Industrial Rigging Principles and Practices

Wire Rope and Wire-Rope Slings—Course 318, Lesson 2

Preface

Slings are used in almost every rigging operation. Slings attach the load to a crane or
hoist hook to allow lifting and travel of the load. In most cases they are made of wire
rope or chain combined with various attachments.

In this lesson you will read about wire rope as a component of slings and sling
assemblies. The strength of a sling may be considerably less than its standard rated
strength if it is used incorrectly. The factors that affect sling strength, therefore, must be
understood by the rigger to prevent overloads.

Information on visual examination of slings is included to help you identify damage that
is serious enough to require removing the sling from service.

Objectives

After studying this lesson, you should be able to….

• Identify the component parts of wire rope and describe its construction and
classification.
• Identify and discuss the factors that affect wire rope strength.
• Describe the basic single-leg and multiple-leg slings and the calculation of their
allowable loads.
• Enumerate the signs of damage that would probably cause a wire rope to be removed
from service.

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Key Terms

Rope lay

Speltered socket

Swaged socket

Wedge socket

Seizing (or serving)

Bridle sling

Wire Rope

Wire rope consists of three basic components:

• a ,
• , which are wound, or laid, around the core (wire rope can have
any number of strands),
• , which form the strands (a strand may be made up of any number
of wires, usually laid around a center wire).

Wire rope is preformed unless otherwise specified. A preformed wire rope is one whose
strands are permanently formed, as they are manufactured, into the (spiral)
shape they will have in the finished wire rope. In addition, the wires that make up the
strand are similarly preformed as they are made.

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The diameter of the wire rope is the diameter of a that would enclose the
wire-rope strands. Design specifications for wire rope allow the diameter of a new rope to
be slightly than the nominal size.

Materials used to make wire rope include steel, stainless steel, Monel, and bronze. The
most widely used material for slings is - steel. Stainless
steel is used for some abnormal operating environments.

The foundation of a wire rope is the core. The core is made of materials that will provide
for the strands under normal loading conditions. Core materials include
natural or synthetic fibers and steel. A steel core is either a strand or an independent wire
rope. Common core designations are:
• FC ( core)
• IWRC (independent - core)
• WSC ( - core).
The description of any wire rope must include one of these designations to identify the
core type.

Wire-Rope Construction

Wire rope is also identified by its type of construction. Construction refers to the way the
wires are laid to form a strand, and the way the strands are laid around the core. Types of
wire-rope construction are identified as:
• right lay
• left lay
• regular lay
• lang lay.

If the strands of a wire rope appear to spiral down to the right, the rope is lay.
If the strands appear to spiral down to the left the rope is lay.

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In lay ropes, the wires forming the strands appear to be parallel to the
rope axis. In lay ropes, the wires forming the strands appear to be at an
angle to the rope axis. Practically all wire rope used for slings and on hoists and cranes
is right regular lay.

The word lay is also used in a common measurement term (rope lay). One rope lay is the
length of wire rope in which a strand makes one complete helical around
the rope . The rope lay is an important measurement for the rigger.

Wire-Rope Classification

Wire-rope classification specifies the number of the rope contains and the
number of in each strand. In a wire rope classified as 6 x 37, for example,
there are 6 strands, each one of which is made up of 37 wires. The second number (the
number of wires in each strand) is , however. It may or may not reflect the
actual number of wires in the strand.

For instance, the classification 6 x 19 actually means a wire rope containing 6 strands,
each made up of 15 through 26 wires, of which no more than 12 are outside wires.
Designations such as Seale, filler wire, and Warrington Seale identify standard patterns
of large and small wires. The majority of rope used for slings and on hoists and cranes is
6 x l9 and 6 x 37.

Slings can be made of braided wire rope as well as single wire rope. Braided wire rope is
a rope formed by braiding several wire ropes together. Braided wire rope
is commonly made of four, six, or eight component ropes.

