Book of Sociology

Book of Sociology
Theory and Methodology

Contents
1 Theory 1
1.1 Ancient uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Theories formally and scientifically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1 Underdetermination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.2 Intertheoretic reduction and elimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.3 Theories vs. theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Philosophical theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.1 Metatheory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.2 Political theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Scientific theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4.1 Definitions from scientific organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4.2 Philosophical views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4.3 In physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4.4 The term theoretical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 List of notable theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2 Hypothesis 8
2.1 Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2 Scientific hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3 Working hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4 Hypotheses, concepts and measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4.1 Statistical hypothesis testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.7 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3 Positivism 12
3.1 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
i
ii CONTENTS
3.2 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.2.1 Antecedents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.2.2 Positivists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.2.3 Antipositivism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.2.4 Logical positivism and postpositivism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2.5 In historiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2.6 In other fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2.7 In 1900s sociology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2.8 In 2000s sociology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.3 Sociological positivism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.3.1 Comte’s positivism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.3.2 Proletarian positivism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.3.3 Durkheim’s positivism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.3.4 Antipositivism and critical theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.3.5 Contemporary positivism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.3.6 The role of science in social change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.4 Logical positivism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.5 Further thinkers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.6 In science today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.7 Criticisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.9 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4 Social science 24
4.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.2 Branches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.2.1 Anthropology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.2.2 Communication studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.2.3 Economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.2.4 Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.2.5 Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.2.6 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.2.7 Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.2.8 Linguistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.2.9 Political science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.2.10 Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.2.11 Sociology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.3 Additional fields of study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.4 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.4.1 Social research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
CONTENTS iii
4.4.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.5 Education and degrees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.6.2 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.6.3 Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.6.4 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.6.5 Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.6.6 People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.6.7 Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.7 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.8 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.8.1 20th and 21st centuries sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.8.2 19th century sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.8.3 General sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.8.4 Academic resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.8.5 Opponents and critics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5 Historical sociology 37
5.1 Use of history in sociology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.2 Path dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.3 Debate over general theory in sociology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.4 Notable authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6 International relations 40
6.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.1.1 Study of international relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
6.2.1 Normative theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
6.2.2 Epistemology and IR theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
6.2.3 Positivist theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
6.2.4 Post-positivist/reflectivist theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6.2.5 Leadership theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6.2.6 Post-structuralist theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6.3 Levels of analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6.3.1 Systemic level concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6.3.2 Unit-level concepts in international relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
iv CONTENTS
6.3.3 Individual or sub-unit level concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

6.4 Institutions in international relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.4.1 Generalist inter-state organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.4.2 Economic institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.4.3 International legal bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
6.4.4 Regional security arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
6.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
6.7 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
6.7.1 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
6.7.2 Textbooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
6.7.3 History of international relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
6.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7 Historicism 54
7.1 Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
7.1.1 Hegelian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
7.1.2 Anthropological . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
7.1.3 New . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
7.1.4 Modern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
7.1.5 Christian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
7.2 Critics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
7.2.1 Karl Marx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
7.2.2 Karl Popper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
7.2.3 Leo Strauss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
7.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
7.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
7.5 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
7.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
8 Karl Popper 59
8.1 Personal life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
8.1.1 Family and training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
8.1.2 Academic life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
8.1.3 Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
8.2 Honours and awards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
8.3 Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
8.3.1 Background to Popper’s ideas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
8.3.2 Philosophy of science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
8.3.3 Rationality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
8.3.4 Philosophy of arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
8.3.5 Political philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
CONTENTS v
8.3.6 Metaphysics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
8.3.7 Religion and God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
8.4 Influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
8.5 Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
8.6 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
8.7 Filmography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
8.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
8.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
8.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
8.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
9 Methodology 77
9.1 Methods of Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
9.2 Relationship between methodology, theory, paradigm, algorithm, and method . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
9.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
9.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
9.5 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
9.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
10 Military sociology 79
10.1 Theory and methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
10.2 Contemporary military sociology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
10.3 Military as a society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
10.3.1 Military as an occupation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
10.3.2 Recruitment practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
10.3.3 The effects of military life on dependants (and the influence of military dependent subcultures) 80
10.3.4 Stress and military service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
10.3.5 Age as a factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
10.3.6 Religion in the military . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
10.3.7 Minorities in the military . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
10.3.8 Women in the military . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
10.3.9 Homosexuality and the military . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
10.3.10 Military Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
10.4 Military and society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
10.4.1 Political control of the military . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
10.4.2 Military’s use of research and industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
10.5 Citations and notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
10.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
10.7 Recommended reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
10.8 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
11 Organizational theory 85
vi CONTENTS
11.1 Rise of organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

11.2 Competing theories of organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
11.2.1 Weber’s ideal of bureaucracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
11.2.2 Rational system perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
11.2.3 Division of labor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
11.2.4 Modernization theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
11.3 Classical perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
11.3.1 Efficiency and teleological arguments in Weberian bureaucracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
11.3.2 Scientific management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
11.3.3 Bureaucratic theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
11.3.4 Criticism of the Weber’s theory of bureaucracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
11.4 Neoclassical perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
11.4.1 Hawthorne study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
11.4.2 Results of the Hawthorne studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
11.4.3 Criticism of the Hawthorne study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
11.5 Modern organizational theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
11.5.1 Polyphonic organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
11.6 Environmental perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
11.6.1 Contingency theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
11.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
11.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
11.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
12 Political science 94
12.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
12.2 Ancient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
12.3 Modern political science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
12.3.1 Behavioural revolution and new institutionalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
12.3.2 Anticipating of crises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
12.3.3 Political science in the Soviet Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
12.3.4 Recent developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
12.4 Cognate fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
12.5 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
12.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
12.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
12.8 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
12.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
12.9.1 Library Guides to Political Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
13 Positive statement 100

13.1 Positive statements and normative statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
13.2 Use of positive statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
CONTENTS vii
13.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

13.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
14 Sociology 101
14.1 Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
14.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
14.2.1 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
14.2.2 Foundations of the academic discipline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
14.2.3 Positivism and anti-positivism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
14.2.4 Other developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
14.3 Theoretical traditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
14.3.1 Classical theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
14.3.2 20th-century social theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
14.4 Central theoretical problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
14.4.1 Subjectivity and objectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
14.4.2 Structure and agency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
14.4.3 Synchrony and diachrony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
14.5 Research methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
14.5.1 Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
14.5.2 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
14.5.3 Computational sociology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
14.6 Scope and topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
14.6.1 Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
14.6.2 Criminality, deviance, law and punishment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
14.6.3 Communications and information technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
14.6.4 Economic sociology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
14.6.5 Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
14.6.6 Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
14.6.7 Family, gender, and sexuality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
14.6.8 Health, illness, and the body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
14.6.9 Knowledge and science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
14.6.10 Leisure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
14.6.11 Peace, war, and conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
14.6.12 Political sociology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
14.6.13 Population and demography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
14.6.14 Public sociology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
14.6.15 Race and ethnic relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
14.6.16 Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
14.6.17 Social change and development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
14.6.18 Social networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
14.6.19 Social psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
14.6.20 Stratification, poverty and inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
viii CONTENTS
14.6.21 Urban and rural sociology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

14.6.22 Violence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
14.7 Other academic disciplines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
14.8 Journals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
14.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
14.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
14.11Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
14.12External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
15 Epistemology 128
15.1 Epistemon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
15.2 Epistemology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
15.3 Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
15.3.1 Belief . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
15.3.2 Truth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
15.3.3 Justification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
15.3.4 Gettier problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
15.3.5 Externalism and internalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
15.3.6 Value problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
15.4 Acquiring knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
15.4.1 A priori and a posteriori knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
15.4.2 Analytic–synthetic distinction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
15.4.3 Branches or schools of thought . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
15.4.4 Regress problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
15.5 Indian pramana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
15.6 Skepticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
15.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
15.7.1 On Wikipedia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
15.7.2 On Wikibooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
15.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
15.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
15.10Works cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
15.11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
16 List of philosophies 140

16.1 A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
16.2 B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
16.3 C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
16.4 D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
16.5 E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
16.6 F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
16.7 G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
CONTENTS ix
16.8 H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
16.9 I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
16.10J . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
16.11K . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
16.12L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
16.13M . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
16.14N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
16.15O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
16.16P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
16.17Q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
16.18R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
16.19S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
16.20T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
16.21U . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
16.22V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
16.23W . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
16.24Z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
17 Logic 144
17.1 Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
17.1.1 Logical form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
17.1.2 Semantics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
17.1.3 Inference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
17.1.4 Logical systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
17.1.5 Logic and rationality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
17.1.6 Rival conceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
17.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
17.3 Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
17.3.1 Syllogistic logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
17.3.2 Propositional logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
17.3.3 Predicate logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
17.3.4 Modal logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
17.3.5 Informal reasoning and dialectic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
17.3.6 Mathematical logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
17.3.7 Philosophical logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
17.3.8 Computational logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
17.3.9 Non-classical logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
17.4 Controversies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
17.4.1 “Is Logic Empirical?" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
17.4.2 Implication: Strict or material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
17.4.3 Tolerating the impossible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
17.4.4 Rejection of logical truth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
x CONTENTS
17.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

17.7 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
17.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
18 Logical positivism 157

18.1 Influences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
18.2 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
18.3 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
18.4 Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
18.4.1 Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
18.4.2 Logicism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
18.4.3 Empiricism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
18.5 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
18.5.1 Vienna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
18.5.2 Berlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
18.5.3 Rivals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
18.5.4 Export . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
18.6 Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
18.6.1 Analytic/synthetic gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
18.6.2 Observation/theory gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
18.6.3 Cognitive meaningfulness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
18.7 Philosophy of science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
18.7.1 Explanation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
18.7.2 Unity of science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
18.7.3 Theory reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
18.8 Critics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
18.8.1 Quine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
18.8.2 Hanson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
18.8.3 Popper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
18.8.4 Kuhn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
18.8.5 Putnam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
18.9 Retrospect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
18.10Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
18.11See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
18.12References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
18.13Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
18.14External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
19 Frankfurt School 168

19.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
19.1.1 Institute for Social Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
CONTENTS xi
19.1.2 Germany before WWII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

19.1.3 Theorists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
19.2 Theoretical work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
19.2.1 Critical theory and the critique of ideology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
19.2.2 Dialectical method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
19.2.3 Influences and early works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
19.2.4 Critique of Western civilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
19.2.5 Critical theory and domination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
19.3 Criticism of Frankfurt School theorists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
19.3.1 Horkheimer and Adorno’s pessimism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
19.3.2 Habermas’s solutions: critical theory “between past and future” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
19.3.3 Criticism of psychoanalytic categorizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
19.3.4 Economic and media critiques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
19.3.5 Cultural Marxism conspiracy theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
19.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
19.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
19.6 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
19.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
20 Critical theory 181

20.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
20.1.1 Postmodern critical theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
20.1.2 Language and communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
20.1.3 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
20.2 Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
20.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
20.3.1 Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
20.3.2 Subfields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
20.3.3 Journals related to critical theory or critical sociology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
20.4 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
20.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
20.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
20.6.1 Archival collections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
20.6.2 Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
21 Conflict theories 187

21.1 In classical sociology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
21.2 Modern approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
21.3 Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
21.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
21.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
21.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
xii CONTENTS
22 Structure and agency 191

22.1 Structure, socialization and autonomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
22.2 Major theorists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
22.2.1 Georg Simmel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
22.2.2 Norbert Elias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
22.2.3 Talcott Parsons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
22.2.4 Pierre Bourdieu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
22.2.5 Berger and Luckmann . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
22.2.6 James Coleman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
22.2.7 Anthony Giddens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
22.2.8 Klaus Hurrelmann . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
22.2.9 Roberto Unger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
22.3 Recent developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
22.4 A European problem? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
22.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
22.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
22.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
23 Philosophy 196
23.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
23.1.1 Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
23.1.2 Philosophical progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
23.2 Historical overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
23.2.1 Western philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
23.2.2 Middle Eastern philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
23.2.3 Indian philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
23.2.4 Buddhist philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
23.2.5 East Asian philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
23.2.6 African philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
23.2.7 Indigenous American philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
23.3 Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
23.3.1 Metaphysics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
23.3.2 Epistemology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
23.3.3 Value theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
23.3.4 Logic, science and mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
23.3.5 History of philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
23.3.6 Philosophical schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
23.4 Other approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
23.4.1 Applied philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
23.5 Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
23.6 Professional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
23.7 Non-professional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
CONTENTS xiii
23.8 Role of women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

23.9 Popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
23.10See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
23.11References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
23.12Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
23.13External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
24 Inductive reasoning 214

24.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
24.2 Inductive vs. deductive reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
24.3 Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
24.3.1 Biases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
24.4 Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
24.4.1 Generalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
24.4.2 Statistical syllogism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
24.4.3 Simple induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
24.4.4 Argument from analogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
24.4.5 Causal inference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
24.4.6 Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
24.5 Bayesian inference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
24.6 Inductive inference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
24.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
24.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
24.9 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
24.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
25 Deductive reasoning 219

25.1 Simple example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
25.2 Law of detachment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
25.3 Law of syllogism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
25.4 Law of contrapositive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
25.5 Validity and soundness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
25.6 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
25.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
25.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
25.9 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
25.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
26 Research 222
26.1 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
26.2 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
26.3 Forms of research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
xiv CONTENTS
26.4 Scientific research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

26.5 Historical research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
26.6 Artistic research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
26.7 Steps in conducting research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
26.8 Research methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
26.9 Research ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
26.10Problems in research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
26.10.1 Methods of research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
26.10.2 Linguicism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
26.10.3 Publication Peer Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
26.10.4 Influence of the open-access movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
26.10.5 Future perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
26.11Professionalisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
26.11.1 In Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
26.12Publishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
26.13Research funding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
26.14See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
26.15References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
26.16Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
26.17External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
27 Field research 233

27.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
27.2 Conducting field research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
27.3 Field notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
27.4 Kinds of field notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
27.4.1 Jot notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
27.4.2 Field notes proper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
27.4.3 Methodological notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
27.4.4 Journals and diaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
27.5 Interviewing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
27.6 Analyzing data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
27.7 Field research across different disciplines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
27.7.1 Anthropology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
27.7.2 Archaeology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
27.7.3 Biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
27.7.4 Earth and atmospheric sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
27.7.5 Economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
27.7.6 Public health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
27.7.7 Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
27.7.8 Sociology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
27.8 Famous field-workers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
CONTENTS xv
27.8.1 In anthropology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

27.8.2 In sociology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
27.8.3 In management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
27.8.4 In economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
27.8.5 In music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
27.9 Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
27.10See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
27.11References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
28 Inference 240
28.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
28.2 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
28.2.1 Example for definition #1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
28.2.2 Example for definition #2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
28.3 Incorrect inference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
28.4 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
28.4.1 Inference engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
28.4.2 Semantic web . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
28.4.3 Bayesian statistics and probability logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
28.4.4 Fuzzy logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
28.4.5 Non-monotonic logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
28.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
28.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
28.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
28.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
29 Statement (logic) 245

29.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
29.2 As an abstract entity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
29.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
29.4 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
29.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
29.6 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
29.6.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
29.6.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
29.6.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Chapter 1
Theory
For theories in science, see scientific theory. For other ories are described in such a way that any scientist in
uses, see Theory (disambiguation). the field is in a position to understand and either pro-
vide empirical support ("verify") or empirically contra-
dict ("falsify") it. Scientific theories are the most re-
A theory is a contemplative and rational type of abstract
or generalizing thinking, or the results of such thinking. liable, rigorous, and comprehensive form of scientific
knowledge,[5] in contrast to more common uses of the
Depending on the context, the results might, for example,
include generalized explanations of how nature works. word “theory” that imply that something is unproven or
speculative (which is better characterized by the word
The word has its roots in ancient Greek, but in modern
use it has taken on several different related meanings. 'hypothesis’).[6] Scientific theories are distinguished from
hypotheses, which are individual empirically testable
Theories guide the enterprise of finding facts rather than conjectures, and from scientific laws, which are descrip-
of reaching goals, and are neutral concerning alternatives tive accounts of how nature behaves under certain condi-
among values.[1]:131 A theory can be a body of knowl- tions.
edge, which may or may not be associated with particular
explanatory models. To theorize is to develop this body
of knowledge.[2]:46
1.1 Ancient uses
As already in Aristotle’s definitions, theory is very often
contrasted to "practice" (from Greek praxis, πρᾶξις) a
Greek term for doing, which is opposed to theory because The English word theory was derived from a technical
pure theory involves no doing apart from itself. A classi- term in philosophy in Ancient Greek. As an everyday
cal example of the distinction between “theoretical” and word, theoria, θεωρία, meant “a looking at, viewing, be-
“practical” uses the discipline of medicine: medical the- holding”, but in more technical contexts it came to refer
ory involves trying to understand the causes and nature of to contemplative or speculative understandings of natural
health and sickness, while the practical side of medicine things, such as those of natural philosophers, as opposed
is trying to make people healthy. These two things are to more practical ways of knowing things, like that of
related but can be independent, because it is possible to skilled orators or artisans.[7] The word has been in use
research health and sickness without curing specific pain English since at least the late 16th century.[8] Modern
tients, and it is possible to cure a patient without knowing uses of the word “theory” are derived from the original
how the cure worked.[3] definition, but have taken on new shades of meaning, still
based on the idea that a theory is a thoughtful and rational
It is possible to distinguish between three types of the- explanation of the general nature of things.
ories. Explanatory theory, also known as descriptive or
empirical, helps to explain why and under what condi- Although it has more mundane meanings in Greek, the
tions, certain situations take place. The second type is in- word θεωρία apparently developed special uses early in
terpretive theory or constitutive theory and this imposes the recorded history of the Greek language. In the book
meaning on events and issues with the objective to un- From Religion to Philosophy, Francis Cornford suggests
derstand, instead of explaining, the world. The last one is that the Orphics used the word “theory”
[9]
to mean 'passion-
called normative theory, also referred to as prescriptive, ate sympathetic contemplation'. Pythagoras changed
which prescribes values and standards of conduct: that the word to mean a passionate sympathetic contempla-
means dealing with how the world should be instead of tion of mathematical knowledge, because he considered
what it is.[4] this intellectual pursuit the way to reach the highest plane
of existence. Pythagoras emphasized subduing emotions
In modern science, the term “theory” refers to scientific and bodily desires to help the intellect function at the
theories, a well-confirmed type of explanation of nature, higher plane of theory. Thus it was Pythagoras who gave
made in a way consistent with scientific method, and ful- the word “theory” the specific meaning that led to the
filling the criteria required by modern science. Such the- classical and modern concept of a distinction between
1
2 CHAPTER 1. THEORY
theory as uninvolved, neutral thinking, and practice.[10] plication of certain procedures called rules of inference.
In Aristotle’s terminology, as has already been mentioned A special case of this, an axiomatic theory, consists of
above, theory is contrasted with praxis or practice, which axioms (or axiom schemata) and rules of inference. A
remains the case today. For Aristotle, both practice and theorem is a statement that can be derived from those ax-
theory involve thinking, but the aims are different. The- ioms by application of these rules of inference. Theories
oretical contemplation considers things humans do not used in applications are abstractions of observed phenom-
move or change, such as nature, so it has no human aim ena and the resulting theorems provide solutions to real-
apart from itself and the knowledge it helps create. On world problems. Obvious examples include arithmetic
(abstracting concepts of number), geometry (concepts of
the other hand, praxis involves thinking, but always with
an aim to desired actions, whereby humans cause change space), and probability (concepts of randomness and like-
lihood).
or movement themselves for their own ends. Any human
movement that involves no conscious choice and thinking Gödel’s incompleteness theorem shows that no consistent,
could not be an example of praxis or doing.[11] recursively enumerable theory (that is, one whose the-
orems form a recursively enumerable set) in which the
concept of natural numbers can be expressed, can in-
clude all true statements about them. As a result, some
1.2 Theories formally and scientif- domains of knowledge cannot be formalized, accurately
ically and completely, as mathematical theories. (Here, for-
malizing accurately and completely means that all true
propositions—and only true propositions—are derivable
Main article: Theory (mathematical logic)
within the mathematical system.) This limitation, how-
ever, in no way precludes the construction of mathe-
Theories are analytical tools for understanding, matical theories that formalize large bodies of scientific
explaining, and making predictions about a given knowledge.
subject matter. There are theories in many and varied
fields of study, including the arts and sciences. A formal
theory is syntactic in nature and is only meaningful 1.2.1 Underdetermination
when given a semantic component by applying it to
some content (e.g., facts and relationships of the actual Main article: Underdetermination
historical world as it is unfolding). Theories in various
fields of study are expressed in natural language, but A theory is underdetermined (also called indeterminacy
are always constructed in such a way that their general of data to theory) if a rival, inconsistent theory is at least
form is identical to a theory as it is expressed in the as consistent with the evidence. Underdetermination is
formal language of mathematical logic. Theories may be an epistemological issue about the relation of evidence to
expressed mathematically, symbolically, or in common conclusions.
language, but are generally expected to follow principles
of rational thought or logic. A theory that lacks supporting evidence is generally, more
properly, referred to as a hypothesis.
Theory is constructed of a set of sentences that are en-
tirely true statements about the subject under considera-
tion. However, the truth of any one of these statements is 1.2.2 Intertheoretic reduction and elimi-
always relative to the whole theory. Therefore, the same
nation
statement may be true with respect to one theory, and not
true with respect to another. This is, in ordinary language,
Main article: Intertheoretic reduction
where statements such as “He is a terrible person” can-
not be judged as true or false without reference to some
interpretation of who “He” is and for that matter what a If a new theory better explains and predicts a phe-
“terrible person” is under the theory.[12] nomenon than an old theory (i.e., it has more explanatory
power), we are justified in believing that the newer the-
Sometimes two theories have exactly the same ory describes reality more correctly. This is called an in-
explanatory power because they make the same tertheoretic reduction because the terms of the old the-
predictions. A pair of such theories is called indistin- ory can be reduced to the terms of the new one. For in-
guishable or observationally equivalent, and the choice stance, our historical understanding about sound, “light”
between them reduces to convenience or philosophical and heat have been reduced to wave compressions and
preference. rarefactions, electromagnetic waves, and molecular kinetic
The form of theories is studied formally in mathematical energy, respectively. These terms, which are identified
logic, especially in model theory. When theories are stud- with each other, are called intertheoretic identities. When
ied in mathematics, they are usually expressed in some an old and new theory are parallel in this way, we can
formal language and their statements are closed under ap- conclude that the new one describes the same reality, only
1.4. SCIENTIFIC THEORIES 3
more completely. field’s approach to a subject matter. These assumptions

When a new theory uses new terms that do not reduce to are the elementary theorems of the particular theory, and
terms of an older theory, but rather replace them because can be thought of as the axioms of that field. Some com-
monly known examples include set theory and number
they misrepresent reality, it is called an intertheoretic elim-
ination. For instance, the obsolete scientific theory that theory; however literary theory, critical theory, and music
put forward an understanding of heat transfer in terms of theory are also of the same form.
the movement of caloric fluid was eliminated when a the-
ory of heat as energy replaced it. Also, the theory that
phlogiston is a substance released from burning and rust-
ing material was eliminated with the new understanding 1.3.1 Metatheory
of the reactivity of oxygen.
Main article: Metatheory
1.2.3 Theories vs. theorems One form of philosophical theory is a metatheory or meta-
theory. A metatheory is a theory whose subject matter is
Theories are distinct from theorems. Theorems are some other theory or set of theories. In other words, it is
derived deductively from objections according to a a theory about theories. Statements made in the metathe-
formal system of rules, sometimes as an end in itself and ory about the theory are called metatheorems.
sometimes as a first step in testing or applying a theory in
a concrete situation; theorems are said to be true in the
sense that the conclusions of a theorem are logical con-
sequences of the objections. Theories are abstract and
1.3.2 Political theories
conceptual, and to this end they are always considered
true. They are supported or challenged by observations
in the world. They are 'rigorously tentative', meaning that Main article: Political theory
they are proposed as true and expected to satisfy careful
examination to account for the possibility of faulty infer- A political theory is an ethical theory about the law and
ence or incorrect observation. Sometimes theories are in- government. Often the term “political theory” refers to a
correct, meaning that an explicit set of observations con- general view, or specific ethic, political belief or attitude,
tradicts some fundamental objection or application of the about politics.
theory, but more often theories are corrected to conform
to new observations, by restricting the class of phenom-
ena the theory applies to or changing the assertions made.
An example of the former is the restriction of Classical
mechanics to phenomena involving macroscopic length 1.4 Scientific theories
scales and particle speeds much lower than the speed of
light. Main article: Scientific theory
“Sometimes a hypothesis never reaches the point of be-
ing considered a theory because the answer is not found In science, the term “theory” refers to “a well-
to derive its assertions analytically or not applied empiri- substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural
cally.” world, based on a body of facts that have been repeatedly
confirmed through observation and experiment.”[14][15]
Theories must also meet further requirements, such as the
1.3 Philosophical theories ability to make falsifiable predictions with consistent ac-
curacy across a broad area of scientific inquiry, and pro-
duction of strong evidence in favor of the theory from
Main article: Philosophical theory multiple independent sources.
The strength of a scientific theory is related to the diver-
A theory can be either descriptive as in science, or pre- sity of phenomena it can explain, which is measured by
scriptive (normative) as in philosophy.[13] The latter are its ability to make falsifiable predictions with respect to
those whose subject matter consists not of empirical data, those phenomena. Theories are improved (or replaced
but rather of ideas. At least some of the elementary the- by better theories) as more evidence is gathered, so that
orems of a philosophical theory are statements whose accuracy in prediction improves over time; this increased
truth cannot necessarily be scientifically tested through accuracy corresponds to an increase in scientific knowl-
empirical observation. edge. Scientists use theories as a foundation to gain fur-
Fields of study are sometimes named “theory” because ther scientific knowledge, as well as to accomplish goals
their basis is some initial set of objections describing the such as inventing technology or curing disease.
4 CHAPTER 1. THEORY
1.4.1 Definitions from scientific organiza- scientific models. A model is a logical framework in-
tions tended to represent reality (a “model of reality”), similar
to the way that a map is a graphical model that repre-
The United States National Academy of Sciences defines sents the territory of a city or country. In this approach,
scientific theories as follows: theories are a specific category of models that fulfill the
necessary criteria. (See Theories as models for further
The formal scientific definition of “theory” discussion.)
is quite different from the everyday meaning of
the word. It refers to a comprehensive explana-
tion of some aspect of nature that is supported 1.4.3 In physics
by a vast body of evidence. Many scientific
theories are so well established that no new ev- In physics the term theory is generally used for a math-
idence is likely to alter them substantially. For ematical framework—derived from a small set of basic
example, no new evidence will demonstrate postulates (usually symmetries, like equality of locations
that the Earth does not orbit around the sun in space or in time, or identity of electrons, etc.)—which
(heliocentric theory), or that living things are is capable of producing experimental predictions for a
not made of cells (cell theory), that matter is given category of physical systems. One good example
not composed of atoms, or that the surface of is classical electromagnetism, which encompasses results
the Earth is not divided into solid plates that derived from gauge symmetry (sometimes called gauge
have moved over geological timescales (the invariance) in a form of a few equations called Maxwell’s
theory of plate tectonics)...One of the most equations. The specific mathematical aspects of clas-
useful properties of scientific theories is that sical electromagnetic theory are termed “laws of elec-
they can be used to make predictions about tromagnetism”, reflecting the level of consistent and re-
natural events or phenomena that have not yet producible evidence that supports them. Within electro-
been observed. [16] magnetic theory generally, there are numerous hypothe-
ses about how electromagnetism applies to specific situ-
From the American Association for the Advancement of ations. Many of these hypotheses are already considered
Science: adequately tested, with new ones always in the making
and perhaps untested.
A scientific theory is a well-substantiated
explanation of some aspect of the natural
1.4.4 The term theoretical
world, based on a body of facts that have been
repeatedly confirmed through observation and
Acceptance of a theory does not require that all of its ma-
experiment. Such fact-supported theories are
jor predictions be tested, if it is already supported by suf-
not “guesses” but reliable accounts of the real
ficiently strong evidence. For example, certain tests may
world. The theory of biological evolution is
be unfeasible or technically difficult. As a result, theories
more than “just a theory.” It is as factual an
may make predictions that have not yet been confirmed or
explanation of the universe as the atomic the-
proven incorrect; in this case, the predicted results may be
ory of matter or the germ theory of disease.
described informally with the term “theoretical.” These
Our understanding of gravity is still a work in
predictions can be tested at a later time, and if they are
progress. But the phenomenon of gravity, like
incorrect, this may lead to revision or rejection of the the-
evolution, is an accepted fact.[15]
ory. [19]
Note that the term theory would not be appropriate
for describing untested but intricate hypotheses or even
scientific models. 1.5 List of notable theories
Most of the following are scientific theories; some are not,
1.4.2 Philosophical views but rather encompass a body of knowledge or art, such as
Music theory and Visual Arts Theories.
The logical positivists thought of scientific theories as de-
ductive theories—that a theory’s content is based on some
formal system of logic and on basic axioms. In a deduc- • Anthropology: Carneiro’s circumscription theory
tive theory, any sentence which is a logical consequence • Astronomy: Alpher–Bethe–Gamow theory —
of one or more of the axioms is also a sentence of that B2 FH Theory — Copernican theory — Giant im-
theory.[12] This is called the received view of theories. pact hypothesis — Newton’s theory of gravitation
In the semantic view of theories, which has largely re- — Hubble’s Law — Kepler’s laws of planetary mo-
placed the received view,[17][18] theories are viewed as tion — Nebular hypothesis — Ptolemaic theory
1.6. SEE ALSO 5
• Cosmology: Big Bang Theory — Cosmic infla- Ergodic theory — Field theory — Galois theory —
tion — Loop quantum gravity — Superstring the- Game theory — Graph theory — Group theory —
ory — Supergravity — Supersymmetric theory Hodge theory — Homology theory — Homotopy
— Multiverse theory — Holographic principle — theory — Ideal theory — Intersection theory —
Quantum gravity — M-theory Invariant theory — Iwasawa theory — K-theory —
KK-theory — Knot theory — L-theory — Lie the-
• Biology: Cell theory — Evolution — Germ theory ory — Littlewood–Paley theory — Matrix theory
— Measure theory — Model theory — Morse the-
• Chemistry: Molecular theory — Kinetic theory of
ory — Nevanlinna theory — Number theory —
gases — Molecular orbital theory — Valence bond
Obstruction theory — Operator theory — PCF the-
theory — Transition state theory — RRKM the-
ory — Perturbation theory — Potential theory —
ory — Chemical graph theory — Flory–Huggins
Probability theory — Ramsey theory — Rational
solution theory — Marcus theory — Lewis the-
choice theory — Representation theory — Ring the-
ory (successor to Brønsted–Lowry acid–base the-
ory — Set theory — Shape theory — Small can-
ory) — HSAB theory — Debye–Hückel theory
cellation theory — Spectral theory — Stability the-
— Thermodynamic theory of polymer elasticity
ory — Stable theory — Sturm–Liouville theory —
— Reptation theory — Polymer field theory —
Twistor theory
Møller–Plesset perturbation theory — density func-
tional theory — Frontier molecular orbital the- • Music: Music theory
ory — Polyhedral skeletal electron pair theory —
Baeyer strain theory — Quantum theory of atoms • Philosophy: Proof theory — Speculative reason —
in molecules — Collision theory — Ligand field the- Theory of truth — Type theory — Value theory —
ory (successor to Crystal field theory) — Variational Virtue theory
Transition State Theory — Benson group increment
theory — Specific ion interaction theory • Physics: Acoustic theory — Antenna theory —
Atomic theory — BCS theory — Dirac hole the-
• Climatology: Climate change theory (general study ory — Dynamo theory — Landau theory — M-
of climate changes) and anthropogenic climate theory — Perturbation theory — Theory of relativ-
change (ACC)/ global warming (AGW) theories ity (successor to classical mechanics) — Quantum
(due to human activity) field theory — Scattering theory — String theory —
Quantum information theory
• Economics: Macroeconomic theory —
Microeconomic theory — Law of Supply and • Psychology: Theory of mind — Cognitive disso-
demand nance theory — Attachment theory — Object per-
manence — Poverty of stimulus — Attribution the-
• Education: Constructivist theory — Critical peda- ory — Self-fulfilling prophecy — Stockholm syn-
gogy theory — Education theory — Multiple intel- drome
ligence theory — Progressive education theory
• Semiotics: Intertheoricity - Transferogenesis
• Engineering: Circuit theory — Control theory —
Signal theory — Systems theory — Information the- • Sociology: Critical theory — Engaged theory —
ory Social theory — Sociological theory - Social capi-
tal theory
• Film: Film Theory
• Statistics: Extreme value theory
• Geology: Plate tectonics
• Theatre: Performance theory
• Humanities: Critical theory
• Visual Art: Aesthetics — Art Educational theory
• Linguistics: X-bar theory — Government and
— Architecture — Composition — Anatomy —
Binding — Principles and parameters — Universal
Color theory — Perspective — Visual perception —
grammar
Geometry — Manifolds
• Literature: Literary theory
• Other: Obsolete scientific theories
• Mathematics: Approximation theory — Arakelov
theory — Asymptotic theory — Bifurcation the-
ory — Catastrophe theory — Category theory — 1.6 See also
Chaos theory — Choquet theory — Coding theory
— Combinatorial game theory — Computability • Empirical
theory — Computational complexity theory —
Deformation theory — Dimension theory — • Engaged theory
6 CHAPTER 1. THEORY
• Falsifiability 1.8 Notes

• Formal language
[1] McMurray, Foster (July 1955). “Preface to an
• Formal system Autonomous Discipline of Education”. Educational
Theory. 5 (3): 129–140. doi:10.1111/j.1741-
• Hypothesis 5446.1955.tb01131.x. Retrieved 3 March 2017.
• Hypothesis testing
[2] Thomas, Gary (2007). Education and theory : strangers
• Model in paradigms. Maidenhead: Open Univ. Press. ISBN
9780335211791.
• Physical law
[3] See for example Hippocrates Praeceptiones, Part 1.
• Predictive power Archived September 12, 2014, at the Wayback Machine.
• Scientific method [4] Macmillan., Palgrave (2015). Global politics. Palgrave
• Testability Macmillan. ISBN 9781137349262. OCLC 979008143.
• Theoretical definition [5] Schafersman, Steven D. “An Introduction to Science”.
[6] Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, Institute of

(2008). Science, evolution, and creationism. Washing-
1.7 References ton, D.C.: National Academies Press. p. 11. ISBN
0309105862. Retrieved 26 September 2015.
• Davidson Reynolds, Paul (1971). A primer in theory
[7] The word “theory” was used in Greek philosophy, for ex-
construction. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
ample, that of Plato. It is a statement of how and why
• Guillaume, Astrid (2015). « Intertheoricity: Plas- particular facts are related. It is related to words for θεω-
ticity, Elasticity and Hybridity of Theories. Part ρός “spectator”, θέα thea “a view” + ὁρᾶν horan “to see”,
II: Semiotics of Transferogenesis », in Human and literally “looking at a show”. See for example dictionary
Social studies, Vol.4, N°2 (2015), éd.Walter de entries at Perseus website.
Gruyter, Boston, Berlin, pp. 59–77. [8] Harper, Douglas. “theory”. Online Etymology Dictionary.
• Guillaume, Astrid (2015). « The Intertheoricity : Retrieved 2008-07-18.
Plasticity, Elasticity and Hybridity of Theories », [9] Cornford, Francis Macdonald (November 8, 1991). From
in Human and Social studies, Vol.4, N°1 (2015), religion to philosophy: a study in the origins of western
éd.Walter de Gruyter, Boston, Berlin, pp. 13–29. speculation. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-
691-02076-1.
• Ferragina, Emanuele (2016). The Rise and Fall of
Social Capital: Requiem for a Theory? Political [10] Russell, Bertrand, History of Western Philosophy
Studies Review
[11] The LSJ cites two passages of Aristotle as examples,
• Hawking, Stephen (1996). A Brief History of Time both from the Metaphysics and involving the definition
(Updated and expanded ed.). New York: Bantam of natural science: 11.1064a17, “it is clear that natural
Books, p. 15. science (φυσικὴν ἐπιστήμην) must be neither practical
(πρακτικὴν) nor productive (ποιητικὴν), but speculative
• James, Paul (2006). Globalism, Nationalism, Trib- (θεωρητικὴν)" and 6.1025b25, “Thus if every intellec-
alism: Bringing Theory Back In. London: Sage Pub- tual activity [διάνοια] is either practical or productive
lications. or speculative (θεωρητική), physics (φυσικὴ) will be a
speculative [θεωρητική] science.” So Aristotle actually
• Matson, Ronald Allen, “Comparing scientific laws
made a three way distinction between practical, theoreti-
and theories”, Biology, Kennesaw State University. cal and productive or technical—or between doing, con-
• Popper, Karl (1963), Conjectures and Refutations, templating or making. All three types involve thinking,
Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, UK, pp. 33– but are distinguished by what causes the objects of thought
to move or change.
39. Reprinted in Theodore Schick (ed., 2000),
Readings in the Philosophy of Science, Mayfield Pub- [12] Curry, Haskell, Foundations of Mathematical Logic
lishing Company, Mountain View, California, USA,
pp. 9–13. [13] Kneller, George Frederick (1964). Introduction to the phi-
losophy of education. New York: J. Wiley. p. 93.
• Zima, Peter V. (2007). “What is theory? Cultural
theory as discourse and dialogue”. London: Contin- [14] National Academy of Sciences, 1999
uum (translated from: Was ist Theorie? Theoriebe-
[15] AAAS Evolution Resources
griff und Dialogische Theorie in der Kultur- und
Sozialwissenschaften. Tübingen: A. Franke Verlag, [16] National Academy of Sciences (2008), Science, Evolution,
2004). and Creationism.
1.9. EXTERNAL LINKS 7
[17] Suppe, Frederick (1998). “Understanding Scientific The-

ories: An Assessment of Developments, 1969-1998”
(PDF). Philosophy of Science. The University of Chicago
Press. 67: S102–S115. doi:10.1086/392812. Retrieved
14 February 2013.
[18] Halvorson, Hans (2012). “What Scientific Theories Could

Not Be” (PDF). Philosophy of Science. The University of
Chicago Press. 79 (2): 183–206. doi:10.1086/664745.
Retrieved 14 February 2013.
[19] Bradford, Alina (March 25, 2015). “What Is a Law in

