing in size to balance a place.
 Extinction occurs when the last member of that species dies.
 When the population of a species decline rapidly, it is said to be a threatened species.
 Endangered species have extremely low population possible of becoming extinct.
 Human actions have resulted habitat loss that accelerated the rate of extinction of species.
 The main causes of deforestation are illegal logging, kaingin farming, forest fires and typhoons.
 Effects of deforestation include soil erosion, floods and depletion of wildlife resources.
 Coral reef destruction is caused by dynamite fishing and muro-ami.
 Mangrove destruction is caused by overharvesting and conversion of the area into other uses.
 In eutrophication, nutrients from the land enrich bodies of
water that causes excessive growth of aquatic plants and
algae which eventually die and decompose. The process
depletes the oxygen in water, causing fishes and other
aquatic organisms to die.
 PCB (polychlorinated byphenyl) toxic wastes produced in
the making of paints, inks and electril insulations.
 Acid rain is a result of air pollution mostly from factories
 and motor vehicles which emits dark smoke.

Module 4: Ecosystem: Life Energy

 Photosynthesis - process of converting light into chemical energy that is stored in food (sugar).

Sunlight
Carbon Dioxide + Water Glucose + Oxygen
(CO2) (H2O) Chlorophyll (C6H22O6) (O2)

 Chlorophyll is the green pigment in the chloroplast of plants that captures light energy.
 Chloroplast absorbs sunlight and use it to synthesize carbon dioxide and water.
 Factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis are temperature, carbon dioxide, water and light
 Light Reaction Phase is the 1st stage of photosynthesis that requires light
 Calvin Cycle is the 2nd stage of photosynthesis that occurs during night/dark time.
 Cellular respiration breaks down Glucose - CO2 and H2O and ATP in the presence of Oxygen.

Glucose + Oxygen Carbon Dioxide + Water + ATP

(C6H22O6) (O2) (CO2) (H2O)

 Mitochondrion is the power house of the cell. Site where cellular respiration occurs.
 ATP - Adenosine Triphosphate. It is a compound that stores energy In the cell.
 The breakdown of glucose: Glycolysis, Krebs Cycle, Electron Transport Chain.
1. Glycolysis, the breakdown of the 6-carbon sugar into 3-carbon called pyruvate.
2. Krebs Cycle, produces carbon dioxide, NADH, and FADH 2
3. Electron Transport Chain releases the NAD and FAD, and captured in the form of ATP.
 The relationship of Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
Unit 2: Countless and Active Particles of Matter
Module 1: Electronic Structure of Matter
Rutherford’s model

 Rutherford’s nuclear atomic model has its mass concentrated in the

nucleus of the atom that only consists of protons and neutrons.
 Bohr’s atomic model describes the atom like a solar system where the
electron is found only in specific circular paths around the nucleus.
 In Bohr’s model, each electron has fixed energies called energy levels.
 Atomic orbital is the region of space or volume around the nucleus of
an atom in which electrons are most likely to be found. Bohr’s model
 There are 5 common energy levels: S, P, D, F, G respectively.
 Schrodinger formulated a formula to calculate the probability of finding
the electron at a particular region in space around the nucleus.
 The quantum mechanical model of atom describes the atom as having
a nucleus at the center around which the electrons move.
 An electron is imagined to be a cloud of negative charge having
shape.
 The electrons are arranged in main energy levels that have sublevels.
 Electron configuration - distribution of electrons within the orbitals.
Quantum model
 Electron cloud - representation of electron’s rapid change of position.
 Ground state - electron configuration that is in lowest energy.
 Excited state - any electron configuration lower than ground state
 Exclusion Principle - developed by Wolfgang Pauli stating that no two
electrons in an atom can have the same set of four quantum numbers.
 Quantum number - a number that specifies a property of an orbital.

Module 2: Chemical Bonding

 Valence electrons are the outermost electrons which are directly involved in chemical bonding.
 Electronegativity is a measure of the tendency of an atom to attract electron.
 Ionization energy is the energy needed to pull or remove electron/s from a neutral atom.
 Lewis symbol - composed of element’s symbol and dots that represent no. valence electrons.
 Atoms form bonds with one another to become stable and to become the noble gas nearest it.
 Ionic bond involves complete transfer of electrons. It Involves metals and non metals.
 Ionic compounds conduct electricity when in solution but not in solid phase.
 Covalent bonds involves sharing of electrons. Covalent bonds may be polar or non-polar.
 Two identical non-metallic atoms always form non-polar covalent compound such as o 2.
  Atoms with electronegativity difference higher than 0.4 and lower than 1.9 produce polar
bonds.
 Covalent compounds are non-conductors of electricity. Have lower melting temperature.
 Metallic bondings.exist in metals. Their valence electrons are called “sea of electrons.”
 Metals are thermal and electrical conductors, lustrous, malleable, and ductile.