Wire-Rope Strength

The strength of steel wire rope depends on the strength of the steel wires in it. Grades of
wire currently used in the manufacture of wire rope include:

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 • IPS (improved plow steel)
• EIP (extra improved plow steel)
• EEIP (extra extra improved plow steel).
Three other grades—traction steel, mild plow steel, and plow steel—were once used for
wire rope but are now obsolete.

Improved plow steel may have a fiber core (FC) or an independent wire-rope core
(IWRC). Extra improved plow steel, as well as extra extra improved plow steel, always
has an .

The most common finish for steel wire is (bright). Steel wires may also
be galvanized (zinc coated). Galvanized wires, however, are usually % lower in
strength than bright-finish wires.

To find the maximum allowable load, you the breaking strength of wire
rope by the . In most catalogs, however, the rope strength
listed is nominal strength. Nominal strength can also be used with the design factor to
establish a maximum allowable load.

Factors Affecting Wire-Rope Strength

Three major signs of loss of strength in wire rope are spots worn on the
outer wires, wires, and reduction of the rope . Other
factors that can reduce the strength of wire rope, and therefore of wire-rope slings,
include:
• the rope over a curved surface,
• temperature,
• and environment,
• rope fittings or terminations.

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Bending the rope over a curved surface subjects the rope to stresses. Ropes that
operate over sheaves, pins, and other curved surfaces are subjected to bending stresses.
These stresses reduce the of the rope. That is, they decrease the nominal
strength of the rope by a certain percentage.

The efficiency of the rope depends upon the D/d ratio. This is the ratio between the
of the sheave, pin, or curved surface (D) and the diameter
of the rope (d).

Consider as an example a fiber-core, 6 x 37 IPS wire rope with a 1 in. diameter. If the
rope travels over a sheave with a 30 in. diameter, the D/d ratio is 30 (30/1), and the
efficiency is 95%. In other words, the load rating drops to 95% of 83,600 lb, or 79,420 lb.

If the same rope must travel over a pin 2 in. in diameter, its efficiency is reduced to 63%
(52,668 lb). These data are based on tests of wire rope bent over a stationary pin with a
static load applied until rope failure occurs. A static load is one that remains steady and
exerts a pull on the wire rope.

Temperature can reduce the strength of wire rope. Slings made of wire rope with a fiber
core should not be exposed to temperatures above 180°F (82.2°C). If any wire-rope sling
will be exposed to temperatures above 400°F (204.4°C) or below –60°F (–51°C), consult
the sling or rope for specific application information.

Corrosion and environment can also reduce the strength of wire rope. Corrosion usually
indicates severe environmental conditions or a lack of rope . Corrosion
can be difficult to evaluate, because it often occurs in the portions of
the wire rope before it is visible on the surface.

A slight reddish-rust discoloration is a sign that you should lubricate the rope. If the wires
are because of corrosion, remove the rope from service immediately.
Keep ropes lubricated in accordance with the recommendations of the rope manufacturer.

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Chemically active environments can have a major effect on the strength of wire-rope
slings. Caustic or acidic substances, fumes, and oxidizing (rusting) environments may
damage sling materials. If you will be using wire-rope slings in chemically active
environments, consult the sling or rope manufacturer for specific application information.

The termination (end) of a wire rope must be into a or

fastened to a or attachment in order to lift loads. If the strength of the
fitting is not equal to that of the wire rope, the usable strength of the wire rope is reduced
to the efficiency of the fitting.

The speltered socket and the swaged socket become wire-rope

attachments. In a speltered socket, the wires of the rope are separated at the end that fits
into the socket. Then is poured in, “welding” the socket
to the wires. The sleeve of a swaged socket is clamped to the wire rope with a high-
pressure hydraulic .

Detailed installation procedures have been developed by the wire-rope industry. When
properly installed, speltered and swaged sockets provide % efficiency.
Unsafe conditions could exist, however, if the recommended procedures are not followed
exactly. For this reason, speltered and swaged sockets are usually installed only by
experienced and qualified personnel.