Science?". Live Science. Retrieved January 1, 2017.
1.9 External links

• “How science works: Even theories change”, Un-
derstanding Science by the University of California
Museum of Paleontology.
• What is a Theory?
Chapter 2
Hypothesis
For the hypotheses of a theorem, see Theorem. For other meanings of the term “hypothesis”.
uses, see Hypothesis (disambiguation).
“Hypothetical” redirects here. For the 2001 progressive
metal album, see Hypothetical (album).
A hypothesis (plural hypotheses) is a proposed 2.1 Uses
Remember, the way that you prove an

implication is by assuming the hypothesis. -
-Philip Wadler[2]
In its ancient usage, hypothesis referred to a summary of

the plot of a classical drama. The English word hypothesis
comes from the ancient Greek ὑπόθεσις word hupothesis,
meaning “to put under” or “to suppose”.[1]
In Plato's Meno (86e–87b), Socrates dissects virtue with
a method used by mathematicians,[3] that of “investigat-
ing from a hypothesis.”[4] In this sense, 'hypothesis’ refers
to a clever idea or to a convenient mathematical approach
that simplifies cumbersome calculations.[5] Cardinal Bel-
larmine gave a famous example of this usage in the warn-
ing issued to Galileo in the early 17th century: that he
The hypothesis of Andreas Cellarius, showing the planetary mo- must not treat the motion of the Earth as a reality, but
tions in eccentric and epicyclical orbits. merely as a hypothesis.[6]
In common usage in the 21st century, a hypothesis refers
explanation for a phenomenon. For a hypothesis to be a
to a provisional idea whose merit requires evaluation. For
scientific hypothesis, the scientific method requires that proper evaluation, the framer of a hypothesis needs to de-
one can test it. Scientists generally base scientific hy-
fine specifics in operational terms. A hypothesis requires
potheses on previous observations that cannot satisfac- more work by the researcher in order to either confirm
torily be explained with the available scientific theories.
or disprove it. In due course, a confirmed hypothesis
Even though the words “hypothesis” and "theory" are of- may become part of a theory or occasionally may grow
ten used synonymously, a scientific hypothesis is not the to become a theory itself. Normally, scientific hypothe-
same as a scientific theory. A working hypothesis is a ses have the form of a mathematical model.[7] Sometimes,
provisionally accepted hypothesis proposed for further but not always, one can also formulate them as existential
research.[1] statements, stating that some particular instance of the
A different meaning of the term hypothesis is used in phenomenon under examination has some characteristic
formal logic, to denote the antecedent of a proposition; and causal explanations, which have the general form of
thus in the proposition “If P, then Q", P denotes the hy- universal statements, stating that every instance of the
pothesis (or antecedent); Q can be called a consequent. P phenomenon has a particular characteristic.
is the assumption in a (possibly counterfactual) What If In entrepreneurial science, a hypothesis is used to for-
question. mulate provisional ideas within a business setting. The
The adjective hypothetical, meaning “having the nature of formulated hypothesis is then evaluated where either the
a hypothesis”, or “being assumed to exist as an immediate hypothesis is proven to be “true” or “false” through a
consequence of a hypothesis”, can refer to any of these verifiability- or falsifiability-oriented experiment.[8][9][10]
8
2.3. WORKING HYPOTHESIS 9
Any useful hypothesis will enable predictions by • Conservatism – the degree of “fit” with existing rec-
reasoning (including deductive reasoning). It might pre- ognized knowledge-systems.
dict the outcome of an experiment in a laboratory set-
ting or the observation of a phenomenon in nature. The
prediction may also invoke statistics and only talk about 2.3 Working hypothesis
probabilities. Karl Popper, following others, has argued
that a hypothesis must be falsifiable, and that one can-
not regard a proposition or theory as scientific if it does Main article: Working hypothesis
not admit the possibility of being shown false. Other
philosophers of science have rejected the criterion of A working hypothesis is a hypothesis that is provisionally
falsifiability or supplemented it with other criteria, such accepted as a basis for further research[15] in the hope
as verifiability (e.g., verificationism) or coherence (e.g., that a tenable theory will be produced, even if the hy-
confirmation holism). The scientific method involves ex- pothesis ultimately fails.[16] Like all hypotheses, a work-
perimentation, to test the ability of some hypothesis to ing hypothesis is constructed as a statement of expec-
adequately answer the question under investigation. In tations, which can be linked to the exploratory research
contrast, unfettered observation is not as likely to raise purpose in empirical investigation. Working hypotheses
unexplained issues or open questions in science, as would are often used as a conceptual framework in qualitative
the formulation of a crucial experiment to test the hypoth- research.[17][18]
esis. A thought experiment might also be used to test the
The provisional nature of working hypotheses make them
hypothesis as well.
useful as an organizing device in applied research. Here
In framing a hypothesis, the investigator must not cur- they act like a useful guide to address problems that are
rently know the outcome of a test or that it remains still in a formative phase.[19]
reasonably under continuing investigation. Only in
In recent years, philosophers of science have tried to in-
such cases does the experiment, test or study poten-
tegrate the various approaches to evaluating hypotheses,
tially increase the probability of showing the truth of a
[11]:pp17,49–50 and the scientific method in general, to form a more com-
hypothesis. If the researcher already knows
plete system that integrates the individual concerns of
the outcome, it counts as a “consequence” — and the re-
each approach. Notably, Imre Lakatos and Paul Feyer-
searcher should have already considered this while formu-
abend, Karl Popper’s colleague and student, respectively,
lating the hypothesis. If one cannot assess the predictions
have produced novel attempts at such a synthesis.
by observation or by experience, the hypothesis needs to
be tested by others providing observations. For example,
a new technology or theory might make the necessary ex-
periments feasible. 2.4 Hypotheses, concepts and mea-
surement
2.2 Scientific hypothesis Concepts in Hempel’s deductive-nomological model play
a key role in the development and testing of hypotheses.
People refer to a trial solution to a problem as a hypothe- Most formal hypotheses connect concepts by specifying
sis, often called an “educated guess”[12][13] because it pro- the expected relationships between propositions. When
vides a suggested solution based on the evidence. How- a set of hypotheses are grouped together they become
ever, some scientists reject the term “educated guess” as a type of conceptual framework. When a conceptual
incorrect. Experimenters may test and reject several hy- framework is complex and incorporates causality or ex-
potheses before solving the problem. planation it is generally referred to as a theory. Accord-
According to Schick and Vaughn,[14] researchers weigh- ing to noted philosopher of science Carl Gustav Hempel
ing up alternative hypotheses may take into consideration: “An adequate empirical interpretation turns a theoretical
system into a testable theory: The hypothesis whose con-
stituent terms have been interpreted become capable of
• Testability (compare falsifiability as discussed
test by reference to observable phenomena. Frequently
above)
the interpreted hypothesis will be derivative hypotheses
• Parsimony (as in the application of "Occam’s razor", of the theory; but their confirmation or disconfirmation
discouraging the postulation of excessive numbers by empirical data will then immediately strengthen or
of entities) weaken also the primitive hypotheses from which they
were derived.”[20]
• Scope – the apparent application of the hypothesis
to multiple cases of phenomena Hempel provides a useful metaphor that describes the
relationship between a conceptual framework and the
• Fruitfulness – the prospect that a hypothesis may ex- framework as it is observed and perhaps tested (inter-
plain further phenomena in the future preted framework). “The whole system floats, as it were,
10 CHAPTER 2. HYPOTHESIS
above the plane of observation and is anchored to it by cluded in the study. For instance, the sample size may be
rules of interpretation. These might be viewed as strings too small to reject a null hypothesis and, therefore, it is
which are not part of the network but link certain points recommended to specify the sample size from the begin-
of the latter with specific places in the plane of observa- ning. It is advisable to define a small, medium and large
tion. By virtue of those interpretative connections, the effect size for each of a number of important statistical
network can function as a scientific theory.”[21] Hypothe- tests which are used to test the hypotheses.[25]
ses with concepts anchored in the plane of observation
are ready to be tested. In “actual scientific practice the
process of framing a theoretical structure and of inter-
preting it are not always sharply separated, since the in-
2.5 See also
tended interpretation usually guides the construction of
the theoretician.”[22] It is, however, “possible and indeed • Axiom
desirable, for the purposes of logical clarification, to sep-
• Case study
arate the two steps conceptually.”[22]
• Conjecture
2.4.1 Statistical hypothesis testing • Explanandum
Main article: Statistical hypothesis testing • Hypothesis theory – a research area in cognitive psy-
chology
When a possible correlation or similar relation between
phenomena is investigated, such as whether a proposed • Logical positivism
remedy is effective in treating a disease, the hypothesis
• Operationalization
that a relation exists cannot be examined the same way
one might examine a proposed new law of nature. In such • Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica – for
an investigation, if the tested remedy shows no effect in Newton’s position on hypotheses
a few cases, these do not necessarily falsify the hypoth-
esis. Instead, statistical tests are used to determine how • Reductionism
likely it is that the overall effect would be observed if the
hypothesized relation does not exist. If that likelihood is • Research design
sufficiently small (e.g., less than 1%), the existence of a
relation may be assumed. Otherwise, any observed effect • Sociology of scientific knowledge
may be due to pure chance.
• Theorem
In statistical hypothesis testing, two hypotheses are com-
pared. These are called the null hypothesis and the • Thesis statement
alternative hypothesis. The null hypothesis is the hypoth-
esis that states that there is no relation between the phe-
nomena whose relation is under investigation, or at least
not of the form given by the alternative hypothesis. The
2.6 References
alternative hypothesis, as the name suggests, is the alter-
native to the null hypothesis: it states that there is some [1] Hilborn, Ray; Mangel, Marc (1997). The ecological detec-
kind of relation. The alternative hypothesis may take sev- tive: confronting models with data. Princeton University
Press. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-691-03497-3. Retrieved 22
eral forms, depending on the nature of the hypothesized
August 2011.
relation; in particular, it can be two-sided (for example:
there is some effect, in a yet unknown direction) or one- [2] Philip Wadler, 2 November 2015 Keynote: Propositions
sided (the direction of the hypothesized relation, positive as Types. Minute 14:36 /55:28 of Code Mesh video clip
or negative, is fixed in advance).[23]
[3] Wilbur R. Knorr, “Construction as existence proof in an-
Conventional significance levels for testing hypotheses cient geometry”, p. 125, as selected by Jean Christianidis
(acceptable probabilities of wrongly rejecting a true null (ed.), Classics in the history of Greek mathematics, Kluwer.
hypothesis) are .10, .05, and .01. Whether the null hy-
pothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis is ac- [4] Gregory Vlastos, Myles Burnyeat (1994) Socratic studies,
cepted, must be determined in advance, before the ob- Cambridge ISBN 0-521-44735-6, p. 1
servations are collected or inspected. If these criteria are
determined later, when the data to be tested are already [5] “Neutral hypotheses, those of which the subject matter can
known, the test is invalid.[24] never be directly proved or disproved, are very numerous
in all sciences.” — Morris Cohen and Ernest Nagel (1934)
The above procedure is actually dependent on the num- An introduction to logic and scientific method p. 375. New
ber of the participants (units or sample size) that is in- York: Harcourt, Brace, and Company.
2.7. BIBLIOGRAPHY 11
[6] “Bellarmine (Ital. Bellarmino), Roberto Francesco Ro- [18] Patricia M. Shields (1998). “Pragmatism As a Philosophy
molo”, Encyclopædia Britannica, Eleventh Edition.: 'Bel- of Science: A Tool For Public Administration”. In Jay D.
larmine did not proscribe the Copernican system ... all White. Research in Public Administration. 4. pp. 195–
he claimed was that it should be presented as a hypothesis 225 [211]. ISBN 1-55938-888-9.
until it should receive scientific demonstration.' This arti-
cle incorporates text from a publication now in the public [19] Patricia M. Shields and Nandhini Rangarajan. 2013. A
domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Hypothesis". Playbook for Research Methods: Integrating Conceptual
Encyclopædia Britannica. 14 (11th ed.). Cambridge Uni- Frameworks and Project Management]. Stillwater, OK:
versity Press. p. 208. New Forums Press. pp. 109-157
[20] Hempel, C. G. (1952). Fundamentals of concept forma-

[7] Crease, Robert P. (2008) The Great Equations ISBN 978-
tion in empirical science. Chicago, Illinois: The Univer-
0-393-06204-5, p.112 lists the conservation of energy as
sity of Chicago Press, p. 36
an example of accounting a constant of motion. Hy-
pothesized by Sadi Carnot, truth demonstrated by James [21] Hempel, C. G. (1952). Fundamentals of concept forma-
Prescott Joule, proven by Emmy Noether. tion in empirical science. Chicago, Illinois: The Univer-
sity of Chicago Press, p. 36.
[8] Harvard Business Review (2013) “Why Lean Startup
Changes Everything” [22] Hempel, C. G. (1952). Fundamentals of concept forma-
tion in empirical science. Chicago, Illinois: The Univer-
[9] Tristan Kromer 2014 “Success Metric vs. Fail Condition” sity of Chicago Press, p. 33.
[10] Lean Startup Circle “What is Lean Startup?" [23] Altman. DG., Practical Statistics for Medical Research,
CRC Press, 1990, Section 8.5,
[11] Popper 1959
[24] Mellenbergh, G.J.(2008). Chapter 8: Research designs:
Testing of research hypotheses. In H.J. Adèr & G.J. Mel-
[12] “When it is not clear under which law of nature an effect or
lenbergh (Eds.) (with contributions by D.J. Hand), Advis-
class of effect belongs, we try to fill this gap by means of a
ing on Research Methods: A consultant’s companion (pp.
guess. Such guesses have been given the name conjectures
183-209). Huizen, The Netherlands: Johannes van Kessel
or hypotheses.”, Hans Christian Ørsted(1811) “First Intro-
Publishing
duction to General Physics” ¶18. Selected Scientific Works
of Hans Christian Ørsted, ISBN 0-691-04334-5 p.297 [25] Altman. DG., Practical Statistics for Medical Research,
CRC Press, 1990, Section 15.3,
[13] “In general we look for a new law by the following process.
First we guess it. ...”, —Richard Feynman (1965) The
Character of Physical Law p.156
2.7 Bibliography
[14] Schick, Theodore; Vaughn, Lewis (2002). How to think
about weird things: critical thinking for a New Age. • Popper, Karl R. (1959), The Logic of Scientific Dis-
Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. ISBN 0-7674- covery 1934, 1959.
2048-9.
[15] Oxford Dictionary of Sports Science & Medicine. Eprint

via Answers.com. 2.8 External links
[16] See in “hypothesis”, Century Dictionary Supplement, v. 1, • “How science works”, Understanding Science by the
1909, New York: The Century Company. Reprinted, v. University of California Museum of Paleontology.
11, p. 616 (via Internet Archive) of the Century Dictionary
and Cyclopedia, 1911.
hypothesis [...]—Working hypothesis,

a hypothesis suggested or supported in some
measure by features of observed facts, from
which consequences may be deduced which
can be tested by experiment and special ob-
servations, and which it is proposed to subject
to an extended course of such investigation,
with the hope that, even should the hypoth-
esis thus be overthrown, such research may
lead to a tenable theory.
[17] Patricia M. Shields, Hassan Tajalli (2006). “Intermediate

Theory: The Missing Link in Successful Student Scholar-
ship”. Journal of Public Affairs Education. 12 (3): 313–
334.
Chapter 3
Positivism
For other uses, see Positivism (disambiguation). and later reformulated as a quarrel between the sciences
and the humanities,[6] Plato elaborates a critique of po-
etry from the point of view of philosophy in his dialogues
Positivism is a philosophical theory stating that certain
(“positive”) knowledge is based on natural phenomena Phaedrus 245a, Symposium 209a, Republic 398a, Laws
and their properties and relations. Thus, information 817 b-d and Ion.[7] Wilhelm Dilthey (1833–1911) popu-
derived from sensory experience, interpreted through larized the distinction between Geisteswissenschaft (hu-
reason and logic, forms the exclusive source of all cer- manities) and Naturwissenschaften (natural sciences).[8]
tain knowledge.[1] Positivism holds that valid knowledge The consideration that laws in physics may not be abso-
(certitude or truth) is found only in this a posteriori knowl- lute but relative, and, if so, this might be more true of
edge. social sciences,[9] was stated, in different terms, by G. B.
[10]
Verified data (positive facts) received from the senses are Vico in 1725. Vico, in contrast to the positivist move-
known as empirical evidence; thus positivism is based on ment, asserted the superiority of the science of the human
empiricism.[1] mind (the humanities, in other words), on the grounds that
natural sciences tell us nothing about the inward aspects
Positivism also holds that society, like the physical world, of things.[11]
operates according to general laws. Introspective and
intuitive knowledge is rejected, as are metaphysics and
theology. Although the positivist approach has been a 3.2.2 Positivists
recurrent theme in the history of western thought,[2] the
modern sense of the approach was formulated by the Positivism asserts that all authentic knowledge allows ver-
philosopher Auguste Comte in the early 19th century.[3] ification and that all authentic knowledge assumes that
Comte argued that, much as the physical world oper- the only valid knowledge is scientific.[12] Thinkers such
ates according to gravity and other absolute laws, so as Henri de Saint-Simon (1760–1825), Pierre-Simon
does society,[4] and further developed positivism into a Laplace (1749–1827) and Auguste Comte (1798–1857)
Religion of Humanity. believed the scientific method, the circular dependence of
theory and observation, must replace metaphysics in the
history of thought. Émile Durkheim (1858–1917) refor-
3.1 Etymology mulated sociological positivism as a foundation of social
research.[13]
The English noun positivism was re-imported in the 19th Wilhelm Dilthey (1833–1911), in contrast, fought stren-
century from the French word positivisme, derived from uously against the assumption that only explanations de-
positif in its philosophical sense of 'imposed on the rived from science are valid.[8] He reprised the argument,
mind by experience'. The corresponding adjective (lat. already found in Vico, that scientific explanations do not
positīvus 'arbitrarily imposed', from pono 'put in place') reach the inner nature of phenomena[8] and it is human-
has been used in similar sense to discuss law (positive law istic knowledge that gives us insight into thoughts, feel-
compared to natural law) since the time of Chaucer.[5] ings and desires.[8] Dilthey was in part influenced by the
historicism of Leopold von Ranke (1795–1886).[8]
3.2 Overview
3.2.3 Antipositivism
3.2.1 Antecedents
Main article: Antipositivism
Positivism is part of a more general ancient quarrel be-
tween philosophy and poetry, notably laid out by Plato At the turn of the 20th century the first wave of German
12
3.2. OVERVIEW 13
sociologists, including Max Weber and Georg Simmel, absolute laws. A significant exception to this trend is rep-
rejected the doctrine, thus founding the antipositivist tra- resented by cultural anthropology, which tends naturally
dition in sociology. Later antipositivists and critical the- toward qualitative approaches.[9]
orists have associated positivism with "scientism"; sci- In psychology the positivist movement was influential in
ence as ideology.[14] Later in his career (1969),[15] Ger- the development of operationalism. The 1927 philosophy
man theoretical physicist Werner Heisenberg, Nobel lau- of science book The Logic of Modern Physics in partic-
reate for pioneering work in quantum mechanics, dis- ular, which was originally intended for physicists, coined
tanced himself from positivism by saying: the term operational definition, which went on to domi-
nate psychological method for the whole century.[19]
The positivists have a simple solution: the
world must be divided into that which we can In economics, practising researchers tend to emulate the
say clearly and the rest, which we had better methodological assumptions of classical positivism, but
pass over in silence. But can any one con- only in a de facto fashion: the majority of economists
ceive of a more pointless philosophy, seeing do not explicitly concern themselves with matters of
that what we can say clearly amounts to next epistemology.[20] Economic thinker Friedrich Hayek (see
to nothing? If we omitted all that is unclear we “Law, Legislation and Liberty”) rejected positivism in
would probably be left with completely unin- the social sciences as hopelessly limited in comparison
teresting and trivial tautologies.[16] to evolved and divided knowledge. For example, much
(positivist) legislation falls short in contrast to pre-literate
or incompletely defined common or evolved law. In
3.2.4 Logical positivism and postposi- jurisprudence, "legal positivism" essentially refers to the
tivism rejection of natural law, with the latter’s claimed basis in
a “divine” origin, thus its common meaning with philo-
Main articles: Logical positivism and Postpositivism sophical positivism is somewhat attenuated and in recent
generations generally emphasizes the authority of human
political structures as opposed to a pseudo-"scientific”
In the early 20th century, logical positivism—a de- view of law, based in a view of natural law, which sup-
scendant of Comte’s basic thesis but an independent poses “divine"origins.
movement—sprang up in Vienna and grew to become
one of the dominant schools in Anglo-American philos- In the early 1970s, urbanists of the positivist-quantitative
ophy and the analytic tradition. Logical positivists (or school like David Harvey started to question the positivist
'neopositivists’) rejected metaphysical speculation and at- approach itself, saying that the arsenal of scientific the-
tempted to reduce statements and propositions to pure ories and methods developed so far in their camp were
logic. Strong critiques of this approach by philosophers “incapable of saying anything of depth and [21] profundity”
such as Karl Popper, Willard Van Orman Quine and on the real problems of contemporary cities.
Thomas Kuhn have been highly influential, and led to the
development of postpositivism.
3.2.5 In historiography
3.2.7 In 1900s sociology
In historiography the debate on positivism has been
characterized by the quarrel between positivism and In contemporary social science, strong accounts of pos-
historicism.[9] (Historicism is also sometimes termed itivism have long since fallen out of favour. Practi-
historism in the German tradition.)[17] tioners of positivism today acknowledge in far greater
Arguments against positivist approaches in historiogra- detail observer bias and structural limitations. Mod-
phy include that history differs from sciences like physics ern positivists generally eschew metaphysical concerns
and ethology in subject matter and method.[18] That much in favour of methodological debates concerning clarity,
[22]
of what history studies is nonquantifiable, and therefore replicability, reliability and validity. This positivism is
to quantify is to lose in precision. Experimental meth- generally equated with "quantitative research" and thus
ods and mathematical models do not generally apply to carries no explicit theoretical or philosophical commit-
history, and it is not possible to formulate general (quasi- ments. The institutionalization of this kind of sociology
absolute) laws in history.[18] is often credited to Paul Lazarsfeld,[23] who pioneered
large-scale survey studies and developed statistical tech-
niques for analyzing them. This approach lends itself
3.2.6 In other fields to what Robert K. Merton called middle-range theory:
abstract statements that generalize from segregated hy-
Positivism in the social sciences is usually characterized potheses and empirical regularities rather than starting
by quantitative approaches and the proposition of quasi- with an abstract idea of a social whole.[24]
14 CHAPTER 3. POSITIVISM
3.2.8 In 2000s sociology therefore set out to define the empirical goals of socio-
logical method.
Other new movements, such as critical realism, have
emerged to reconcile the overarching aims of social sci- “The most important thing to determine
ence with various so-called 'postmodern' critiques.[25][26] was the natural order in which the sciences
There are now at least twelve distinct epistemologies that stand—not how they can be made to stand, but
are referred to as positivism.[27] how they must stand, irrespective of the wishes
of any one. ... This Comte accomplished
by taking as the criterion of the position of
each the degree of what he called “positivity,”
3.3 Sociological positivism which is simply the degree to which the
phenomena can be exactly determined. This,
3.3.1 Comte’s positivism as may be readily seen, is also a measure of
their relative complexity, since the exactness
of a science is in inverse proportion to its
complexity. The degree of exactness or
positivity is, moreover, that to which it can
be subjected to mathematical demonstration,
and therefore mathematics, which is not itself
a concrete science, is the general gauge by
which the position of every science is to be
determined. Generalizing thus, Comte found
that there were five great groups of phenomena
of equal classificatory value but of successively
decreasing positivity. To these he gave the
names astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology,
and sociology.”
— Lester F. Ward, The Outlines of Sociology
(1898), [29]
Comte offered an account of social evolution, propos-

ing that society undergoes three phases in its quest for
the truth according to a general "law of three stages".
The idea bears some similarity to Marx's belief that hu-
man society would progress toward a communist peak
(see dialectical materialism). This is perhaps unsur-
prising as both were profoundly influenced by the early
Utopian socialist, Henri de Saint-Simon, who was at
Auguste Comte one time Comte’s mentor. Comte intended to develop
a secular-scientific ideology in the wake of European
Auguste Comte (1798–1857) first described the epis- secularisation.
temological perspective of positivism in The Course in Comte’s stages were (1) the theological, (2) the
Positive Philosophy, a series of texts published between metaphysical, and (3) the positive.[30] The theologi-
1830 and 1842. These texts were followed by the 1844 cal phase of man was based on whole-hearted belief
work, A General View of Positivism (published in French in all things with reference to God. God, Comte
1848, English in 1865). The first three volumes of the says, had reigned supreme over human existence pre-
Course dealt chiefly with the physical sciences already in Enlightenment. Humanity’s place in society was gov-
existence (mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, erned by its association with the divine presences and
biology), whereas the latter two emphasized the inevitable with the church. The theological phase deals with hu-
coming of social science. Observing the circular depen- mankind’s accepting the doctrines of the church (or place
dence of theory and observation in science, and classify- of worship) rather than relying on its rational powers to
ing the sciences in this way, Comte may be regarded as explore basic questions about existence. It dealt with
the first philosopher of science in the modern sense of the the restrictions put in place by the religious organiza-
term.[28] For him, the physical sciences had necessarily tion at the time and the total acceptance of any “fact”
to arrive first, before humanity could adequately channel adduced for society to believe.[31] Comte describes the
its efforts into the most challenging and complex “Queen metaphysical phase of humanity as the time since the
science” of human society itself. His View of Positivism Enlightenment, a time steeped in logical rationalism, to
3.3. SOCIOLOGICAL POSITIVISM 15
the time right after the French Revolution. This sec- Comte’s fame today owes in part to Emile Littré, who
ond phase states that the universal rights of humanity are founded The Positivist Review in 1867. As an approach
most important. The central idea is that humanity is in- to the philosophy of history, positivism was appropriated
vested with certain rights that must be respected. In this by historians such as Hippolyte Taine. Many of Comte’s
phase, democracies and dictators rose and fell in attempts writings were translated into English by the Whig writer,
to maintain the innate rights of humanity.[32] Harriet Martineau, regarded by some as the first fe-
The final stage of the trilogy of Comte’s universal law is male sociologist. Debates continue to rage as to how
the scientific, or positive, stage. The central idea of this much Comte appropriated from the work of his mentor,
Saint-Simon.[37] He was nevertheless influential: Brazil-
phase is that individual rights are more important than
the rule of any one person. Comte stated that the idea of ian thinkers turned to Comte’s ideas about training a sci-
entific elite in order to flourish in the industrialization pro-
humanity’s ability to govern itself makes this stage inher-
ently different from the rest. There is no higher power cess. Brazil's national motto, Ordem e Progresso (“Or-
der and Progress”) was taken from the positivism motto,
governing the masses and the intrigue of any one per-
son can achieve anything based on that individual’s free “Love as principle, order as the basis, progress as the
goal”, which was also influential in Poland.
will. The third principle is most important in the posi-
tive stage.[33] Comte calls these three phases the univer- In later life, Comte developed a 'religion of humanity' for
sal rule in relation to society and its development. Neither positivist societies in order to fulfil the cohesive function
the second nor the third phase can be reached without the once held by traditional worship. In 1849, he proposed a
completion and understanding of the preceding stage. All calendar reform called the 'positivist calendar'. For close
stages must be completed in progress.[34] associate John Stuart Mill, it was possible to distinguish
Comte believed that the appreciation of the past and the between a “good Comte” (the author of the Course in Pos-
ability to build on it towards the future was key in tran- itive Philosophy) and a “bad Comte” (the author of the
sitioning from the theological and metaphysical phases. secular-religious system).[28] The system was unsuccessful
The idea of progress was central to Comte’s new science, but met with the publication of Darwin's On the Origin of
sociology. Sociology would “lead to the historical con- Species to influence the proliferation of various Secular
sideration of every science” because “the history of one Humanist organizations in the 19th century, especially
science, including pure political history, would make no through the work of secularists such as George Holyoake
sense unless it was attached to the study of the general and Richard Congreve. Although Comte’s English fol-
progress of all of humanity”.[35] As Comte would say: lowers, including George Eliot and Harriet Martineau, for
the most part rejected the full gloomy panoply of his sys-
“from science comes prediction; from prediction comes
action.”[36] It is a philosophy of human intellectual de- tem, they liked the idea of a religion of humanity and his
injunction to “vivre pour autrui” (“live for others”, from
velopment that culminated in science. The irony of this
series of phases is that though Comte attempted to prove which comes the word "altruism").[38]
that human development has to go through these three The early sociology of Herbert Spencer came about
stages, it seems that the positivist stage is far from be- broadly as a reaction to Comte; writing after various de-
coming a realization. This is due to two truths: The pos- velopments in evolutionary biology, Spencer attempted
itivist phase requires having a complete understanding of (in vain) to reformulate the discipline in what we might
the universe and world around us and requires that society now describe as socially Darwinistic terms.
should never know if it is in this positivist phase. Anthony
Giddens argues that since humanity constantly uses sci-
ence to discover and research new things, humanity never
progresses beyond the second metaphysical phase.[34]
3.3.2 Proletarian positivism
Fabien Magnin was the first working class adherent to

Comte’s ideas. Comte appointed him as his successor as
president of the Positive Society in the event of Comte’s
death. Magnin filled this role from 1857 to 1880, when he
resigned.[39] Magnin was in touch with the English posi-
tivists Richard Congreve and Edward Spencer Beesly. He
established the Cercle des prolétaires positivistes in 1863
which was affiliated to the First International. Eugène
Sémérie was a psychiatrist who was also involved in the
Positivist movement, setting up a positivist club in Paris
after the foundation of the French Third Republic in
1870. “Positivism is not only a philosophical doctrine, it
is also a political party which claims to reconcile order –
the necessary basis for all social activity – with Progress,
Positivist temple in Porto Alegre, Brazil which is its goal.” he wrote.[40]
3.3.3 Durkheim’s positivism anomie". Durkheim described sociology as the “science

of institutions, their genesis and their functioning”.[42]
Accounts of Durkheim’s positivism are vulnerable to ex-
aggeration and oversimplification: Comte was the only
major sociological thinker to postulate that the social
realm may be subject to scientific analysis in exactly the
same way as natural science, whereas Durkheim saw a
far greater need for a distinctly sociological scientific
methodology. His lifework was fundamental in the es-
tablishment of practical social research as we know it
today—techniques which continue beyond sociology and
form the methodological basis of other social sciences,
such as political science, as well of market research and
other fields.[43]
3.3.4 Antipositivism and critical theory
Main articles: Antipositivism and Critical theory
At the turn of the 20th century, the first wave of Ger-

man sociologists formally introduced methodological an-
tipositivism, proposing that research should concentrate
Émile Durkheim on human cultural norms, values, symbols, and social pro-
cesses viewed from a subjective perspective. Max We-
The modern academic discipline of sociology began ber argued that sociology may be loosely described as
with the work of Émile Durkheim (1858–1917). While a 'science' as it is able to identify causal relationships—
Durkheim rejected much of the details of Comte’s phi- especially among ideal types, or hypothetical simplifi-
losophy, he retained and refined its method, maintaining cations of complex social phenomena.[44] As a nonpos-
that the social sciences are a logical continuation of the itivist, however, one seeks relationships that are not as
natural ones into the realm of human activity, and insist- “ahistorical, invariant, or generalizable”[45] as those pur-
ing that they may retain the same objectivity, rationalism, sued by natural scientists. Weber regarded sociology
and approach to causality.[23] Durkheim set up the first as the study of social action, using critical analysis and
European department of sociology at the University of verstehen techniques. The sociologists Georg Simmel,
Bordeaux in 1895, publishing his Rules of the Sociologi- Ferdinand Tönnies, George Herbert Mead, and Charles
cal Method (1895).[41] In this text he argued: "[o]ur main Cooley were also influential in the development of so-
goal is to extend scientific rationalism to human conduct... ciological antipositivism, whilst neo-Kantian philosophy,
What has been called our positivism is but a consequence hermeneutics, and phenomenology facilitated the move-
of this rationalism.”[29] ment in general.
Durkheim’s seminal monograph, Suicide (1897), a case Karl Marx’s theory of historical materialism and criti-
study of suicide rates amongst Catholic and Protestant cal analysis drew upon positivism,[46] a tradition which
populations, distinguished sociological analysis from would continue in the development of critical theory.
psychology or philosophy. By carefully examining sui- However, following in the tradition of both Weber and
cide statistics in different police districts, he attempted Marx, the critical theorist Jürgen Habermas has critiqued
to demonstrate that Catholic communities have a lower pure instrumental rationality (in its relation to the cultural
suicide rate than Protestants, something he attributed to “rationalisation” of the modern West) as meaning that sci-
social (as opposed to individual or psychological) causes. entific thinking becomes something akin to ideology it-
He developed the notion of objective sui generis "social self. Positivism may be espoused by "technocrats" who
facts" to delineate a unique empirical object for the sci- believe in the inevitability of social progress through sci-
ence of sociology to study.[23] Through such studies, he ence and technology.[47][48] New movements, such as
posited, sociology would be able to determine whether critical realism, have emerged in order to reconcile post-
a given society is 'healthy' or 'pathological', and seek positivist aims with various so-called 'postmodern' per-
social reform to negate organic breakdown or “social spectives on the social acquisition of knowledge.
3.4. LOGICAL POSITIVISM 17
3.3.5 Contemporary positivism tion of one goal does not necessarily lead to an adherence
to some other particular goal and (3) criticizing a goal
In the original Comtean usage, the term “positivism” maintains its relevance at the expense of possible alterna-
roughly meant the use of scientific methods to uncover the tives.
laws according to which both physical and human events
occur, while “sociology” was the overarching science that
would synthesize all such knowledge for the betterment 3.4 Logical positivism
of society. “Positivism is a way of understanding based
on science"; people don't rely on the faith of God but in-
stead of the science behind humanity. “Antipositivism” Main article: Logical positivism
formally dates back to the start of the twentieth century, Logical positivism (later and more accurately called log-
and is based on the belief that natural and human sciences
are ontologically and epistemologically distinct. Neither
of these terms is used any longer in this sense.[23] There
are no fewer than twelve distinct epistemologies that are
referred to as positivism.[27] Many of these approaches do
not self-identify as “positivist”, some because they them-
selves arose in opposition to older forms of positivism,
and some because the label has over time become a term
of abuse[23] by being mistakenly linked with a theoretical
empiricism. The extent of antipositivist criticism has also
become broad, with many philosophies broadly reject-
ing the scientifically based social epistemology and other
ones only seeking to amend it to reflect 20th century de-
velopments in the philosophy of science. However, pos-
itivism (understood as the use of scientific methods for
studying society) remains the dominant approach to both
the research and the theory construction in contemporary
sociology, especially in the United States.[23]
The majority of articles published in leading American
sociology and political science journals today are posi-
tivist (at least to the extent of being quantitative rather
than qualitative).[49][50] This popularity may be because
research utilizing positivist quantitative methodologies
holds a greater prestige in the social sciences than quali-
tative work; quantitative work is easier to justify, as data
Moritz Schlick, the founding father of logical positivism and the
can be manipulated to answer any question.[51] Such re- Vienna Circle.
search is generally perceived as being more scientific and
more trustworthy, and thus has a greater impact on policy ical empiricism) is a school of philosophy that combines
and public opinion (though such judgments are frequently empiricism, the idea that observational evidence is indis-
contested by scholars doing non-positivist work).[51] pensable for knowledge of the world, with a version of
rationalism, the idea that our knowledge includes a com-
ponent that is not derived from observation.
3.3.6 The role of science in social change
Logical positivism grew from the discussions of a group
The contestation over positivism is reflected in older called the “First Vienna Circle” which gathered at the
(see the Positivism dispute) and current debates over the Café Central before World War I. After the war Hans
proper role science in the public sphere. Public soci- Hahn, a member of that early group, helped bring Moritz
ology—especially as described by Michael Burawoy— Schlick to Vienna. Schlick’s Vienna Circle, along with
argues that sociologists should use empirical evidence Hans Reichenbach's Berlin Circle, propagated the new
to display the problems of society so they might be doctrines more widely in the 1920s and early 1930s.
changed.[52] Conversely, Thibodeaux[53] argued that crit- It was Otto Neurath's advocacy that made the movement
ical theory—public sociology in particular—relies on a self-conscious and more widely known. A 1929 pam-
dialectical, unilineal evolutionary view of social change. phlet written by Neurath, Hahn, and Rudolf Carnap sum-
If a public sociologists assumes a multi-lineal interpreta- marized the doctrines of the Vienna Circle at that time.
tion of social change, public sociology will fail to affect These included: the opposition to all metaphysics, espe-
social change for three reasons: (1) there’s no objective cially ontology and synthetic a priori propositions; the
criteria for the assessment of different goals (2) the rejec- rejection of metaphysics not as wrong but as meaning-
less (i.e., not empirically verifiable); a criterion of mean- 3.5 Further thinkers
ing based on Ludwig Wittgenstein's early work (which
he later refuted); the idea that all knowledge should Within years of the publication of Comte's book A Gen-
be codifiable in a single standard language of science; eral View of Positivism (1848), other scientific and philo-
and above all the project of “rational reconstruction,” in sophical thinkers began creating their own definitions for
which ordinary-language concepts were gradually to be positivism. They included Émile Zola, Emile Hennequin,
replaced by more precise equivalents in that standard lan- Wilhelm Scherer, and Dimitri Pisarev. Émile Zola was
guage. However, the project is widely considered to have an influential French novelist, the most important exam-
failed:[54][55] ple of the literary school of naturalism, and a major figure
in the political liberalization of France.
Emile Hennequin was a Parisian publisher and writer who
wrote theoretical and critical pieces. He “exemplified the
The secondary and historical literature on tension between the positivist drive to systematize liter-
logical positivism affords substantial grounds ary criticism and the unfettered imagination inherent in
for concluding that logical positivism failed literature.” He was one of the few thinkers who disagreed
to solve many of the central problems it with the notion that subjectivity invalidates observation,
generated for itself. Prominent among the judgment and prediction. Unlike many positivist thinkers
unsolved problems was the failure to find an before him, he believed that subjectivity does play a role
acceptable statement of the verifiability (later in science and society. His contribution to positivism per-
confirmability) criterion of meaningfulness. tains not to science and its objectivity, but rather to the
Until a competing tradition emerged (about subjectivity of art and the way artists, their work, and au-
the late 1950s), the problems of logical pos- diences interrelate. Hennequin tried to analyse positivism
itivism continued to be attacked from within strictly on the predictions, and the mechanical processes,
that tradition. But as the new tradition in the but was perplexed due to the contradictions of the reac-
philosophy of science began to demonstrate tions of patrons to artwork that showed no scientific in-
its effectiveness—by dissolving and rephrasing clinations.
old problems as well as by generating new
Wilhelm Scherer was a German philologist, a university
ones—philosophers began to shift allegiances
professor, and a popular literary historian. He was known
to the new tradition, even though that tradition
as a positivist because he based much of his work on “hy-
has yet to receive a canonical formulation.[56]
potheses on detailed historical research, and rooted every
— L. D. Smith, Behaviorism and Logical
literary phenomenon in 'objective' historical or philolog-
Positivism: A Reassessment of the Alliance
ical facts”. His positivism is different due to his involve-
ment with his nationalist goals. His major contribution to
the movement was his speculation that culture cycled in
a six-hundred-year period.
In the early 1930s, the Vienna Circle dispersed, mainly Dimitri Pisarev was a Russian critic who showed the
because of fascist persecution and the untimely deaths of greatest contradictions with his belief in positivism. His
Hahn and Schlick. The most prominent proponents of ideas focused around an imagination and style though he
logical positivism emigrated to the United Kingdom and did not believe in romantic ideas because they reminded
to the United States, where they considerably influenced him of the oppressive tsarist government under which he
American philosophy. Until the 1950s, logical positivism lived. His basic beliefs were “an extreme anti-aesthetic
was the leading school in the philosophy of science. scientistic position.” He focused his efforts on defining
the relation between literature and the environment.
After moving to the United States, Carnap proposed a re-
placement for the earlier doctrines in his Logical Syntax Stephen Hawking is a recent high-profile advocate of pos-
of Language. This change of direction, and the some- itivism, at least in the physical sciences. In The Universe
what differing beliefs of Reichenbach and others, led to in a Nutshell (p. 31) he writes:
a consensus that the English name for the shared doctri-
nal platform, in its American exile from the late 1930s, Any sound scientific theory, whether of
should be “logical empiricism.” time or of any other concept, should in my
Most philosophers consider logical positivism to be, as opinion be based on the most workable phi-
John Passmore expressed it, “dead, or as dead as a philo- losophy of science: the positivist approach put
sophical movement ever becomes”.[57] By the late 1970s, forward by Karl Popper and others. According
its ideas were so generally recognized to be seriously de- to this way of thinking, a scientific theory is
fective that one of its own main proponents, A. J. Ayer, a mathematical model that describes and cod-
could say in an interview: “I suppose the most important ifies the observations we make. A good theory
[defect] ... was that nearly all of it was false.”[57] will describe a large range of phenomena on
3.6. IN SCIENCE TODAY 19
The key features of positivism as of the 1950s, as defined

in the “received view”,[61] are:
1. A focus on science as a product, a linguistic or nu-

merical set of statements;
2. A concern with axiomatization, that is, with demon-
strating the logical structure and coherence of these
statements;
3. An insistence on at least some of these statements
being testable; that is, amenable to being verified,
confirmed, or shown to be false by the empirical
observation of reality. Statements that would, by
their nature, be regarded as untestable included the
teleological; thus positivism rejects much of classi-
cal metaphysics.
4. The belief that science is markedly cumulative;
5. The belief that science is predominantly
transcultural;
6. The belief that science rests on specific results that
are dissociated from the personality and social posi-
tion of the investigator;
7. The belief that science contains theories or research
traditions that are largely commensurable;
Stephen Hawking
8. The belief that science sometimes incorporates new
ideas that are discontinuous from old ones;
the basis of a few simple postulates and will
make definite predictions that can be tested. 9. The belief that science involves the idea of the unity
... If one takes the positivist position, as I do, of science, that there is, underlying the various sci-
one cannot say what time actually is. All one entific disciplines, basically one science about one
can do is describe what has been found to be real world.
a very good mathematical model for time and 10. The belief that science is nature and nature is sci-
say what predictions it makes. ence; and out of this duality, all theories and pos-
tulates are created, interpreted, evolve, and are ap-
However, the claim that Popper was a positivist is a com- plied.
mon misunderstanding that Popper himself termed the
"Popper legend.”[58] In fact, he developed his beliefs Positivism is elsewhere defined as the belief that all
in stark opposition to and as a criticism of positivism true knowledge is scientific,[62] and that all things are
and held that scientific theories talk about how the world ultimately measurable. Positivism is closely related to
really is, not, as positivists claim, about phenomena or reductionism, in that both involve the belief that “enti-
observations experienced by scientists.[59] In the same ties of one kind... are reducible to entities of another,”[62]
vein, continental philosophers like Theodore Adorno and such as societies to configurations of individuals, or men-
Jürgen Habermas regarded Popper as a positivist because tal events to neural phenomena. It also involves the
of his alleged devotion to a unified science. However, this contention that “processes are reducible to physiological,
was also part of the “Popper legend"; Popper had in fact physical or chemical events,”[62] and even that “social pro-
been the foremost critic of this doctrine of the Vienna cesses are reducible to relationships between and actions
Circle, critiquing it, for instance, in his Conjectures and of individuals,”[62] or that “biological organisms are re-
Refutations.[60] ducible to physical systems.”[62]
While most social scientists today are not explicit about
their epistemological commitments, articles in top Amer-
ican sociology and political science journals generally fol-
3.6 In science today low a positivist logic of argument.[49][50] It can be thus
argued that “natural science and social science [research
See also: Constructive empiricism articles] can therefore be regarded with a good deal of
confidence as members of the same genre”.[49]
3.7 Criticisms lationships and necessary principles, or that we cannot

know them. Nor does it prove that material and corporeal
things constitute the whole order of existing beings, and
See also: Positivism dispute that our knowledge is limited to them. According to pos-
itivism, our abstract concepts or general ideas are mere
Historically, positivism has been criticized for its collective representations of the experimental order—for
reductionism, i.e., for contending that all “processes are example; the idea of “man” is a kind of blended image of
reducible to physiological, physical or chemical events,” all the men observed in our experience. This runs con-
“social processes are reducible to relationships between trary to a Platonic or Christian ideal, where an idea can
and actions of individuals,” and that “biological organ- be abstracted from any concrete determination, and may
isms are reducible to physical systems.”[62] be applied identically to an indefinite number of objects
of the same class From the idea’s perspective, Platonism
Max Horkheimer criticized the classic formulation of is more precise. Defining an idea as a sum of collective
positivism on two grounds. First, he claimed that it images is imprecise and more or less confused, and be-
falsely represented human social action.[63] The first crit- comes more so as the collection represented increases.
icism argued that positivism systematically failed to ap- An idea defined explicitly always remains clear.
preciate the extent to which the so-called social facts it
yielded did not exist 'out there', in the objective world, Experientialism, which arose with second generation cog-
but were themselves a product of socially and histori- nitive science, asserts that knowledge begins and ends
cally mediated human consciousness.[63] Positivism ig- with experience itself.[65][66]
nored the role of the 'observer' in the constitution of so- Echoes of the “positivist” and “antipositivist” debate per-
cial reality and thereby failed to consider the historical sist today, though this conflict is hard to define. Authors
and social conditions affecting the representation of so- writing in different epistemological perspectives do not
cial ideas.[63] Positivism falsely represented the object phrase their disagreements in the same terms and rarely
of study by reifying social reality as existing objectively actually speak directly to each other.[67] To complicate
and independently and labour actually produced those the issues further, few practicing scholars explicitly state
conditions.[63] Secondly, he argued, representation of so- their epistemological commitments, and their epistemo-
cial reality produced by positivism was inherently and ar- logical position thus has to be guessed from other sources
tificially conservative, helping to support the status quo, such as choice of methodology or theory. However, no
rather than challenging it.[63] This character may also ex- perfect correspondence between these categories exists,
plain the popularity of positivism in certain political cir- and many scholars critiqued as “positivists” are actually
cles. Horkheimer argued, in contrast, that critical theory postpositivists.[68] One scholar has described this debate
possessed a reflexive element lacking in the positivistic in terms of the social construction of the “other”, with
traditional theory.[63] each side defining the other by what it is not rather than
Some scholars today hold the beliefs critiqued in what it is, and then proceeding to attribute far greater
Horkheimer’s work, but since the time of his writing cri- homogeneity to their opponents than actually exists.[67]
tiques of positivism, especially from philosophy of sci- Thus, it is better to understand this not as a debate but
ence, have led to the development of postpositivism. This as two different arguments: the “antipositivist” articula-
philosophy greatly relaxes the epistemological commit- tion of a social meta-theory which includes a philosoph-
ments of logical positivism and no longer claims a sepa- ical critique of scientism, and “positivist” development
ration between the knower and the known. Rather than of a scientific research methodology for sociology with
dismissing the scientific project outright, postpositivists accompanying critiques of the reliability and validity of
seek to transform and amend it, though the exact extent work that they see as violating such standards.
of their affinity for science varies vastly. For example,
some postpositivists accept the critique that observation
is always value-laden, but argue that the best values to 3.8 See also
adopt for sociological observation are those of science:
skepticism, rigor, and modesty. Just as some critical the- • Charvaka
orists see their position as a moral commitment to egal-
itarian values, these postpositivists see their methods as • Gödel’s incompleteness theorems
driven by a moral commitment to these scientific values.
Such scholars may see themselves as either positivists or • London Positivist Society
antipositivists.[64] • Nature versus nurture
Positivism has also come under fire on religious and philo-
sophical grounds, whose proponents state that truth be- • Scientific politics
gins in sense experience, but does not end there. Posi- • The New Paul and Virginia
tivism fails to prove that there are not abstract ideas, laws,
and principles, beyond particular observable facts and re- • Vladimir Solovyov
3.9. NOTES 21
3.9 Notes [17] Raymond Boudon and François Bourricaud, A Critical