Module 3: The Carbon Compounds

 Carbon atoms can form single, double and triple bonds. These are called organic compounds.
 Organic compounds are composed of carbon atoms. Naturally produces by living organisms.
 Gasolene, kerosene, acetone, etc have crucial uses based on their chemical properties.
 Hydrocarbons are a specific group of organic compounds
which contain carbon and hydrogen compounds only.
These are the 3 basic groups: Alkanes, Alkenes, Alkynes.
 Alkanes are hydrocarbons that have single bonds.
 Alkenes are hydrocarbons that have double bonds.
 Alkynes are hydrocarbons that have triple bonds.
 Ethyne is an alkyne hydrocarbon. Used as fuel in an oxy-
acetylene welding torch and hastens the ripening of fruits.
 Ethene is a gaseous compound that is responsible for the
ripening of fruits.
 Alcohols are organic compounds used as disinfectant, fuel, for liquor and other alcoholic
drinks.
 Carbonyl compounds: acetone, used as nail polish remover ; formaldehyde, as preservatives.
 Boiling point - the temperature in which a substance goes from the liquid phase to gas phase.
 Flammability is the property of a substance that describes how easily it burns.
 Viscosity is the property of a fluid that describes a substance’s resistance to flow/deformation.
 Volatility is the property that describes how a substance easily evaporates.

Module 4: What’s in a Mole?

 Different kinds of materials with the same number of particles have different masses.
 Avogadro formulated an equation which refers to the number of atoms equal to 1 mole,

6.02 x 1023 grams

Avogadro’s Number
 Different substances with same no. of moles have same number of particles; different masses.
 Molar mass is the mass of one mole of a substance expressed in grams.
 The molar mass of a single element like “Na” is numerically equal to its atomic mass in grams.
 The mass of the substance divided by molar mass gives the number of moles of the
substance.
 The number of moles multiplied by the Avogadro’s number gives the number of particles.
  Percentage composition of a compound tells you the percentage of the mass made up by each
element in a specific compound.
 Chemical formula is a combination of the symbol of elements and subscript numbers that are
representing a specific compound.
 Molecule - the smallest unit of a substance that retains its physical and chemical properties, it
may be composed of one kind of atom or two or more kinds of atom bonded together.
 Mole - SI unit to express the amount of a substance.
 Molar mass - the mass of one mole of a substance.

Unit 3: Earth and Space

Module 1: Volcanoes

 The external parts of a volcano usually/normally

have: Base, Slope and Summit.
 Primary factors of a volcano’s eruptive style:
magma temperature, chemical composition, etc.
 Viscosity is the property of the material’s resistance
to flow, liquid’s thickness and stickiness.
 Magma with high silica content are more viscous than those with low silica content.
 These are the different types of volcanic eruptions:
1. Phreatic/Hydrothermal - steam-driven, short-lived and characterized by ash columns.
2. Phreatomagmatic - a violent eruption due to contact between water and magma.
3. Strombolian - a periodic weak to violent eruption characterized by fountain lava.
4. Vulcanian - characterized by tall eruption columns that reach up to 20 km high.
5. Plinian - excessively explosive type of eruption of gas and pyroclastics.
 One way to classify volcanoes is by identifying the shapes of their cones:
1. Shield volcanoes - formed by accumulation of lava that oozes out from the volcano, a
broad, slightly doomed structure that resembles a warrior’s shield is formed.
2. Cinder cones - built from ejected lava fragments. Have steep slope and a wide crater.
3. Composite cones - nearly perfect sloped structure from alternate lava and
pyroclastics.
 The heat from inside the Earth’s interior is a source of energy called geothermal energy.
 In geothermal power plants, heat inside the Earth is used to produce steam to have electricity.
 Power plants are built in an area where it is
particularly hot just below the surface.
 Geothermal heat pumps use the heat from
close to the Earth’s surface to provide heat.
 Volcanic eruptions cause loss of loves and
properties. It causes temperature decrease.
 Volcanic eruptions create spectacular scenery.
It also makes the land fertile after eruption.
 Signs of an impending volcanic eruption:
 1. Occurrence of volcanic tremors; 2. Increased steaming activity; 3. Crater glow;
4. Ground tilt; 5. Noticeable drying up of vegetation; 6. Increase temperature of hot
springs; 7. Drying up of springs/wells; and etc.
 Active volcano - has erupted within the last 600 years and are documented by man.
 Inactive volcano - a volcano that has no record of eruption.
 Caldera - a crater formed when a part of the wall collapses following an explosive eruption.
 Volcano - opening in the Earth’s surface where molten rocks, smoke and gases are emitted.
 Crater - funnel shaped at the top of a volcano formed as a result of explosive eruptions.
 Magma - molten rock inside the Earth; Lava - magma that has been ejected out of a volcano.
 Silica - a compound of silicon (SiO2).