Two basic designs of wire-rope clips are available. When using U bolt clips, make sure to
assemble them so that the U section contacts the end of the rope. The U
section tends to some wires as it is tightened. If a U-bolt clip is installed
incorrectly—with the U section contacting the live side of the rope—the resultant
crushing of wires can affect the rope’s .

Since the fist-grip type has two saddle parts and no U section, the cautions just given do
not apply to this type of clip. Wire-rope clips can be obtained with either forged steel or

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cast malleable iron . Use only forged steel clips for slings.
Cast-type clips are used for temporary .

Wire-rope clips are a convenient means of making a at the job site when
that becomes necessary. However, there are definite procedures that must be followed
when you use them for this purpose. The number of clips to be used, their size, and how
they are , for instance, vary with the diameter of the wire rope you are
using. How the clips are tightened and how much they are tightened are other important
variables.

The length of rope to be turned back to make the loop, or eye, of the sling is also
specified. And the eye must be fitted with a —a curved metal piece that
protects the rope loop from abrasion and sharp bends. Specifications on these and other
points are available from manufacturers and in reference books. You must follow them to
realize the percentage of given for clip-fashioned slings.

The socket is a popular end attachment. You can install it easily and
dismantle it quickly at the job site. But make sure to put the rope through the socket the
right way and leave the end long enough.

Seizing, Cutting, and Splicing

The dead ends of the rope may have binding around them. This binding consists of
tightened, twisted wire, and it is called a , or . The purpose
of seizing the end of a cut wire rope is to hold the strands firmly in place. Without one or
more seizings, some strands can become and others ,
shortening the life of the rope.

Seizing should be done with a soft, annealed wire. Lay one end of the wire in a channel
between two rope strands. Wrap the free end of the wire back over the dead end as
closely and tightly as possible. A (a rod about l/2 in. in

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diameter and 18 in. long) helps to maintain on the wire. Twist the two
ends of the wire tightly together and cut them to complete the seizing.

You should seize a wire rope at least once on both sides of a cut cutting
the rope. The diameter of the seizing wire, the number of seizings required, and the
length of the seizings all vary with the diameter and construction of the rope being cut.
Consult the manufacturer’s literature for this information.

Any one of several different types of cutters may be used in your operation to cut the
rope. Abrasive wheels, torches, and special shears are some of the types available.

is the process of joining two sections of rope by the

strands together. The technique is also used for forming a loop at one end of a rope by
weaving (or tucking) the cut strands back into the rope body. It takes a good deal of
training and experience to learn to make an efficient and safe splice. You can find the
methods detailed in handbooks and instructions from wire rope manufacturers. But these
need to be supplemented with your own observation and .

Wire-Rope Slings

Wire rope becomes a sling assembly with the addition of some type of splice or end
fitting. A wire-rope sling can be made with a single piece of wire rope or with braided-
wire rope.

The basic sling is spliced into loops, or , on each end. This basic single-leg
sling can be used for straight-pull lifting (vertical hitch), in a choker hitch or a basket
hitch. You can make many variations of the basic single-leg sling by using or
other fittings in place of the loops.

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A bridle sling may have two, three, or four legs. The top ends of the multiple legs are
usually gathered in a that attaches to the hoist or crane
hook.

Typical rated loads for 6 x l9 or 6 x 37 single-leg slings of IPS, IWRC rope are taken
from the ANSI/ASME publication B30.9, Safety Standard for Slings. Specific load
ratings of some wire-rope or sling manufacturers may vary, however. The manufacturer’s
load-rating data should be checked and followed.

The rated-load values are based on a single-leg sling in a vertical position. With this data
you can also calculate the rated load for bridle slings and sling legs that are not vertical
by using the following equation:
RL = VRL x L x sin φ
where
RL = rated load
VRL = rated load
L = number of (a maximum of two)
φ = sling .