Dictionary of Sociology, Routledge, 1989: “Historicism”,
[1] John J. Macionis, Linda M. Gerber, Sociology, Seventh p. 198.
Canadian Edition, Pearson Canada
[18] Wallace and Gach (2008) p.28
[2] Cohen, Louis; Maldonado, Antonio (2007). “Research
Methods In Education”. British Journal of Educational [19] Koch, Sigmund (1992) Psychology’s Bridgman vs. Bridg-
Studies. Routledge. 55 (4): 9. doi:10.1111/j.1467- man’s Bridgman: An Essay in Reconstruction., in Theory
8527.2007.00388_4.x.. and Psychology vol. 2 no. 3 (1992) p. 275
[3] “Auguste Comte”. Sociology Guide. [20] Lawrence A. Boland, Economic Positivism positivists.org
2012.
[4] Macionis, John J. (2012). Sociology 14th Edition. Boston:
Pearson. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-205-11671-3. [21] Portugali, Juval and Han Meyer, Egbert Stolk (2012)
Complexity Theories of Cities Have Come of Age p.51
[5] Le petit Robert s. v.; OED s. v. positive
[22] Gartell, David, and Gartell, John. 1996. “Positivism in
[6] Egan, Kieran (1997). The Educated Mind. University sociological practice: 1967-1990”. Canadian Review of
of Chicago Press. pp. 115–116. ISBN 0-226-19036- Sociology, Vol. 33 No. 2.
6. Positivism is marked by the final recognition that sci-
ence provides the only valid form of knowledge and that [23] Wacquant, Loic. 1992. “Positivism.” In Bottomore, Tom
facts are the only possible objects of knowledge; philoso- and William Outhwaite, ed., The Blackwell Dictionary of
phy is thus recognized as essentially no different from sci- Twentieth-Century Social Thought
ence [...] Ethics, politics, social interactions, and all other
forms of human life about which knowledge was possible [24] Boudon, Raymond. 1991. “Review: What Middle-Range
would eventually be drawn into the orbit of science [...] Theories are”. Contemporary Sociology, Vol. 20 Num. 4
The positivists’ program for mapping the inexorable and pp 519-522.
immutable laws of matter and society seemed to allow no
[25] Macionis, John (2011). Sociology. Pearson Education
greater role for the contribution of poets than had Plato.
Canada. p. 688. ISBN 0-13-800270-3.
[...] What Plato represented as the quarrel between phi-
losophy and poetry is resuscitated in the “two cultures” [26] Straker, David. “Positivism”. changingminds.org. Re-
quarrel of more recent times between the humanities and trieved 21 February 2012.
the sciences.
[27] Halfpenny, Peter. Positivism and Sociology: Explaining
[7] Saunders, T. J. Introduction to Ion. London: Penguin
Social Life. London:Allen and Unwin, 1982.
Books, 1987, p.46
[28] Auguste Comte in Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy
[8] Wallace and Gach (2008) p.27
[9] Wallace, Edwin R. and Gach, John (2008) History of Psy- [29] Durkheim, Emile. 1895. The Rules of the Sociological
chiatry and Medical Psychology: With an Epilogue on Psy- Method. Cited in Wacquant (1992).
chiatry and the Mind-Body Relation. p.14
[30] Giddens, Positivism and Sociology, 1
[10] Giambattista Vico, Principi di scienza nuova, Opere, ed.
[31] Mill, Auguste Comte and Positivism 3
Fausto Nicolini (Milan: R. Ricciardi, 1953), p. 365–905.
[11] Morera, Esteve (1990) p.13 Gramsci’s Historicism: A Re- [32] Richard von Mises, Positivism: A Study In Human Under-
alist Interpretation standing, 5 (Paperback, Dover Books, 1968 ISBN 0-486-
21867-8)
[12] Larrain, Jorge (1979). The Concept of Ideology. London:
Hutchinson. p. 197. one of the features of positivism [33] Mill, Auguste Comte and Positivism, 4
is precisely its postulate that scientific knowledge is the
[34] Giddens, Positivism and Sociology, 9
paradigm of valid knowledge, a postulate that indeed is
never proved nor intended to be proved. [35] Mary Pickering, Auguste Comte: An Intellectual Biogra-
[13] Craig J. Calhoun (2002). Classical Sociological Theory. phy, Volume I, 622
Wiley-Blackwell. p. 104. ISBN 978-0-631-21348-2. [36] Mary Pickering, Auguste Comte: An Intellectual Biogra-
[14] Jürgen Habermas, Technik und Wissenschaft als Ideologie, phy, Volume I, 566
Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1968, chap. 1.
[37] Pickering, Mary (1993) Auguste Comte: an intellectual bi-
[15] Heisenberg (1969) The Part and The Whole ography Cambridge University Press, pp. 192
[16] Heisenberg, Werner (1971). “Positivism, Metaphysics [38] “Comte’s secular religion is no vague effusion of human-
and Religion”. In Ruth Nanda Nanshen. Werner Heisen- istic piety, but a complete system of belief and ritual,
berg - Physics and Beyond - Encounters and Conversations. with liturgy and sacraments, priesthood and pontiff, all
World Perspectives. 42. Translator: Arnold J. Pomerans. organized around the public veneration of Humanity, the
New York: Harper and Row. p. 213. LCCN 78095963. Nouveau Grand-Être Suprême (New Supreme Great Be-
OCLC 15379872. ing), later to be supplemented in a positivist trinity by
the Grand Fétish (the Earth) and the Grand Milieu (Des- [54] Bunge, M. A. (1996). Finding Philosophy in Social
tiny)" According to Davies (p. 28-29), Comte’s austere Science. Yale University Press. p. 317. ISBN
and “slightly dispiriting” philosophy of humanity viewed 9780300066067. LCCN lc96004399. To conclude, logi-
as alone in an indifferent universe (which can only be ex- cal positivism was progressive compared with the classical
plained by “positive” science) and with nowhere to turn positivism of Ptolemy, Hume, d'Alembert, Compte, Mill,
but to each other, was even more influential in Victo- and Mach. It was even more so by comparison with its
rian England than the theories of Charles Darwin or Karl contemporary rivals—neo-Thomisism, neo-Kantianism,
Marx. intuitionism, dialectical materialism, phenomenology,
and existentialism. However, neo-positivism failed dis-
[39] Pickering, Mary (2009). Auguste Comte: Volume 3: An mally to give a faithful account of science, whether natural
Intellectual Biography. Cambridge: Cambridge University or social. It failed because it remained anchored to sense-
Press. p. 561. data and to a phenomenalist metaphysics, overrated the
power of induction and underrated that of hypothesis, and
[40] Sémérie, Eugène. “Founding of a Positivist Club”. Marx-
denounced realism and materialism as metaphysical non-
ists Internet Archive. Marxists Internet Archive. Retrieved
sense. Although it has never been practiced consistently in
6 March 2017.
the advanced natural sciences and has been criticized by
[41] Gianfranco Poggi (2000). Durkheim. Oxford: Oxford many philosophers, notably Popper (1959 [1935], 1963),
University Press. logical positivism remains the tacit philosophy of many
scientists. Regrettably, the anti-positivism fashionable in
[42] Durkheim, Émile [1895] “The Rules of Sociological the metatheory of social science is often nothing but an
Method” 8th edition, trans. Sarah A. Solovay and John excuse for sloppiness and wild speculation.
M. Mueller, ed. George E. G. Catlin (1938, 1964 edi-
tion), pp. 45 [55] “Popper, Falsifiability, and the Failure of Positivism”.
7 August 2000. Retrieved 30 June 2012. The upshot
[43] Ashley D, Orenstein DM (2005). Sociological theory: is that the positivists seem caught between insisting on
Classical statements (6th ed.). Boston, MA, US: Pearson the V.C. [Verifiability Criterion]—but for no defensi-
Education. pp. 94–98, 100–104. ble reason—or admitting that the V.C. requires a back-
ground language, etc., which opens the door to relativism,
[44] Ashley D, Orenstein DM (2005). Sociological theory: etc. In light of this dilemma, many folk—especially
Classical statements (6th ed.). Boston, MA, USA: Pear- following Popper’s “last-ditch” effort to “save” empiri-
son Education. pp. 239–240. cism/positivism/realism with the falsifiability criterion—
[45] Ashley D, Orenstein DM (2005). Sociological theory: have agreed that positivism is a dead-end.
Classical statements (6th ed.). Boston, MA, USA: Pear- [56] Smith, L. D. (1986). Behaviorism and Logical Positivism:
son Education. p. 241. A Reassessment of the Alliance. Stanford University Press.
[46] “Main Currents of Marxism” by Leszek Kolakowski page p. 314. ISBN 9780804713016. LCCN 85030366.
331, 327, [57] Hanfling, Oswald (2003). “Logical Positivism”. Routledge
[47] Schunk, Learning Theories: An Educational Perspective, History of Philosophy. Routledge. pp. 193f.
5th, 315 [58] Friedrich Stadler, The Vienna Circle: Studies in the Ori-
[48] Outhwaite, William, 1988 Habermas: Key Contemporary gins, Development, and Influence of Logical Empiricism,
Thinkers, Polity Press (Second Edition 2009), ISBN 978- Springer, 2015, p. 250.
0-7456-4328-1 p.68 [59] Karl Popper, The Logic of Scientific Discovery, 1934, 1959
[49] Holmes, Richard. 1997. “Genre analysis, and the social (1st English ed.)
sciences: An investigation of the structure of research ar- [60] Karl Popper, Conjectures and Refutations, p256
ticle discussion sections in three disciplines”. English For Routledge, London, 1963
Specific Purposes, vol. 16, num. 4:321–337.
[61] Hacking, I. (ed.) 1981. Scientific revolutions. - Oxford
[50] Brett, Paul. 1994. “A genre analysis of the results section Univ. Press, New York.
of sociology articles”. English For Specific Purposes. Vol
13, Num 1:47–59. [62] Alan Bullock and Stephen Trombley, [Eds] The Fontana
Dictionary of Modern Thought, London: Harper-Collins,
[51] Grant, Linda; Ward, Kathryn B.; Xue Lan Rong (1987). 1999, pp. 669–737
“Is There An Association between Gender and Meth-
ods in Sociological Research?". American Sociolog- [63] Fagan, Andrew. “Theodor Adorno (1903-1969)". Inter-
ical Review. 52 (6): 856–862. JSTOR 2095839. net Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 24 February
doi:10.2307/2095839. 2012.
[52] Burawoy, Michael: “For Public Sociology” (American [64] Tittle, Charles. 2004. “The Arrogance of Public Sociol-
Sociological Review, February 2005 ogy”. Social Forces, June 2004, 82(4)
[53] Thibodeaux, Jarrett. 2016. Production as Social Change: [65] Varela, F. J., Thompson, E. T., & Rosch, E. (1991). The
Policy Sociology as a Public Good. Sociological Spec- Embodied Mind: Cognitive Science and Human Experi-
trum. 36 (3): 183–190. ence. The MIT Press.
[66] Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1999). Philosophy in the • Thibodeaux, Jarrett. Production as Social Change:
Flesh: The Embodied Mind and Its Challenge to Western Policy Sociology as a Public Good. Sociological
Thought. Basic books. Spectrum. 36 (3): 183-190. 2016.
[67] Hanson, Barbara. 2008. “Wither Qualita- • Whetsell, Travis and Patricia M. Shields (forthcom-
tive/Quantitative?: Grounds for Methodological ing) “The Dynamics of Positivism in the Study of
Convergence.” Quality and Quantity 42:97–111.
Public Administration: A Brief Intellectual History
[68] Bryman, Alan. 1984. “The Debate about Quantitative and Reappraisal, Administration & Society. (doi:
and Qualitative Research: A Question of Method or Epis- 10.1177/0095399713490157)
temology?.” The British Journal of Sociology 35:75–92.
3.11 External links

3.10 References
• The full text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica
• Amory, Frederic."Euclides da Cunha and Brazilian article "Positivism" at Wikisource
Positivism”, Luso-Brazilian Review. Vol. 36, No. 1
• Parana, Brazil
(Summer, 1999), pp. 87–94.
• Porto Alegre, Brazil
• Giddens, Anthony. Positivism and Sociology. Heine-
mann. London. 1974. • Present positivistic Sociological theory
• Gilson, Gregory D. and Irving W. Levinson, eds. • Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Latin American Positivism: New Historical and
Philosophic Essays (Lexington Books; 2012) 197 • Posnan, Poland
pages; Essays on positivism in the intellectual and
• Positivists Worldwide
political life of Brazil, Colombia, and Mexico,
• Maison d'Auguste Comte, France
• Kremer-Marietti, Angèle. L'Anthropologie posi-
tiviste d'Auguste Comte, Librairie Honoré Cham-
pion, Paris, 1980.
• Kremer-Marietti, Angèle. Le positivisme, Collection

“Que sais-je?", Paris, PUF, 1982.
• LeGouis, Catherine. Positivism and Imagination:

Scientism and Its Limits in Emile Hennequin, Wil-
helm Scherer and Dmitril Pisarev. Bucknell Univer-
sity Press. London: 1997.
• Mill, John Stuart. Auguste Comte and Positivism.
• Mises, Richard von. Positivism: A Study In Human

Understanding. Harvard University Press. Cam-
bridge; Massachusetts: 1951.
• Petit, Annie. Le Système d'Auguste Comte. De la

science à la religion par la philosophie. Vrin, Paris
(2016).
• Pickering, Mary. Auguste Comte: An Intellectual Bi-

ography. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge,
England; 1993.
• Richard Rorty (1982) Consequences of Pragmatism
• Schunk, Dale H. Learning Theories: An Educational

Perspective, 5th. Pearson, Merrill Prentice Hall.
1991, 1996, 2000, 2004, 2008.
• “Positivism.” Marxists Internet Archive. Web. 23

Feb. 2012. < http://www.marxists.org/reference/
subject/philosophy/help/mach1.htm>.
Chapter 4
Social science
This article is about the science studying social groups. such as the Industrial Revolution and the French Revo-
For the integrated field of study intended to promote lution.[1] The social sciences developed from the sciences
civic competence, see Social studies. For the social- (experimental and applied), or the systematic knowledge-
political-economic theory first pioneered by Karl Marx, bases or prescriptive practices, relating to the social im-
see Scientific socialism. provement of a group of interacting entities.[2][3]
The beginnings of the social sciences in the 18th cen-
Social science is a major category of academic dis- tury are reflected in the grand encyclopedia of Diderot,
ciplines, concerned with society and the relationships with articles from Jean-Jacques Rousseau and other pio-
among individuals within a society. It in turn has many neers. The growth of the social sciences is also reflected
branches, each of which is considered a “social science”. in other specialized encyclopedias. The modern period
The social sciences include economics, political science, saw "social science" first used as a distinct conceptual
human geography, demography, psychology, sociology, field.[4] Social science was influenced by positivism,[1] fo-
anthropology, archaeology, jurisprudence, history, and cusing on knowledge based on actual positive sense ex-
linguistics. The term is also sometimes used to refer perience and avoiding the negative; metaphysical specu-
specifically to the field of sociology, the original 'science lation was avoided. Auguste Comte used the term "sci-
of society', established in the 19th century. A more de- ence sociale" to describe the field, taken from the ideas of
tailed list of sub-disciplines within the social sciences can Charles Fourier; Comte also referred to the field as social
be found at Outline of social science. physics.[1][5]
Positivist social scientists use methods resembling those Following this period, there were five paths of devel-
of the natural sciences as tools for understanding soci- opment that sprang forth in the social sciences, influ-
ety, and so define science in its stricter modern sense. enced by Comte on other fields.[1] One route that was
Interpretivist social scientists, by contrast, may use taken was the rise of social research. Large statistical
social critique or symbolic interpretation rather than surveys were undertaken in various parts of the United
constructing empirically falsifiable theories, and thus States and Europe. Another route undertaken was ini-
treat science in its broader sense. In modern aca- tiated by Émile Durkheim, studying “social facts”, and
demic practice, researchers are often eclectic, using Vilfredo Pareto, opening metatheoretical ideas and indi-
multiple methodologies (for instance, by combining the vidual theories. A third means developed, arising from
quantitative and qualitative researchs). The term social the methodological dichotomy present, in which social
research has also acquired a degree of autonomy as prac- phenomena were identified with and understood; this was
titioners from various disciplines share in its aims and championed by figures such as Max Weber. The fourth
methods. route taken, based in economics, was developed and fur-
thered economic knowledge as a hard science. The last
path was the correlation of knowledge and social values;
the antipositivism and verstehen sociology of Max We-
4.1 History ber firmly demanded this distinction. In this route, the-
ory (description) and prescription were non-overlapping
Main article: History of the social sciences formal discussions of a subject.
Around the start of the 20th century, Enlightenment phi-
The history of the social sciences begins in the Age of losophy was challenged in various quarters. After the use
Enlightenment after 1650, which saw a revolution within of classical theories since the end of the scientific revo-
natural philosophy, changing the basic framework by lution, various fields substituted mathematics studies for
which individuals understood what was “scientific”. So- experimental studies and examining equations to build
cial sciences came forth from the moral philosophy of a theoretical structure. The development of social sci-
the time and were influenced by the Age of Revolutions, ence subfields became very quantitative in methodology.
24
4.2. BRANCHES 25
The interdisciplinary and cross-disciplinary nature of 4.2.1 Anthropology

scientific inquiry into human behaviour, social and en-
vironmental factors affecting it, made many of the
natural sciences interested in some aspects of social Main articles: Anthropology and Outline of anthropology
science methodology.[6] Examples of boundary blur-
ring include emerging disciplines like social research of Anthropology is the holistic “science of man”, a science
medicine, sociobiology, neuropsychology, bioeconomics of the totality of human existence. The discipline deals
and the history and sociology of science. Increasingly, with the integration of different aspects of the social sci-
quantitative research and qualitative methods are being ences, humanities, and human biology. In the twenti-
integrated in the study of human action and its implica- eth century, academic disciplines have often been insti-
tions and consequences. In the first half of the 20th cen- tutionally divided into three broad domains. The natu-
tury, statistics became a free-standing discipline of ap- ral sciences seek to derive general laws through repro-
plied mathematics. Statistical methods were used confi- ducible and verifiable experiments. The humanities gen-
dently. erally study local traditions, through their history, litera-
In the contemporary period, Karl Popper and Talcott Par- ture, music, and arts, with an emphasis on understanding
sons influenced the furtherance of the social sciences.[1] particular individuals, events, or eras. The social sciences
Researchers continue to search for a unified consensus on have generally attempted to develop scientific methods
what methodology might have the power and refinement to understand social phenomena in a generalizable way,
to connect a proposed “grand theory” with the various though usually with methods distinct from those of the
midrange theories that, with considerable success, con- natural sciences.
tinue to provide usable frameworks for massive, grow- The anthropological social sciences often develop nu-
ing data banks; for more, see consilience. The social sci- anced descriptions rather than the general laws derived
ences will for the foreseeable future be composed of dif- in physics or chemistry, or they may explain individ-
ferent zones in the research of, and sometime distinct in ual cases through more general principles, as in many
approach toward, the field.[1] fields of psychology. Anthropology (like some fields of
The term “social science” may refer either to the specific history) does not easily fit into one of these categories,
sciences of society established by thinkers such as Comte, and different branches of anthropology draw on one or
Durkheim, Marx, and Weber, or more generally to all dis- more of these domains.[8] Within the United States, an-
ciplines outside of "noble science" and arts. By the late thropology is divided into four sub-fields: archaeology,
19th century, the academic social sciences were consti- physical or biological anthropology, anthropological lin-
tuted of five fields: jurisprudence and amendment of the guistics, and cultural anthropology. It is an area that is
law, education, health, economy and trade, and art.[2] offered at most undergraduate institutions. The word an-
thropos (άνθρωπος) is from the Greek for “human be-
Around the start of the 21st century, the expanding do-
ing” or “person”. Eric Wolf described sociocultural an-
main of economics in the social sciences has been de-
thropology as “the most scientific of the humanities, and
scribed as economic imperialism.[7]
the most humanistic of the sciences.”
The goal of anthropology is to provide a holistic account
of humans and human nature. This means that, though
anthropologists generally specialize in only one sub-field,
they always keep in mind the biological, linguistic, his-
toric and cultural aspects of any problem. Since anthro-
pology arose as a science in Western societies that were
4.2 Branches complex and industrial, a major trend within anthropol-
ogy has been a methodological drive to study peoples
in societies with more simple social organization, some-
For a topical guide to this subject, see Outline of social times called “primitive” in anthropological literature, but
science § Branches of social science. without any connotation of “inferior”.[9] Today, anthro-
pologists use terms such as “less complex” societies or
The social science disciplines are branches of knowledge refer to specific modes of subsistence or production, such
taught and researched at the college or university level. as “pastoralist” or “forager” or “horticulturalist” to refer
Social science disciplines are defined and recognized by to humans living in non-industrial, non-Western cultures,
the academic journals in which research is published, and such people or folk (ethnos) remaining of great interest
the learned social science societies and academic depart- within anthropology.
ments or faculties to which their practitioners belong. The quest for holism leads most anthropologists to study
Social science fields of study usually have several sub- a people in detail, using biogenetic, archaeological, and
disciplines or branches, and the distinguishing lines be- linguistic data alongside direct observation of contempo-
tween these are often both arbitrary and ambiguous. rary customs.[10] In the 1990s and 2000s, calls for clari-
26 CHAPTER 4. SOCIAL SCIENCE
fication of what constitutes a culture, of how an observer economics, set out by Lionel Robbins in 1932, is “the
knows where his or her own culture ends and another science which studies human behavior as a relation be-
begins, and other crucial topics in writing anthropology tween scarce means having alternative uses”. Without
were heard. It is possible to view all human cultures scarcity and alternative uses, there is no economic prob-
as part of one large, evolving global culture. These dy- lem. Briefer yet is “the study of how people seek to satisfy
namic relationships, between what can be observed on the needs and wants” and “the study of the financial aspects
ground, as opposed to what can be observed by compiling of human behavior”.
many local observations remain fundamental in any kind Economics has two broad branches: microeconomics,
of anthropology, whether cultural, biological, linguistic
where the unit of analysis is the individual agent, such
or archaeological.[11] as a household or firm, and macroeconomics, where the
unit of analysis is an economy as a whole. Another di-
vision of the subject distinguishes positive economics,
4.2.2 Communication studies which seeks to predict and explain economic phenomena,
from normative economics, which orders choices and ac-
Main articles: Communication studies and History of tions by some criterion; such orderings necessarily in-
communication studies volve subjective value judgments. Since the early part
of the 20th century, economics has focused largely on
Communication studies deals with processes of human measurable quantities, employing both theoretical mod-
communication, commonly defined as the sharing of els and empirical analysis. Quantitative models, how-
symbols to create meaning. The discipline encompasses ever, can be traced as far back as the physiocratic school.
a range of topics, from face-to-face conversation to mass Economic reasoning has been increasingly applied in re-
media outlets such as television broadcasting. Commu- cent decades to other social situations such as politics,
nication studies also examines how messages are inter- law, psychology, history, religion, marriage and family
preted through the political, cultural, economic, and so- life, and other social interactions. This paradigm cru-
cial dimensions of their contexts. Communication is in- cially assumes (1) that resources are scarce because they
stitutionalized under many different names at different are not sufficient to satisfy all wants, and (2) that “eco-
universities, including “communication”, “communica- nomic value” is willingness to pay as revealed for instance
tion studies”, “speech communication”, “rhetorical stud- by market (arms’ length) transactions. Rival heterodox
ies”, “communication science”, "media studies", “com- schools of thought, such as institutional economics, green
munication arts”, "mass communication", "media ecol- economics, Marxist economics, and economic sociology,
ogy", and “communication and media science”. make other grounding assumptions. For example, Marx-
ist economics assumes that economics primarily deals
Communication studies integrates aspects of both social
with the investigation of exchange value, of which human
sciences and the humanities. As a social science, the
labour is the source.
discipline often overlaps with sociology, psychology, an-
thropology, biology, political science, economics, and The expanding domain of economics in the social sci-
public policy, among others. From a humanities perspec- ences has been described as economic imperialism.[7][13]
tive, communication is concerned with rhetoric and per-
suasion (traditional graduate programs in communication
studies trace their history to the rhetoricians of Ancient 4.2.4 Education
Greece). The field applies to outside disciplines as well,
including engineering, architecture, mathematics, and in- Main articles: Education and Outline of education
formation science. Education encompasses teaching and learning specific
skills, and also something less tangible but more pro-
found: the imparting of knowledge, positive judgement
4.2.3 Economics and well-developed wisdom. Education has as one of
its fundamental aspects the imparting of culture from
Main articles: Economics and Outline of economics generation to generation (see socialization). To educate
means 'to draw out', from the Latin educare, or to facil-
Economics is a social science that seeks to analyze itate the realization of an individual’s potential and tal-
and describe the production, distribution, and consump- ents. It is an application of pedagogy, a body of theoret-
tion of wealth.[12] The word “economics” is from the ical and applied research relating to teaching and learn-
Greek οἶκος [oikos], “family, household, estate”, and ing and draws on many disciplines such as psychology,
νόμος [nomos], “custom, law”, and hence means “house- philosophy, computer science, linguistics, neuroscience,
hold management” or “management of the state”. An sociology and anthropology.[14]
economist is a person using economic concepts and data The education of an individual human begins at birth
in the course of employment, or someone who has earned and continues throughout life. (Some believe that educa-
a degree in the subject. The classic brief definition of tion begins even before birth, as evidenced by some par-
4.2. BRANCHES 27
ferent approaches a third field has emerged, which is

environmental geography. Environmental geography
combines physical and human geography and looks at
the interactions between the environment and humans.[16]
Other branches of geography include social geography,
regional geography, and geomatics.
Geographers attempt to understand the Earth in terms of
physical and spatial relationships. The first geographers
focused on the science of mapmaking and finding ways to
precisely project the surface of the earth. In this sense, ge-
ography bridges some gaps between the natural sciences
and social sciences. Historical geography is often taught
in a college in a unified Department of Geography.
Modern geography is an all-encompassing discipline,
A depiction of world’s oldest university, the University of closely related to GISc, that seeks to understand humanity
Bologna, in Italy and its natural environment. The fields of urban planning,
regional science, and planetology are closely related to ge-
ography. Practitioners of geography use many technolo-
ents’ playing music or reading to the baby in the womb in gies and methods to collect data such as GIS, remote sens-
the hope it will influence the child’s development.) For ing, aerial photography, statistics, and global positioning
some, the struggles and triumphs of daily life provide far systems (GPS).
more instruction than does formal schooling (thus Mark
Twain's admonition to “never let school interfere with
your education”). Family members may have a profound 4.2.6 History
educational effect — often more profound than they re-
alize — though family teaching may function very infor- Main articles: History and Outline of history
mally.
History is the continuous, systematic narrative and re-
4.2.5 Geography search into past human events as interpreted through his-
toriographical paradigms or theories.
Main articles: Geography and Outline of geography History has a base in both the social sciences and the
Geography as a discipline can be split broadly into two humanities. In the United States the National Endow-
ment for the Humanities includes history in its defini-
tion of humanities (as it does for applied linguistics).[17]
However, the National Research Council classifies his-
tory as a social science.[18] The historical method com-
prises the techniques and guidelines by which historians
use primary sources and other evidence to research and
then to write history. The Social Science History Asso-
ciation, formed in 1976, brings together scholars from
numerous disciplines interested in social history.[19]
4.2.7 Law
Map of the Earth
Main articles: Law and Outline of law
main sub fields: human geography and physical geogra- The social science of law, jurisprudence, in common par-
phy. The former focuses largely on the built environ- lance, means a rule that (unlike a rule of ethics) is ca-
ment and how space is created, viewed and managed pable of enforcement through institutions.[20] However,
by humans as well as the influence humans have on the many laws are based on norms accepted by a community
space they occupy. This may involve cultural geography, and thus have an ethical foundation. The study of law
transportation, health, military operations, and cities. crosses the boundaries between the social sciences and
The latter examines the natural environment and how humanities, depending on one’s view of research into its
the climate, vegetation and life, soil, oceans, water and objectives and effects. Law is not always enforceable,
landforms are produced and interact.[15] Physical geog- especially in the international relations context. It has
raphy examines phenomena related to the measurement been defined as a “system of rules”,[21] as an “interpre-
of earth. As a result of the two subfields using dif- tive concept”[22] to achieve justice, as an “authority”[23]
A trial at a criminal court, the Old Bailey in London
to mediate people’s interests, and even as “the command

of a sovereign, backed by the threat of a sanction”.[24]
However one likes to think of law, it is a completely
central social institution. Legal policy incorporates the
practical manifestation of thinking from almost every so-
cial science and the humanities. Laws are politics, be- Ferdinand de Saussure, recognized as the father of modern
cause politicians create them. Law is philosophy, because linguistics
moral and ethical persuasions shape their ideas. Law tells
many of history’s stories, because statutes, case law and
codifications build up over time. And law is economics, interactional linguistics, and sociolinguistics explore lan-
because any rule about contract, tort, property law, labour guage in its social context. Sociolinguistics often makes
law, company law and many more can have long-lasting use of traditional quantitative analysis and statistics in in-
effects on the distribution of wealth. The noun law de- vestigating the frequency of features, while some disci-
rives from the late Old English lagu, meaning something plines, like contact linguistics, focus on qualitative analy-
laid down or fixed[25] and the adjective legal comes from sis. While certain areas of linguistics can thus be under-
the Latin word lex.[26] stood as clearly falling within the social sciences, other
areas, like acoustic phonetics and neurolinguistics, draw
on the natural sciences. Linguistics draws only secondar-
4.2.8 Linguistics ily on the humanities, which played a rather greater role
in linguistic inquiry in the 19th and early 20th centuries.
Main articles: Linguistics and Outline of linguistics Ferdinand Saussure is considered the father of modern
Linguistics investigates the cognitive and social aspects linguistics.
of human language. The field is divided into areas that fo-
cus on aspects of the linguistic signal, such as syntax (the
4.2.9 Political science
study of the rules that govern the structure of sentences),
semantics (the study of meaning), morphology (the study Main articles: Political science, Outline of political sci-
of the structure of words), phonetics (the study of speech ence, and Politics
sounds) and phonology (the study of the abstract sound Political science is an academic and research disci-
system of a particular language); however, work in areas pline that deals with the theory and practice of poli-
like evolutionary linguistics (the study of the origins and tics and the description and analysis of political systems
evolution of language) and psycholinguistics (the study of and political behaviour. Fields and subfields of polit-
psychological factors in human language) cut across these ical science include political economy, political theory
divisions. and philosophy, civics and comparative politics, theory
The overwhelming majority of modern research in lin- of direct democracy, apolitical governance, participatory
guistics takes a predominantly synchronic perspective direct democracy, national systems, cross-national po-
(focusing on language at a particular point in time), and litical analysis, political development, international rela-
a great deal of it—partly owing to the influence of Noam tions, foreign policy, international law, politics, public ad-
Chomsky—aims at formulating theories of the cognitive ministration, administrative behaviour, public law, judi-
processing of language. However, language does not exist cial behaviour, and public policy. Political science also
in a vacuum, or only in the brain, and approaches like con- studies power in international relations and the theory of
tact linguistics, creole studies, discourse analysis, social great powers and superpowers.
4.2. BRANCHES 29
Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt was the founder of experimental

psychology.
political science, and sociology in seeking to capture

explanatory generalizations about the mental function
and overt behaviour of individuals, while the other disci-
plines focus on creating descriptive generalizations about
the functioning of social groups or situation-specific
human behaviour. In practice, however, there is quite
Aristotle asserted that man is a political animal in his Politics.[27] a lot of cross-fertilization that takes place among the
various fields. Psychology differs from biology and
neuroscience in that it is primarily concerned with the
Political science is methodologically diverse, although re- interaction of mental processes and behaviour, and of
cent years have witnessed an upsurge in the use of the the overall processes of a system, and not simply the
scientific method,[28] that is, the proliferation of formal- biological or neural processes themselves, though the
deductive model building and quantitative hypothesis subfield of neuropsychology combines the study of the
testing. Approaches to the discipline include rational actual neural processes with the study of the mental
choice, classical political philosophy, interpretivism, effects they have subjectively produced. Many people
structuralism, and behaviouralism, realism, pluralism, associate psychology with clinical psychology, which fo-
and institutionalism. Political science, as one of the social cuses on assessment and treatment of problems in living
sciences, uses methods and techniques that relate to the and psychopathology. In reality, psychology has myriad
kinds of inquiries sought: primary sources such as histori- specialties including social psychology, developmental
cal documents, interviews, and official records, as well as psychology, cognitive psychology, educational psychol-
secondary sources such as scholarly articles are used in ogy, industrial-organizational psychology, mathematical
building and testing theories. Empirical methods include psychology, neuropsychology, and quantitative analysis
survey research, statistical analysis or econometrics, case of behaviour.
studies, experiments, and model building. Herbert Bax-
Psychology is a very broad science that is rarely tack-
ter Adams is credited with coining the phrase “political
led as a whole, major block. Although some subfields
science” while teaching history at Johns Hopkins Univer-
encompass a natural science base and a social science
sity.
application, others can be clearly distinguished as hav-
ing little to do with the social sciences or having a lot
to do with the social sciences. For example, biological
4.2.10 Psychology psychology is considered a natural science with a social
scientific application (as is clinical medicine), social and
Main articles: Psychology and Outline of psychology occupational psychology are, generally speaking, purely
Psychology is an academic and applied field involving social sciences, whereas neuropsychology is a natural sci-
the study of behaviour and mental processes. Psychology ence that lacks application out of the scientific tradition
also refers to the application of such knowledge to various entirely. In British universities, emphasis on what tenet
spheres of human activity, including problems of individ- of psychology a student has studied and/or concentrated
uals’ daily lives and the treatment of mental illness. The is communicated through the degree conferred: B.Psy.
word psychology comes from the ancient Greek ψυχή, indicates a balance between natural and social sciences,
psyche (“soul”, “mind”) and logy (“study”). B.Sc. indicates a strong (or entire) scientific concentra-
Psychology differs from anthropology, economics, tion, whereas a B.A. underlines a majority of social sci-
ence credits. This is not always necessarily the case how- formally established by another French thinker, Émile
ever, and in many UK institutions students studying the Durkheim (1858–1917), who developed positivism as a
B.Psy, B.Sc, and B.A. follow the same curriculum as out- foundation to practical social research. Durkheim set
lined by The British Psychological Society and have the up the first European department of sociology at the
same options of specialism open to them regardless of University of Bordeaux in 1895, publishing his Rules of
whether they choose a balance, a heavy science basis, or the Sociological Method. In 1896, he established the jour-
heavy social science basis to their degree. If they applied nal L'Année Sociologique. Durkheim’s seminal mono-
to read the B.A. for example, but specialized in heavily graph, Suicide (1897), a case study of suicide rates among
science-based modules, then they will still generally be Catholic and Protestant populations, distinguished socio-
awarded the B.A. logical analysis from psychology or philosophy.[30]
Karl Marx rejected Comte’s positivism but neverthe-
4.2.11 Sociology less aimed to establish a science of society based on
historical materialism, becoming recognized as a found-
Main articles: Sociology and Outline of sociology ing figure of sociology posthumously as the term gained
Sociology is the systematic study of society and human broader meaning. Around the start of the 20th cen-
tury, the first wave of German sociologists, including
Max Weber and Georg Simmel, developed sociological
antipositivism. The field may be broadly recognized as
an amalgam of three modes of social thought in par-
ticular: Durkheimian positivism and structural function-
alism; Marxist historical materialism and conflict the-
ory; and Weberian antipositivism and verstehen analysis.
American sociology broadly arose on a separate trajec-
tory, with little Marxist influence, an emphasis on rigor-
ous experimental methodology, and a closer association
with pragmatism and social psychology. In the 1920s,
the Chicago school developed symbolic interactionism.
Meanwhile, in the 1930s, the Frankfurt School pioneered
the idea of critical theory, an interdisciplinary form of
Marxist sociology drawing upon thinkers as diverse as
Sigmund Freud and Friedrich Nietzsche. Critical theory
would take on something of a life of its own after World
War II, influencing literary criticism and the Birmingham
School establishment of cultural studies.
Sociology evolved as an academic response to the
challenges of modernity, such as industrialization,
urbanization, secularization, and a perceived process of
enveloping rationalization.[31] Because sociology is such
a broad discipline, it can be difficult to define, even for
professional sociologists. The field generally concerns the
social rules and processes that bind and separate people
not only as individuals, but as members of associations,
Émile Durkheim is considered one of the founding fathers of so-
groups, communities and institutions, and includes the
ciology.
examination of the organization and development of hu-
social action. The meaning of the word comes from the man social life. The sociological field of interest ranges
suffix "-ology”, which means “study of”, derived from from the analysis of short contacts between anonymous
Greek, and the stem “soci-", which is from the Latin word individuals on the street to the study of global social pro-
socius, meaning “companion”, or society in general. cesses. In the terms of sociologists Peter L. Berger and
Thomas Luckmann, social scientists seek an understand-
Sociology was originally established by Auguste Comte ing of the Social Construction of Reality. Most sociolo-
(1798–1857) in 1838.[29] Comte endeavoured to unify gists work in one or more subfields. One useful way to
history, psychology and economics through the descrip- describe the discipline is as a cluster of sub-fields that
tive understanding of the social realm. He proposed examine different dimensions of society. For example,
that social ills could be remedied through sociological social stratification studies inequality and class structure;
positivism, an epistemological approach outlined in The demography studies changes in a population size or type;
Course in Positive Philosophy [1830–1842] and A General criminology examines criminal behaviour and deviance;
View of Positivism (1844). Though Comte is generally re- and political sociology studies the interaction between so-
garded as the “Father of Sociology”, the discipline was
4.4. METHODOLOGY 31
ciety and state. • Environmental studies integrate social, humanistic,