Module 2: Climate
 Climate is the overall atmospheric condition of a place for a period of 30 years or more.
 Climate factors: latitude, altitude, distance from bodies of water, ocean current and
topography.
 Temperature refers to the hotness or coldness of an object.
 Latitude - the close the place is to the equator, the warmer the climate, the farther the place is
from the equator. An imaginary line that is parallel to the equator.
 Altitude - Air temperature decreases when altitude increases. Every 1000 m = drop of 6.5°C.
 At higher elevations, there is less air. The air molecules are far, making the air less dense.
Lighter air does not absorb much heat making the air temperature lower.
 Altitude refers to the height above sea level.
 Bodies of water - help regulate the climate of a certain area.
 Sea breeze is the movement of cool wind from the sea to the land. Usually happens during
day.
 Land breeze is the movement of cool wind from the land to the sea. Happens during nighttime.
 Topography refers to the surface features of an area like
mountains, valleys, canyons and etc.
 Leeward - the side of a mountain that receives less amount
of precipitation. Characterized by low vegetation.
 Windward - the side of a mountain that receives most of the
precipitation. Characterized by high vegetation.
 Ocean currents - either cool or warm the air above them.
 Cold currents in the ocean bring cold water while warm currents take along warm water.
 El Niño happens when the temperature in eastern Pacific rises above normal.
 La Niña happens when the temperature in eastaern Pacific decreases below normal.
 Gyres are the circular patterns of currents formed by surface currents in the ocean.
 Coriolois Effect deflects the ocean currents.
 Climate change is a long term shifting of global weather pattern.
 Human activities may speed up the rising of the global temperature.
 Greenhouse effect is the increase of global temperature due to some atmospheric gases, CO 2.
 Greenhouse gases like CO2 trap heat and prevents it from escaping, making the Earth warm.
  Increase presence of greenhouse gases triggers global climate change.
 Climate change is a long term shifting of global weather pattern.

 Fauna - composed of living animals.

 Flora - composed of different plant vegetation.

Module 3: Constellations
 Star color ranges from red to blue. The color of the star indicates its surface temperature.
 Red is the color of the least hot star while Blue is the color of the hottest stars.

Star Color Surface Temperature in Celsius

Yello
Sun 5,700
w

Proxima Centauri Red 2,300

Orang
Epsilon Iridani 4,600
e

Vega White 9,900

Sirius White 10,000

Alnilam Blue 27,000

  The brightness of a star as seen from Earth has two factors - distance and actual brightness.
 Apparent brightness is a star’s brightness due to distance as seen from the Earth.
 Actual brightness refers to the brightness of stars if they were the same distance from Earth.
 Constellation are patterns in the Sky made out of group of stars that form pictures of objects.
 Just like the Sun, stars also seem to move from East to West. Can tell what time of the day it
is.
 The Polaris, also known as North Star, is the brighest star in the constellation Ursa Minor.
 Early people used the constellations to determine when to harvest or when to end planting.
 Constellations were also used in navigation. Sailors use them to find their way as they sail.