For an example of how to use this equation, suppose you want to rig a section of piping
with a two-leg bridle sling. The sling legs are made with 6 x l9, improved plow steel,
IWRC wire rope, 1/2 in. in diameter. The eyes are formed with mechanical splices. The
sling angle is 60°.

The vertical rated load of such a sling leg is 2.2 tons. According to handbook tables of
trigonometric functions, the sine of a 60° angle is 0.866. When these values are
substituted, the equation RL = VRL x L x sin φ becomes:
RL = 2.2 x 2 x 0.866
= 3.81 tons.
If the pipe section weighs less than 3.81 tons, therefore, it is within the maximum
allowable load for the sling.

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When three- or four-leg slings are used, it is very difficult to determine if all legs are
bearing an equal share of the load. Usually only two or three legs actually take the load.
The other leg or legs aid in the load. Therefore, to be on the safe side,
the value of L in the equation should not be greater than , even when a three-
or four-leg sling is used.

Some sling manufacturers list a rated load for four-leg slings. Such a rating should be
used only if you can be sure that there is an actual four-way share of the load among the
sling legs. One-, two-, three-, and four-leg bridle slings are sometimes called single-
branch, double-branch, triple-branch, and quad-branch slings.

When a sling is used in a choker hitch, an angle of choke is formed. If the angle of choke
is anything from 90° through 119° only % of these values should be used.

If the two eyes of the sling are attached at a single point, as they are in the basket hitch,
the rated load can be determined by the vertical basket load by the
sine of the sling angle. If the D/d ratio is less than 25, the rated load should be reduced
accordingly.

The length of wire rope between loops, splices, or end fittings of 6 x l9, 6 x 37, and
braided wire-rope slings should not be less than times the diameter of the wire
rope. The length of wire-rope between loops or end fittings of braided wire-rope slings
should not be less than times the diameter of the component wire rope.

Inspecting Wire-Rope Slings

Wire-rope slings should be inspected by the rigger , both before and

during use of the sling. Periodic inspections should be scheduled at regular intervals and
conducted by specially designated inspectors.

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Some conditions that should be considered reasons for removing a wire-rope sling from
service are:
• rope in the form of kinking crushing, unstranding, birdcaging, or
core protrusion
• evidence of damage from any source, including damage from
weld and weld spatter
• end fittings that are cracked, deformed, or worn to the extent that their strength is
affected (In particular, should be replaced in accordance with
hook inspection and replacement information discussed)
• pitting of the wires due to corrosion
• corrosive failure of one wire adjacent to an end fitting
• one broken or cut strand
• for a single wire rope, broken wires in a section the length of one rope
lay, or broken wires in one strand within a distance of one rope lay
• for braided-wire rope with less than eight parts, broken wires in one
rope lay, or one broken braid or one broken strand per sling length
• for braided-wire rope with eight or more parts, broken wires within one
rope lay, or one broken braid or two broken strands per sling length.

Summary

Wire rope consists of a core with strands of wires laid around it, each strand being made
up of several wires laid around a central wire. Core designations indicate whether the
core is fiber (FC), an independent wire rope (IWRC), or a wire strand (WSC).

Wire rope is also identified by its construction—right, left, regular, or lang lay. It is
classified by the number of strands it contains and the number of wires in each strand (6 x
37, for example). It is graded for strength according to the steel used in its wires:
improved, extra improved, or extra extra improved plow steel (IPS, EIP, or EEIP).

The strength of wire rope is reduced by bending the rope over a curved surface, by
temperature, by corrosion, and by terminations or fittings.

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The basic wire-rope sling is spliced into loops at each end. This single-leg sling is used in
vertical, choker, or basket hitches. Multiple-leg slings have two to four legs and are
called bridle slings. The vertical angle, angle of choke, angle of inclination, and D/d ratio
can all reduce the rated strength of a sling. They must be considered in determining
capacity.

The rigger should inspect wire-rope slings before and during every use for signs of
damage that may cause a sling to be removed form service.

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