Since its inception, sociological epistemologies, meth- and natural science perspectives on the relation be-
ods, and frames of enquiry, have significantly expanded tween humans and the natural environment.
and diverged.[32] Sociologists use a diversity of re-
• Information science is an interdisciplinary science
search methods, drawing upon either empirical tech-
primarily concerned with the collection, classifica-
niques or critical theory. Common modern methods
tion, manipulation, storage, retrieval and dissemina-
include case studies, historical research, interviewing,
tion of information.
participant observation, social network analysis, survey
research, statistical analysis, and model building, among • International studies covers both International re-
other approaches. Since the late 1970s, many sociologists lations (the study of foreign affairs and global is-
have tried to make the discipline useful for non-academic sues among states within the international system)
purposes. The results of sociological research aid edu- and International education (the comprehensive ap-
cators, lawmakers, administrators, developers, and oth- proach that intentionally prepares people to be ac-
ers interested in resolving social problems and formu- tive and engaged participants in an interconnected
lating public policy, through subdisciplinary areas such world).
as evaluation research, methodological assessment, and
public sociology. • Legal management is a social sciences discipline
New sociological sub-fields continue to appear — that is designed for students interested in the study
such as community studies, computational sociol- of state and legal elements.
ogy, environmental sociology, network analysis, actor-
network theory and a growing list, many of which are • Library science is an interdisciplinary field that ap-
cross-disciplinary in nature. plies the practices, perspectives, and tools of man-
agement, information technology, education, and
other areas to libraries; the collection, organization,
preservation and dissemination of information re-
4.3 Additional fields of study sources; and the political economy of information.
Additional applied or interdisciplinary fields related to the • Management in all business and human organization
social sciences include: activity is simply the act of getting people together
to accomplish desired goals and objectives.
• Archaeology is the science that studies human cul- • Marketing the identification of human needs and
tures through the recovery, documentation, analy- wants, defines and measures their magnitude for de-
sis, and interpretation of material remains and en- mand and understanding the process of consumer
vironmental data, including architecture, artifacts, buying behaviour to formulate products and ser-
features, biofacts, and landscapes. vices, pricing, promotion and distribution to satisfy
these needs and wants through exchange processes
• Area studies are interdisciplinary fields of research and building long term relationships.
and scholarship pertaining to particular geographi-
cal, national/federal, or cultural regions. • Political economy is the study of production, buying
and selling, and their relations with law, custom, and
• Behavioural science is a term that encompasses all government.
the disciplines that explore the activities of and in-
teractions among organisms in the natural world. • Public administration is one of the main branches
of political science, and can be broadly described
• Computational social science is an umbrella field as the development, implementation and study of
encompassing computational approaches within the branches of government policy. The pursuit of the
social sciences. public good by enhancing civil society and social
justice is the ultimate goal of the field. Though pub-
• Demography is the statistical study of all human lic administration has been historically referred to
populations. as government management, it increasingly encom-
passes non-governmental organizations (NGOs) that
• Development studies a multidisciplinary branch of also operate with a similar, primary dedication to the
social science that addresses issues of concern to de- betterment of humanity.
veloping countries.
• Environmental social science is the broad,

transdisciplinary study of interrelations between 4.4 Methodology
humans and the natural environment.
4.4.1 Social research These and other types of models can overlap, with a given
model involving a variety of abstract structures. The
Main article: Social research system is a set of interacting or interdependent entities,
real or abstract, forming an integrated whole. The con-
The origin of the survey can be traced back at least early cept of an integrated whole can also be stated in terms of a
as the Domesday Book in 1086,[33][34] while some schol- system embodying a set of relationships that are differen-
ars pinpoint the origin of demography to 1663 with the tiated from relationships of the set to other elements, and
publication of John Graunt's Natural and Political Ob- from relationships between an element of the set and ele-
servations upon the Bills of Mortality.[35] Social research ments not a part of the relational regime. A dynamical
began most intentionally, however, with the positivist system modeled as a mathematical formalization has a
philosophy of science in the 19th century. fixed “rule” that describes the time dependence of a
point’s position in its ambient space. Small changes in
In contemporary usage, “social research” is a relatively the state of the system correspond to small changes in the
autonomous term, encompassing the work of practition- numbers. The evolution rule of the dynamical system is
ers from various disciplines that share in its aims and a fixed rule that describes what future states follow from
methods. Social scientists employ a range of methods in the current state. The rule is deterministic: for a given
order to analyse a vast breadth of social phenomena; from time interval only one future state follows from the cur-
census survey data derived from millions of individuals, rent state.
to the in-depth analysis of a single agent’s social experi-
ences; from monitoring what is happening on contempo- See also: Scholarly method, Teleology, Philosophy of
rary streets, to the investigation of ancient historical doc- science, and Philosophy of social science
uments. The methods originally rooted in classical soci-
ology and statistical mathematics have formed the basis
for research in other disciplines, such as political science, 4.4.2 Theory
media studies, and marketing and market research.
Social research methods may be divided into two broad Main article: Social theory
schools:
Other social scientists emphasize the subjective nature of
• Quantitative designs approach social phenomena research. These writers share social theory perspectives
through quantifiable evidence, and often rely on sta- that include various types of the following:
tistical analysis of many cases (or across intention-
ally designed treatments in an experiment) to create • Critical theory is the examination and critique of so-
valid and reliable general claims. ciety and culture, drawing from knowledge across
social sciences and humanities disciplines.
• Qualitative designs emphasize understanding of so-
cial phenomena through direct observation, commu- • Dialectical materialism is the philosophy of Karl
nication with participants, or analysis of texts, and Marx, which he formulated by taking the dialectic
may stress contextual and subjective accuracy over of Hegel and joining it to the materialism of Feuer-
generality. bach.
• Feminist theory is the extension of feminism into
Social scientists will commonly combine quantitative and
theoretical, or philosophical discourse; it aims to un-
qualitative approaches as part of a multi-strategy de-
derstand the nature of gender inequality.
sign. Questionnaires, field-based data collection, archival
database information and laboratory-based data collec- • Marxist theories, such as revolutionary theory and
tions are some of the measurement techniques used. class theory, cover work in philosophy that is
It is noted the importance of measurement and anal- strongly influenced by Karl Marx’s materialist ap-
ysis, focusing on the (difficult to achieve) goal of ob- proach to theory or is written by Marxists.
jective research or statistical hypothesis testing. A
mathematical model uses mathematical language to de- • Phronetic social science is a theory and methodol-
scribe a system. The process of developing a mathe- ogy for doing social science focusing on ethics and
matical model is termed 'mathematical modelling' (also political power, based on a contemporary interpre-
modeling). Eykhoff (1974) defined a mathematical model tation of Aristotelian phronesis.
as 'a representation of the essential aspects of an exist- • Post-colonial theory is a reaction to the cultural
ing system (or a system to be constructed) that presents legacy of colonialism.
knowledge of that system in usable form'.[36] Mathemat-
ical models can take many forms, including but not lim- • Postmodernism refers to a point of departure for
ited to dynamical systems, statistical models, differential works of literature, drama, architecture, cinema,
equations, or game theoretic models. and design, as well as in marketing and business and
4.7. NOTES AND REFERENCES 33
in the interpretation of history, law, culture and re- 4.6.2 Methods

ligion in the late 20th century.
Historical method · Empiricism · Representation the-
• Rational choice theory is a framework for under- ory · Scientific method · Statistical hypothesis testing ·
standing and often formally modeling social and Regression · Correlation · Terminology · Participatory
economic behaviour. Action Research
• Social constructionism considers how social phe-
nomena develop in social contexts.
4.6.3 Areas
• Structuralism is an approach to the human sciences
that attempts to analyze a specific field (for in- Political sciences · Natural sciences · Behavioural sciences
stance, mythology) as a complex system of interre- · Geographic information science
lated parts.
• Structural functionalism is a sociological paradigm

4.6.4 History
that addresses what social functions various ele-
ments of the social system perform in regard to the
History of science · History of technology
entire system.
Other fringe social scientists delve in alternative nature of 4.6.5 Lists

research. These writers share social theory perspectives
that include various types of the following: Fields of science · Outline of academic disciplines
• Intellectual critical-ism describes a sentiment of cri-

tique towards, or evaluation of, intellectuals and in- 4.6.6 People
tellectual pursuits.
Aristotle · Plato · Confucius · Augustine · Niccolò Machi-
• Scientific criticalism is a position critical of science
avelli · Émile Durkheim · Max Weber · Karl Marx ·
and the scientific method.
Friedrich Engels · Herbert Spencer · Sir John Lubbock
· Alfred Schutz · Adam Smith · David Ricardo · Jean-
Baptiste Say · John Maynard Keynes · Robert Lucas ·
4.5 Education and degrees Milton Friedman · Sigmund Freud · Jean Piaget · Noam
Chomsky · B.F. Skinner · John Stuart Mill · Thomas
Most universities offer degrees in social science fields.[37] Hobbes · Jean-Jacques Rousseau · Montesquieu · John
The Bachelor of Social Science is a degree targeted at Locke · David Hume · Auguste Comte · Steven Pinker
the social sciences in particular. It is often more flexible · John Rawls
and in-depth than other degrees that include social sci-
ence subjects.[38]
In the United States, a university may offer a student who 4.6.7 Other
studies a social sciences field a Bachelor of Arts degree,
particularly if the field is within one of the traditional Behaviour · Ethology and Ethnology · Game theory ·
liberal arts such as history, or a BSc: Bachelor of Sci- Gulbenkian commission · Labelling · "Periodic table of
ence degree such as those given by the London School of human sciences" (Tinbergen’s four questions) · Social ac-
Economics, as the social sciences constitute one of the tion · Philosophy of social sciences
two main branches of science (the other being the natural
sciences). In addition, some institutions have degrees for
a particular social science, such as the Bachelor of Eco- 4.7 Notes and references
nomics degree, though such specialized degrees are rela-
tively rare in the United States.
[1] Kuper, A., and Kuper, J. (1985). The Social Science En-
cyclopaedia.
4.6 See also [2] Social sciences, Columbian Cyclopedia. (1897). Buffalo:
Garretson, Cox & Company. Page 227.
4.6.1 General [3] Peck, H. T., Peabody, S. H., and Richardson, C. F. (1897).
The International Cyclopedia, A Compendium of Human
Outline of social science · Society · Culture · Structure Knowledge. Rev. with large additions. New York: Dodd,
and agency · Humanities (human science) Mead and Company.
[4] William Thompson (1775–1833) (1824). An Inquiry into [25] see Etymonline Dictionary
the Principles of the Distribution of Wealth Most Conducive
to Human Happiness; applied to the Newly Proposed Sys- [26] see Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary
tem of Voluntary Equality of Wealth.
[27] Ebenstein, Alan (2002). Introduction to Political
[5] According to Comte, the social physics field was similar to Thinkers. Boston, Massachusetts: Wadsworth.
that of natural sciences.
[28] http://www.amazon.com/dp/1403934223
[6] Vessuri, H. (2002). “Ethical Challenges for the
Social Sciences on the Threshold of the 21st [29] A Dictionary of Sociology, Article: Comte, Auguste
Century”. Current Sociology. 50: 135–150.
[30] Gianfranco Poggi (2000). Durkheim. Oxford: Oxford
doi:10.1177/0011392102050001010.
University Press. Chapter 1.
[7] Lazear, E. P. (2000). “Economic Imperialism”. The
[31] Habermas, Jürgen, The Philosophical Discourse of Moder-
Quarterly Journal of Economics. 115: 99–146.
nity: Modernity’s Consciousness of Time, Polity Press
doi:10.1162/003355300554683.
(1990), paperback, ISBN 0-7456-0830-2, p. 2.
[8] Wallerstein, I. (2003). “Anthropology, Sociology, and
Other Dubious Disciplines”. Current Anthropology. 44 [32] Giddens, Anthony, Duneier, Mitchell, Applebaum,
(4): 453–465. doi:10.1086/375868. Richard. 2007. Introduction to Sociology. Sixth Edition.
New York: W. W. Norton and Company. Chapter 1.
[9] Lowie, Robert (1924). Primitive Religion. Routledge and
Sons.; Tylor, Edward (1920). Primitive Culture. New [33] A. H. Halsey (2004), A history of sociology in Britain: sci-
York:: J. P. Putnam’s Sons. Originally published 1871. ence, literature, and society, p. 34
[10] Nanda, Serena and Richard Warms. Culture Counts. [34] Geoffrey Duncan Mitchell (1970), A new dictionary of so-
Wadsworth. 2008. Chapter One ciology, p. 201
[11] Rosaldo, Renato. Culture and Truth: The remaking of [35] Willcox, Walter (1938) The Founder of Statistics.
social analysis. Beacon Press. 1993; Inda, John Xavier
and Renato Rosaldo. The Anthropology of Globalization. [36] Eykhoff, Pieter System Identification: Parameter and State
Wiley-Blackwell. 2007 Estimation, Wiley & Sons, (1974). ISBN 0-471-24980-7
[12] economics - Britannica Online Encyclopedia [37] Peterson’s (Firm : 2006- ). (2007). Peterson’s graduate
programs in the humanities, arts, & social sciences, 2007.
[13] Becker, Gary S. (1976). The Economic Approach to Hu- Lawrenceville, New Jersey: Peterson’s.
man Behavior. Links to arrow-page viewable chapter.
University of Chicago Press. [38] A Bachelor of Social Science degree can be earned at the
University of Adelaide, University of Waikato (Hamilton,
[14] An overview of education New Zealand), University of Sydney, University of New
South Wales, University of Hong Kong, University of
[15] “What is geography?". AAG Career Guide: Jobs in Ge-
Manchester, Lincoln University, New Zealand, National
ography and Related Geographical Sciences. Association
University of Malaysia and University of Queensland.
of American Geographers. Archived from the original on
October 6, 2006. Retrieved October 9, 2006.
[16] Hayes-Bohanan, James. “What is Environmental Geog- 4.8 Bibliography

raphy, Anyway?". Retrieved October 9, 2006.
[17] “About NEH”. National Endowment for the Humanities. 4.8.1 20th and 21st centuries sources
[18] Research-Doctorate Programs in the United States: Con-
tinuity and Change • Neil J. Smelser and Paul B. Baltes (2001).
International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behav-
[19] See the SSHA website ioral Sciences, Amsterdam: Elsevier.
[20] Robertson, Geoffrey (2006). Crimes Against Humanity. • Byrne, D. S. (1998). Complexity theory and the so-
Penguin. p. 90. ISBN 978-0-14-102463-9.
cial sciences: an introduction. Routledge. ISBN 0-
[21] Hart, H. L. A. (1961). The Concept of Law. Oxford Uni- 415-16296-3
versity Press. ISBN 0-19-876122-8.
• Kuper, A., and Kuper, J. (1985). The Social Science
[22] Dworkin, Ronald (1986). Law’s Empire. Harvard Univer- Encyclopedia. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
sity Press. ISBN 0-674-51836-5. (ed., a limited preview of the 1996 version is avail-
[23] Raz, Joseph (1979). The Authority of Law. Oxford Uni- able)
• Lave, C. A., and March, J. G. (1993). An introduc-
[24] Austin, John (1831). The Providence of Jurisprudence De- tion to models in the social sciences. Lanham, Md:
termined. University Press of America.
• Perry, John and Erna Perry. Contemporary Soci- • Backhouse, Roger E.; Fontaine, eds., Philippe, eds.
ety: An Introduction to Social Science (12th Edition, (2010). The History of the Social Sciences Since
2008), college textbook 1945. Cambridge University Press.; covers the con-
ceptual, institutional, and wider histories of eco-
• Potter, D. (1988). Society and the social sciences: nomics, political science, sociology, social anthro-
An introduction. London: Routledge [u.a.]. pology, psychology, and human geography.
• David L. Sills and Robert K. Merton (1968). • Delanty, G. (1997). Social science: Beyond con-
International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. structivism and realism. Minneapolis: Univ. of Min-
nesota Press.
• Seligman, Edwin R. A. and Alvin Johnson (1934).
Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. (13 vol.) • Hargittai, E. (2009). Research Confidential: Solu-
tions to Problems Most Social Scientists Pretend They
• Ward, L. F. (1924). Dynamic sociology, or applied Never Have. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan
social science: As based upon statical sociology and Press.
the less complex sciences. New York: D. Appleton.
• Hunt, E. F.; Colander, D. C. (2008). Social science:
• Leavitt, F. M., and Brown, E. (1920). Elementary An introduction to the study of society. Boston: Pea-
social science. New York: Macmillan. son/Allyn and Bacon.
• Bogardus, E. S. (1913). Introduction to the social • Carey, H. C.; McKean, K. (1883). Manual of so-
sciences: A textbook outline. Los Angeles: Ralston cial science; Being a condensation of the Principles
Press. of social science. Philadelphia: Baird.
• Small, A. W. (1910). The meaning of social science. • Galavotti, M. C. (2003). Observation and experi-
Chicago, Ill: The University of Chicago Press. ment in the natural and social sciences. Boston stud-
ies in the philosophy of science. 232. Dordrecht:
Kluwer Academic.
4.8.2 19th century sources • Gorton, W. A. (2006). Karl Popper and the social
sciences. SUNY series in the philosophy of the so-
• Andrews, S. P. (1888). The science of society. cial sciences. Albany: State University of New York
Boston, Mass: Sarah E. Holmes. Press.
• Denslow, V. B. (1882). Modern thinkers princi- • Harris, F. R. (1973). Social science and national pol-
pally upon social science: What they think, and why. icy. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books. dis-
Chicago: Belford, Clarke & Co. tributed by Dutton
• Harris, William Torrey (1879). Method of Study in • Krimerman, L. I. (1969). The nature and scope
Social Science: A Lecture Delivered Before the St. of social science: A critical anthology. New York:
Louis Social Science Association, March 4, 1879. Appleton-Century-Crofts.
St. Louis: G.I. Jones and Co, 1879.
• Rule, J. B. (1997). Theory and progress in social
• Hamilton, R. S. (1873). Present status of social sci- science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
ence. A review, historical and critical, of the progress
of thought in social philosophy. New York: H. L. • Shionoya, Y. (1997). Schumpeter and the idea of so-
Hinton. cial science: A metatheoretical study. Historical per-
spectives on modern economics. Cambridge: Cam-
• Carey, H. C. (1867). Principles of social science. bridge University Press.
Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co. [etc.]. Volume
• Singleton, Royce, A.; Straits, Bruce C. (1988).
I, Volume II, Volume III.
“Approaches to Social Research”. Oxford Univer-
• Calvert, G. H. (1856). Introduction to social science: sity Press. ISBN 0-19-514794-4. Archived from
A discourse in three parts. New York: Redfield. the original on March 3, 2007.
• Thomas, D. (1979). Naturalism and social science:

a post-empiricist philosophy of social science. CUP
4.8.3 General sources Archive. ISBN 978-0-521-29660-1.
• Backhouse, Roger E., and Philippe Fontaine, eds. A • Trigg, R. (2001). Understanding social science:
historiography of the modern social sciences (Cam- A philosophical introduction to the social sciences.
bridge University Press, 2014). Malden, Mass: Blackwell Publishers.
• Weber, M (1906) [1904]. The Relations of the Ru- • American Academy Commission on the Humanities
ral Community to Other Branches of Social Science, and Social Sciences
Congress of Arts and Science: Universal Exposition.
St. Louis: Houghton, Mifflin and Company. • Social Phenomena by Teng Wang
4.8.4 Academic resources

• The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political
and Social Science, ISSN: 1552-3349 (electronic)
ISSN 0002-7162 (paper), SAGE Publications
• Efferson, C. and Richerson, P. J. (In press). A prole-

gomenon to nonlinear empiricism in the human be-
havioral sciences. Philosophy and Biology. Full text
4.8.5 Opponents and critics

• George H. Smith (2014). Intellectuals and Libertar-
ianism: Thomas Sowell and Robert Nisbet
• Phil Hutchinson, Rupert Read and Wes Sharrock

(2008). There’s No Such Thing as a Social Science.
ISBN 978-0-7546-4776-8
• Sabia, D. R., and Wallulis, J. (1983). Changing so-

cial science: Critical theory and other critical per-
spectives. Albany: State University of New York
Press.
4.9 External links

• Institute for Comparative Research in Human and
Social Sciences (ICR) (JAPAN)
• Centre for Social Work Research
• Family Therapy and Systemic Research Centre
• International Conference on Social Sciences
• International Social Science Council
• Introduction to Hutchinson et al., There’s No Such

Thing as a Social Science
• Intute: Social Sciences (UK)
• Social Science Research Society
• Social Science Virtual Library
• Social Science Virtual Library: Canaktanweb

(Turkish)
• Social Sciences And Humanities
• UC Berkeley Experimental Social Science Labora-

tory
• The Dialectic of Social Science by Paul A. Baran

Chapter 5
Historical sociology
Historical sociology is a branch of sociology focusing ical sociology is measured by a conjunction of questions
on how societies develop through history. It looks at how that are rich in detail[2]
social structures that many regard as natural are in fact
shaped by complex social processes. The structure in turn
shapes institutions and organizations, which affect the so-
ciety - resulting in phenomena ranging from gender bias
5.2 Path dependence
and income inequality to war.
Path dependence to some sociologists is the theory that
Contemporary historical sociology is primarily concerned
events that happened in past, have some or a lot of in-
with how the state has developed since the Middle Ages,
fluence on events that happen in the future. However,
analyzing relations between states, classes, economic and
sociologist James Mahoney has a different definition of
political systems.
path dependence. His theory suggests that “process, se-
quence, and temporality” have a valid reason for affect-
ing path dependence and the meaning of past historical
5.1 Use of history in sociology events. There are three path-dependent analyses with
an explanation to how each theory works. “1) the study
As time has passed, history and sociology have developed of causal processes that are especially sensitive, in a se-
into two different specific academic disciplines. Histori- quence, to early historical events, which are more impor-
cal data was used and is used today in mainly these three tant than later events; 2) these events are contingent oc-
ways. The first one is: Examining a theory through a currences that cannot be explained by prior events or ini-
Parallel investigation. To correspond with the natural- tial conditions; and 3) that once contingent events take
science conceptions of laws, and to look at, or apply var- place, the path[3]dependent sequence becomes a determin-
ious historical material where you gather your resources istic pattern.”
in order to prove the theory that is applied. Or on the
other hand sociologists for the parallel investigation the-
ory could apply the theory to certain cases of investiga- 5.3 Debate over general theory in
tion but in a different modalities of a more widely used
process.The second theory that Sociologists mainly use: sociology
applying and contrasting certain events or policies. An-
alyzed by their specific, or what makes them in unique James Mahoney revisited the debate over general theory
quality of a composition, certain events used by the soci- in historical sociology. By bridging the gaps of differ-
ologist for comparative data can be contrasted and com- ent assumptions, causal agents and causal mechanisms are
pared. For interpretive sociologists it is very common for connected to the empirical analysis, and this is seen as the
them to use the 'Verstehen' tradition. And lastly, the third general theory. "...the debate over general theory in his-
way sociologists typically relate is by taking a look at the torical sociology with the goal of clarifying the use of this
causalities from a macro point of view. This is Mill’s kind of theory in empirical research. General theories
method: " a) principle of difference: a case with effect are defined as postulates about causal agents and causal
and cause present is contrasted with a case with effect mechanisms that are linked to empirical analysis through
and cause absent; and b) principle of agreement: cases bridging assumptions. These theories can contribute to
with same effects are compared in terms of their (ide- substantive knowledge by helping analysts derive new hy-
ally identical) causes. There is an important debate on potheses, integrate existing findings, and explain histori-
the usefulness of Mill’s method for sociological research, cal outcomes. To illustrate these applications, the article
which relates to the fact that historical research is often considers five different general theories that have guided
based on only few cases and that many sociological theo- or could guide historical sociology: functionalist, ratio-
ries are probabilistic, not deterministic.[1] Today, histor- nal choice, power, neo-Darwinian, and cultural theories.
37
38 CHAPTER 5. HISTORICAL SOCIOLOGY
A key conclusion that emerges is that scholars must eval- 5.6 References
uate both the overall merits of general theory and the in-
dividual merits of specific general theories”.[4] [1] Deflem, Mathieu. 2007. “Comparative and Historical So-
ciology: Lecture Notes.” <http://deflem.blogspot.com/
2007/08/comparative-and-historical-sociology.html>
5.4 Notable authors [2] Clemens, Elizabeth S. “Toward a Historicized So-

ciology: Theorizing Events, Processes, and Emer-
gence.” EBSCOhost. Web. Oct.-Nov. 2010.
• Giovanni Arrighi <http://ezp.tccd.edu:2321/ehost/detail?vid=3&hid=
119&sid=cd26f66e-45f2-493d-804f-c67b713823ae%
• Randall Collins 40sessionmgr114&bdata=
JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZSZzY29wZT1zaXRl#
• Emile Durkheim db=pbh&AN=26613934>
[3] Mahoney, James. “Path Dependence in Historical So-

• Norbert Elias ciology.” Welcome to the College of Arts and Sciences
at the University of South Carolina. 2007. Web.
• Michel Foucault 2 Nov. 2010. <http://www.cas.sc.edu/socy/faculty/
deflem/zcomphistnotes.html#problems>.
• John A. Hall [4] Mahoney, James. “Revisiting General Theory in His-
torical Sociology.” EBSCOhost. Web. 4 Nov. 2010.
• Michael Mann <http://ezp.tccd.edu:2321/ehost/detail?vid=3&hid=
119&sid=de4d24a8-0f77-45bf-86a0-e3e193c025e4%
• Karl Marx 40sessionmgr115&bdata=
JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZSZzY29wZT1zaXRl#
• Karl Polanyi db=pbh&AN=16144478>.
• Theda Skocpol • John Baylis, Steve Smith, Globalization of world

politics: An introduction to international relations,
• Charles Tilly Oxford University Press, 3rd ed., 2005, ISBN 0-19-
927118-6, p. 276–278
• Immanuel Wallerstein
• Max Weber 5.7 Further reading

• Reinhard Bendix • Charles Tilly, Historical Sociology, in Scott G. Mc-
Nall & Gary N. Howe, eds., Current Perspectives in
• Richard Lachmann Social Theory. Vol. I. (1980) Greenwich, Connecti-
cut: JAI Press, online
• Charles Tilly, Historical Sociology, in International

5.5 See also Encyclopedia of the Behavioral and Social Sciences
(2001) Amsterdam: Elsevier. Vol. 10, 6753–6757,
• Comparative historical research online
• Charles Tilly, Three Visions of History and Theory,

• Comparative sociology in History and Theory (2007) 46: 299-307, online
• History of sociology • Charles Tilly, History of and in Sociology, introduc-

tion to the didactic seminar on methodologies of the
• International relations theory history of sociology, American Sociological Associ-
ation annual meeting, Montréal, May 2007, online
• Sociocultural evolution
• George Steinmetz, 'Ideas in Exile: Refugees from
Nazi Germany and the Failure to Transplant Histor-
• World-systems theory
ical Sociology into the United States.” International
Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society', 2010.
• Economic sociology
• George Steinmetz, 'The Historical Sociology of His-
• Cliodynamics torical Sociology: Germany and the United States in
the 20th century', Sociologica (Italian Journal of So-

ciology online)2008 February). online
• George Steinmetz,'The Relations between Sociol-
ogy and History in the United States: The Cur-
rent State of Affairs’, Journal of Historical Sociology
20:1-2 (2007): 1-12.
• David Baronov, The Dialectics of Inquiry Across the
Historical Social Sciences. Routledge Press. 2013.
5.8 External links

• Scientific Prediction in Historical Sociology: Ibn
Khaldun meets Al Saud
Chapter 6
International relations
“International Relations” redirects here. For the aca-

demic journal, see International Relations (journal).
“International affairs” redirects here. For the academic
journal, see International Affairs (journal). For other
uses, see International affairs (disambiguation).
International relations (IR) or international af-
In 2012 alone, the Palace of Nations in Geneva, Switzerland,

hosted more than 10,000 intergovernmental meetings.[1] The city
hosts the highest number of International organizations in the
world.[2]
fairs, depending on academic institution, is either a

field of political science, an interdisciplinary academic
field similar to global studies, or an entirely indepen-
dent academic discipline in which students take a variety
of internationally focused courses in social science and
humanities disciplines. In both cases, the field studies
relationships between political entities (polities) such as
states, sovereign states, empires, inter-governmental or- The field of international relations dates from the time of the
ganizations (IGOs), international non-governmental or- Greek historian Thucydides.
ganizations (INs), other non-governmental organizations
(NGOs), and multinational corporations (MNCs), and the
wider world-systems produced by this interaction. Inter- demic program or field from political science, and the
national relations is an academic and a public policy field, courses taught therein are highly interdisciplinary.[3]
and so can be positive and normative, because it analyses For example, international relations draws from the
and formulates the foreign policy of a given state. fields of: technology and engineering, economics,
As political activity, international relations dates from the communication studies, history, international law,
time of the Greek historian Thucydides (c. 460–395 BC), demography, philosophy, geography, social work,
and, in the early 20th century, became a discrete aca- sociology, anthropology, criminology, psychology,
demic field (no. 5901 in the 4-digit UNESCO Nomen- gender studies, cultural studies, culturology, and
clature) within political science. In practice, international diplomacy. The scope of international relations
relations and international affairs forms a separate aca- comprehends globalization, diplomatic relations,
40
6.1. HISTORY 41
state sovereignty, international security, ecological ethnic-linguistic terms, establishing the rarely if ever ful-
sustainability, nuclear proliferation, nationalism, filled ideal that all people speaking one language should
economic development, global finance, as well as belong to one state only. The same claim to sovereignty
terrorism and organized crime, human security, foreign was made for both forms of nation-state. (It is worth not-
interventionism, and human rights, as well, as, more ing that in Europe today, few states conform to either
recently, comparative religion. definition of nation-state: many continue to have royal
sovereigns, and hardly any are ethnically homogeneous.)
The particular European system supposing the sovereign
6.1 History equality of states was exported to the Americas, Africa,
and Asia via colonialism and the “standards of civiliza-
See also: International relations of the Great Powers tion”. The contemporary international system was finally
(1814–1919) established through decolonization during the Cold War.
However, this is somewhat over-simplified. While the
nation-state system is considered “modern”, many states
The history of international relations can be traced back
have not incorporated the system and are termed “pre-
to thousands of years ago; Barry Buzan and Richard
modern”.
Little, for example, consider the interaction of ancient
Sumerian city-states, starting in 3,500 BC, as the first Further, a handful of states have moved beyond insistence
fully-fledged international system.[4] on full sovereignty, and can be considered “post-modern”.
The ability of contemporary IR discourse to explain the
relations of these different types of states is disputed.
“Levels of analysis” is a way of looking at the interna-
tional system, which includes the individual level, the do-
mestic state as a unit, the international level of transna-
tional and intergovernmental affairs, and the global level.
What is explicitly recognized as international relations
theory was not developed until after World War I, and
The official portraits of King Władysław IV dressed according
is dealt with in more detail below. IR theory, however,
to French, Spanish and Polish fashion reflects the complex pol- has a long tradition of drawing on the work of other
itics of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth during the Thirty social sciences. The use of capitalizations of the “I” and
Years’ War “R” in international relations aims to distinguish the aca-
demic discipline of international relations from the phe-
The history of international relations based on sovereign nomena of international relations. Many cite Sun Tzu's
states is often traced back to the Peace of Westphalia of The Art of War (6th century BC), Thucydides' History
1648, a stepping stone in the development of the mod- of the Peloponnesian War (5th century BC), Chanakya's
ern state system. Prior to this the European medieval or- Arthashastra (4th century BC), as the inspiration for real-
ganization of political authority was based on a vaguely ist theory, with Hobbes' Leviathan and Machiavelli's The
hierarchical religious order. Contrary to popular belief, Prince providing further elaboration.
Westphalia still embodied layered systems of sovereignty,
Similarly, liberalism draws upon the work of Kant and
especially within the Holy Roman Empire.[5] More than
Rousseau, with the work of the former often being cited
the Peace of Westphalia, the Treaty of Utrecht of 1713 is
as the first elaboration of democratic peace theory.[6]
thought to reflect an emerging norm that sovereigns had
Though contemporary human rights is considerably dif-
no internal equals within a defined territory and no ex-
ferent from the type of rights envisioned under natural
ternal superiors as the ultimate authority within the terri-
law, Francisco de Vitoria, Hugo Grotius and John Locke
tory’s sovereign borders.
offered the first accounts of universal entitlement to cer-
The centuries of roughly 1500 to 1789 saw the rise of tain rights on the basis of common humanity. In the 20th
the independent, sovereign states, the institutionalization century, in addition to contemporary theories of liberal
of diplomacy and armies. The French Revolution added internationalism, Marxism has been a foundation of in-
to this the new idea that not princes or an oligarchy, but ternational relations.
the citizenry of a state, defined as the nation, should be
defined as sovereign. Such a state in which the nation
is sovereign would thence be termed a nation-state (as 6.1.1 Study of international relations
opposed to a monarchy or a religious state). The term
republic increasingly became its synonym. An alterna- International relations as a distinct field of study be-
tive model of the nation-state was developed in reaction gan in Britain. IR emerged as a formal academic dis-
to the French republican concept by the Germans and oth- cipline in 1919 with the founding of the first IR pro-
ers, who instead of giving the citizenry sovereignty, kept fessorship: the Woodrow Wilson Chair at Aberystwyth,
the princes and nobility, but defined nation-statehood in University of Wales (now Aberystwyth University),[7]
42 CHAPTER 6. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
world a better place, and that this theoretical worldview

aims to do so by being aware of implicit assumptions
and explicit assumptions that constitute a non-normative
position and align or position the normative towards the
loci of other key socio-political theories such as political
liberalism, Marxism, political constructivism, political
realism, political idealism and political globalization.[9]
6.2.2 Epistemology and IR theory
IR theories can be roughly divided into one of two

epistemological camps: “positivist” and “post-positivist”.
Flags of the member states of the United Nations
Positivist theories aim to replicate the methods of the nat-
ural sciences by analysing the impact of material forces.
endowed by David Davies. Georgetown University's They typically focus on features of international relations
Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service is the old- such as state interactions, size of military forces, balance
est international relations faculty in the United States, of powers etc. Post-positivist epistemology rejects the
founded in 1919. In the early 1920s, the London School idea that the social world can be studied in an objective
of Economics' department of international relations was and value-free way. It rejects the central ideas of neo-
founded at the behest of Nobel Peace Prize winner Philip realism/liberalism, such as rational choice theory, on the
Noel-Baker: this was the first institute to offer a wide grounds that the scientific method cannot be applied to
range of degrees in the field. This was rapidly followed the social world and that a “science” of IR is impossible.
by establishment of IR at universities in the US and A key difference between the two positions is that while
in Geneva, Switzerland. The creation of the posts of positivist theories, such as neo-realism, offer causal ex-
Montague Burton Professor of International Relations at planations (such as why and how power is exercised),
LSE and at Oxford gave further impetus to the academic post-positivist theories focus instead on constitutive ques-
study of international relations. Furthermore, the Inter- tions, for instance what is meant by “power"; what makes
national History department at LSE developed a focus on it up, how it is experienced and how it is reproduced. Of-
the history of IR in the early modern, colonial and Cold ten, post-positivist theories explicitly promote a norma-
War periods.[8] tive approach to IR, by considering ethics. This is some-
The first university entirely dedicated to the study of IR thing which has often been ignored under “traditional” IR
was the Graduate Institute of International Studies (now as positivist theories make a distinction between “facts”
the Graduate Institute of International and Development and normative judgments, or “values”.
Studies), which was founded in 1927 to form diplomats During the late 1980s and the 1990s, debate between pos-
associated to the League of Nations. The Committee on itivists and post-positivists became the dominant debate
International Relations at the University of Chicago was and has been described as constituting the Third “Great
the first to offer a graduate degree, in 1928. In 1965, Debate” (Lapid 1989).
Glendon College and the Norman Paterson School of In-
ternational Affairs were the first institutions in Canada to
offer an undergraduate and a graduate program in inter- 6.2.3 Positivist theories
national studies and affairs, respectively. In 2012, Ramon
Llull University initiated the first International Relations Realism
degree in Barcelona, fully in English.
Realism focuses on state security and power above all
else. Early realists such as E. H. Carr and Hans Morgen-
6.2 Theory thau argued that states are self-interested, power-seeking
rational actors, who seek to maximize their security and
chances of survival.[10] Cooperation between states is a
Main article: International relations theory
way to maximize each individual state’s security (as op-
posed to more idealistic reasons). Similarly, any act of
war must be based on self-interest, rather than on ideal-
6.2.1 Normative theory ism. Many realists saw World War II as the vindication
of their theory.
In the academic discipline of international relations, Realists argue that the need for survival requires state
Smith, Baylis & Owens (2008) make the case that the leaders to distance themselves from traditional morality.
normative position or normative theory is to make the Realism taught American leaders to focus on interests
6.2. THEORY 43
rather than on ideology, to seek peace through strength, ically rooted in the liberal philosophical traditions asso-
and to recognize that great powers can coexist even if they ciated with Adam Smith and Immanuel Kant that posit
have antithetical values and beliefs.[11] that human nature is basically good and that individual
Thucydides, the author of Peloponnesian War is consid- self-interest can be harnessed by society to promote ag-
ered to be the founding father of the realist school of po- gregate social welfare. Individuals form groups and later,
litical philosophy.[12] Amongst others, philosophers like states; states are generally
[14]
cooperative and tend to follow
Machiavelli, Hobbes and Rousseau are considered to have international norms.
contributed to the Realist philosophy.[13] However, while Liberal international relations theory arose after World
their work may support realist doctrine, it is not likely War I in response to the inability of states to control and
that they would have classified themselves as realists in limit war in their international relations. Early adherents
this sense. Political realism believes that politics, like so- include Woodrow Wilson and Norman Angell, who ar-
ciety, is governed by objective laws with roots in human gued that states mutually gained from cooperation and
nature. To improve society, it is first necessary to under- that war was so destructive as to be essentially futile.[15]
stand the laws by which society lives. The operation of Liberalism was not recognized as a coherent theory as
these laws being impervious to our preferences, persons such until it was collectively and derisively termed ide-
will challenge them only at the risk of failure. Realism, alism by E. H. Carr. A new version of “idealism” that
believing as it does in the objectivity of the laws of pol- focused on human rights as the basis of the legitimacy of
itics, must also believe in the possibility of developing international law was advanced by Hans Köchler.
a rational theory that reflects, however imperfectly and
one-sidedly, these objective laws. It believes also, then, in Major theorists include Montesquieu, Immanuel Kant,
the possibility of distinguishing in politics between truth Robert Keohane, Michael W. Doyle, Francis Fukuyama,
and opinion—between what is true objectively and ratio- and Helen Milner.[16]
nally, supported by evidence and illuminated by reason,
and what is only a subjective judgment, divorced from the
facts as they are and informed by prejudice and wishful Neoliberalism
thinking.
Further information: Complex interdependence
Placing realism under positivism is far from unproblem-
atic however. E. H. Carr’s “What is History” was a delib-
erate critique of positivism, and Hans Morgenthau's aim Neoliberalism seeks to update liberalism by accepting
in “Scientific Man vs Power Politics” was to demolish any the neorealist presumption that states are the key actors
conception that international politics/power politics can in international relations, but still maintains that non-
be studied scientifically. state actors (NSAs) and intergovernmental organizations
(IGOs) matter. Proponents argue that states will cooper-
Major theorists include E. H. Carr, Robert Gilpin, Joanne
ate irrespective of relative gains, and are thus concerned
Gowa, Charles Kindleberger, Stephen Krasner, Hans
with absolute gains. This also means that nations are, in
Morgenthau, and Kenneth Waltz.
essence, free to make their own choices as to how they
will go about conducting policy without any international
Liberalism organizations blocking a nation’s right to sovereignty. Ne-
oliberal institutionalism, an approach founded by Robert
Keohane and Joseph Nye, emphasize the important role
Main article: Liberalism (international relations)
of international institutions in maintaining an open global
See also: Liberal internationalism
trading regime.
Prominent neoliberal institutionalists are Christina Davis,
According to liberalism, individuals are basically good
Judith L. Goldstein, G. John Ikenberry, Robert Keohane,
and capable of meaningful cooperation to promote pos-
Lisa Martin, and Joseph Nye.
itive change. Liberalism views states, nongovernmen-
tal organizations, and intergovernmental organizations as
key actors in the international system. States have many
Regime theory
interests and are not necessarily unitary and autonomous,
although they are sovereign. Liberal theory stresses in-
terdependence among states, multinational corporations, Regime theory is derived from the liberal tradition that
and international institutions. Theorists such as Hedley argues that international institutions or regimes affect the
Bull have postulated an international society in which var- behaviour of states (or other international actors). It as-
ious actors communicate and recognize common rules, sumes that cooperation is possible in the anarchic system
institutions, and interests. Liberals also view the interna- of states, indeed, regimes are by definition, instances of
tional system as anarchic since there is no single overar- international cooperation.
ching international authority and each individual state is While realism predicts that conflict should be the norm
left to act in its own self-interest. Liberalism is histor- in international relations, regime theorists say that there
is cooperation despite anarchy. Often they cite coop- chy is what states make of it”. By this he means that the
eration in trade, human rights and collective security anarchical structure that neo-realists claim governs state
among other issues. These instances of cooperation are interaction is in fact a phenomenon that is socially con-
regimes. The most commonly cited definition of regimes structed and reproduced by states.
comes from Stephen Krasner, who defines regimes as For example, if the system is dominated by states that see
“principles, norms, rules, and decision-making proce- anarchy as a life or death situation (what Wendt terms
dures around which actor expectations converge in a a “Hobbesian” anarchy) then the system will be charac-
given issue-area”.[17] terized by warfare. If on the other hand anarchy is seen
Not all approaches to regime theory, however, are liberal as restricted (a “Lockean” anarchy) then a more peace-
or neoliberal; some realist scholars like Joseph Grieco ful system will exist. Anarchy in this view is constituted
have developed hybrid theories which take a realist based by state interaction, rather than accepted as a natural and
approach to this fundamentally liberal theory. (Realists immutable feature of international life as viewed by neo-
do not say cooperation never happens, just that it is not realist IR scholars.
the norm; it is a difference of degree). Prominent social constructivist IR scholars are Rawi Ab-
delal, Michael Barnett, Mark Blyth, Martha Finnemore,
Peter A. Hall, Ted Hopf, Margaret Keck, Elizabeth Kier,
6.2.4 Post-positivist/reflectivist theories Kathleen McNamara, Kathryn Sikkink and Alexander
Wendt.
International society theory (the English school)
Main article: English school of international relations Feminism