Unit 4: Force, Motion, and Energy

Module 1: Forces and Motion

 Uniformly Accelerated Motion: Horizontal Dimension – refers to a body that maintains a

constant change in its velocity in a given time interval along a straight line in a horizontal plane.
 These are the equations used when dealing with Uniformly Accelerated Motion:

v=d/t v = velocity
Equation A
v f = final velocity
vave = (vf + vi) / 2 vi = initial velocity
Equation B v ave = average velocity
a = (vf + vi) / t d = displacement
Equation C

Equation D
 t = time
d = ( (vf + vi ) / 2 ) t a = acceleration

d = vit + (at2) / 2
Equation E
vf2 = vi2 + 2ad
Equation F
 Uniformly Accelerated Motion: Vertical Dimension – refers to a body that maintains a constant
change in its velocity in a given time interval along a straight line in a vertical plane.
 Projectile Motion refers to a body that maintains a constant change in its velocity in a given
time interval along a parabolic motion/curved motion in vertical and horizontal dimensions.
 Vectors are quantities with magnitudes and directions while scalars only have magnitudes.
 Momentum (p) is defined as the product of mass (m) and velocity (v) of an object.

p = mv
Momentum Equation
 Impulse is the product of the force applied and the time interval during which it acts.

Impulse = force x time

Impulse Equation
 Conservation of Momentum refers to the transfer of momentum of one object to another.
 A collision is an encounter between two objects resulting exchange of impulse and momentum.
 Elastic Collisions – in which the total kinetic energy and momentum of the system is
conserved.

(p1 + p2)i = (p1 + p2)f

Elastic Collision Equation
 Inelastic Collisions – in which the total kinetic energy of the system changes, objects that stick
together after collision are said to be perfectly inelastic.

(p1 + p2) = (m1 + m2) vf

Inelastic Collision Equation
Module 2: Work, Power, and Energy

 Potential Energy is the stored energy of an object having the potential to do mechanical work.
 Kinetic Energy is the energy in moving objects (matter) and wave.
 These are the equations used when finding certain energies an object/wave have.

PEgrav = mgh
Gravitational Potential Energy Equation
PEelas = ½ kx2
Elastic Potential Energy Equation

KE = ½ mv2
Kinetic Energy Equation
  Energy Transformations in a Hydropower Dam
 Mechanical Energy is defined as the sum of the Potential Energy and Kinetic Energy.

ME = PE + KE
Mechanical Energy Equation
 Conservation of Mechanical energy states that the total mechanical energy in any position of
an object remains constant/conserved so long as we ignore outside forces such as friction and
air resistance.
 Head water level - surface height of the stored water in a water reservoir
 Head of water flow - difference of the head water level and tail water level
 Tail water level - exit height of the water in the dam or the height where turbines are located.

Module 3: Heat, Work and Energy

 First Law of Thermodynamics states, “The change in internal energy of a system equals the
difference between the heat taken in by the system and the work done by the system.

▽U = Q-W
1st Law of Thermodynamics
 Second Law of Thermodynamics states, “Heat itself never flows from a cold to a hot object”.
 A heat pump is a device that transfers heat from a cold reservoir to a warmer one, requires
ME.

Refrigeration cooling cycle Air conditioning cooling cycle

Heat Engine - device that changes thermal energy into mechanical work such as steam engine.
 Internal Combustion engines - where the fuel combustion happens inside the engine chamber.
 External Combustion engines - where the fuel combustion happens outside the engine.

 Thermal efficiency refers to heat engine measured by ratio of work done to the heat supplied.
 Thermal Efficiency Equation Efficiency = Wnet x 100%

 Thermal Pollution refers harmful effects on the environment of heat exhausted by heat
engines.
 The total kinetic and potential energy of all of its particles is the internal energy of a body.
 Heat is the energy transferred from one body to another as a result of a temperature
difference.

Module 4: Electricity and Magnetism

 Electricity comes from thermal, geothermal, nuclear plants, hydroelectric dams and etc.
 From the power plants, electricity is then made to travel along cables called transmission lines.

 In calculating energy use, the formula in finding power (in watts) is used.

P = VI P = Power (watts) V = Voltage (volts) I = Current (amperes)

Power Equation
 1 Kilowatt (kW) is equal to 1000 watts (W).
 To get the energy used by an appliance in an hour, multiply the power consumption by time.

E = PT E = Energy used (kWh) P = Power (W) T = Time (h)

Energy Used Equation
 The unit of measurement for energy use is kilowatt-hour (kWh) - one kilowatt of power per
hour.
 Electric generators are devices which convert mechanical energy to electrical energy.
 A steady magnet and a conductor at rest cannot produce electric current.
 Magnetism is the force exerted by magnets when they attract or repel each other.
 A magnet or a conductor in motion induces electric current.