theory
Main article: Feminism (international relations)
International society theory, also called the English
School, focuses on the shared norms and values of states Feminist IR considers the ways that international politics
and how they regulate international relations. Examples affects and is affected by both men and women and also at
of such norms include diplomacy, order, and international how the core concepts that are employed within the disci-
law. Unlike neo-realism, it is not necessarily positivist. pline of IR (e.g. war, security, etc.) are themselves gen-
Theorists have focused particularly on humanitarian in- dered. Feminist IR has not only concerned itself with the
tervention, and are subdivided between solidarists, who traditional focus of IR on states, wars, diplomacy and se-
tend to advocate it more, and pluralists, who place greater curity, but feminist IR scholars have also emphasized the
value in order and sovereignty. Nicholas Wheeler is a importance of looking at how gender shapes the current
prominent solidarist, while Hedley Bull and Robert H. global political economy. In this sense, there is no clear
Jackson are perhaps the best known pluralists. cut division between feminists working in IR and those
working in the area of International Political Economy
(IPE). From its inception, feminist IR has also theorized
Social constructivism
extensively about men and, in particular, masculinities.
Many IR feminists argue that the discipline is inherently
Main article: Constructivism (international relations)
masculine in nature. For example, in her article “Sex
and Death in the Rational World of Defense Intellectuals”
Social constructivism encompasses a broad range of the- Signs (1988), Carol Cohn claimed that a highly masculin-
ories that aim to address questions of ontology, such as ized culture within the defence establishment contributed
the structure-and-agency debate, as well as questions of to the divorcing of war from human emotion.
epistemology, such as the “material/ideational” debate Feminist IR emerged largely from the late 1980s onwards.
that concerns the relative role of material forces versus The end of the Cold War and the re-evaluation of tra-
ideas. Constructivism is not a theory of IR in the manner ditional IR theory during the 1990s opened up a space
of neo-realism, but is instead a social theory which is used for gendering International Relations. Because feminist
to better explain the actions taken by states and other ma- IR is linked broadly to the critical project in IR, by and
jor actors as well as the identities that guide these states large most feminist scholarship has sought to problema-
and actors. tize the politics of knowledge construction within the dis-
Constructivism in IR can be divided into what Ted Hopf cipline - often by adopting methodologies of deconstruc-
(1998) calls “conventional” and “critical” constructivism. tivism associated with postmodernism/poststructuralism.
Common to all varieties of constructivism is an interest in However, the growing influence of feminist and women-
the role that ideational forces play. The most famous con- centric approaches within the international policy com-
structivist scholar, Alexander Wendt, noted in a 1992 ar- munities (for example at the World Bank and the United
ticle in International Organization —and later in his 1999 Nations) is more reflective of the liberal feminist empha-
book Social Theory of International Politics—that “anar- sis on equality of opportunity for women.
6.3. LEVELS OF ANALYSIS 45
Prominent scholars include Carol Cohn, Cynthia Enloe, they are also causal forces in the exercise of state power.
Charlotte Hooper, Sara Ruddick, J. Ann Tickner and
Jacqui True.
Strategic perspective
Marxism Strategic perspective is a theoretical approach that views

individuals as choosing their actions by taking into ac-
Marxist and Neo-Marxist theories of IR reject the re- count the anticipated actions and responses of others with
alist/liberal view of state conflict or cooperation; in- the intention of maximizing their own welfare.
stead focusing on the economic and material aspects. It
makes the assumption that the economy trumps other
concerns; allowing for the elevation of class as the fo- Inherent bad faith model in international relations
cus of study. Marxists view the international system as and political psychology
an integrated capitalist system in pursuit of capital ac-
cumulation. Thus, colonialism brought in sources for Further information: Bad faith and inherent bad faith
raw materials and captive markets for exports, while model
decolonialization brought new opportunities in the form
of dependence. The "inherent bad faith model" of information process-
A prominent derivative of Marxian thought is critical in- ing is a theory in political psychology that was first put
ternational relations theory which is the application of forth by Ole Holsti to explain the relationship between
"critical theory" to international relations. Early criti- John Foster[18]
Dulles' beliefs and his model of information
cal theorists were associated with the Frankfurt School processing. It is the most widely studied model of one’s
[19]
which followed Marx’s concern with the conditions that opponent. A state is presumed to be implacably hos-
allow for social change and the establishment of rational tile, and contra-indicators of this are ignored. They are
institutions. Their emphasis on the “critical” component dismissed as propaganda ploys or signs of weakness. Ex-
of theory was derived significantly from their attempt to amples are John Foster Dulles' position regarding the So-
overcome the limits of positivism. Modern-day propo- viet Union, or Israel’s initial position on the Palestinian
[20]
nents such as Andrew Linklater, Robert W. Cox and Ken Liberation Organization.
Booth focus on the need for human emancipation from
the nation-state. Hence, it is “critical” of mainstream IR 6.2.6 Post-structuralist theories
theories that tend to be both positivist and state-centric.
Further linked in with Marxist theories is dependency Post-structuralist theories of IR developed in the 1980s
theory and the core–periphery model, which argue that from postmodernist studies in political science. Post-
developed countries, in their pursuit of power, appropri- structuralism explores the deconstruction of concepts tra-
ate developing states through international banking, se- ditionally not problematic in IR (such as “power” and
curity and trade agreements and unions on a formal level, “agency”) and examines how the construction of these
and do so through the interaction of political and finan- concepts shapes international relations. The examination
cial advisors, missionaries, relief aid workers, and MNCs of “narratives” plays an important part in poststructural-
on the informal level, in order to integrate them into the ist analysis; for example, feminist poststructuralist work
capitalist system, strategically appropriating undervalued has examined the role that “women” play in global soci-
natural resources and labor hours and fostering economic ety and how they are constructed in war as “innocent” and
and political dependence. “civilians”. (See also feminism in international relations.)
Marxist theories receive little attention in the United
States, where no significant socialist party has flourished.
It is more common in parts of Europe and is one of the 6.3 Levels of analysis
more important theoretic contributions of Latin Ameri-
can academia to the study of global networks. 6.3.1 Systemic level concepts
International relations are often viewed in terms of lev-
6.2.5 Leadership theories els of analysis. The systemic level concepts are those
broad concepts that define and shape an international mi-
Interest group perspective lieu, characterized by anarchy.
Interest group theory posits that the driving force behind
state behaviour is sub-state interest groups. Examples of Sovereignty
interest groups include political lobbyists, the military,
and the corporate sector. Group theory argues that al- Main article: Westphalian sovereignty
though these interest groups are constitutive of the state,
Preceding the concepts of interdependence and de- tions, liberation movements, non-governmental agencies,
pendence, international relations relies on the idea of or international organizations, these entities have the po-
sovereignty. Described in Jean Bodin's “Six Books of tential to significantly influence the outcome of any inter-
the Commonwealth in 1576, the three pivotal points national transaction. Additionally, this also includes the
derived from the book describe sovereignty as being a individual person as while the individual is what consti-
state, that the sovereign power(s) have absolute power tutes the states collective entity, the individual does have
over their territories, and that such a power is only lim- the potential to also create unpredicted behaviours. Al-
ited by the sovereign’s “own obligations towards other Qaeda, as an example of a non-state actor, has signif-
sovereigns and individuals”.[21] Such a foundation of icantly influenced the way states (and non-state actors)
sovereignty permits, is indicated by a sovereign’s obliga- conduct international affairs.[23]
tion to other sovereigns, interdependence and dependence
to take place. While throughout world history there have
been instances of groups lacking or losing sovereignty, Power blocs
such as African nations prior to Decolonization or the oc-
cupation of Iraq during the Iraq War, there is still a need The existence of power blocs in international relations is
for sovereignty in terms of assessing international rela- a significant factor related to polarity. During the Cold
tions. War, the alignment of several nations to one side or an-
other based on ideological differences or national inter-
ests has become an endemic feature of international rela-
Power tions. Unlike prior, shorter-term blocs, the Western and
Soviet blocs sought to spread their national ideological
Main article: Power (international relations) differences to other nations. Leaders like U.S. President
Harry S. Truman under the Truman Doctrine believed it
The concept of Power in international relations can be was necessary to spread democracy whereas the Warsaw
described as the degree of resources, capabilities, and in- Pact under Soviet policy sought to spread communism.
fluence in international affairs. It is often divided up into After the Cold War, and the dissolution of the ideolog-
the concepts of hard power and soft power, hard power ically homogeneous Eastern bloc still gave rise to others
relating primarily to coercive power, such as the use of such as the South-South Cooperation movement.[24]
force, and soft power commonly covering economics,
diplomacy and cultural influence. However, there is no
clear dividing line between the two forms of power. Polarity Main article: Polarity (international relations)
Polarity in international relations refers to the arrange-

National interest
ment of power within the international system. The con-
cept arose from bipolarity during the Cold War, with the
Perhaps the most significant concept behind that of power
international system dominated by the conflict between
and sovereignty, national interest is a state’s action in
two superpowers, and has been applied retrospectively by
relation to other states where it seeks to gain advan-
theorists. However, the term bipolar was notably used
tage or benefits to itself. National interest, whether as-
by Stalin who said he saw the international system as
pirational or operational, is divided by core/vital and
a bipolar one with two opposing powerbases and ide-
peripheral/non-vital interests. Core or vital interests con-
ologies. Consequently, the international system prior to
stitute the things which a country is willing to defend
1945 can be described as multipolar, with power being
or expand with conflict such as territory, ideology (re-
shared among Great powers.
ligious, political, economic), or its citizens. Peripheral
or non-vital are interests which a state is willing to com-
promise. For example, in the German annexation of the
Sudetenland in 1938 (a part of Czechoslovakia) under the
Munich Agreement, Czechoslovakia was willing to relin-
quish territory which was considered ethnically German
in order to preserve its own integrity and sovereignty.[22]
Non-state actors
Empires of the world in 1910
In the 21st century, the status-quo of the international sys-
tem is no longer monopolized by states alone. Rather, The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 had led to
it is the presence of non-state actors, who autonomously unipolarity, with the United States as a sole superpower,
act to implement unpredictable behaviour to the inter- although many refuse to acknowledge the fact. China’s
national system. Whether it is transnational corpora- continued rapid economic growth (in 2010 it became the
6.3. LEVELS OF ANALYSIS 47
world’s second-largest economy), combined with the re- Dependency

spectable international position they hold within politi-
cal spheres and the power that the Chinese Government
exerts over their people (consisting of the largest pop-
ulation in the world), resulted in debate over whether
China is now a superpower or a possible candidate in
the future. However, China’s strategic force unable of
projecting power beyond its region and its nuclear arse-
nal of 250 warheads (compared to 7700 of the United
States[25] ) mean that the unipolarity will persist in the
policy-relevant future.
Several theories of international relations draw upon the
idea of polarity. The balance of power was a concept
prevalent in Europe prior to the First World War, the
thought being that by balancing power blocs it would cre-
ate stability and prevent war. Theories of the balance NATO International Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan
of power gained prominence again during the Cold War,
being a central mechanism of Kenneth Waltz's Neoreal- Dependency theory is a theory most commonly associ-
ism. Here, the concepts of balancing (rising in power ated with Marxism, stating that a set of core states ex-
to counter another) and bandwagonning (siding with an- ploit a set of weaker periphery states for their prosperity.
other) are developed. Various versions of the theory suggest that this is either an
inevitability (standard dependency theory), or use the the-
Robert Gilpin's Hegemonic stability theory also draws ory to highlight the necessity for change (Neo-Marxist).
upon the idea of polarity, specifically the state of unipo-
larity. Hegemony is the preponderance of power at one
pole in the international system, and the theory argues Systemic tools of international relations
this is a stable configuration because of mutual gains by
both the dominant power and others in the international • Diplomacy is the practice of communication and
system. This is contrary to many neorealist arguments, negotiation between representatives of states. To
particularly made by Kenneth Waltz, stating that the end some extent, all other tools of international relations
of the Cold War and the state of unipolarity is an unstable can be considered the failure of diplomacy. Keeping
configuration that will inevitably change. in mind, the use of other tools are part of the com-
munication and negotiation inherent within diplo-
The case of Gilpin proved to be correct and Waltz’s arti- macy. Sanctions, force, and adjusting trade regu-
cle titled “The Stability of a Bipolar World” [26] was fol- lations, while not typically considered part of diplo-
lowed in 1999 by William Wohlforth's article titled “The macy, are actually valuable tools in the interest of
Stability of a Unipolar World”[27] leverage and placement in negotiations.
Waltz’s thesis can be expressed in power transition the-
• Sanctions are usually a first resort after the failure
ory, which states that it is likely that a great power would
of diplomacy, and are one of the main tools used to
challenge a hegemon after a certain period, resulting in a
enforce treaties. They can take the form of diplo-
major war. It suggests that while hegemony can control
matic or economic sanctions and involve the cutting
the occurrence of wars, it also results in the creation of
of ties and imposition of barriers to communication
one. Its main proponent, A. F. K. Organski, argued this
or trade.
based on the occurrence of previous wars during British,
Portuguese, and Dutch hegemony. • War, the use of force, is often thought of as the ul-
timate tool of international relations. A widely ac-
cepted definition is that given by Clausewitz, with
war being “the continuation of politics by other
Interdependence
means”. There is a growing study into “new wars”
involving actors other than states. The study of war
Many advocate that the current international system is in international relations is covered by the disci-
characterized by growing interdependence; the mutual plines of "war studies" and "strategic studies".
responsibility and dependency on others. Advocates of
this point to growing globalization, particularly with in- • The mobilization of international shame can also
ternational economic interaction. The role of interna- be thought of as a tool of international relations.
tional institutions, and widespread acceptance of a num- This is attempting to alter states’ actions through
ber of operating principles in the international system, re- 'naming and shaming' at the international level. This
inforces ideas that relations are characterized by interde- is mostly done by the large human rights NGOs such
pendence. as Amnesty International (for instance when it called
Guantanamo Bay a “Gulag”),[28] or Human Rights sits at the other end of the spectrum, with the separation
Watch. A prominent use of was the UN Commis- of state and religion being responsible for the liberal inter-
sion on Human Rights 1235 procedure, which pub- national relations theory. Events since the September 11
licly exposes state’s human rights violations. The attacks in the United States, the role of Islam in terrorism,
current UN Human Rights Council has yet to use and the strife in the Middle East have made it a major
this mechanism topic.[29]
• The allotment of economic and/or diplomatic ben-

efits such as the European Union's enlargement pol-
icy; candidate countries are only allowed to join if 6.3.3 Individual or sub-unit level concepts
they meet the Copenhagen criteria.
The level beneath the unit (state) level can be useful both
for explaining factors in international relations that other
6.3.2 Unit-level concepts in international theories fail to explain, and for moving away from a state-
relations centric view of international relations.
As a level of analysis the unit level is often referred to as

the state level, as it locates its explanation at the level of • Psychological factors in international relations –
the state, rather than the international system. Evaluating psychological factors in international re-
lations comes from the understanding that a state is
not a “black box” as proposed by realism, and that
Regime type there may be other influences on foreign policy de-
cisions. Examining the role of personalities in the
It is often considered that a state’s form of government decision making process can have some explanatory
can dictate the way that a state interacts with others in power, as can the role of misperception between var-
the international system. ious actors. A prominent application of sub-unit
Democratic peace theory is a theory that suggests that level psychological factors in international relations
the nature of democracy means that democratic countries is the concept of Groupthink, another is the propen-
will not go to war with each other. The justifications for sity of policymakers to think in terms of analogies.
this are that democracies externalize their norms and only
go to war for just causes, and that democracy encourages • Bureaucratic politics – Looks at the role of the
mutual trust and respect. bureaucracy in decision making, and sees decisions
Communism justifies a world revolution, which similarly as a result of bureaucratic in-fighting, and as having
would lead to peaceful coexistence, based on a proletarian been shaped by various constraints.
global society.
• Religious, ethnic, and secessionist groups – View-
ing these aspects of the sub-unit level has explana-
Revisionism/status quo tory power with regards to ethnic conflicts, religious
wars, transnational diaspora (diaspora politics) and
States can be classified by whether they accept the inter- other actors which do not consider themselves to fit
national status quo, or are revisionist—i.e., want change. with the defined state boundaries. This is particu-
Revisionist states seek to fundamentally change the rules larly useful in the context of the pre-modern world
and practices of international relations, feeling disadvan- of weak states.
taged by the status quo. They see the international sys-
tem as a largely western creation which serves to rein-
force current realities. Japan is an example of a state that • Science, technology and international relations –
has gone from being a revisionist state to one that is sat- How science and technology impact global health,
isfied with the status quo, because the status quo is now business, environment, technology, and develop-
beneficial to it. ment.
• International political economy, and economic fac-

Religion tors in international relations[30]
Religion can have an effect on the way a state acts within

the international system. Different theoretical perspec- • International political culturology – Looks at how
tives treat it in somewhat different fashion. One dramatic culture and cultural variables impact in international
example is the Thirty Years’ War (1618–48) that ravaged relations[31][32][33]
much of Europe. Religion is visible as an organizing prin-
ciple particularly for Islamic states, whereas secularism • Personal relations between leaders[34]
6.4. INSTITUTIONS IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 49
The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) is

an international organization consisting of 57 member
states. The organisation attempts to be the collective
voice of the Muslim world (Ummah) and attempts to
safeguard the interests and ensure the progress and well-
being of Muslims.
Other
Other generalist inter-state organizations include:
• BRICS
• SAARC
• African Union
• Association of Southeast Asian Nations
• Arab League
• Commonwealth of Independent States
• European Union
• G8
The United Nations Secretariat Building at the United Nations
headquarters in New York City • G20
• League of Nations
6.4 Institutions in international re- • Organization of American States
lations
• ECOWAS
International institutions form a vital part of contempo-
rary international relations. Much interaction at the sys-
tem level is governed by them, and they outlaw some 6.4.2 Economic institutions
traditional institutions and practices of international re-
lations, such as the use of war (except in self-defence).
6.4.1 Generalist inter-state organizations
United Nations
Main article: United Nations
The United Nations (UN) is an international organi-

zation that describes itself as a “global association of
governments facilitating co-operation in international
law, international security, economic development, and
social equity"; It is the most prominent international in-
stitution. Many of the legal institutions follow the same
organizational structure as the UN. The World Bank headquarters in Washington, D.C.
Organisation of Islamic Cooperation • Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank
• New Development Bank

Main article: Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
• Asian Development Bank
6.4.4 Regional security arrangements

Main article: Collective security
• United Nations Security Council

• Council for Security Cooperation in the Asia Pacific
• GUAM Organization for Democracy and Economic
Development
• Maritime security regime
• NATO
NATO E-3A flying with USAF F-16s in a NATO exercise • Shanghai Cooperation Organisation
• South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation
• African Development Bank
• Union of South American Nations
• Bank of International Settlements
• Inter-American Development Bank 6.5 See also

• International Monetary Fund • Diplomatic history
• Islamic Development Bank • Global studies
• World Bank • List of international relations journals

• List of international relations institutes and organi-
• World Trade Organization
zations
• Multilateralism
6.4.3 International legal bodies
• Peace economics
Human rights • The European Institute for International Law and In-
ternational Relations
• European Court of Human Rights
• Human Rights Committee

6.6 Notes and references
• Inter-American Court of Human Rights
[1] Simon Petite, “Rénovation du Palais des Nations : vote
• International Criminal Court crucial”, Le Temps, Monday 23 December 2013, p. 5. (in
French)
• International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
[2] François Modoux, “La Suisse engagera 300 millions pour
rénover le Palais des Nations”, Le Temps, Friday 28 June
• International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yu-
2013, page 9. (in French)
goslavia
[3] “International Relation”, Columbia Encyclopedia (1993)
• United Nations Human Rights Council pp.000–0000.
[4] Barry Buzan, Richard Little. International Systems in

Legal World History: Remaking the Study of International Re-
lations. published 2000
• African Court of Justice [5] Stéphane Beaulac: “The Westphalian Model in defining
International Law: Challenging the Myth”, Australian
• European Court of Justice Journal of Legal History Vol. 9 (2004), http://www.
austlii.edu.au/au/journals/AJLH/2004/9.html; Krasner,
• International Court of Justice Stephen D.: “Westphalia and all that” in Judith Gold-
stein & Robert Keohane (eds): Ideas and Foreign Policy
• International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP, 1993), pp.235-264
[6] “Stanford Encyclopedia of philosophy”. Stanford press. [23] pp. 14-15, N. Oluwafemi Mimiko. “Globalization: The
Retrieved 5 March 2014. Politics of Global Economic Relations and International
Business.” Durham: Carolina Academic Press, 2012.
[7] Department of International Politics, Aberystwyth Uni-
versity [24] pp. 15-16, N. Oluwafemi Mimiko. “Globalization: The
Politics of Global Economic Relations and International
[8] Walter Carlsnaes et al eds. (2012). Handbook of Inter- Business.” Durham: Carolina Academic Press, 2012.
national Relations. SAGE Publications. pp. 1–28. Re-
trieved 2016-02-24. [25] Historical nuclear weapons stockpiles and nuclear tests by
country
[9] ISBN 9780199297771, Fourth edition, pp.2-13 [26] Daedalus, 93/3: (1964), 881-909
[10] Morganthau, Hans (1978). Politics Among Nations: The [27] International Security, 24/1: (1999), 5-41
struggle for Power and Peace. New York. pp. 4–15. Re-
trieved 2016-02-24. [28] https://www.amnesty.org/en/library/info/POL10/014/
2005/en>
[11] Baylis, John (2011). The Globalization of World Politics.
Oxford University Press. pp. 86–87. ISBN 978-0-19- [29] Snyder, ed., Jack (2011). Religion and International Re-
956909-0. lations Theory. Columbia University Press. pp. 1–23.
Retrieved 2016-02-24.
[12] Norris, Cochrane, Charles (1929). Thucydides and the
[30] E.g., Donald Markwell, John Maynard Keynes and Inter-
Science of History. Oxford University Press. p. 179.
national Relations: Economic Paths to War and Peace, Ox-
ford University Press, 2006. Donald Markwell, Keynes
[13] Baylis, John; Smith, Steve (2001). The globalization of
and International Economic and Political Relations, Trin-
world politics : an introduction to international relations
ity Paper 33, Trinity College, University of Melbourne.
(2. ed.). Oxford [u.a.]: Oxford Univ. Press. p. 149.
ISBN 0198782632.
[31] Fabrice Rivault, (1999) Culturologie Politique Interna-
[14] Mingst, Karen A., & Arreguín-Toft, Ivan M. (2011). Es- tionale : Une approche systémique et matérialiste de la cul-
sentials of International Relations (5th ed.). New York: ture et du système social global, McGill Dissertation, Mon-
W. W. Norton & Company. tréal, publiée par Culturology Press
[15] Wilson, Woodrow. “History Learning site”. Retrieved 5 [32] Xintian, Yu (2005) “Cultural Factors In International Re-
March 2014. lations”, Chinese Philosophical Studies.
[16] Mingst, Karen A., & Snyder, Jack L. (2011). Essential [33] Xintian, Yu (2009),"Combining Research on Cultural
Readings in World Politics (4th ed.). New York: W. W. Theory and International Relations”
Norton & Company.
[34] US-Russian relations: Demanding equal treatment | Rus-
[17] Krasner, Stephen D., ed. 1983. “Structural Causes and sia Beyond the Headlines
Regime Consequences: Regimes as Intervening Vari-
ables.” In International Regimes, Ithaca: Cornell Univer-
sity Press, pp. 1. 6.7 Bibliography
[18] Stuart, Douglas; Starr, Harvey (1981). “The 'Inherent
Bad Faith Model' Reconsidered: Dulles, Kennedy, and • Carlsnaes, Walter, et al eds. (2012). Handbook of
Kissinger”. Political Psychology. 3 (3/4): 1–33. JSTOR International Relations. SAGE Publications. Re-
3791139. doi:10.2307/3791139. trieved 2016-02-24.
[19] "...the most widely studied is the inherent bad faith model • Reus-Smit, Christian, and Duncan Snidal, eds. The
of one’s opponent...”, The handbook of social psychology, Oxford Handbook of International Relations (2010)
Volumes 1-2, edited by Daniel T. Gilbert, Susan T. Fiske,
Gardner Lindzey
6.7.1 Theory
[20] "...the most widely studied is the inherent bad faith model
of one’s opponent”, The handbook of social psychology, • Norman Angell The Great Illusion (London: Heine-
Volumes 1-2, edited by Daniel T. Gilbert, Susan T. Fiske, mann, 1910)
Gardner Lindzey
• Hedley Bull Anarchical Society (New York:
[21] p. 13, N. Oluwafemi Mimiko. “Globalization: The Poli- Columbia University Press, 1977)
tics of Global Economic Relations and International Busi-
ness.” Durham: Carolina Academic Press, 2012. • Robert Cooper The Post-Modern State
[22] p. 17-20, N. Oluwafemi Mimiko. “Globalization: The • Enloe, Cynthia. "'Gender' Is Not Enough: The Need
Politics of Global Economic Relations and International for a Feminist Consciousness”. International Affairs
Business.” Durham: Carolina Academic Press, 2012. 80.1 (2004): 95-97. Web. 17 Sept. 2013.
• Goodin, Robert E., and Hans-Dieter Klingemann, 6.7.2 Textbooks

eds. A New Handbook of Political Science (1998) ch
16-19 pp 401–78 • Baylis, John, Steve Smith, and Patricia Owens. The
Globalization of World Politics: An Introduction to
• Charlotte Hooper “Masculinities, IR and the 'Gen- International Relations (2011)
der Variable': A Cost-Benefit Analysis for (Sympa-
thetic) Gender Sceptics.” International Studies 25.3 • Mingst, Karen A., and Ivan M. Arreguín-Toft. Es-
(1999): 475-491. sentials of International Relations (5th ed. 2010)
• Nau, Henry R. Perspectives on International Rela-

• Andrew Hurrell On Global Order: Power, tions: Power, Institutions, Ideas (2008)
Values, and the Constitution of International
Society (Oxford University Press, 2008). • Roskin, Michael G., and Nicholas O. Berry. IR: The
https://global.oup.com/academic/product/ New World of International Relations (8th ed. 2009)
on-global-order-9780199233113?cc=us&lang=
en&
6.7.3 History of international relations
• Robert Keohane After Hegemony
Main article: International relations of the Great Powers
• Hans Köchler, Democracy and the International (1814–1919) § Further reading
Rule of Law. Vienna/New York: Springer, 1995
• Andrew Linklater Men and citizens in the theory of • Beaulac, Stéphane. "The Westphalian Model in
international relations defining International Law: Challenging the Myth",
Australian Journal of Legal History Vol. 9 (2004).
• Donald Markwell John Maynard Keynes and In-
ternational Relations: Economic Paths to War and • Black, Jeremy. A History of Diplomacy (2010)
Peace (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006). • Calvocoressi, Peter. World Politics since 1945 (9th
Edition, 2008) 956pp
• Reinhold Niebuhr Moral Man and Immoral Society
1932 • E. H. Carr Twenty Years Crisis (1940), 1919–39
• Joseph Nye Soft Power: The Means to Success in • Kennedy, Paul. The Rise and Fall of the Great Pow-
World Politics, Public Affairs Ltd 2004 ers Economic Change and Military Conflict From
1500-2000 (1987), stress on economic and military
• Paul Raskin The Great Transition Today: A Report factors
from the Future • Kissinger, Henry. Diplomacy (1995), not a mem-
oir but an interpretive history of international diplo-
• J. Ann Tickner Gender in International Relations
macy since the late 18th century
(New York: Columbia University Press, 1992).
• Krasner, Stephen D.: “Westphalia and All That” in
• Kenneth Waltz Man, the State, and War Judith Goldstein & Robert Keohane (eds): Ideas
and Foreign Policy (Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP, 1993),
• Kenneth Waltz Theory of International Politics pp. 235–264
(1979), examines the foundation of By Bar
• New Cambridge Modern History (13 vol 1957-79),
• Michael Walzer Just and Unjust Wars 1977 thorough coverage from 1500 to 1900
• Ringmar, Erik. History of International Relations

• Alexander Wendt Social Theory of International
Open Textbook Project, Cambridge: Open Book,
Politics 1999
forthcoming.
• J. Martin Rochester Fundamental Principles of In- • Schroeder, Paul W. The Transformation of Euro-
ternational Relations (Westview Press, 2010) pean Politics 1763-1848 (Oxford History of Mod-
ern Europe) (1994) 920pp; history and analysis of
• An Introduction to International Relations Theory major diplomacy
• James C. Hsiang Anarchy & Order: The Inter- • Taylor, A.J.P. The Struggle for Mastery in Europe
play of Politics and Law in International Relations 1848–1918 (1954) (Oxford History of Modern Eu-
1555875718, 9781555875718 Lynne Rienner Pub rope) 638pp; history and analysis of major diplo-
1997 macy
6.8 External links

• Issues in development cooperation at Wikibooks
• The European Institute for International Law and In-

ternational Relations
Chapter 7
Historicism
This article is about philosophical theories known collec- cial Action (1937).
tively as “historicism”. For the school of historiography Post-structuralism uses the term "New Historicism",
known as “historicism” or “historism”, see historism. For
which has some associations with both anthropology and
the school of art and architecture, see Historicism (art). Hegelianism.
For the method of interpreting the Book of Revelation,
see Historicism (Christianity). For historicism in music, The theological use of the word denotes the interpretation
see Musical historicism. of biblical prophecy as being related to church history.
Historicism is the idea of attributing meaningful signif-

icance to space and time, such as historical period, ge- 7.1 Variants
ographical place, and local culture. Historicism tends to
be hermeneutical because it values cautious, rigorous, and 7.1.1 Hegelian
contextualized interpretation of information; or relativist,
because it rejects notions of universal, fundamental and
immutable interpretations.[1] The approach varies from
individualist theories of knowledge such as empiricism
and rationalism, which neglect the role of traditions.
The term “historicism” (Historismus) was coined by Ger-
man philosopher Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel.[2]
Over time it has developed different and somewhat di-
vergent meanings. Elements of historicism appear in the
writings of French essayist Michel de Montaigne (1533–
1592) and Italian philosopher G. B. Vico (1668–1744),
and became more fully developed with the dialectic of
Georg Hegel (1770–1831), influential in 19th-century
Europe. The writings of Karl Marx, influenced by Hegel,
also include historicism. The term is also associated with
the empirical social sciences and with the work of Franz
Boas.
Historicism may be contrasted with reductionist
theories—which assumes that all developments can
be explained by fundamental principles (such as in
economic determinism)—or with theories that posit that
historical changes occur as a result of random chance.
The Austrian-English philosopher Karl Popper con- G. W. F. Hegel (1770–1831)
demned historicism along with the determinism and
holism which he argued formed its basis. In his Poverty of Hegel viewed the realization of human freedom as the ul-
Historicism, he identified historicism with the opinion that timate purpose of history, which could only be achieved
there are “inexorable laws of historical destiny”, which through the creation of the perfect state. And this pro-
opinion he warned against. This contrasts with the con- gressive history would only occur through a dialectical
textually relative interpretation of historicism for which process: namely, the tension between the purpose of hu-
its proponents argue. Talcott Parsons criticized histori- mankind (freedom), the position that humankind cur-
cism as a case of idealistic fallacy in The Structure of So- rently finds itself, and mankind’s attempt to bend the cur-
rent world into accord with its nature. However, because
54
7.1. VARIANTS 55
humans are often not aware of the goal of both humanity romantic nationalism and its twentieth-century excesses.
and history, the process of achieving freedom is neces- The Young Hegelians, by contrast, interpreted Hegel’s
sarily one of self-discovery. Hegel also saw the progress thoughts on societies influenced by social conflict for a
toward freedom being conducted by the “spirit” (Geist), doctrine of social progress, and attempted to manipulate
a seemingly supernatural force that directed all human these forces to cause various results. Karl Marx’s doc-
actions and interactions. Yet Hegel makes clear that the trine of “historical inevitabilities” and historical materi-
spirit is a mere abstraction, and only comes into existence alism is one of the more influential reactions to this part
“through the activity of finite agents.” Thus, Hegel’s phi- of Hegel’s thought. Significantly, Karl Marx’s theory of
losophy of history is not necessarily metaphysical, despite alienation argues that capitalism disrupts traditional rela-
the fact that many of Hegel’s opponents and interpreters tionships between workers and their work.
have understood Hegel’s philosophy of history as a meta-
Hegelian historicism is related to his ideas on the means
physical and determinist view of history.[3] For example, by which human societies progress, specifically the
Karl Popper in his book The Poverty of Historicism inter-
dialectic and his conception of logic as representing the
preted Hegel’s philosophy of history as metaphysical and inner essential nature of reality. Hegel attributes the
deterministic. Popper referred to this “Hegelian” philos-
change to the “modern” need to interact with the world,
ophy of history as Historicism.[4] whereas ancient philosophers were self-contained, and
Hegel’s historicism also suggests that any human society medieval philosophers were monks. In his History of Phi-
and all human activities such as science, art, or losophy Hegel writes:
philosophy, are defined by their history. Consequently,
their essence can be sought only by understanding said In modern times things are very different;
history. The history of any such human endeavor, more- now we no longer see philosophic individuals
over, not only continues but also reacts against what has who constitute a class by themselves. With
gone before; this is the source of Hegel’s famous dialec- the present day all difference has disappeared;
tic teaching usually summarized by the slogan "thesis, an- philosophers are not monks, for we find them
tithesis, and synthesis". (Hegel did not use these terms, generally in connection with the world, partic-
although Johann Fichte did.) Hegel’s famous aphorism, ipating with others in some common work or
“Philosophy is the history of philosophy,” describes it calling. They live, not independently, but in the
bluntly. relation of citizens, or they occupy public of-
Hegel’s position is perhaps best illuminated when con- fices and take part in the life of the state. Cer-
trasted against the atomistic and reductionist opinion of tainly they may be private persons, but if so,
human societies and social activities self-defining on an their position as such does not in any way iso-
ad hoc basis through the sum of dozens of interactions. late them from their other relationship. They
Yet another contrasting model is the persistent metaphor are involved in present conditions, in the world
of a social contract. Hegel considers the relationship be- and its work and progress. Thus their phi-
tween individuals and societies as organic, not atomic: losophy is only by the way, a sort of luxury
even their social discourse is mediated by language, and and superfluity. This difference is really to be
language is based on etymology and unique character. It found in the manner in which outward condi-
thus preserves the culture of the past in thousands of half- tions have taken shape after the building up of
forgotten metaphors. To understand why a person is the the inward world of religion. In modern times,
way he is, you must examine that person in his society: namely, on account of the reconciliation of the
and to understand that society, you must understand its worldly principle with itself, the external world
history, and the forces that influenced it. The Zeitgeist, is at rest, is brought into order — worldly rela-
the “Spirit of the Age,” is the concrete embodiment of tionships, conditions, modes of life, have be-
the most important factors that are acting in human his- come constituted and organized in a manner
tory at any given time. This contrasts with teleological which is conformable to nature and rational.
theories of activity, which suppose that the end is the de- We see a universal, comprehensible connec-
termining factor of activity, as well as those who believe tion, and with that individuality likewise attains
in a tabula rasa, or blank slate, opinion, such that individ- another character and nature, for it is no longer
uals are defined by their interactions. the plastic individuality of the ancients. This
connection is of such power that every individ-
These ideas can be interpreted variously. The Right uality is under its dominion, and yet at the same
Hegelians, working from Hegel’s opinions about the or- time can construct for itself an inward world.[5]
ganicism and historically determined nature of human
societies, interpreted Hegel’s historicism as a justifica- This opinion that entanglement in society creates an in-
tion of the unique destiny of national groups and the im- dissoluble bond with expression, would become an influ-
portance of stability and institutions. Hegel’s conception ential question in philosophy, namely, the requirements
of human societies as entities greater than the individ- for individuality. It would be considered by Nietzsche,
uals who constitute them influenced nineteenth-century John Dewey and Michel Foucault directly, as well as in
56 CHAPTER 7. HISTORICISM
the work of numerous artists and authors. There have 7.1.3 New
been various responses to Hegel’s challenge. The Ro-
mantic period emphasized the ability of individual genius Main article: New Historicism
to transcend time and place, and use the materials from
their heritage to fashion works which were beyond deter-
Since the 1950s, when Jacques Lacan and Foucault ar-
mination. The modern would advance versions of John
gued that each epoch has its own knowledge system,
Locke’s infinite malleability of the human animal. Post-
within which individuals are inexorably entangled, many
structuralism would argue that since history is not present,
post-structuralists have used historicism to describe the
but only the image of history, that while an individual era
opinion that all questions must be settled within the cul-
or power structure might emphasize a particular history,
tural and social context in which they are raised. Answers
that the contradictions within the story would hinder the
cannot be found by appeal to an external truth, but only
very purposes that the history was constructed to advance.
within the confines of the norms and forms that phrase
the question. This version of historicism holds that there
are only the raw texts, markings and artifacts that exist
in the present, and the conventions used to decode them.
This school of thought is sometimes given the name of
7.1.2 Anthropological New Historicism.
The same term, new historicism is also used for a school of
In the context of anthropology and other sciences which literary scholarship which interprets a poem, drama, etc.
study the past, historicism has a different meaning. An- as an expression of or reaction to the power-structures
thropological historicism[6] is associated with the work of its society. Stephen Greenblatt is an example of this
of Franz Boas. His theory used the diffusionist concept school.
that there were a few “cradles of civilization” which grew
outwards, and merged it with the idea that societies would
adapt to their circumstances, which is called historical 7.1.4 Modern
particularism. The school of historicism grew in response
to unilinear theories that social development represented
Within the context of 20th-century philosophy, debates
adaptive fitness, and therefore existed on a continuum.
continue as to whether ahistorical and immanent meth-
While these theories were espoused by Charles Darwin
ods were sufficient to understand meaning—that is to say,
and many of his students, their application as applied in
“what you see is what you get” positivism—or whether
social Darwinism and general evolution characterized in
context, background and culture are important beyond
the theories of Herbert Spencer and Leslie White, his-
the mere need to decode words, phrases and references.
toricism was neither anti-selection, nor anti-evolution,
While post-structural historicism is relativist in its ori-
as Darwin never attempted nor offered an explanation
entation, that is, it sees each culture as its own frame
for cultural evolution. However, it attacked the notion
of reference, a large number of thinkers have embraced
that there was one normative spectrum of development,
the need for historical context, not because culture is
instead emphasizing how local conditions would create
self-referential, but because there is no more compressed
adaptations to the local environment. Julian Steward re-
means of conveying all of the relevant information ex-
futed the viability of globally and universally applica-
cept through history. This opinion is often seen as deriv-
ble adaptive standards proposing that culture was honed
ing from the work of Benedetto Croce. Recent historians
adaptively in response to the idiosyncrasies of the local
using this tradition include Thomas Kuhn.
environment, the cultural ecology, by specific evolution.
What was adaptive for one region might not be so for
another. This conclusion has likewise been adopted by
modern forms of biological evolutionary theory. 7.1.5 Christian
The primary method of historicism was empirical, Main article: Historicism (Christian eschatology)
namely that there were so many requisite inputs into a so-
ciety or event, that only by emphasizing the data available
could a theory of the source be determined. In this opin-
ion, grand theories are unprovable, and instead intensive Eschatological
field work would determine the most likely explanation
and history of a culture, and hence it is named “histori- In Christianity, the term historicism refers to the confes-
cism.” sional Protestant form of prophetical interpretation which
This opinion would produce a wide range of definition of holds that the fulfillment of biblical prophecy has oc-
what, exactly, constituted culture and history, but in each curred throughout history and continues to occur; as op-
case the only means of explaining it was in terms of the posed to other methods which limit the time-frame of
historical particulars of the culture itself. prophecy-fulfillment to the past or to the future.
7.2. CRITICS 57
Dogmatic and ecclesiastic Marxist-Leninist thought, then widely held as posing a

challenge to the philosophical basis of the West, as well as
There is also a particular opinion in ecclesiastical history theories such as Spengler’s which drew predictions about
and in the history of dogmas which has been described the future course of events from the past.
as historicist by Pope Pius XII in the encyclical Humani
In The Open Society and Its Enemies, Popper attacks “his-
generis. “They add that the history of dogmas consists in
toricism” and its proponents, among whom (as well as
the reporting of the various forms in which revealed truth
Hegel) he identifies and singles out Plato and Marx—
has been clothed, forms that have succeeded one another
calling them all “enemies of the open society”. The ob-
in accordance with the different teachings and opinions
jection he makes is that historicist positions, by claiming
that have arisen over the course of the centuries.”[7]
that there is an inevitable and deterministic pattern to his-
tory, abrogate the democratic responsibility of each one
of us to make our own free contributions to the evolution
7.2 Critics of society, and hence lead to totalitarianism.
Another of his targets is what he terms “moral histori-
7.2.1 Karl Marx cism”, the attempt to infer moral values from the course
of history; in Hegel’s words, that “history is the world’s
The social theory of Karl Marx, with respect to mod- court of justice”. This may take the form of conser-
ern scholarship, has an ambiguous relation to historicism. vatism (former might is right), positivism (might is right)
Critics of Marx have charged his theory with historicism or futurism (presumed coming might is right). As against
since its very genesis. However, the issue of historicism these, Popper says that he does not believe “that success
also finds itself important to many debates within Marx- proves anything or that history is our judge”.[10] Futurism
ism itself; the charge of historicism has been made against must be distinguished from prophecies that the right will
various types of Marxism, typically disparaged by Marx- prevail: these attempt to infer history from ethics, rather
ists as “vulgar” Marxism. than ethics from history, and are therefore historicism in
Marx himself expresses critical concerns with this his- the normal sense rather than moral historicism.
toricist tendency in his Theses on Feuerbach: He also attacks what he calls "Historism", which he re-
gards as distinct from historicism. By historism, he
The materialist doctrine that men are
means the tendency to regard every argument or idea as
products of circumstances and upbringing,
completely accounted for by its historical context, as op-
and that, therefore, changed men are prod-
posed to assessing it by its merits. In Popperian terms,
ucts of changed circumstances and changed
the "New Historicism" is an example of historism rather
upbringing, forgets that it is men who change
than of historicism proper.
circumstances and that the educator must him-
self be educated. Hence this doctrine is bound
to divide society into two parts, one of which
is superior to society. The coincidence of 7.2.3 Leo Strauss
the changing of circumstances and of human
activity or self-change [Selbstveränderung] Leo Strauss used the term historicism and reportedly
can be conceived and rationally understood termed it the single greatest threat to intellectual freedom
only as revolutionary practice. [8] insofar as it denies any attempt to address injustice-pure-
— Karl Marx, “Theses on Feuerbach, III” and-simple (such is the significance of historicism’s re-
jection of “natural right” or “right by nature”). Strauss
argued that historicism “rejects political philosophy” (in-
sofar as this stands or falls by questions of permanent,
7.2.2 Karl Popper trans-historical significance) and is based on the belief
that “all human thought, including scientific thought, rests
Karl Popper used the term historicism in his influential on premises which cannot be validated by human rea-
books The Poverty of Historicism and The Open Society son and which came from historical epoch to historical
and Its Enemies, to mean: “an approach to the social sci- epoch.” Strauss further identified R. G. Collingwood as
ences which assumes that historical prediction is their pri- the most coherent advocate of historicism in the English
mary aim, and which assumes that this aim is attainable language. Countering Collingwood’s arguments, Strauss
by discovering the 'rhythms’ or the 'patterns’, the 'laws’ or warned against historicist social scientists’ failure to ad-
the 'trends’ that underlie the evolution of history”.[9] Karl dress real-life problems—most notably that of tyranny—
Popper wrote with reference to Hegel's theory of history, to the extent that they relativize (or “subjectivize”) all eth-
which he criticized extensively. However, there is wide ical problems by placing their significance strictly in func-
dispute whether Popper’s description of “historicism” is tion of particular or ever-changing socio-material condi-
an accurate description of Hegel, or more his character- tions devoid of inherent or “objective” “value.” Similarly,
isation of his own philosophical antagonists, including Strauss criticized Eric Voegelin's abandonment of ancient
58 CHAPTER 7. HISTORICISM
political thought as guide or vehicle in interpreting mod- [4] Popper, Karl Popper (1957). The Poverty of Historicism.
ern political problems. London: Routledge. p. 4.
In his books, Natural Right and History and On Tyranny, [5] “Lectures on the History of Philosophy, Volume 3”, By
Strauss offers a complete critique of historicism as it Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Translated by E. S. Hal-
emerges in the works of Hegel, Marx, and Heidegger. dane and Frances H. Simson, M. A., University of Ne-
Many believe that Strauss also found historicism in braska Press, 1995
Edmund Burke, Tocqueville, Augustine, and John Stuart
[6] Byron Kaldis (ed.), Encyclopedia of Philosophy and the
Mill. Although it is largely disputed whether Strauss him- Social Sciences, SAGE Publications, 2013, p. 421.
self was a historicist, he often indicated that historicism
grew out of and against Christianity and was a threat to [7] Pius XII. “Humani generis, 15”. Vatican.va. Archived
civic participation, belief in human agency, religious plu- from the original on 2012-04-19. Retrieved 2012-05-21.
ralism, and, most controversially, an accurate understand- [8] “Theses on Feuerbach”. Retrieved February 20, 2009.
ing of the classical philosophers and religious prophets
themselves. Throughout his work, he warns that histori- [9] POPPER, Karl, p. 3 of The Poverty of Historicism, italics
cism, and the understanding of progress that results from in original
it, expose us to tyranny, totalitarianism, and democratic
[10] The Open Society and its Enemies, vol. 2 p. 29.
extremism. In his exchange with Alexandre Kojève in On
Tyranny, Strauss seems to blame historicism for Nazism
and Communism. In a collection of his works by Kenneth
Hart entitled Jewish Philosophy and the Crisis of Moder- 7.5 Further reading
nity, he argues that Islam, traditional Judaism, and an-
cient Greece, share a concern for sacred law that makes • Franz Boas, The Mind of Primitive Man.
them especially susceptible to historicism, and therefore
to tyranny. Strauss makes use of Nietzsche’s own critique • Hans-Georg Gadamer, Truth and Method.
of progress and historicism, although Strauss refers to Ni- • G. W. F. Hegel, 1911. The Philosophy of History.
etzsche himself (no less than to Heidegger) as a “radical
historicist” who articulated a philosophical (if only un- • Ludwig von Mises, 1957. Theory and History, chap-
tenable) justification for historicism. ter 10: “Historicism”
• Karl Popper, 1945. The Open Society and Its Ene-
mies, in 2 volumes. Routledge. ISBN 0-691-01968-
7.3 See also 1.
• Parametric determinism • Karl Popper, 1993. The Poverty of Historicism.

Routledge. ISBN 0-415-06569-0.
• Path dependence
• Sociocultural evolution
7.6 External links
7.4 References • Historicism in Anthropology
[1] Kahan, Jeffrey. “Historicism.” Renaissance Quarterly, vol.

50, no. 4 December 22, 1997, p. 1202
[2] Brian Leiter, Michael Rosen (eds.), The Oxford Handbook
of Continental Philosophy, Oxford University Press, 2007,
p. 175: "[The word 'historicism'] appears as early as the
late eighteenth century in the writings of the German ro-
mantics, who used it in a neutral sense. In 1797 Friedrich
Schlegel used 'historicism' to refer to a philosophy that
stresses the importance of history..."; Katherine Harloe,
Neville Morley (eds.), Thucydides and the Modern World:
Reception, Reinterpretation and Influence from the Renais-
sance to the Present, Cambridge University Press, 2012,
p. 81: “Already in Friedrich Schlegel’s Fragments about
Poetry and Literature (a collection of notes attributed to
1797), the word Historismus occurs five times.”
[3] Beiser, Frederick C. (1993). The Cambridge Companion
to Hegel. Cambridge: Cambridge University PRess. pp.
289–91.
Chapter 8
Karl Popper
philosophy.”[14]
In political discourse, he is known for his vigorous de-
fence of liberal democracy and the principles of social
criticism that he came to believe made a flourishing open
society possible. His political philosophy embraces ideas
from all major democratic political ideologies and at-
tempts to reconcile them: socialism/social democracy,
libertarianism/classical liberalism and conservatism.[15]
8.1 Personal life
8.1.1 Family and training
Karl Popper was born in Vienna (then in Austria-

Hungary) in 1902, to upper middle-class parents. All of
Karl Popper’s grandparents were Jewish but were not de-
vout, and as part of the cultural assimilation process, the
Popper family converted to Lutheranism before Karl was
born,[16][17] and so he received Lutheran baptism.[18][19]
Karl’s father Simon Siegmund Carl Popper was a lawyer
from Bohemia and a doctor of law at the Vienna Uni-
versity, and mother Jenny Schiff was of Silesian and
Hungarian descent. Karl Popper’s uncle was the Aus-
trian philosopher Josef Popper-Lynkeus. After establish-
Sir Karl Popper, bust in the Arkadenhof of the University of Vi-
ing themselves in Vienna, the Poppers made a rapid so-
enna cial climb in Viennese society: Simon Siegmund Carl be-
came a partner in the law firm of Vienna’s liberal mayor
Raimund Grübl and, after Grübl’s death in 1898, Simon
Sir Karl Raimund Popper CH FBA FRS[7] (28 July took over the business. Karl received his middle name
1902 – 17 September 1994) was an Austrian and British after Raimund Grübl.[16] (Popper himself, in his autobi-
philosopher and professor.[8][9][10] He is generally re- ography, erroneously recalls that Grübl’s first name was
garded as one of the 20th century’s greatest philosophers Carl.[20] ) His father was a bibliophile who had 12,000–
of science.[11][12][13] 14,000 volumes in his personal library[21] and took an in-
Popper is known for his rejection of the classical terest in philosophy, the classics, and social and political
inductivist views on the scientific method, in favour of issues.[11] Popper inherited both the library and the dis-
empirical falsification: A theory in the empirical sci- position from him.[22] Later, he would describe the at-
ences can never be proven, but it can be falsified, mean- mosphere of his upbringing as having been “decidedly
ing that it can and should be scrutinized by decisive ex- bookish.”[11]
periments. Popper is also known for his opposition to Popper left school at the age of 16 and attended lectures
the classical justificationist account of knowledge, which in mathematics, physics, philosophy, psychology and the
he replaced with critical rationalism, namely “the first history of music as a guest student at the University of Vi-
non-justificational philosophy of criticism in the history of enna. In 1919, Popper became attracted by Marxism and
59
60 CHAPTER 8. KARL POPPER
subsequently joined the Association of Socialist School ety and its Enemies. In Dunedin he met the Professor
Students.[11] He also became a member of the Social of Physiology John Carew Eccles and formed a lifelong
Democratic Workers’ Party of Austria, which was at that friendship with him. In 1946, after the Second World
time a party that fully adopted the Marxist ideology.[11] War, he moved to the United Kingdom to become reader
After the street battle in the Hörlgasse on 15 June 1919, in logic and scientific method at the London School of
when police shot eight of his unarmed party comrades, Economics. Three years later, in 1949, he was appointed
he became disillusioned by what he saw as the “pseudo- professor of logic and scientific method at the University
scientific” historical materialism of Marx, abandoned the of London. Popper was president of the Aristotelian So-
ideology, and remained a supporter of social liberalism ciety from 1958 to 1959. He retired from academic life
throughout his life. in 1969, though he remained intellectually active for the
rest of his life. In 1985, he returned to Austria so that his
He worked in street construction for a short amount of
time, but was unable to cope with the heavy labour. Con- wife could have her relatives around her during the last
months of her life; she died in November that year. Af-
tinuing to attend university as a guest student, he started
an apprenticeship as cabinetmaker, which he completed ter the Ludwig Boltzmann Gesellschaft failed to establish
as a journeyman. He was dreaming at that time of start- him as the director of a newly founded branch research-
ing a daycare facility for children, for which he assumed ing the philosophy of science, he went back again to the
the ability to make furniture might be useful. After that United Kingdom in 1986, settling in Kenley, Surrey.[7]
he did voluntary service in one of psychoanalyst Alfred
Adler's clinics for children. In 1922, he did his matura 8.1.3 Death
by way of a second chance education and finally joined
the University as an ordinary student. He completed his
examination as an elementary teacher in 1924 and started
working at an after-school care club for socially endan-
gered children. In 1925, he went to the newly founded
Pädagogisches Institut and continued studying philosophy
and psychology. Around that time he started courting
Josefine Anna Henninger, who later became his wife.
In 1928, he earned a doctorate in psychology, under the
supervision of Karl Bühler. His dissertation was titled
“Die Methodenfrage der Denkpsychologie” (The ques-
tion of method in cognitive psychology).[23] In 1929,
he obtained the authorisation to teach mathematics and
physics in secondary school, which he started doing. He
married his colleague Josefine Anna Henninger (1906–
1985) in 1930. Fearing the rise of Nazism and the threat Sir Karl Popper’s gravesite in Lainzer Friedhof, in Vienna,
of the Anschluss, he started to use the evenings and the Austria
nights to write his first book Die beiden Grundprobleme
der Erkenntnistheorie (The Two Fundamental Problems Popper died of “complications of cancer, pneumonia and
of the Theory of Knowledge). He needed to publish one kidney failure” in Kenley at the age of 92 on 17 Septem-
to get some academic position in a country that was safe ber 1994.[25][26] He had been working continuously on his
for people of Jewish descent. However, he ended up not philosophy until two weeks before, when he suddenly fell
publishing the two-volume work, but a condensed version terminally ill.[27] After cremation, his ashes were taken
of it with some new material, Logik der Forschung (The to Vienna and buried at Lainzer cemetery adjacent to the
Logic of Scientific Discovery), in 1934. Here, he criticised ORF Centre, where his wife Josefine Anna Popper (called
psychologism, naturalism, inductivism, and logical posi- ‘Hennie’) had already been buried.[28] Popper’s estate is
tivism, and put forth his theory of potential falsifiability managed by his secretary and personal assistant Melitta
as the criterion demarcating science from non-science. In Mew and her husband Raymond. Popper’s manuscripts
1935 and 1936, he took unpaid leave to go to the United went to the Hoover Institution at Stanford University,
Kingdom for a study visit.[24] partly during his lifetime and partly as supplementary ma-
terial after his death. Klagenfurt University has Popper’s
library, including his precious bibliophilia, as well as hard
8.1.2 Academic life
copies of the original Hoover material and microfilms of
In 1937, Popper finally managed to get a position that al- the supplementary material. The remaining parts of the
lowed him to emigrate to New Zealand, where he became estate were mostly transferred to The Karl Popper Char-
lecturer in philosophy at Canterbury University College itable Trust.[29] In October 2008 Klagenfurt University
of the University of New Zealand in Christchurch. It was acquired the copyrights from the estate.
here that he wrote his influential work The Open Soci- Popper and his wife chose not to have children because
8.3. PHILOSOPHY 61
of the circumstances of war in the early years of their 8.3 Philosophy

marriage. Popper commented that this “was perhaps a
cowardly but in a way a right decision”.[30] Main article: Critical rationalism
8.3.1 Background to Popper’s ideas

8.2 Honours and awards
Popper’s rejection of Marxism during his teenage years
left a profound mark on his thought. He had at one point
joined a socialist association, and for a few months in
1919 considered himself a communist.[35] Although it’s
known that Popper worked as an office boy at the com-
munist headquarters, whether or not he ever became a
communist member is unclear.[36] During this time he be-
came familiar with the Marxist view of economics, class
conflict, and history.[11] Although he quickly became dis-
illusioned with the views expounded by Marxism, his flir-
tation with the ideology led him to distance himself from
those who believed that spilling blood for the sake of a
revolution was necessary. He came to realise that when
it came to sacrificing human lives, one was to think and
act with extreme prudence.
Sir Karl Popper, Prof. Cyril Höschl. K. Popper received the

The failure of democratic parties to prevent fascism from
Honorary Doctor’s degree of Charles University in Prague (May taking over Austrian politics in the 1920s and 1930s
1994) traumatised Popper. He suffered from the direct conse-
quences of this failure, since events after the Anschluss,
the annexation of Austria by the German Reich in 1938,
Popper won many awards and honours in his field, in- forced him into permanent exile. His most important
cluding the Lippincott Award of the American Political works in the field of social science—The Poverty of His-
Science Association, the Sonning Prize, the Otto Hahn toricism (1944) and The Open Society and Its Enemies
Peace Medal of the United Nations Association of Ger- (1945)—were inspired by his reflection on the events of
many in Berlin and fellowships in the Royal Society,[7] his time and represented, in a sense, a reaction to the
British Academy, London School of Economics, King’s prevalent totalitarian ideologies that then dominated Cen-
College London, Darwin College, Cambridge, Austrian tral European politics. His books defended democratic
Academy of Sciences and Charles University, Prague. liberalism as a social and political philosophy. They also
represented extensive critiques of the philosophical pre-
Austria awarded him the Grand Decoration of Honour
in Gold for Services to the Republic of Austria in 1986, suppositions underpinning all forms of totalitarianism.[11]
and the Federal Republic of Germany its Grand Cross Popper puzzled over the stark contrast between the non-
with Star and Sash of the Order of Merit, and the peace scientific character of Freud and Adler's theories in the
class of the Order Pour le Mérite. He received the Hu- field of psychology and the revolution set off by Einstein's
manist Laureate Award from the International Academy theory of relativity in physics in the early 20th century.
of Humanism.[31] He was knighted by Queen Elizabeth Popper thought that Einstein’s theory, as a theory properly
II in 1965,[32] and was elected a Fellow of the Royal So- grounded in scientific thought and method, was highly
ciety in 1976.[7] He was invested with the Insignia of a “risky”, in the sense that it was possible to deduce con-
Companion of Honour in 1982.[33] sequences from it which were, in the light of the then-
Other awards and recognition for Popper included the dominant Newtonian physics, highly improbable (e.g.,
City of Vienna Prize for the Humanities (1965), Karl that light is deflected towards solid bodies—confirmed by
Renner Prize (1978), Austrian Decoration for Science Eddington’s experiments in 1919), and which would, if
and Art (1980), Dr. Leopold Lucas Prize of the they turned out to be false, falsify the whole theory. In
University of Tübingen (1980), Ring of Honour of the contrast, nothing could, even in principle, falsify psycho-
City of Vienna (1983) and the Premio Internazionale of analytic theories. He thus came to the conclusion that
the Italian Federico Nietzsche Society (1988). In 1992, psychoanalytic theories had more in common with prim-
he was awarded the Kyoto Prize in Arts and Philosophy itive myths than with genuine science.[11]
for “symbolising the open spirit of the 20th century”[34] This led Popper to conclude that what were regarded
and for his “enormous influence on the formation of the as the remarkable strengths of psychoanalytical theories
modern intellectual climate”.[34] were actually their weaknesses. Psychoanalytical theo-
ries were crafted in a way that made them able to refute the apparent progress of scientific knowledge—that is,
any criticism and to give an explanation for every possi- how it is that our understanding of the universe seems
ble form of human behaviour. The nature of such theories to improve over time. This problem arises from his po-
made it impossible for any criticism or experiment—even sition that the truth content of our theories, even the best
in principle—to show them to be false.[11] This realisation of them, cannot be verified by scientific testing, but can
had an important consequence when Popper later tackled only be falsified. Again, in this context the word “fal-
the problem of demarcation in the philosophy of science, sified” does not refer to something being “fake"; rather,
as it led him to posit that the strength of a scientific theory that something can be (i.e., is capable of being) shown to
lies in its both being susceptible to falsification, and not be false by observation or experiment. Some things sim-
actually being falsified by criticism made of it. He con- ply do not lend themselves to being shown to be false,
sidered that if a theory cannot, in principle, be falsified and therefore, are not falsifiable. If so, then how is it
by criticism, it is not a scientific theory.[37] that the growth of science appears to result in a growth
in knowledge? In Popper’s view, the advance of scien-
tific knowledge is an evolutionary process characterised
8.3.2 Philosophy of science by his formula:
PS1 → TT1 → EE1 → PS2 .
Falsifiability/problem of demarcation
In response to a given problem situation ( PS1 ), a num-
ber of competing conjectures, or tentative theories ( TT ),
Popper coined the term “critical rationalism” to describe
are systematically subjected to the most rigorous attempts
his philosophy. Concerning the method of science, the
at falsification possible. This process, error elimination (
term indicates his rejection of classical empiricism, and
EE ), performs a similar function for science that natural
the classical observationalist-inductivist account of sci-
selection performs for biological evolution. Theories that
ence that had grown out of it. Popper argued strongly
better survive the process of refutation are not more true,
against the latter, holding that scientific theories are ab-
but rather, more “fit”—in other words, more applicable to
stract in nature, and can be tested only indirectly, by ref-
the problem situation at hand ( PS1 ). Consequently, just
erence to their implications. He also held that scientific
as a species’ biological fitness does not ensure continued
theory, and human knowledge generally, is irreducibly
survival, neither does rigorous testing protect a scientific
conjectural or hypothetical, and is generated by the cre-
theory from refutation in the future. Yet, as it appears that
ative imagination to solve problems that have arisen in
the engine of biological evolution has, over many gen-
specific historico-cultural settings.
erations, produced adaptive traits equipped to deal with
Logically, no number of positive outcomes at the level of more and more complex problems of survival, likewise,
experimental testing can confirm a scientific theory, but a the evolution of theories through the scientific method
single counterexample is logically decisive ; it shows the may, in Popper’s view, reflect a certain type of progress:
theory, from which the implication is derived, to be false. toward more and more interesting problems ( PS2 ). For
To say that a given statement (e.g., the statement of a law Popper, it is in the interplay between the tentative theo-
of some scientific theory)—call it “T”—is "falsifiable" ries (conjectures) and error elimination (refutation) that
does not mean that “T” is false. Rather, it means that, scientific knowledge advances toward greater and greater
if “T” is false, then (in principle), “T” could be shown to problems; in a process very much akin to the interplay
be false, by observation or by experiment. Popper’s ac- between genetic variation and natural selection.
count of the logical asymmetry between verification and
falsifiability lies at the heart of his philosophy of science.
It also inspired him to take falsifiability as his criterion of Falsification/problem of induction
demarcation between what is, and is not, genuinely scien-
tific: a theory should be considered scientific if, and only Among his contributions to philosophy is his claim to
if, it is falsifiable. This led him to attack the claims of have solved the philosophical problem of induction. He
both psychoanalysis and contemporary Marxism to sci- states that while there is no way to prove that the sun will
entific status, on the basis that their theories are not falsi- rise, it is possible to formulate the theory that every day
fiable. the sun will rise; if it does not rise on some particular day,
Popper also wrote extensively against the famous the theory will be falsified and will have to be replaced by
Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics. He a different one. Until that day, there is no need to reject
strongly disagreed with Niels Bohr's instrumentalism and the assumption that the theory is true. Nor is it rational
supported Albert Einstein's realist approach to scientific according to Popper to make instead the more complex
theories about the universe. Popper’s falsifiability resem- assumption that the sun will rise until a given day, but will
bles Charles Peirce's nineteenth century fallibilism. In stop doing so the day after, or similar statements with ad-
Of Clocks and Clouds (1966), Popper remarked that he ditional conditions.
wished he had known of Peirce’s work earlier. Such a theory would be true with higher probability, be-
In All Life is Problem Solving, Popper sought to explain cause it cannot be attacked so easily: to falsify the first
8.3. PHILOSOPHY 63
one, it is sufficient to find that the sun has stopped ris- real world objects and events.
ing; to falsify the second one, one additionally needs the Popper’s solution[38] was an original contribution in the
assumption that the given day has not yet been reached. philosophy of mathematics. His idea was that a number
Popper held that it is the least likely, or most easily fal- statement such as “2 apples + 2 apples = 4 apples” can
sifiable, or simplest theory (attributes which he identified be taken in two senses. In one sense it is irrefutable and
as all the same thing) that explains known facts that one logically true, in the second sense it is factually true and
should rationally prefer. His opposition to positivism, falsifiable. Concisely, the pure mathematics “2 + 2 = 4” is
which held that it is the theory most likely to be true that always true, but, when the formula is applied to real world
one should prefer, here becomes very apparent. It is im-
apples, it is open to falsification.[39]
possible, Popper argues, to ensure a theory to be true; it
is more important that its falsity can be detected as easily
as possible.
8.3.5 Political philosophy
Popper and David Hume agreed that there is often a psy-
chological belief that the sun will rise tomorrow, but both In The Open Society and Its Enemies and The Poverty of
denied that there is logical justification for the supposi- Historicism, Popper developed a critique of historicism
tion that it will, simply because it always has in the past. and a defence of the “Open Society”. Popper consid-
Popper writes, “I approached the problem of induction ered historicism to be the theory that history develops
through Hume. Hume, I felt, was perfectly right in point- inexorably and necessarily according to knowable gen-
ing out that induction cannot be logically justified.” (Con- eral laws towards a determinate end. He argued that this
jectures and Refutations, p. 55) view is the principal theoretical presupposition underpin-
ning most forms of authoritarianism and totalitarianism.
He argued that historicism is founded upon mistaken as-
8.3.3 Rationality sumptions regarding the nature of scientific law and pre-
diction. Since the growth of human knowledge is a causal
Popper held that rationality is not restricted to the realm
factor in the evolution of human history, and since “no
of empirical or scientific theories, but that it is merely
society can predict, scientifically, its own future states of
a special case of the general method of criticism, the
knowledge”,[40] it follows, he argued, that there can be no
method of finding and eliminating contradictions in
predictive science of human history. For Popper, meta-
knowledge without ad-hoc-measures. According to this
physical and historical indeterminism go hand in hand.
view, rational discussion about metaphysical ideas, about
moral values and even about purposes is possible. Pop- In his early years Popper was impressed by Marxism,
per’s student W.W. Bartley III tried to radicalise this idea whether of Communists or socialists. An event that hap-
and made the controversial claim that not only can criti- pened in 1919 had a profound effect on him: During
cism go beyond empirical knowledge, but that everything a riot, caused by the Communists, the police shot sev-
can be rationally criticised. eral unarmed people, including some of Popper’s friends,
when they tried to free party comrades from prison. The
To Popper, who was an anti-justificationist, traditional
riot had, in fact, been part of a plan by which leaders
philosophy is misled by the false principle of sufficient
of the Communist party with connections to Béla Kun
reason. He thinks that no assumption can ever be or needs
tried to take power by a coup; Popper did not know about
ever to be justified, so a lack of justification is not a jus-
this at that time. However, he knew that the riot insti-
tification for doubt. Instead, theories should be tested
gators were swayed by the Marxist doctrine that class
and scrutinised. It is not the goal to bless theories with
struggle would produce vastly more dead men than the
claims of certainty or justification, but to eliminate errors
inevitable revolution brought about as quickly as possi-
in them. He writes, “there are no such things as good
ble, and so had no scruples to put the life of the rioters at
positive reasons; nor do we need such things [...] But
risk to achieve their selfish goal of becoming the future
[philosophers] obviously cannot quite bring [themselves]
leaders of the working class. This was the start of his
to believe that this is my opinion, let alone that it is right”
later criticism of historicism.[41][42] Popper began to re-
(The Philosophy of Karl Popper, p. 1043)
ject Marxist historicism, which he associated with ques-
tionable means, and later socialism, which he associated
with placing equality before freedom (to the possible dis-
8.3.4 Philosophy of arithmetic
advantage of equality).[43]
Popper’s principle of falsifiability runs into prima facie In 1947, Popper co-founded the Mont Pelerin Society,
difficulties when the epistemological status of mathemat- with Friedrich Hayek, Milton Friedman, Ludwig von
ics is considered. It is difficult to conceive how simple Mises and others, although he did not fully agree with the
statements of arithmetic, such as “2 + 2 = 4”, could ever think tank’s charter and ideology. Specifically, he unsuc-
be shown to be false. If they are not open to falsifica- cessfully recommended that socialists should be invited
tion they can not be scientific. If they are not scientific, it to participate, and that emphasis should be put on a hi-
needs to be explained how they can be informative about erarchy of humanitarian values rather than advocacy of a
free market as envisioned by classical liberalism.[44] per’s eyes, to support metaphysical realism and the regu-
lative idea of a search for truth.
The paradox of tolerance According to this theory, the conditions for the truth of
a sentence as well as the sentences themselves are part
Main article: Paradox of tolerance of a metalanguage. So, for example, the sentence “Snow
is white” is true if and only if snow is white. Although
many philosophers have interpreted, and continue to in-
Although Popper was an advocate of toleration, he said terpret, Tarski’s theory as a deflationary theory, Popper
that intolerance should not be tolerated, for if toler- refers to it as a theory in which “is true” is replaced with
ance allowed intolerance to succeed completely, toler- "corresponds to the facts". He bases this interpretation
ance would be threatened. In The Open Society and Its on the fact that examples such as the one described above
Enemies, he argued: refer to two things: assertions and the facts to which they
refer. He identifies Tarski’s formulation of the truth con-
Unlimited tolerance must lead to the dis- ditions of sentences as the introduction of a “metalinguis-
appearance of tolerance. If we extend unlim- tic predicate” and distinguishes the following cases:
ited tolerance even to those who are intoler-
ant, if we are not prepared to defend a tolerant 1. “John called” is true.
society against the onslaught of the intolerant,
then the tolerant will be destroyed, and toler- 2. “It is true that John called.”
ance with them. In this formulation, I do not
imply, for instance, that we should always sup- The first case belongs to the metalanguage whereas the
press the utterance of intolerant philosophies; as second is more likely to belong to the object language.
long as we can counter them by rational argu- Hence, “it is true that” possesses the logical status of a
ment and keep them in check by public opin- redundancy. “Is true”, on the other hand, is a predicate
ion, suppression would certainly be most un- necessary for making general observations such as “John
wise. But we should claim the right to suppress was telling the truth about Phillip.”
them if necessary even by force; for it may eas-
Upon this basis, along with that of the logical content of
ily turn out that they are not prepared to meet
assertions (where logical content is inversely proportional
us on the level of rational argument, but begin
to probability), Popper went on to develop his impor-
by denouncing all argument; they may forbid
tant notion of verisimilitude or “truthlikeness”. The in-
their followers to listen to rational argument,
tuitive idea behind verisimilitude is that the assertions or
because it is deceptive, and teach them to an-
hypotheses of scientific theories can be objectively mea-
swer arguments by the use of their fists or pis-
sured with respect to the amount of truth and falsity that
tols. We should therefore claim, in the name
they imply. And, in this way, one theory can be eval-
of tolerance, the right not to tolerate the in-
uated as more or less true than another on a quantitative
tolerant. We should claim that any movement
basis which, Popper emphasises forcefully, has nothing to
preaching intolerance places itself outside the
do with “subjective probabilities” or other merely “epis-
law, and we should consider incitement to in-
temic” considerations.
tolerance and persecution as criminal, in the
same way as we should consider incitement to The simplest mathematical formulation that Popper gives
murder, or to kidnapping, or to the revival of of this concept can be found in the tenth chapter of
the slave trade, as criminal.[45][46][47][48] Conjectures and Refutations. Here he defines it as:
8.3.6 Metaphysics Vs(a) = CTv (a) − CTf (a)
Truth where Vs(a) is the verisimilitude of a, CTv (a) is a mea-

sure of the content of the truth of a, and CTf (a) is a
As early as 1934, Popper wrote of the search for truth as measure of the content of the falsity of a.
“one of the strongest motives for scientific discovery.”[49] Popper’s original attempt to define not just verisimilitude,
Still, he describes in Objective Knowledge (1972) early but an actual measure of it, turned out to be inadequate.
concerns about the much-criticised notion of truth as cor- However, it inspired a wealth of new attempts.[11]
respondence. Then came the semantic theory of truth
formulated by the logician Alfred Tarski and published
in 1933. Popper writes of learning in 1935 of the con- Cosmological pluralism
sequences of Tarski’s theory, to his intense joy. The the-
ory met critical objections to truth as correspondence and Main article: Popper’s three worlds
thereby rehabilitated it. The theory also seemed, in Pop-
8.3. PHILOSOPHY 65
Knowledge, for Popper, was objective, both in the sense of adaptation, and it allows us even to study in
that it is objectively true (or truthlike), and also in detail the mechanism at work.[51]
the sense that knowledge has an ontological status (i.e.,
knowledge as object) independent of the knowing sub- He also noted that theism, presented as explaining adap-
ject (Objective Knowledge: An Evolutionary Approach, tation, “was worse than an open admission of failure, for
1972). He proposed three worlds:[50] World One, being it created the impression that an ultimate explanation had
the physical world, or physical states; World Two, being been reached”.[52]
the world of mind, or mental states, ideas, and percep-
tions; and World Three, being the body of human knowl- Popper later said:
edge expressed in its manifold forms, or the products of
the second world made manifest in the materials of the When speaking here of Darwinism, I shall
first world (i.e., books, papers, paintings, symphonies, speak always of today’s theory—that is Dar-
and all the products of the human mind). World Three, win’s own theory of natural selection supported
he argued, was the product of individual human beings by the Mendelian theory of heredity, by the
in exactly the same sense that an animal path is the prod- theory of the mutation and recombination of
uct of individual animals, and that, as such, has an exis- genes in a gene pool, and by the decoded ge-
tence and evolution independent of any individual know- netic code. This is an immensely impressive
ing subjects. The influence of World Three, in his view, and powerful theory. The claim that it com-
on the individual human mind (World Two) is at least as pletely explains evolution is of course a bold
strong as the influence of World One. In other words, the claim, and very far from being established. All
knowledge held by a given individual mind owes at least scientific theories are conjectures, even those
as much to the total accumulated wealth of human knowl- that have successfully passed many severe and
edge, made manifest, as to the world of direct experience. varied tests. The Mendelian underpinning of
As such, the growth of human knowledge could be said modern Darwinism has been well tested, and
to be a function of the independent evolution of World so has the theory of evolution which says that
Three. Many contemporary philosophers, such as Daniel all terrestrial life has evolved from a few prim-
Dennett, have not embraced Popper’s Three World con- itive unicellular organisms, possibly even from
jecture, due mostly, it seems, to its resemblance to mind- one single organism.[52]
body dualism.
In 1974, regarding DNA and the origin of life he said:
Origin and evolution of life
What makes the origin of life and of the
The creation–evolution controversy in the United States genetic code a disturbing riddle is this: the ge-
raises the issue of whether creationistic ideas may be le- netic code is without any biological function
gitimately called science and whether evolution itself may unless it is translated; that is, unless it leads to
be legitimately called science. In the debate, both sides the synthesis of the proteins whose structure is
and even courts in their decisions have frequently invoked laid down by the code. But, as Monod points
Popper’s criterion of falsifiability (see Daubert standard). out, the machinery by which the cell (at least
In this context, passages written by Popper are frequently the non-primitive cell, which is the only one
quoted in which he speaks about such issues himself. For we know) translates the code “consists of at
example, he famously stated "Darwinism is not a testable least fifty macromolecular components which
scientific theory, but a metaphysical research program— are themselves coded in the DNA". (Monod,
a possible framework for testable scientific theories.” He 1970;[53] 1971, 143[54] ).
continued: Thus the code can not be translated ex-
cept by using certain products of its translation.
This constitutes a really baffling circle; a vi-
And yet, the theory is invaluable. I do not
cious circle, it seems, for any attempt to form a
see how, without it, our knowledge could have
model, or theory, of the genesis of the genetic
grown as it has done since Darwin. In try-
code.
ing to explain experiments with bacteria which
become adapted to, say, penicillin, it is quite Thus we may be faced with the possibil-
clear that we are greatly helped by the theory ity that the origin of life (like the origin of the
of natural selection. Although it is metaphys- universe) becomes an impenetrable barrier to
ical, it sheds much light upon very concrete science, and a residue to all attempts to reduce
and very practical researches. It allows us to biology to chemistry and physics.[55]
study adaptation to a new environment (such as
a penicillin-infested environment) in a rational He explained that the difficulty of testing had led some
way: it suggests the existence of a mechanism people to describe natural selection as a tautology, and
that he too had in the past described the theory as “al- living organisms themselves have goals, and act accord-
most tautological”, and had tried to explain how the the- ing to these goals, each guided by a central control. In
ory could be untestable (as is a tautology) and yet of great its most sophisticated form, this is the brain of humans,
scientific interest: but controls also exist in much less sophisticated ways for
species of lower complexity, such as the amoeba. This
My solution was that the doctrine of natural control organ plays a special role in evolution—it is the
selection is a most successful metaphysical re- “spearhead of evolution”. The goals bring the purpose
search programme. It raises detailed problems into the world. Mutations in the genes that determine the
in many fields, and it tells us what we would structure of the control may then cause drastic changes
expect of an acceptable solution of these prob- in behaviour, preferences and goals, without having an
lems. I still believe that natural selection works impact on the organism’s phenotype. Popper postulates
in this way as a research programme. Nev- that such purely behavioural changes are less likely to be
ertheless, I have changed my mind about the lethal for the organism compared to drastic changes of
testability and logical status of the theory of the phenotype.[60]
natural selection; and I am glad to have an op-
Popper contrasts his views with the notion of the “hopeful
portunity to make a recantation.[52]
monster” that has large phenotype mutations and calls it
the “hopeful behavioural monster”. After behaviour has
Popper summarized his new view as follows:
changed radically, small but quick changes of the phe-
The theory of natural selection may be so notype follow to make the organism fitter to its changed
formulated that it is far from tautological. In goals. This way it looks as if the phenotype were changing
this case it is not only testable, but it turns out guided by some invisible hand, while it is merely natural
to be not strictly universally true. There seem selection working in combination with the new behaviour.
to be exceptions, as with so many biological For example, according to this hypothesis, the eating
theories; and considering the random charac- habits of the giraffe must have changed before its elon-
ter of the variations on which natural selection gated neck evolved. Popper contrasted this view as “evo-
operates, the occurrence of exceptions is not lution from within” or “active Darwinism” (the organism
surprising. Thus not all phenomena of evolu- actively trying to discover new ways of life and being on
tion are explained by natural selection alone. a quest for conquering new ecological niches),[61][62] with
Yet in every particular case it is a challenging the naturalistic “evolution from without” (which has the
research program to show how far natural se- picture of a hostile environment only trying to kill the
lection can possibly be held responsible for the mostly passive organism, or perhaps segregate some of
evolution of a particular organ or behavioural its groups).
program.[56] Popper was a key figure encouraging patent lawyer
Günter Wächtershäuser to publish his Iron–sulfur world
These frequently quoted passages are only a very small theory on abiogenesis and his criticism of “soup” theory.
part of what Popper wrote on the issue of evolution, how-
About the creation-evolution controversy, Popper wrote
ever, and give the wrong impression that he mainly dis-
that he considered it “a somewhat sensational clash be-
cussed questions of its falsifiability. Popper never in-
tween a brilliant scientific hypothesis concerning the his-
vented this criterion to give justifiable use of words like
tory of the various species of animals and plants on earth,
science. In fact, Popper says at the beginning of Logic of
and an older metaphysical theory which, incidentally,
Scientific Discovery that it is not his aim to define science,
happened to be part of an established religious belief”
and that science can in fact be defined quite arbitrarily.
with a footnote to the effect that "[he] agree[s] with Pro-
Popper had his own sophisticated views on evolution[57] fessor C.E. Raven when, in his Science, Religion, and the
that go much beyond what the frequently-quoted pas- Future, 1943, he calls this conflict “a storm in a Victorian
sages say.[58] In effect, Popper agreed with some of the tea-cup"; though the force of this remark is perhaps a lit-
points of both creationists and naturalists, but also dis- tle impaired by the attention he pays to the vapours still
agreed with both views on crucial aspects. Popper un- emerging from the cup—to the Great Systems of Evo-
derstood the universe as a creative entity that invents new lutionist Philosophy, produced by Bergson, Whitehead,
things, including life, but without the necessity of some- Smuts, and others.”[63]
thing like a god, especially not one who is pulling strings
from behind the curtain. He said that evolution must, as
the creationists say, work in a goal-directed way[59] but Free will
disagreed with their view that it must necessarily be the
hand of god that imposes these goals onto the stage of Popper and John Eccles speculated on the problem
life. of free will for many years, generally agreeing on an
Instead, he formulated the spearhead model of evolution, interactionist dualist theory of mind. However, although
a version of genetic pluralism. According to this model, Popper was a body-mind dualist, he did not think that the
8.4. INFLUENCE 67
mind is a substance separate from the body: he thought brought about by quantum theoretical indeter-
that mental or psychological properties or aspects of peo- minacy (including radiation effects). Accord-
ple are distinct from physical ones.[64] ingly, they are also probabilistic and not in
When he gave the second Arthur Holly Compton Memo- themselves originally selected or adequate, but
rial Lecture in 1965, Popper revisited the idea of on them there subsequently operates natural se-
quantum indeterminacy as a source of human freedom. lection which eliminates inappropriate muta-
Eccles had suggested that “critically poised neurons” tions. Now we could conceive of a similar pro-
might be influenced by the mind to assist in a decision. cess with respect to new ideas and to free-will
decisions, and similar things.
Popper criticised Compton’s idea of amplified quantum
events affecting the decision. He wrote:
That is to say, a range of possibilities is
The idea that the only alternative to deter- brought about by a probabilistic and quantum
minism is just sheer chance was taken over by mechanically characterised set of proposals, as
Schlick, together with many of his views on it were—of possibilities brought forward by the
the subject, from Hume, who asserted that “the brain. On these there then operates a kind
removal” of what he called “physical neces- of selective procedure which eliminates those
sity” must always result in “the same thing with proposals and those possibilities which are not
chance. As objects must either be conjoin'd or acceptable to the mind.[68]
not,... 'tis impossible to admit of any medium
betwixt chance and an absolute necessity”.
8.3.7 Religion and God
I shall later argue against this important In an interview[30] that Popper gave in 1969 with the con-
doctrine according to which the alternative to dition that it should be kept secret until after his death,
determinism is sheer chance. Yet I must admit he summarised his position on God as follows: “I don't
that the doctrine seems to hold good for the know whether God exists or not. ... Some forms of athe-
quantum-theoretical models which have been ism are arrogant and ignorant and should be rejected,
designed to explain, or at least to illustrate, the but agnosticism—to admit that we don't know and to
possibility of human freedom. This seems to search—is all right. ... When I look at what I call the gift
be the reason why these models are so very of life, I feel a gratitude which is in tune with some reli-
unsatisfactory.[65] gious ideas of God. However, the moment I even speak
of it, I am embarrassed that I may do something wrong
Hume’s and Schlick’s ontological thesis to God in talking about God.” He objected to organised
that there cannot exist anything intermediate religion, saying “it tends to use the name of God in vain”,
between chance and determinism seems to me noting the danger of fanaticism because of religious con-
not only highly dogmatic (not to say doctri- flicts: “The whole thing goes back to myths which, though
naire) but clearly absurd; and it is understand- they may have a kernel of truth, are untrue. Why then
able only on the assumption that they believed should the Jewish myth be true and the Indian and Egyp-
in a complete determinism in which chance tian myths not be true?" In a letter unrelated to the in-
has no status except as a symptom of our terview, he stressed his tolerant attitude: “Although I am
ignorance.[66] not for religion, I do think that we should show respect
for anybody who believes honestly.”[7][69][70]
Popper called not for something between chance and ne-
cessity but for a combination of randomness and control
to explain freedom, though not yet explicitly in two stages 8.4 Influence
with random chance before the controlled decision, say-
ing, “freedom is not just chance but, rather, the result of
Popper played a vital role in establishing the philosophy
a subtle interplay between something almost random or
of science as a vigorous, autonomous discipline within
haphazard, and something like a restrictive or selective
[67] philosophy, through his own prolific and influential
control.”
works, and also through his influence on his own contem-
Then in his 1977 book with John Eccles, The Self and poraries and students. Popper founded in 1946 the De-
its Brain, Popper finally formulates the two-stage model partment of Philosophy, Logic and Scientific Method at
in a temporal sequence. And he compares free will to the London School of Economics and there lectured and
Darwinian evolution and natural selection: influenced both Imre Lakatos and Paul Feyerabend, two
of the foremost philosophers of science in the next gen-
New ideas have a striking similarity to ge- eration of philosophy of science. (Lakatos significantly
netic mutations. Now, let us look for a moment modified Popper’s position,[71]:1 and Feyerabend repudi-
at genetic mutations. Mutations are, it seems, ated it entirely, but the work of both is deeply influenced
8.5 Criticism
Most criticisms of Popper’s philosophy are of the falsi-
fication, or error elimination, element in his account of
problem solving. Popper presents falsifiability as both an
ideal and as an important principle in a practical method
of effective human problem solving; as such, the current
conclusions of science are stronger than pseudo-sciences
or non-sciences, insofar as they have survived this partic-
ularly vigorous selection method.
He does not argue that any such conclusions are therefore
true, or that this describes the actual methods of any par-
ticular scientist. Rather, it is recommended as an essen-
tial principle of methodology that, if enacted by a system
or community, will lead to slow but steady progress of a
sort (relative to how well the system or community enacts
the method). It has been suggested that Popper’s ideas are
often mistaken for a hard logical account of truth because
Sir Karl Popper in 1990
of the historical co-incidence of their appearing at the
same time as logical positivism, the followers of which
mistook his aims for their own.[76]
The Quine-Duhem thesis argues that it’s impossible to
test a single hypothesis on its own, since each one comes
as part of an environment of theories. Thus we can only
say that the whole package of relevant theories has been
collectively falsified, but cannot conclusively say which
by Popper and engaged with many of the problems that element of the package must be replaced. An example
Popper set.) of this is given by the discovery of the planet Neptune:
when the motion of Uranus was found not to match the
While there is some dispute as to the matter of influ- predictions of Newton’s laws, the theory “There are seven
ence, Popper had a long-standing and close friendship planets in the solar system” was rejected, and not New-
with economist Friedrich Hayek, who was also brought ton’s laws themselves. Popper discussed this critique of
to the London School of Economics from Vienna. Each naïve falsificationism in Chapters 3 and 4 of The Logic
found support and similarities in the other’s work, citing of Scientific Discovery. For Popper, theories are accepted
each other often, though not without qualification. In a or rejected via a sort of selection process. Theories that
letter to Hayek in 1944, Popper stated, “I think I have say more about the way things appear are to be preferred
learnt more from you than from any other living thinker, over those that do not; the more generally applicable a
except perhaps Alfred Tarski.”[72] Popper dedicated his theory is, the greater its value. Thus Newton’s laws, with
Conjectures and Refutations to Hayek. For his part, Hayek their wide general application, are to be preferred over the
dedicated a collection of papers, Studies in Philosophy, much more specific “the solar system has seven planets”.
Politics, and Economics, to Popper, and in 1982 said,
"...ever since his Logik der Forschung first came out in Thomas Kuhn, in his influential book The Structure of
1934, I have been a complete adherent to his general the- Scientific Revolutions, argued that scientists work in a se-
ory of methodology.”[73] ries of paradigms, and that falsificationist methodologies
would make science impossible:
Popper also had long and mutually influential friend-
ships with art historian Ernst Gombrich, biologist Peter No theory ever solves all the puzzles with
Medawar, and neuroscientist John Carew Eccles. The which it is confronted at a given time; nor are
German jurist Reinhold Zippelius uses Popper’s method the solutions already achieved often perfect.
of “trial and error” in his legal philosophy.[74] On the contrary, it is just the incompleteness
Popper’s influence, both through his work in philosophy and imperfection of the existing data-theory fit
of science and through his political philosophy, has also that, at any given time, define many of the puz-
extended beyond the academy. One of Popper’s students zles that characterize normal science. If any
at the London School of Economics was George Soros, and every failure to fit were ground for theory
who later became a billionaire investor, and among whose rejection, all theories ought to be rejected at
philanthropic foundations is the Open Society Institute, a all times. On the other hand, if only severe
think-tank named in honour of Popper’s The Open Society failure to fit justifies theory rejection, then the
and Its Enemies.[75] Popperians will require some criterion of “im-
8.5. CRITICISM 69
probability” or of “degree of falsification”. In ples were pointed out by Carl Gustav Hempel. Hempel
developing one they will almost certainly en- came to acknowledge that Logical Positivism’s verifica-
counter the same network of difficulties that tionism was untenable, but argued that falsificationism
has haunted the advocates of the various prob- was equally untenable on logical grounds alone. The sim-
abilistic verification theories [that the evalua- plest response to this is that, because Popper describes
tive theory cannot itself be legitimated without how theories attain, maintain and lose scientific status,
appeal to another evaluative theory, leading to individual consequences of currently accepted scientific
regress][77] theories are scientific in the sense of being part of tenta-
tive scientific knowledge, and both of Hempel’s examples
Popper’s student Imre Lakatos attempted to reconcile fall under this category. For instance, atomic theory im-
Kuhn’s work with falsificationism by arguing that science plies that all metals melt at some temperature.
progresses by the falsification of research programs rather An early adversary of Popper’s critical rationalism, Karl-
than the more specific universal statements of naïve fal- Otto Apel attempted a comprehensive refutation of Pop-
sificationism. Another of Popper’s students Paul Feyer- per’s philosophy. In Transformation der Philosophie
abend ultimately rejected any prescriptive methodology, (1973), Apel charged Popper with being guilty of,
and argued that the only universal method characterising amongst other things, a pragmatic contradiction.[82]
scientific progress was anything goes.
Charles Taylor accuses Popper of exploiting his world-
Popper claimed to have recognised already in the 1934 wide fame as an epistemologist to diminish the impor-
version of his Logic of Discovery a fact later stressed tance of philosophers of the 20th century continental
by Kuhn, “that scientists necessarily develop their ideas tradition. According to Taylor, Popper’s criticisms are
within a definite theoretical framework”, and to that ex- completely baseless, but they are received with an at-
tent to have anticipated Kuhn’s central point about “nor- tention and respect that Popper’s “intrinsic worth hardly
mal science”.[78] (But Popper criticised what he saw as merits”.[83]
Kuhn’s relativism.[79] ) Also, in his collection Conjectures
In 2004, philosopher and psychologist Michel ter Hark
and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge
(Groningen, The Netherlands) published a book, called
(Harper & Row, 1963), Popper writes, “Science must be-
Popper, Otto Selz and the rise of evolutionary epistemol-
gin with myths, and with the criticism of myths; neither
ogy, in which he claimed that Popper took some of his
with the collection of observations, nor with the invention
ideas from his tutor, the German psychologist Otto Selz.
of experiments, but with the critical discussion of myths,
Selz never published his ideas, partly because of the rise
and of magical techniques and practices. The scientific
of Nazism, which forced him to quit his work in 1933,
tradition is distinguished from the pre-scientific tradition
and the prohibition of referring to Selz' work. Popper,
in having two layers. Like the latter, it passes on its theo-
the historian of ideas and his scholarship, is criticised in
ries; but it also passes on a critical attitude towards them.
some academic quarters for his rejection of Plato, Hegel
The theories are passed on, not as dogmas, but rather with
and Marx.[84]
the challenge to discuss them and improve upon them.”
According to John N. Gray, Popper held that “a theory is
Another objection is that it is not always possible to
scientific only in so far as it is falsifiable, and should be
demonstrate falsehood definitively, especially if one is us-
given up as soon as it is falsified.”[85] By applying Popper’s
ing statistical criteria to evaluate a null hypothesis. More
account of scientific method, Gray’s Straw Dogs states
generally it is not always clear, if evidence contradicts a
that this would have “killed the theories of Darwin and
hypothesis, that this is a sign of flaws in the hypothesis
Einstein at birth.” When they were first advanced, Gray
rather than of flaws in the evidence. However, this is a
claims, each of them was “at odds with some available
misunderstanding of what Popper’s philosophy of science
evidence; only later did evidence become available that
sets out to do. Rather than offering a set of instructions
gave them crucial support.”[85] Against this, Gray seeks
that merely need to be followed diligently to achieve sci-
to establish the irrationalist thesis that “the progress of
ence, Popper makes it clear in The Logic of Scientific Dis-
science comes from acting against reason.”[85]
covery that his belief is that the resolution of conflicts be-
tween hypotheses and observations can only be a matter Gray does not, however, give any indication of what avail-
of the collective judgment of scientists, in each individual able evidence these theories were at odds with, and his
case.[80] appeal to “crucial support” illustrates the very inductivist
[81] approach to science that Popper sought to show was log-
In a book called Science Versus Crime, Houck writes
ically illegitimate. For, according to Popper, Einstein’s
that Popper’s falsificationism can be questioned logically:
theory was at least equally as well corroborated as New-
it is not clear how Popper would deal with a statement like
ton’s upon its initial conception; they both equally well
“for every metal, there is a temperature at which it will
accounted for all the hitherto available evidence. More-
melt.” The hypothesis cannot be falsified by any possible
over, since Einstein also explained the empirical refuta-
observation, for there will always be a higher tempera-
tions of Newton’s theory, general relativity was immedi-
ture than tested at which the metal may in fact melt, yet
ately deemed suitable for tentative acceptance on the Pop-
it seems to be a valid scientific hypothesis. These exam-
perian account.[86] Indeed, Popper wrote, several decades • Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scien-
before Gray’s criticism, in reply to a critical essay by Imre tific Knowledge, 1963, ISBN 0-415-04318-2
Lakatos:
• Objective Knowledge: An Evolutionary Approach,
It is true that I have used the terms “elim- 1972, Rev. ed., 1979, ISBN 0-19-875024-2
ination”, and even “rejection” when discussing
• Unended Quest: An Intellectual Autobiography,
“refutation”. But it is clear from my main dis-
2002 [1976]. ISBN 0-415-28589-5 (ISBN 0-415-
cussion that these terms mean, when applied
28590-9)
to a scientific theory, that it is eliminated as a
contender for the truth—that is, refuted, but • The Self and Its Brain: An Argument for Interaction-
not necessarily abandoned. Moreover, I have ism (with Sir John C. Eccles), 1977, ISBN 0-415-
often pointed out that any such refutation is 05898-8
fallible. It is a typical matter of conjecture
and of risk-taking whether or not we accept • In Search of a Better World, 1984, ISBN 0-415-
a refutation and, furthermore, of whether we 13548-6
“abandon” a theory or, say, only modify it, or
even stick to it, and try to find some alternative, • Die Zukunft ist offen (The Future is Open) (with
and methodologically acceptable, way round Konrad Lorenz), 1985 (in German), ISBN 3-492-
the problem involved. That I do not conflate 00640-X
even admitted falsity with the need to abandon
a theory may be seen from the fact that I have • A World of Propensities, 1990, ISBN 1-85506-000-
frequently pointed out, that Einstein regarded 0
general relativity as false, yet as a better ap- • The Lesson of this Century, (Interviewer: Gian-
proximation to the truth than Newton’s gravita- carlo Bosetti, English translation: Patrick Camiller),
tional theory. He certainly did not “abandon” 1992, ISBN 0-415-12958-3
it. But he worked to the end of his life in an
attempt to improve upon it by way of a further • All life is Problem Solving, 1994, ISBN 0-415-
generalization.[87] 24992-9
• The Myth of the Framework: In Defence of Sci-

8.6 Bibliography ence and Rationality (edited by Mark Amadeus Not-
turno) 1994. ISBN 0-415-13555-9
• The Two Fundamental Problems of the Theory of • Knowledge and the Mind-Body Problem: In Defence
Knowledge, 1930–33 (as a typescript circulating as of Interaction (edited by Mark Amadeus Notturno)
Die beiden Grundprobleme der Erkenntnistheorie; as 1994 ISBN 0-415-11504-3
a German book 1979, as English translation 2008),
ISBN 0-415-39431-7 • The World of Parmenides, Essays on the Presocratic
• The Logic of Scientific Discovery, 1934 (as Logik der Enlightenment, 1998, (Edited by Arne F. Petersen
Forschung, English translation 1959), ISBN 0-415- with the assistance of Jørgen Mejer), ISBN 0-415-
27844-9 17301-9
• The Poverty of Historicism, 1936 (private reading at • After The Open Society, 2008. (Edited by Jeremy
a meeting in Brussels, 1944/45 as a series of jour- Shearmur and Piers Norris Turner, this volume con-
nal articles in Econometrica, 1957 a book), ISBN tains a large number of Popper’s previously unpub-
0-415-06569-0 lished or uncollected writings on political and social
themes.) ISBN 978-0-415-30908-0
• The Open Society and Its Enemies, 1945 Vol 1 ISBN
0-415-29063-5, Vol 2 ISBN 0-415-29063-5 • Frühe Schriften, 2006 (Edited by Troels Eggers
Hansen, includes Popper’s writings and publications
• Quantum Theory and the Schism in Physics, 1956/57
from before the Logic, including his previously un-
(as privately circulated galley proofs; published as a
published thesis, dissertation and journal articles
book 1982), ISBN 0-415-09112-8
published that relate to the Wiener Schulreform)
• The Open Universe: An Argument for Indetermin- ISBN 978-3-16-147632-7
ism, 1956/57 (as privately circulated galley proofs;
published as a book 1982), ISBN 0-415-07865-2
• Realism and the Aim of Science, 1956/57 (as pri- 8.7 Filmography
vately circulated galley proofs; published as a book
1983), ISBN 0-09-151450-9 • Interview Karl Popper, Open Universiteit, 1988.
8.9. REFERENCES 71
8.8 See also [13] Shea, B. “Popper, Karl: Philosophy of Science”, in Inter-
net Encyclopedia of Philosophy, James Feiser (ed.) and
• Calculus of predispositions Bradley Dowden (ed.). Retrieved 10 Feb 2016.
[14] William W. Bartley: Rationality versus the Theory of Ra-

• Contributions to liberal theory
tionality, In Mario Bunge: The Critical Approach to Sci-
• Critique of psychoanalysis ence and Philosophy (The Free Press of Glencoe, 1964),
section IX.
• Evolutionary epistemology
[15] “Karl Popper: Political Philosophy [Internet Encyclopedia
• Liberalism in Austria of Philosophy]". Iep.utm.edu. 2 August 2013. Retrieved
12 August 2014.
• Popper legend
[16] Malachi Haim Hacohen. Karl Popper – The Formative
• Positivism dispute Years, 1902–1945: Politics and Philosophy in Interwar
Vienna. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
• Predispositioning theory pp. 10 & 23, ISBN 0-521-47053-6
• Poper Scientific Stand up [17] Magee, Bryan. The Story of Philosophy. New York: DK
Publishing, 2001. p. 221, ISBN 0-7894-3511-X
[18] “Eichstätter Karl Popper-Seite”. Helmut-zenz.de. Re-

8.9 References trieved 21 December 2012.
[1] Thornton, Stephen (2015-01-01). Zalta, Edward N., ed. [19] Karl Popper: Kritischer Rationalismus und Verteidigung
Karl Popper (Winter 2015 ed.). (“Popper professes to der offenen Gesellschaft. In Josef Rattner, Gerhard
be anti-conventionalist, and his commitment to the cor- Danzer (Eds.): Europäisches Österreich: Literatur- und
respondence theory of truth places him firmly within the geistesgeschichtliche Essays über den Zeitraum 1800–
realist’s camp.”) 1980, p. 293
[2] “Cartesianism (philosophy): Contemporary influences” in [20] Karl R. Popper ([1976] 2002. Unended Quest: An Intel-
Britannica Online Encyclopedia lectual Autobiography, p. 6.
[3] Hacohen, Malachi Haim. Karl Popper – The Formative [21] Raphael, F. The Great Philosophers London: Phoenix, p.
Years, 1902–1945: Politics and Philosophy in Interwar 447, ISBN 0-7538-1136-7
Vienna. Cambridge University Press, 2000. pp. 83–85.
[22] Manfred Lube: Karl R. Popper – Die Bibliothek des
[4] Thomas S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Philosophen als Spiegel seines Lebens. Imprimatur. Ein
Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1970 Jahrbuch für Bücherfreunde. Neue Folge Band 18 (2003),
(2nd ed.), p. 146. S. 207–38, ISBN 3-447-04723-2.
[5] Michael Redhead, From Physics to Metaphysics, Cam- [23] “Cf. Thomas Sturm: “Bühler and Popper: Kantian ther-
bridge University Press, 1996, p. 15. apies for the crisis in psychology,” in: Studies in History
and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, 43
[6] Roger Penrose, Shadows of the Mind, Oxford University
(2012), pp. 462–72”. Retrieved 21 December 2012.
Press, 1994.
[7] Miller, D. (1997). “Sir Karl Raimund Popper, C. H., F. [24] A. C. Ewing was responsible for Karl Popper’s 1936 invi-
B. A. 28 July 1902 – 17 September 1994.: Elected F.R.S. tation to Cambridge (Edmonds and Eidinow 2001, p. 67).
1976”. Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal So-
[25] “Sir Karl Popper Is Dead at 92. Philosopher of 'Open So-
ciety. 43: 369–409. doi:10.1098/rsbm.1997.0021.
ciety'". New York Times. 18 September 1994. Retrieved
[8] Watkins, J. (1996). “Obituary of Karl Popper, 1902– 15 November 2012. Sir Karl Popper, a philosopher who
1994”. Proceedings of the British Academy. 94: 645–84. was a defender of democratic systems of government, died
today in a hospital here. He was 92. He died of compli-
[9] Karl Popper (1902–94) advocated by Andrew Marr BBC cations of cancer, pneumonia and kidney failure, said a
In Our Time – Greatest Philosopher, Retrieved Jan 2015 manager at the hospital in this London suburb.
[10] Adams, I.; Dyson, R.W., Fifty Major Political Thinkers, [26] “Opensociety.de”. Opensociety.de. Retrieved 12 August
Routledge, 2007, p. 196. “He became a British citizen in 2014.
1945”.
[27] “David Miller”. Fs1.law.keio.ac.jp. 17 September 1994.
[11] Thornton, Stephen (2015-01-01). Zalta, Edward N., ed. Retrieved 21 December 2012.
Karl Popper (Winter 2015 ed.).
[28] Sir Karl Popper at Find a Grave
[12] Horgan, J (1992). “Profile: Karl R. Popper – The Intel-
lectual Warrior”. Scientific American. 267 (5): 38–44. [29] “The Karl Popper Charitable Trust”. OpenCharities. 10
doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1192-38. September 2012. Retrieved 21 December 2012.
[30] Edward Zerin: Karl Popper On God: The Lost Interview. [47] The Open Society And Its Enemies, Complete: Volumes
Skeptic 6:2 (1998) I and II, Karl R. Popper, 1962, Fifth edition (revised),
1966, (PDF)
[31] “The International Academy of Humanism”. Secularhu-
manism.org. Retrieved 12 August 2014. [48] The Open Society and Its Enemies, p. 581
[32] “London Gazette”. 5 March 1965. p. 22. Retrieved 1 [49] “Karl Popper, the enemy of certainty, part 1: a rejection
December 2012. of empiricism”. The Guardian. Retrieved 22 February
2014.
[33] “London Gazette”. 12 June 1982. p. 5. Retrieved 1 De-
cember 2012. [50] Karl Popper, Three Worlds, The Tanner Lecture on Hu-
[34] “Karl Raimund Popper”. Inamori Foundation. Retrieved man Values, The University of Michigan, 1978.
9 June 2012.
[51] Unended Quest ch. 37 – see Bibliography
[35] Ian Charles Jarvie; Karl Milford; David W. Miller (2006).
[52] “CA211.1: Popper on natural selection’s testability”.
Karl Popper: A Centenary Assessment Volume I. Ashgate
talk.origins. 2 November 2005. Retrieved 26 May 2009.
Publishing, Ltd. pp. 129–. ISBN 978-0-7546-5375-2.
[36] Malachi Haim Hacohen (4 March 2002). Karl Popper - [53] Le Hasard et la Nécessité. Editions du Seuil, Paris.
The Formative Years, 1902-1945: Politics and Philosophy
[54] Chance and Necessity. Knopf, New York
in Interwar Vienna. Cambridge University Press. pp. 81–
. ISBN 978-0-521-89055-7. [55] Studies in the Philosophy of Biology: Reduction and Re-
lated Problems – Google Books. Books.google.com. Re-
[37] One of the severest critics of Popper’s so-called de-
trieved 18 October 2015.
marcation thesis was Adolf Grünbaum, 'Is Falsifiability
the Touchstone of Scientific Rationality?' (1976), and [56] Evolutionary Epistemology, Rationality, and the Sociol-
'The Degeneration of Popper’s Theory of Demarcation' ogy of Knowledge – Gerard Radnitzky – Google Books.
(1989), both in his Collected Works (edited by Thomas Books.google.com. Retrieved 12 August 2014.
Kupka), vol. I, New York: Oxford University Press 2013,
ch. 1 (pp. 9–42) & ch. 2 (pp. 43–61) [57] Niemann, Hans-Joachim: Karl Popper and the Two New
Secrets of Life: Including Karl Popper’s Medawar Lecture
[38] Popper, Karl Raimund (1946) Aristotelian Society Sup-
1986 and Three Related Texts. Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck,
plementary Volume XX.
2014. ISBN 978-3161532078.
[39] Gregory, Frank Hutson (1996) Arithmetic and Reality: A
[58] For a secondary source see H. Keuth: The philosophy of
Development of Popper’s Ideas. City University of Hong
Karl Popper, section 15.3 “World 3 and emergent evolu-
Kong. Republished in Philosophy of Mathematics Edu-
tion”. See also John Watkins: Popper and Darwinism.
cation Journal No. 26 (December 2011).
The Power of Argumentation (Ed Enrique Suárez Iñiguez).
[40] The Poverty of Historicism, p. 21 Primary sources are, especially Objective Knowledge: An
evolutionary approach, section “Evolution and the Tree
[41] Hacohen, p. 82. Books.google.com. Retrieved 12 August of Knowledge”, and Evolutionary epistemology (Eds. G.
2014. Radnitzsky, W.W. Bartley), section “Natural selection
and the emergence of mind”, In search of a better world,
[42] Popper, K., All Life is Problem Solving, Routledge, 2013,
section “Knowledge and the shaping of rationality: the
Ch. 12. Books.google.co.uk. 15 April 2013. Retrieved
search for a better world”, p. 16, Knowledge and the
12 August 2014.
Body-Mind Problem: In Defence of Interaction, section
[43] Popper, Karl R. ([1976] 2002). Unended Quest: An Intel- “World 3 and emergent evolution”, A world of propen-
lectual Autobiography, pp. 32 −37 sities, section “Towards an evolutionary theory of knowl-
edge”, The Self and Its Brain: An Argument for Interac-
[44] “Popper argued that some socialists ought to be invited to tionism (with John C. Eccles), sections “The biological ap-
participate”, “Well I do believe that in a way one has to proach to human knowledge and intelligence” and “The
have a free market, but I also believe that to make a god- biological function of conscious and intelligent activity”.
head out of the principle of the free market is nonsense ...
[the free market] is not of a fundamental importance. Hu- [59] D. W. Miller: Karl Popper, a scientific memoir. Out of
manitarianism, that is of fundamental importance” Daniel Error, p. 33
Stedman Jones: Masters of the Universe: Hayek, Fried-
man, and the Birth of Neoliberal Politics, pp. 40 ff. [60] K. Popper: Objective Knowledge, section “Evolution and
the Tree of Knowledge”, subsection “Addendum. The
[45] The Open Society and Its Enemies: The Spell of Plato by Hopeful Behavioural Monster” (p. 281)
Karl Raimund Popper, Volume 1, 1947, George Rout-
ledge & sons, ltd., p. 226, Notes to chapter 7: https: [61] “Philosophical confusion? – Science Frontiers”. Science-
//archive.org/details/opensocietyandit033120mbp, frontiers.com. 2 October 1986. Retrieved 12 August
2014.
[46] The Open Society and Its Enemies: The Spell of Plato, by
Karl Raimund Popper, Princeton University Press, 1971, [62] Michel Ter Hark: Popper, Otto Selz and the Rise Of Evo-
ISBN 0-691-01968-1, p. 265 lutionary Epistemology, pp. 184 ff
8.10. FURTHER READING 73
[63] Karl R. Popper, The Poverty of Historicism, p. 97 [83] Taylor, Charles, “Overcoming Epistemology”, in Philo-
sophical Arguments, Harvard University Press, 1995,
[64] Popper, K. R. “Of Clouds and Clocks,” in his Objective ISBN 0-674-66477-9
Knowledge, corrected edition, pp. 206–55, Oxford, Ox-
ford University Press (1973), p. 231 footnote 43, & p. [84] See: “Popper is committing a serious historical error in at-
252; also Popper, K. R. “Natural Selection and the Emer- tributing the organic theory of the state to Plato and accus-
gence of Mind”, 1977. ing him of all the fallacies of post-Hegelian and Marxist
historicism—the theory that history is controlled by the
[65] Popper, K. R. “Of Clouds and Clocks,” in: Objective inexorable laws governing the behavior of superindivid-
Knowledge, corrected edition, p. 227, Oxford, Oxford ual social entities of which human beings and their free
University Press (1973). Popper’s Hume quote is from choices are merely subordinate manifestations.” Plato’s
Treatise on Human Understanding, (see note 8) Book I, Modern Enemies and the Theory of Natural Law, by John
Part I, Section XIV, p. 171 Wild, Chicago, 1964, The University of Chicago Press,
[66] Of Clouds and Clocks, in Objective Knowledge: An Evolu- 23. See Also: “In spite of the high rating one must accord
tionary Approach, Oxford (1972) pp. 227 ff. his initial intention of fairness, his hatred for the enemies
of the 'open society,' his zeal to destroy whatever seems
[67] ibid, p. 232 to him destructive of the welfare of mankind, has led him
into the extensive use of what may be called terminolog-
[68] Eccles, John C. and Karl Popper. The Self and Its Brain: ical counterpropaganda ...” and “With a few exceptions
An Argument for Interactionism, Routledge (1984) in Popper’s favor, however, it is noticeable that reviewers
possessed of special competence in particular fields—and
[69] Popper archives fasc. 297.11
here Lindsay is again to be included—have objected to
[70] See also Karl Popper: On freedom. All life is problem Popper’s conclusions in those very fields ...” and “Social
solving (1999), chapter 7, pp. 81 ff scientists and social philosophers have deplored his radical
denial of historical causation, together with his espousal of
[71] Kadvany, John (2001). Imre Lakatos and the Guises of Hayek’s systematic distrust of larger programs of social
Reason. Duke University Press Books. p. 400. ISBN reform; historical students of philosophy have protested
978-0-8223-2660-1. Retrieved 22 January 2016.Site on his violent polemical handling of Plato, Aristotle, and par-
Lakatos/Popper John Kadvany, PhD ticularly Hegel; ethicists have found contradictions in the
ethical theory ('critical dualism') upon which his polemic
[72] Hacohen, 2000 is largely based.” In Defense of Plato, by Ronald B. Levin-
son, New York, 1970, Russell and Russell, 20.
[73] Weimer and Palermo, 1982
[74] Reinhold Zippelius, Die experimentierende Methode im [85] Gray, John (2002). Straw Dogs. Granta Books, London.
Recht, 1991 (ISBN 3-515-05901-6), and Rechtsphiloso- p. 22. ISBN 1-86207-512-3.
phie, 6th ed., 2011 (ISBN 978-3-406-61191-9)
[86] Karl Popper, “Replies to my Critics,” The Philosophy of
[75] Soros, George (2006). The Age of Fallibility. NY: Public Karl Popper, Paul A. Schilpp, ed., v. II. Archived 4 De-
Affairs. pp. 16–18. cember 2015 at the Wayback Machine. Open Court, Lon-
don, 1974.
[76] Bryan Magee 1973: Popper (Modern Masters series)
[87] Karl Popper, “Replies to my Critics,” The Philosophy of
[77] Kuhn, Thomas (1970). The Structure of Scientific Revolu- Karl Popper, Paul A. Schilpp, ed., v. 2, p. 1009. Archived
tions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 4 December 2015 at the Wayback Machine. Open Court,
London, 1974.
[78] K R Popper (1970), “Normal Science and its Dangers”,
pp. 51–58 in I Lakatos & A Musgrave (eds.) (1970), at
p. 51.
8.10 Further reading
[79] K R Popper (1970), in I Lakatos & A Musgrave (eds.)
(1970), at p. 56.
• Lube, Manfred. Karl R. Popper. Bibliographie
[80] Popper, Karl, (1934) Logik der Forschung, Springer. Vi- 1925–2004. Wissenschaftstheorie, Sozialphiloso-
enna. Amplified English edition, Popper (1959), ISBN phie, Logik, Wahrscheinlichkeitstheorie, Naturwis-
0-415-27844-9 senschaften. Frankfurt/Main etc.: Peter Lang, 2005.
[81] Houck, Max M., Science Versus Crime, Infobase Publish- 576 pp. (Schriftenreihe der Karl Popper Foundation
ing, 2009, p. 65 Klagenfurt.3.) (Current edition)
[82] See: “Apel, Karl-Otto,” La philosophie de A a Z, by Eliz- • Gattei, Stefano. Karl Popper’s Philosophy of Science.
abeth Clement, Chantal Demonque, Laurence Hansen- 2009.
Love, and Pierre Kahn, Paris, 1994, Hatier, 19–20. See
Also: Towards a Transformation of Philosophy (Mar- • Miller, David. Critical Rationalism: A Restatement
quette Studies in Philosophy, No 20), by Karl-Otto Apel, and Defence. 1994.
trans., Glyn Adey and David Fisby, Milwaukee, 1998,
Marquette University Press. • David Miller (Ed.). Popper Selections.
• Watkins, John W. N.. Science and Scepticism. • Keuth, Herbert. The Philosophy of Karl Popper.
Preface & Contents. Princeton 1984 (Princeton Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004. An
University Press). ISBN 978-0-09-158010-0 accurate scholarly overview of Popper’s philosophy,
ideal for students.
• Jarvie, Ian Charles, Karl Milford, David W. Miller,
ed. (2006). Karl Popper: A Centenary Assessment, • Kuhn, Thomas S. The Structure of Scientific Revolu-
Ashgate. tions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962.
Central to contemporary philosophy of science is
Volume I: Life and Times, and Val- the debate between the followers of Kuhn and Pop-
ues in a World of Facts. Description per on the nature of scientific enquiry. This is the
& Contents. book in which Kuhn’s views received their classical
statement.
Volume II: Metaphysics and Episte-
mology Description & Contents. • Lakatos, I & Musgrave, A (eds.) (1970), Criticism
Volume III: Science. Description & and the Growth of Knowledge, Cambridge (Cam-
Contents. bridge University Press). ISBN 0-521-07826-1
• Levinson, Paul, ed. In Pursuit of Truth: Essays on
• Bailey, Richard, Education in the Open Society: Karl the Philosophy of Karl Popper on the Occasion of
Popper and Schooling. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate his 80th Birthday. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humani-
2000. The only book-length examination of Pop- ties Press, 1982. ISBN 0-391-02609-7 A collection
per’s relevance to education. of essays on Popper’s thought and legacy by a wide
range of his followers. With forewords by Isaac Asi-
• Bartley, William Warren III. Unfathomed Knowl-
mov and Helmut Schmidt. Includes an interview
edge, Unmeasured Wealth. La Salle, IL: Open Court
with Sir Ernst Gombrich.
Press 1990. A look at Popper and his influence by
one of his students. • Lindh, Allan Goddard (11 November 1993). “Did
Popper solve Hume’s problem?". Nature. 366
• Berkson, William K., and Wettersten, John. Learn- (6451): 105–06. Bibcode:1993Natur.366..105G.
ing from Error: Karl Popper’s Psychology of Learn- doi:10.1038/366105a0.
ing. La Salle, IL: Open Court 1984
• Magee, Bryan. Popper. London: Fontana, 1977.
• Cornforth, Maurice. (1977): The open philosophy An elegant introductory text. Very readable, albeit
and the open society, 2., (rev.) ed., Lawrence & rather uncritical of its subject, by a former Member
Wishart, London. ISBN 0-85315-384-1. The fun- of Parliament.
damental critique from the Marxist standpoint.
• Magee, Bryan. Confessions of a Philosopher, Wei-
• Edmonds, D., Eidinow, J. Wittgenstein’s Poker. New denfeld and Nicolson, 1997. Magee’s philosophical
York: Ecco 2001. A review of the origin of the autobiography, with a chapter on his relations with
conflict between Popper and Ludwig Wittgenstein, Popper. More critical of Popper than in the previous
focused on events leading up to their volatile first reference.
encounter at 1946 Cambridge meeting.
• Munz, Peter. Beyond Wittgenstein’s Poker: New
• Feyerabend, Paul Against Method. London: New Light on Popper and Wittgenstein Aldershot, Hamp-
Left Books, 1975. A polemical, iconoclastic book shire, UK: Ashgate, 2004. ISBN 0-7546-4016-
by a former colleague of Popper’s. Vigorously crit- 7. Written by the only living student of both
ical of Popper’s rationalist view of science. Wittgenstein and Popper, an eyewitness to the fa-
mous “poker” incident described above (Edmunds
• Hacohen, M. Karl Popper: The Formative Years, & Eidinow). Attempts to synthesize and reconcile
1902–1945. Cambridge: Cambridge University the differences between these two philosophers.
Press, 2000.
• Niemann, Hans-Joachim. Lexikon des Kritischen
• Hickey, J. Thomas. History of the Twentieth- Rationalismus, (Encyclopaedia of Critical Raional-
Century Philosophy of Science Book V, Karl Popper ism), Tübingen (Mohr Siebeck) 2004, ISBN 3-16-
And Falsificationist Criticism. www.philsci.com . 148395-2. More than a thousand headwords about
1995 critical rationalism, the most important arguments
of K.R. Popper and H. Albert, quotations of the
• Kadvany, John Imre Lakatos and the Guises of Rea- original wording. Edition for students in 2006,
son. Durham and London: Duke University Press, ISBN 3-16-149158-0.
2001. ISBN 0-8223-2659-0. Explains how Imre
Lakatos developed Popper’s philosophy into a his- • Notturno, Mark Amadeus. “Objectivity, Ratio-
toricist and critical theory of scientific method. nality, and the Third Realm: Justification and the
Grounds of Psychologism”. Boston: Martinus Ni- • Shearmur, Jeremy (2008). “Karl Popper (1902–
jhoff, 1985. 1994)". In Hamowy, Ronald. The Encyclopedia
of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE;
• Notturno, Mark Amadeus. On Popper. Wadsworth Cato Institute. pp. 380–81. ISBN 978-1-4129-
Philosophers Series. 2003. A very comprehensive 6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024.
book on Popper’s philosophy by an accomplished doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n234.
Popperian.
• Stokes, G. Popper: Philosophy, Politics and Scien-
• Notturno, Mark Amadeus. “Science and the Open tific Method. Cambridge: Polity Press, 1998. A
Society”. New York: CEU Press, 2000. very comprehensive, balanced study, which focuses
• O'Hear, Anthony. Karl Popper. London: Rout- largely on the social and political side of Popper’s
ledge, 1980. A critical account of Popper’s thought, thought.
viewed from the perspective of contemporary ana-
• Stove, D.C., Popper and After: Four Modern Irra-
lytic philosophy.
tionalists. Oxford: Pergamon. 1982. A vigorous
• Parusniková, Zuzana & Robert S. Cohen (2009). attack, especially on Popper’s restricting himself to
Rethinking Popper. Description and contents. deductive logic.
Springer.
• Tausch, Arno. Towards New Maps of Global
• Radnitzky, Gerard, Bartley, W. W. III eds. Evolu- Human Values, Based on World Values Survey
tionary Epistemology, Rationality, and the Sociology (6) Data (March 31, 2015). Available at SSRN:
of Knowledge. LaSalle, IL: Open Court Press 1987. doi:10.2139/ssrn.2587626
ISBN 0-8126-9039-7. A strong collection of essays
by Popper, Campbell, Munz, Flew, et al., on Pop- • Thornton, Stephen. “Karl Popper,” Stanford Ency-
per’s epistemology and critical rationalism. Includes clopedia of Philosophy, 2006.
a particularly vigorous answer to Rorty’s criticisms. • Weimer, W., Palermo, D., eds. Cognition and the
• Richmond, Sheldon. Aesthetic Criteria: Gombrich Symbolic Processes. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erl-
and the Philosophies of Science of Popper and baum Associates. 1982. See Hayek’s essay, "The
Polanyi. Rodopi, Amsterdam/Atlanta, 1994, 152 Sensory Order after 25 Years”, and “Discussion”.
pp. ISBN 90-5183-618-X. • Zippelius, Reinhold, Die experimentierende Methode
• Rowbottom, Darrell P. Popper’s Critical Rational- im Recht, Akademie der Wissenschaften Mainz. –
ism: A Philosophical Investigation. London: Rout- Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 1991, ISBN 3-515-05901-
ledge, 2010. A research monograph on Popper’s 6
philosophy of science and epistemology. It critiques
and develops critical rationalism in light of more re-
cent advances in mainstream philosophy. 8.11 External links
• Schilpp, Paul A., ed. The Philosophy of Karl Pop-
• Karl Popper on Stanford Encyclopedia of Philoso-
per. Description and contents. Chicago, IL: Open
phy
Court Press, 1974. One of the better contributions
to the Library of Living Philosophers series. Con- • “Karl Popper and Critical Rationalism”. Internet
tains Popper’s intellectual autobiography (v. I, pp. Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
2–184, also as a 1976 book), a comprehensive range
of critical essays, and Popper’s responses to them. • “Karl Popper: Political Philosophy”. Internet Ency-
ISBN 0-87548-141-8 (vol.I). ISBN 0-87548-142-6 clopedia of Philosophy.
(Vol II)
• Popper, K. R. “Natural Selection and the Emergence
• Schroeder-Heister, P. “Popper, Karl Raimund of Mind”, 1977.
(1902–94),” International Encyclopedia of the Social
& Behavioral Sciences, 2001, pp. 11727–11733. • The Karl Popper Web
Abstract.
• Influence on Friesian Philosophy
• Shearmur, Jeremy. The Political Thought of Karl
• Sir Karl R. Popper in Prague, May 1994
Popper. London and New York: Routledge, 1996.
Study of Popper’s political thought by a former as- • Synopsis and background of The poverty of histori-
sistant of Popper’s. Makes use of archive sources cism
and studies the development of Popper’s political
thought and its inter-connections with his epistemol- • “A Skeptical Look at Karl Popper” by Martin Gard-
ogy. ner
• “A Sceptical Look at 'A Skeptical Look at Karl Pop-

per'" by J C Lester.
• Singer, Peter (2 May 1974), “Discovering Karl Pop-
per”, The New York Review of Books, 21 (7), re-
trieved 21 January 2016
• The Liberalism of Karl Popper by John N. Gray

• Karl Popper on Information Philosopher
• History of Twentieth-Century Philosophy of Science,

BOOK V: Karl Popper Site offers free downloads by
chapter available for public use.
• Karl Popper at Liberal-international.org
• A science and technology hypotheses database fol-

lowing Karl Popper’s refutability principle
• Karl Popper at Goodreads
Chapter 9
Methodology
This article is about research methods. For software most important quantitative techniques are inferen-
engineering frameworks, see Software development tial, simulation and experimental.
methodology.
Methodology is the systematic, theoretical analysis of 9.2 Relationship between method-

the methods applied to a field of study. It comprises the ology, theory, paradigm, algo-
theoretical analysis of the body of methods and principles
associated with a branch of knowledge. Typically, it en- rithm, and method
compasses concepts such as paradigm, theoretical model,
phases and quantitative or qualitative techniques.[1] The methodology is the general research strategy that out-
A methodology does not set out to provide solutions - it is, lines the way in which research is to be undertaken and,
therefore, not the same as a method. Instead, a method- among other things, identifies the methods to be used in
ology offers the theoretical underpinning for understand- it. These methods, described in the methodology, define
ing which method, set of methods, or best practices can the means or modes of data collection or, sometimes, how
[4]
be applied to specific case, for example, to calculate a a specific result is to be calculated. Methodology does
specific result. not define specific methods, even though much attention
is given to the nature and kinds of processes to be fol-
It has been defined also as follows: lowed in a particular procedure or to attain an objective.
When proper to a study of methodology, such processes
1. “the analysis of the principles of methods, rules, and
[2] constitute a constructive generic framework, and may
postulates employed by a discipline";
therefore be broken down into sub-processes, combined,
[5]
2. “the systematic study of methods that are, can be, or or their sequence changed.
[2]
have been applied within a discipline"; A paradigm is similar to a methodology in that it is also
3. “the study or description of methods”.[3] a constructive framework. In theoretical work, the devel-
opment of paradigms satisfies most or all of the criteria
for methodology.[6] An algorithm, like a paradigm, is also
a type of constructive framework, meaning that the con-
9.1 Methods of Research struction is a logical, rather than a physical, array of con-
nected elements.
There are two approaches to conduct a research:
Any description of a means of calculation of a specific
result is always a description of a method and never a
• Qualitative Approach- In Qualitative approach, description of a methodology. It is thus important to
the researcher analyzes the objective and study it on avoid using methodology as a synonym for method or
the basis of a previous case study or a grounded the- body of methods. Doing this shifts it away from its true
ory. Usually in routine business scenarios, this ap- epistemological meaning and reduces it to being the pro-
proach is used. Some of the most popular qualitative cedure itself, or the set of tools, or the instruments that
research methods are Ethnographic, grounded the- should have been its outcome. A methodology is the
ory, biological, case study, and phenomenological. design process for carrying out research or the develop-
• Quantitative Approach- On the other hand, this ment of a procedure and is not in itself an instrument, or
approach adopts experimental and computational method, or procedure for doing things.
methods. The conclusion is derived after following Methodology and method are not interchangeable. In re-
the rigorous process of observation made from ex- cent years however, there has been a tendency to use
perimentation performed on the object. Some of the methodology as a “pretentious substitute for the word
77
78 CHAPTER 9. METHODOLOGY
method".[7] Using methodology as a synonym for method • Guba, E. and Lincoln, Y. (1989). Fourth Generation
or set of methods leads to confusion and misinterpreta- Evaluation. Newbury Park, California: Sage Publi-
tion and undermines the proper analysis that should go cations.
into designing research.[7]
• Herrman, C. S. (2009). “Fundamentals of Method-
ology”, a series of papers On the Social Sciences Re-
search Network (SSRN), online.
9.3 See also
• Howell, K. E. (2013) Introduction to the Philosophy
• Art methodology of Methodology. London: Sage Publications.
• Hermeneutics • Ndira, E. Alana, Slater, T. and Bucknam, A. (2011).
Action Research for Business, Nonprofit, and Public
• Interdisciplinarity Administration - A Tool for Complex Times . Thou-
• Paradigm sand Oaks, CA: Sage.
• Scientific method • Joubish, Farooq Dr. (2009). Educational Research

Department of Education, Federal Urdu University,
Karachi, Pakistan
9.4 References • Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research & eval-
uation methods (3rd edition). Thousand Oaks, Cal-
[1] Irny, S.I. and Rose, A.A. (2005) “Designing a Strategic In- ifornia: Sage Publications.
formation Systems Planning Methodology for Malaysian
Institutes of Higher Learning (isp- ipta), Issues in Infor- • Silverman, David (Ed). (2011). Qualitative Re-
mation System, Volume VI, No. 1, 2005. search: Issues of Theory, Method and Practice,
[2] Methodology Usage Notes, entry at Merriam–Webster Third Edition. London, Thousand Oaks, New
Delhi, Singapore: Sage Publications
[3] Baskerville, R. (1991). “Risk Analysis as a Source of
Professional Knowledge”. Computers & Security. 10 (8): • Soeters, Joseph; Shields, Patricia and Rietjens, Se-
749–764. bastiaan. 2014. Handbook of Research Methods in
Military Studies New York: Routledge.
[4] Howell, K. E. (2013) Introduction to the Philosophy of
Methodology. London: Sage Publications • Webster’s New International Dictionary of the En-
[5] Katsicas, Sokratis K. (2009). “Chapter 35”. In Vacca, glish Language, Second Edition, Unabridged, W. A.
John. Computer and Information Security Handbook. Neilson, T. A. Knott, P. W. Carhart (eds.), G. & C.
Morgan Kaufmann Publications. Elsevier Inc. p. 605. Merriam Company, Springfield, MA, 1950.
ISBN 978-0-12-374354-1.
[6] See, for example, Thomas Kuhn, The Structure of Scien-

tific Revolutions (University of Chicago, 1970, 2nd ed.) 9.6 External links
[7] George M. Frankfurter, Theory and Reality in Financial • Usage note on the word Methodology
Economics: Essays Toward a New Political Finance
• Why Most Published Research Findings Are False
by John P. A. Ioannidis
9.5 Further reading
• Berg, Bruce L., 2009, Qualitative Research Meth-
ods for the Social Sciences. Seventh Edition. Boston
MA: Pearson Education Inc.
• Creswell, J. (1998). Qualitative inquiry and research
design: Choosing among five traditions. Thousand
Oaks, California: Sage Publications.
• Creswell, J. (2003). Research Design: Qualita-
tive, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches.
Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications.
• Franklin, M.I. (2012). Understanding Research:
Coping with the Quantitative-Qualitative Divide.
London and New York: Routledge.
Chapter 10
Military sociology
Military sociology aims toward the systematic study of 10.3 Military as a society
the military as a social group rather than as a Military or-
ganization. It is a highly specialized subfield which exam-
10.3.1 Military as an occupation
ines issues related to service personnel as a distinct group
with coerced collective action based on shared interests
There has been discussion about whether the military
linked to survival in vocation and combat, with purposes
should be seen as more of an occupation rather than an in-
and values that are more defined and narrow than within
stitution. Although the military still retains institutional
civil society. Military sociology also concerns civil-
principles (patriotic values, historic traditions, etc.) the
military relations and interactions between other groups
military is becoming oriented to the principles of business
or governmental agencies.
and economics and can be fairly categorized as a profes-
sion. This can be explored in relating to other professions
in the grouping of power and compensation. There are
10.1 Theory and methodology different ranks within the military, granting some people
more power. Many young people look to the military for
10.2 Contemporary military soci- compensation benefits and the opportunity to attend col-
lege without enormous loans. Military profession holds
ology the view that it is a unique profession. There are six key
elements that are paramount in shaping the character of
Contemporary military sociology is primarily a result of the military profession, according to Sam C. Sarkesian
the World War II and Cold War eras. These events initi- and Robert E. Connor. These are listed as:
ated the systematic study of military sociology, though it
stands to reason that the relationship between the military 1. The profession has a defined area of competence
and society would predate these events. There are numer- based on expert knowledge;
ous topics within military sociology, and it is important to
note that its scope is not exclusively limited to the military 2. there is a system of continuing education designed
institution itself or to its members. Rather, military so- to maintain professional competence;
ciology encompasses areas such as civilian-military rela-
3. the profession has an obligation to society and must
tions and the relationship between the military and other
serve it without concern for remuneration;
military groups or governmental agencies. Other topics
within military sociology include: 4. it has a system of values that perpetuate professional
character and establish and maintain legitimate re-
1. the dominant assumptions held by those in the mil- lationships with society;
itary,
5. there is an institutional framework within which the
2. changes in military members’ willingness to fight,
profession functions; and
3. military unionization,
6. the profession has control over the system of rewards
4. military professionalism, and punishments and is in a position to determine the
5. the increased utilization of women, quality of those entering the profession.[2]
6. the military industrial-academic complex,

7. the military’s dependence on research, and
10.3.2 Recruitment practices
8. the institutional and organizational structure of Perhaps no other institution places as much emphasis on
military.[1] procedures for assimilating new members as does the
79
80 CHAPTER 10. MILITARY SOCIOLOGY
armed forces. Assimilation involves the continuous pro- cooking, cleaning, getting groceries, etc. Despite the pos-
cess of recruitment, selection, training, and career devel- itive coping skills of some military families, some do not
opment. Not only must the new recruit, officer, or en- do well on their own coping with the long separation from
listed officer learn new and difficult skills. He or she their family and family members. Stressors and stress re-
is also expected to master an elaborate code of profes- actions of spouses vary over time. What is perceived as
sional behavior and etiquette, since membership in the stressful before the deployment differs from what is per-
military means participation in an organizational commu- ceived as stressful during and after the deployment. Most
nity which regulates behavior both on and off the “job”. deployments last 6–18 months, and during this time, the
The American Military utilizes the citizen-soldier con- role that the members of the family believe they should
cept to gather military personnel from across the country. hold changes. This often makes it difficult for all mem-
This term means the ability to quickly round up or call up bers of the family.
troops for war or military tour at a virtual moment’s no- Approximately one-fifth of all enlisted 18-year-olds and
tice. But once the assignment or tour is over, the military
one-third of all junior personnel in the United States
personnel are returned to civilian life. Army are married, compared to less than 5% of civilian
According to Norman A. Hilman 2.5 million men were 18-year-olds.[3] As a result, young military families expe-
enlisted into military during the peacetime draft. During rience many of the same hardships that can accompany
that rapid transitional period, many soldiers may have felt the start of a family in greater numbers than young civil-
lost or confused by the differences in their previous life ian families.[4] Like young civilian families, young mili-
(civilian) and their new military life, which calls for a de- tary families may also experience maturity issues, life in-
mand to conform to new orders that are expected to be experience, low incomes, and living away from home.[4]
followed without question. Although, there were many But these issues are compounded by the fact that young
men and now women who have voluntarily joined in the military families also experience special hardships not
armed forces, there are those who view joining the mili- experienced by young civilian families.[4] For example,
tary and working for the government as selling out. The while many young families, both military and civilian, of-
negative characterization of military life can be a real turn ten endure difficulties, civilian families are more likely to
off for most people looking from the outside. Despite have the support of family and friends which is less likely
the negative thoughts about military life and the incen- to be an option for military families (e.g. on a military
tives of economic security, military recruitment practices base stationed in a foreign country).[4]
changed from a means to help one’s country into a way to Another hardship experienced more commonly by mil-
attain an education back to a need to serve one’s coun-
itary families (compared with civilian families) is fre-
try, in recent years. Throughout its changes the enlisting quent relocation. Approximately 33% of military fam-
numbers have not declined, they have stayed steady, if not
ilies relocate every year compared to only 5% of civilian
increasing over the years. families.[5] Special planning must be undertaken by fam-
ilies in which both parents are on active duty, as either
10.3.3 The effects of military life on de- could be (re)deployed at any time.[4] (Planning for this
contingency can be especially difficult.) In other military
pendants (and the influence of mil- families with only one active-duty-parent, the other par-
itary dependent subcultures) ent is less likely to stay at home with children as in the
past.[4] Rather, they are more likely to find employment
A military family by definition is a unit that may con- and/or attend college, and therefore find constant reloca-
sist of husband and wife and children (in many English- tions more stressful due to the commitments to working
speaking countries, called military brats, which is a term and studying, respectively.[4]
of respect and endearment, not an insult); with either
the husband and/or wife as the primary military enlisted. Military families have the option of living at the parents’
The emotional stress that a partner can experience, be- place of employment.[4] For families living in an on-base
fore, during and after a soldier, sailor, marine or airman’s house, they must follow the rules of the base command
deployment is perhaps just as bad mentally, as the one and the housing office on how to maintain their property
who is fighting in the military. Those whose husbands or and are afforded little privacy.[4] In short, they may ex-
wives were deployed for the first time, rated their feelings perience pressure to conform to the base’s standards of
about the whole experience as being very sad, and found behavior.[4] Some families may opt not to live on base,
it difficult to cope with the sudden absence of their loved but off-base housing is usually more expensive and can
one. However, women or men whose spouses have been be inconvenient.[4]
deployed prior, coped with the present deployment with
more positive reactions. They felt that they had a job to
do away from home that was important and they and the 10.3.4 Stress and military service
rest of their family (children) had to be supportive and
take care of things while the family member was away. De Soir suggests there are seven stages in the way partners
Children begin taking on more adult responsibilities like: of married personnel experience stress before, during and
10.3. MILITARY AS A SOCIETY 81
after deployment.[6] 10.3.5 Age as a factor

In the United States, almost half of the enlisted force is
Initial Shock and Protest This period usually lasts below 25 for both men and women[7] with the average
about two weeks. In this stage family members are age being 27.[8] The trend of youth is perpetuated by the
upset and angry at the news of deployment. This is fact that most people enter into the service at 18 years of
usually a time of heightened emotions. In the past age[9] and leave after only a few years.[7] This creates a
many families were only given a month’s notice to situation in which those with college experience are un-
get ready for deployment, but recently many families derrepresented in military as they only make up 8.5% of
have been given a year or more of notice of deploy- the military force.[10] Youth inclusion in armed conflict
ment, which might make the stressful time of antic- is not a new concept or one restricted to large well orga-
ipation even worse. Many recent reports suggest the nized forces such as the United States military. In vari-
ideal preparation time for deployment would be 3–5 ous societies over time, youth has been prized in armed
months. conflict. Such instances include the Dinka of the Sudan,
boys who received spears as an initiation rite between six-
teen and eighteen years of age, the nineteenth-century
Disengagement and Alienation During the last days Cheyenne who joined their first war parties when they
prior to departure, couples enter this stage. They were about fourteen, and the female warriors of Dahomey
experience periods of distancing because of their who were recruited between nine and fifteen.[11] During
feelings uncertainty about the future of the mission, the American Civil War, it has been estimated that be-
but also during that stage, a lot of latent problems or tween 250,000 and 420,000 soldiers under 18 years of
concern may surface that could add more potential age served in Union and Confederate armies, which yields
stress, such as arguments and confessions that can't somewhere between 10 and 20 percent of recruits.[11]
be address fully in those last moments before a per- During these earlier periods youth was not looked upon
son’s deployment. These moments create a lot of in the context of innocence as it is framed today, rather
emotional distress. children were seen as naturally existing with adults, as
they frequently coexisted with them through apprentice-
ships and other work. It was not until formal education
became more widespread that a change in attitudes to-
Emotional Disorganization Shortly after the family
wards youth develop, and consequently a prolongation of
member has been deployed, there are feelings
the perceived youth period.[11]
of sadness and it is possible that symptoms of
clinical depression may begin, along with issues with
sleeping and problems getting back into the rhythm 10.3.6 Religion in the military
of life (eating disorders). These issues last for about
six weeks, perhaps longer, especially, if the deploy- See also: Religious symbolism in the United States
ment doesn't go well or there are reports of bad news military
to the family. The best way to get family and spouses
over this period, is for the deployed personnel to
contact their family as soon as they arrive at their In the past, all U.S. service academies required atten-
destinations as soon as military authority permits. dance to religious services which in 1972 was found to
This can help the family feel less stress over the de- be unconstitutional by the U.S. Court of Appeals for
ployment duration. Constant contact is a key part to the District of Columbia Circuit in Anderson v. Laird.
decreasing a stressful family life. Despite this, the Naval Academy still has prayer before
meals and attendance is required at these meals. This has
caused some students at the Naval Academy to seek legal
Recovery and Stabilization Usually after six weeks the help from the American Civil Liberties Union. A compa-
family will fall back into a more distressed family rable practice of pre-meal prayers for compulsory meals
pattern, and recover by becoming accustomed to the at the Virginia Military Institute was found unconstitu-
situation of a missing family member who has been tional by the 4th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals in Mellen
deployed. Starting and maintaining a daily routine v. Bunting in 2003.[12]
at this stage is the best way to keep the mind off of The religious spectrum of the United States military is
what the deployed may be doing or where the de- comparable to that of the general population. In com-
ployed may be at this point. The involvement of parison with the nearest available age group, a demo-
“home front groups” are essential to military fam- graphic of 20- to 39-year-olds that make up eighty per-
ilies who need to share and enjoy time with others cent of the military, there are slight variations. Mainline
who have military spouses and partners deployed for Protestants, Catholics, Jews, Muslims, and Buddhists are
long periods of time. Seeking support groups are underrepresented, but other Christian religions (such as
one of many ways people cope with stressful issues. the Christian and Missionary Alliance, Church of God,
Seventh Day Adventists, Assemblies of God, and others) struggles. Women have served in the military throughout
disproportionately overrepresented, at nearly three times history. Women’s military recruitment rejects the idea
the percentage in the applicable demographic. Those re- that 'women should be protected'. Recruitment is very
porting atheism or no religion are very slightly overrepre- important in Latin America, Israel, Nicaragua, Rwanda
sented. None of these differences account for more than a and Northern Ireland. In Turkey, the wife of the chief
10% spread, Christians self-identifying as Protestant only commander represents the mother of the military family.
constituting the largest discrepancy. The data and other Some states in the developing world are egalitarian and
studies suggest that servicemembers may be less likely to many women are recruited into the military to achieve
identify with mainstream religious organizations than the the modern ideal. With women’s customary role as a nur-
country’s general population.[7] turer and mother, the increased equality and inclusion of
women in the military could change the reason for war or
raison d'être of wars.[16]
10.3.7 Minorities in the military
Sexual assault in the United States military is an issue for
military women. The 2012 Pentagon survey found ap-
Throughout history non-indigenous members of minority
proximately 26,000 women and men were sexually as-
groups have been absorbed into military service. Exam-
saulted. Of those, only 3,374 cases were reported. In
ples of this practice in ancient armies include Hannibal’s
2013, a new Pentagon report found that 5,061 troops
use of Ethiopian soldiers, the Roman Auxilia, the Byzan-
reported cases of assault. Many people are optimistic
tine Empire’s recruitment of the Middle Eastern popu-
that this 50% increase in reports is indicative of victims
lation, and the Ottoman Empire’s use of religious mi-
“growing more comfortable in the system.” Of these re-
norities through the Millet system. In these cases where
ported, however, only 484 cases went to trial, and only
military service was voluntary, minorities saw it as an
376 resulted in convictions.
opportunity to progress socially in the society, and per-
haps achieve citizenship for themselves and by exten- During World War II women served in the Women’s
sion, to their children. For most of the history of mi- Army Auxiliary Corp (WAAC) which was later renamed
nority groups in military organizations, minorities were Women’s Army Corps (WAC). In addition, there was
often segregated from the dominant racial group by form- WAVES, or Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency
ing separate contingents for such groups. This was true Services.
in ancient military organizations, but also in a more re-
cent historical context through the French-Canadian reg-
iments of Canada during World War I, and World War 10.3.9 Homosexuality and the military
II, the British army and their conscription of various mi-
nority groups from their conquests during colonialism, Main article: Homosexuality in the military
and the segregation of minority groups into Caucasian
commanded, minority composed, regiments during sim-
Homosexuals were not recruited into the U.S. military
ilar time periods as mentioned previously. In the case of
from World War II to the Clinton presidency. In 1993,
the United States, African-American participation in the
the Clinton administration began the policy of "Don't
military after World War II was high due to the better
ask, Don't tell, Don't pursue", meaning that military per-
treatment afforded African-Americans in the military by
sonnel will be neither compelled (“Don't ask”) nor al-
Caucasian members. With the end of job exclusion by
lowed (“Don't tell”) nor harassed (“Don't pursue”) to dis-
1954 reenlistment rates increased on average until they
close or discuss their sexual identity while serving in the
were close to double that of Caucasian servicemen. A
military.[17] The “Don't ask, Don't tell, Don't pursue” pol-
similar situation arose in the United Kingdom with mi-
icy actually had the effect of increasing discharges due to
nority participation, but both situations saw a sharp dis-
homosexuality from 617 in 1994 to 1,273 in 2001.[18] Es-
parity in upper rank distribution, as both had, and to a
timates have been made that in 2000 there were 1 million
lesser extent, still have a disproportionately low level of
gay and lesbian veterans in the U.S. population as based
upper ranked minorities.[13]
on census information.[19] Homosexual women with part-
[14]
ners reported higher rates of military service than other
women, while homosexual male veterans served for a
similar amount of time as heterosexual male veterans.[7]
10.3.8 Women in the military
Main article: Women in the military 10.3.10 Military Science
Military and gender issues is a diverse and plural field Recently there has been interest in how the modern mil-
within military sociology.[15] The roles of women can in- itaries have constructed their knowledge. Military sci-
clude being the transmitter of cultural values to children, ence in modern armed forces has taken on the aura of a
reproducers of boundaries and active militants in national hard science when it is arguably a combination of hard
10.5. CITATIONS AND NOTES 83
science, sociology (“soft science”), and military history fense companies that are hesitant to share research find-
(the humanities). Postmodern deconstructions of the as- ings has long hindered research in Europe. This is be-
sumptions behind modern military science can be effec- ginning to change with the formation and strengthening
tive in revealing how modern militaries have socially con- of the EU and the Common Security and Defence Policy
structed their reality.[20] (CSDP). The EU is currently implementing its “Agenda
for advanced research relating to global security” which
is crucial to the future of European security. The idea
10.4 Military and society in Europe is that research should be undertaken by all
member states. A goal for member states and something
to aid future research is a “harmonization” of military
10.4.1 Political control of the military requirements.[22]
In the modern relationship between the military and the
state, the state relies on the military to protect it from ex- United States
ternal threats as well as violence between various internal
groups. Concurrently, the military draws so-called 'vi- The American model for research is based on the old
olent resources’ from the state and from society. Such German standard, which the Americans emulated start-
resources can include money, technology, raw materi- ing from the founding of the American Chemical Society
als, and manpower. The relationship has changed some- in 1876. The use of research and industry to develop new
what from the 16th and 17th centuries, however, where and more deadly chemical and biological weapons is an
internal centers of power and specific sectors of soci- intriguing aspect of the modern military. German univer-
ety (e.g., skilled builders or guilds) were somewhat more sities were involved in early chemical gas development for
autonomous than the rest. These sectors were not un- use in World War I. German universities “carefully cul-
der the direct control of the sovereign power and could tivated the ideal of science as an emphatically value-free
avoid feeding resources to the state. This meant that activity; they bestowed upon their wards the right and the
pre-modern militaries were 1) somewhat weaker than the duty to serve the interests of knowledge and to brush aside
modern version due to a lack of state-funded resources other interests with which the welfare of scientific pur-
but also 2) powerful sectors of society that controlled suits might clash.” American universities also had chemi-
certain privately funded resources and which could raise cal labs, Harvard University began work on poison gas in
their own mercenary forces if needed. As this system be- 1917. By World War I, the chemical industry began to
gan to evolve, states started to exert more control over influence politics because of the great interdependence
society by exploiting 'existential fears’ which led to the between industry, military and politics.[23]
creation of various bureaucratic methods including mass The amount of research that is done relates to the U.S.
conscription, tax systems, and territorial centralization. economy. The U.S. is thought to be in a permanent
The result is that various civil sectors began to work ex- war economy, boasting the largest military budget in the
clusively for the state, which in turn desired a stronger world. This has created a strong link between military,
military, and which used these sectors to extract more re- the state, and corporate America. This has been coined
sources and more manpower for exclusive military use. the military industrial complex, but the military has also
This 'modern' military now was reliant on the state for its dominated large university science departments. This
very existence, whereas, in pre-modern times, the mili- concept is the military industrial academic complex, or
tary could be the tool of various autonomous sectors of MIA.[24]
society.[21]
10.4.2 Military’s use of research and in- 10.5 Citations and notes
dustry
[1] Siebold, Guy (2001). “Core Issues and Theory in Military
Burkard Schmitt a Research Fellow for the EU Institute Sociology”. Journal of Political and Military Sociology.
for Security Studies identifies two types of research. Pure Retrieved 14 July 2008.
research is done from the bottom-up with no specific de- [2] Sarkesian, Sam C. and Robert E. Connor, Jr. The US Mil-
mand and are long term oriented. Capability research itary Profession into the 21st Century. Frank Cass Pub-
is done from the top down, most research of this type lishers; Portland, c.1999
is defined for mostly military use with a specific goal in
mind.[22] [3] Martin, James; Leora Rosen; Linette Sparacino (2000).
The Military Family: A Practice Guide for Human Service
Providers. Praeger Publishers. ISBN 978-0-275-96540-
Europe
2.
Few European countries have had significant investments [4] Baker, Anni (2008). Life In the U.S. Armed Forces.
in research and technology. National sensitivities and de- Praeger. ISBN 978-0-275-98982-8.
[5] Wardynski, 2. Casey (2000). Military Compensation [23] Zygmunt, Bauman (2000). Modernity and the Holocaust.
in the Age of Two-Income Households: Adding Spouses’ New York: Cornell University Press.
Earnings to the Compensation Policy Mix. Santa Monica:
[24] Mills, C. Wright(1956). The Power Elite. New York: Ox-
Rand.
ford University Press.
[6] p.213, Moelker and van der Kloet
[7] David R. Segal and Mady Wechsler Segal (2004) “Amer-

ica’s Military Population” Population Bulletin Vol. 59,
10.6 References
No.4
• Moelker, Rene & van der Kloet, Irene, Military fam-
[8] Chapter 3 - Age ilies and the armed forces: A two-sided affair?, in
[9] http://www.defenselink.mil/prhome/poprep2005/
Giuseppe Caforio, Handbook of the Sociology of the
appendixb/b_01.html Military (Handbooks of Sociology and Social Re-
search), Springer, 2006
[10] Chapter 2 - Education
[11] Rosen, David (2005). Armies of the Young. Connecticut:

Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-22900-7. 10.7 Recommended reading
[12] Merriam, Jesse (July 8, 2008). “Organized Religion’s • Armed Forces & Society
Role in the Military”. Pew Forum on Religion & Public
Life. p. 1. Retrieved 2008-07-22. • Caforio, Giuseppe, (ed.), Handbook of the Sociology
of the Military, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publish-
[13] Young, Warren (1982). Minorities and the military. Con- ers, 2006
necticut: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-22900-7.
• Grandstaff, Mark. “Military Sociology” in Charles
[14] Multiethnic Armed Forces. Geneva Centre for the Demo- Messenger, ed. Reader’s Guide to Military History
cratic Control of Armed Forces, November 2005. Uni-
(2001) pp 363–64 online; evaluates major books
versity of Pittsburgh Lib., Columbia International Affairs
Online. 21 July 2008. • Malesevic, Sinisa. 2010. The Sociology of War and
Violence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
[15] Fasting, Kari and Trond Svela Sand eds., (2010). “Gen-
der and Military Issues - A Categorized Research Bibli- • Paparone, Chris. 2013. The Sociology of Military
ography.” Moving Soldiers - Soldaten i bevegelse 01/2010. Science. NY: Bloomsbury.
ISSN 1891-8751.
• Sarkesian, Sam C., Williams, John Allen, Bryant,
[16] Toktas, Sule. Nationalism, Militarism and Gender Poli- Fred B., Soldiers, Society, and National Security,
tics: Women in the Military. Quarterly Report on Women Lynne Rienner Publishers, Boulder, 1995
and the Military, Summer 2002, Iss. 2, pg.29. Gender
Watch. Pittsburgh University Lib., Pittsburgh, PA. 20 July
2008.
[17] Yoshino, Kenji (2006). Covering: The Hidden Assault on
Our Civil Rights. New York: Random House. ISBN 0- • Segal, David and Morten Ender. 2008. “Sociology
375-50820-1.
in Military Officer Education.” Armed Forces & So-
[18] Servicemembers Legal Defense Network, “Conduct Un- ciety, vol. 35: pp. 3–15.
becoming: The Tenth Annual Report on ‘Don’t Ask, Don’t
• Ender, Morten; Ryan Kelty and Irving Smith. 2008.
Tell, Don’t Pursue, Don’t Harass,’” (March 24, 2004)
“Sociology at West Point.” Armed Forces & Society,
[19] Gary J. Gates, Gay Men and Lesbians in the U.S. Mili- vol. 35: pp. 49–70.
tary: Estimates From Census 2000 (Washington, DC: Ur-
ban Institute Press, 2004) • Kawano, Hitoshi. 2008. “The Expanding role
of Sociology at Japan National Defense Academy:
[20] Chris Paparone (2013), The Sociology of Military Science, From Not to Some and More?”Armed Forces & So-
NY: Bloomsbury. ciety, vol. 35: pp. 122–144.
[21] Levy, Yagil. “Controlling the Invisible: The Deficient Po- • Obraztov, Igor. 2008. “Teaching Sociology in
litical Control of the Modern Military”. Center for Stud- Military Educational Institutions of Russia.” Armed
ies of Social Change(1995). Columbia International Af- Forces & Society, vol. 35: pp. 162–179.
fairs Online. Pittsburgh University Lib., Pittsburgh, PA.
14 July 2008. • Kucera, Thomas (2014). “The Strategic Signifi-
cance of Ethical Imperatives The Case of the Ger-
[22] Schmitt, Burkard. The European Union and Armaments: man Armed Forces” Armed Forces & Society Avail-
Getting a bigger bang for the Euro. Institute for Security
able Online
Studies, August 2003. www.iss-eu.org. 23 July 2008.
Chapter 11
Organizational theory
Organizational theory consists of approaches to orga- viable and necessary options for citizens, and they built
nizational analysis. Theories of organizations include ra- on one another to bring organizations to the level of im-
tional system perspective, division of labor, bureaucratic portance that they have as of 2015.
theory, and contingency theory. In 1820 about 20% of the United States population de-
In a rational organization system, there are two signifi- pended on a wage income. That percentage increased to
cant parts: Specificity of Goals and Formalization. The 90% by 1950.[2] Generally, by 1950, farmers and crafts-
division of labor is the specialization of individual labor men were the only people not dependent on working for
roles, associated with increasing output and trade. Mod- someone else. Prior to that time, most people were able
ernization theorist Frank Dobbin states “modern institu- to survive by hunting and farming their own food, mak-
tions are transparently purposive and that we are in the ing their own supplies, and remaining almost fully self-
midst an evolutionary progression towards more efficient sufficient.[2] As transportation became more efficient and
forms”. Max Weber's conception of bureaucracy is char- technologies developed, self-sufficiency became an eco-
acterized by the presence of impersonal positions that are nomically poor choice.[3] As in the Lowell Textile Mills,
earned and not inherited, rule-governed decision-making, various machines and processes were developed for each
professionalism, chain of command, defined responsibil- step of the production process, thus making mass pro-
ity, and bounded authority. The contingency theory holds duction a cheaper and faster alternative to individual pro-
that an organization must try to maximize performance duction. In addition, as the population grew and trans-
by minimizing the effects of varying environmental and portation improved, the pre-organizational system strug-
internal constraints. gled to support the needs of the market.[3] These condi-
Dwight Waldo noted in a review of field work in 1978: tions made for a wage-dependent population that sought
“Organization theory is characterized by vogues, hetero- out jobs in growing organizations, leading to a shift away
geneity, claims and counterclaims”,[1] and even greater from individual and family production.
differentiation in theory and practice have developed In addition to a shift to wage dependence, externalities
since then. Organization theory certainly cannot be de- from industrialization also created a perfect opportunity
scribed as an orderly progression of ideas, or a unified for the rise of organizations. Various negative effects
body of knowledge in which each development builds such as pollution, workplace accidents, crowded cities,
carefully on and extends the one before it. Rather, de- and unemployment became rising concerns. Rather than
velopments in theory and prescriptions for practice show small groups such as families and churches being able to
disagreement about the purposes and uses of a theory of control these problems as they had in the past, new orga-
organization, the issues to which it should address itself nizations and systems were required.[2] These organiza-
(such as supervisory style and organizational culture), and tions were less personal, more distant, and more central-
the concepts and variables that should enter into such a ized, but what they lacked in locality they made up for
theory. in efficiency.[2] Along with wage dependency and exter-
nalities, the growth of industry also played a large role
in the development of organizations. Markets that were
quickly growing needed workers urgently, so a need de-
11.1 Rise of organizations veloped for organizational structures to guide and support
those new workers.[4] Some of the first New England fac-
Organizations are defined as social units of people that tories initially relied on the daughters of farmers; later, as
are structured and managed to meet a need, or to pursue the economy changed, they began to gain workers from
collective goals. the former farming classes, and finally, from European
immigrants. Many Europeans left their homes for the
Organizations in the United States are said to have risen
promises of US industry, and about 60% of those immi-
within a variety of social and historical contexts. Several
grants stayed in the country. They became a permanent
of those factors are credited with making organizations
85
86 CHAPTER 11. ORGANIZATIONAL THEORY
class of workers in the economy, which allowed facto- • Office management requires training and specializa-
ries to increase production and produce more than they tion.
had before.[2] With this large growth came the need for
organizations and for leadership that was not previously • When the office is developed/established it requires
needed in small businesses and firms. the full working capacity of individuals.
Overall, the historical and social context in which or- • Rules are stable and can be learned. Knowledge of
ganizations arose in the United States allowed not only these rules can be viewed as expertise within the bu-
for the development of organizations, but also for their reaucracy (these allow for the management of soci-
spread and growth. Wage dependency, externalities, and ety).
growth of industries all played into the change from indi-
vidual, family, and small-group production and regulation When a bureaucracy is implemented, it can provide ac-
to large organizations and structure. countability, responsibility, control, and consistency. The
Although the decline in small business might not seem hiring of employees will be an impersonal and equal
to explain the way in which the development of orga- system.[5]
nizations leads to increased aggregate economic return, Although the classical perspective encourages efficiency,
it exemplifies the competitive nature of capitalism. As it is often criticized as ignoring human needs. Also, it
organizations develop, they devour smaller organizations rarely takes into consideration human error or the vari-
that cannot keep up and allow for the evolution of innova- ability of work performances (since each worker is dif-
tive management and production techniques, which can ferent).
then be used by other larger companies. The develop-
ment of organizations demands more highly skilled work- In the case of the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster,
ers as they continue to grow. It also builds precaution- NASA managers overlooked the possibility of human
[6] [7]
ary measures on cutting-edge technology. It increases error. (See also: Three Mile Island accident. )
the need for specialization and accounts of functional-
ism in various organizations and their respective societies.
Through much advancement in the interaction of capital- 11.2.2 Rational system perspective
istic bureaucracies, the development of organizations has
driven contemporary firms to thrive in modern society. A rational organization system has two significant parts:
specificity of goals and formalization. Goal specifica-
tion provides guidelines for specific tasks to be completed
11.2 Competing theories of organi- along with a regulated way for resources to be allocated.
Formalization is a way to standardize organizational be-
zation havior. As a result, there will be stable expectations,
which create the rational organizational system.[8]
As people implemented organizations over time, many
researchers have experimented as to which organizational • Scientific Management: Taylor analyzed how to
theory fits them best. The theories of organizations in- maximize the amount of output with the least
clude Bureaucracy, Rationalization (Scientific Manage- amount of input. This was Taylor’s attempt to ra-
ment), and the Division of Labor. Each theory pro- tionalize the individual worker by:
vides distinct advantages and disadvantages when imple-
mented. 1. dividing work between managers and workers
2. providing an incentive system (based on perfor-

11.2.1 Weber’s ideal of bureaucracy mance)
Weber identified the essential components of bureaucracy 3. scientifically trained workers

as follows:[5]
4. developing a science for each individual’s responsi-
bilities
• Official jurisdiction on all areas is ordered by rules
or laws already implemented. 5. making sure work gets done on time/efficiently
• There is an office hierarchy; a system of super-
and sub-ordination in which higher offices supervise Problems arose out of scientific management. One is that
lower ones. the standardization leads workers to rebel against mun-
danes. Another may see workers rejecting the incentive
• The management of the modern office is based upon system because they are required to constantly work at
written rules, which are preserved in their original their optimum level, an expectation that may be unrealis-
form. tic.
11.3. CLASSICAL PERSPECTIVE 87
11.2.3 Division of labor the 1950s. For the ensuing decade, people analyzed
the diffusion of technological innovations within West-
The division of labor is the specialization of individual ern society and the communication that helped it disperse
labor roles. It is often associated with increasing out- globally ("Modernization theory").[12] This first “wave”
put and trade.[9] According to Adam Smith, the division - as it became known - had some significant ramifica-
of labor is efficient due to three reasons: occupational tions. First, economic development was enhanced from
specialization, savings from not changing tasks, and ma- the spread of new technological techniques. And sec-
chines taking the place of human labor. Occupational ond, modernization supported a more educated society
specialization leads to increased productivity and distinct (as mentioned above), and thus a more qualified labor-
skill. Also, Smith argued that human and physical capital force (“Modernization Theory”).[12] The second wave
must be similar or matched; if the skill of workers were took place between the years 1960 and 1970. This pe-
matched with technological improvements, there would riod was labeled anti-modernization, because it saw the
be a major increase in productivity. push of innovations of Western society onto developing
countries as an exertion of dominance (“modernization
Although the division of labor is often viewed as in-
theory”).[12] It refuted the concept of relying heavily on
evitable in a capitalistic society, several specific problems
mass media for the betterment of society. The last wave
may arise. They include a lack of creativity, monotony,
of modernization theory, which took place in the 1990s,
and lack of mobility. Creativity will naturally suffer due
depicts impersonality (Perrow 737).[13] As the use of
the monotonous atmosphere that the division of labor cre-
newspapers, television, and radio becomes more preva-
ates. Doing the same routines may not suit everyone.
lent, the need for direct contact, a concept traditional or-
Also, employees aren't familiar with other parts of the
ganizations took pride in, diminishes. Thus, organiza-
job. They cannot assist employers of different parts of
tional interactions become more distant (“Modernization
the system.
Theory”).[12]
According to Frank Dobbin, the modern worldview is the
11.2.4 Modernization theory idea that “modern institutions are transparently purposive
and that we are in the midst an evolutionary progression
Modernization “began when a nation’s rural population towards more efficient forms (138).”[11] This phrase epit-
started moving from the countryside to cities” (Shah omizes the goal of modern firms, bureaucracies, and or-
3).[10] It deals with the cessation of traditional methods ganizations to maximize efficiency. The key to achiev-
in order to pursue more contemporary effective methods ing this goal is through scientific discoveries and inno-
of organization. Urbanization is an inevitable character- vations (Dobbin 139).[11] Dobbin discusses the outdated
istic of society because the formation of industries and role of culture in organizations. “New Institutionalists”
factories induces profit maximization. It is fair to assume explored the significance of culture in the modern orga-
that along with the increase in population, as a result of nization (Dobbin 117).[11] However, the rationalist world-
the subsequent urbanization, is the demand for an intel- view counters the use of cultural values in organizations,
ligent and educated labor force (Shah 3).[11] After the stating, “transcendental economic laws exist, that exist-
1950s, Western culture utilized mass-media to communi- ing organizational structures must be functional under the
cate their good fortune - attributed to modernization. The parameters of those laws, [and] that the environment will
coverage promoted “psychic mobility” among the social eliminate organizations that adopt non-efficient solutions”
class and increased the aspirations of many hopefuls in (Dobbin 138).[11] These laws govern the modern organi-
developing economic countries (Shah 4).[11] Under this zations and lead them in the direction that will maximize
theory, any country could modernize by using Western profits efficiently. Thus, the modernity of organizations
civilization as a template. is to generate maximum profit, through the use of mass
media, technological innovations, and social innovations
Although this theory of modernization seemed to pride in order to effectively allocate resources for the better-
itself on only the benefits, countries in the Middle East ment of the global economy.
saw this movement in a different light. Middle East-
ern countries believed that the media coverage of mod-
ernization implied that the more “traditional” societies
have not “risen to a higher level of technological develop- 11.3 Classical perspective
ment” (Shah 6).[11] Consequently, they believed a move-
ment that benefits those who have the monetary resources
The classical perspective emerges from the Industrial
to modernize technological development would discrim-
Revolution in the private sector and the need for im-
inate against the minorities and poor masses (Shah 6).[11]
proved Public Administration in the public sector. Both
Thus, they were reluctant to modernize because of the
efforts center on theories of efficiency. Classical
economic gap it would create between the rich and the
works have seasoned and have been elaborated upon in
poor. depth.[14] There are at least two subtopics under the clas-
The growth of modernization took place beginning in sical perspective: the scientific management and bureau-
cracy theory.[15] Regardless of whether or not bureaucracies should be

considered positively efficient or too efficient to the ex-
tent that they become negative, Weberian bureaucracy
tends to offer a teleological argument. A theory, in
11.3.1 Efficiency and teleological argu-
this case bureaucracy, is considered to be teleological
ments in Weberian bureaucracy if it involves aiming at specific goals. Weber claimed
that bureaucracies are goal-oriented organizations, which
Max Weber believed that an ideal bureaucracy consists use their efficiency and rational principles to reach their
of six specific characteristics: hierarchy of command, goals.[22] A teleological analysis of businesses leads to
impersonality, written rules of conduct, advancement the inclusion of all involved stakeholders in decision-
based on achievement, specialized division of labor, and making.[23] The teleological view of Weberian bureau-
efficiency.[16] This ultimate characteristic of Weberian cracy postulates that all actors in an organization have
bureaucracy, which states that bureaucracies are very ef- various ends or goals, and attempt to find the most ef-
ficient, is controversial and by no means accepted by all ficient way to achieve these goals.[18]
sociologists. There are certainly both positive and nega-
tive consequences to bureaucracy, and strong arguments
for both the efficiency and inefficiency of bureaucracies. 11.3.2 Scientific management
While Max Weber’s work was published in the late 1800s
and early 1900s, before his death in 1920, his work is still Main article: Scientific management
referenced today in the field of sociology. Weber’s theory
of bureaucracy claims that it is extremely efficient, and The scientific management theory was introduced by
even goes as far as to claim that bureaucracy is the most Frederick Winslow Taylor to encourage production effi-
efficient form of organization.[17] Weber claimed that bu- ciency and productivity.[24] Taylor argues that inefficien-
reaucracies are necessary to ensure the continued func- cies could be controlled through managing production as
tioning of society, which has become drastically more a science. Taylor defines scientific management as “con-
modern and complex in the past century.[18] Furthermore, cerned with knowing exactly what you want men to do
he claimed that without the structured organization of and then see in that they do it in the best and cheapest
bureaucracy, our complex society would be much worse way.”[25] According to Taylor, scientific management af-
off, because society would act in an inefficient and waste- fects both workers and employers, and stresses the control
ful way.[18] He saw bureaucracies as organizations driven of the labour force by management.
towards certain goals, which they could carry out effi-
ciently. In addition, within an organization that operates
under bureaucratic standards, the members will be bet- The Principles of Scientific Management
ter off due to the heavy regulation and detailed structure.
Not only does bureaucracy make it much more difficult Main article: The Principles of Scientific Management
for arbitrary and unfair personal favors to be carried out,
it also means that promotions and hiring will generally be Taylor identifies four inherent principles of the scientific
done completely by merit.[18] management theory.
Weber most definitely saw bureaucracies as goal-driven,
efficient organizations, but one must not come to the 1. The creation of a scientific method of measurement
quick and incorrect conclusion that he saw no downfalls that replaces the “rule-of-thumb” method
to bureaucracy. He recognized that there are constraints
2. Emphasis placed on the training of workers by man-
within the bureaucratic system. First of all, he real-
agement
ized that bureaucracies were ruled by very few people
with very large amounts of unregulated power.[19] This 3. Co-operation between manager and workers to en-
tends to lead to a situation of oligarchy, whereby a lim- sure the principles are being met
ited number of officials become the political and eco-
nomic power.[20] Furthermore, Weber considered further 4. Equal division of labour between managers and
bureaucratization to be an “inescapable fate”, because it workers[25]
is supposedly superior to and more efficient than other
forms of organization.[21] Weber’s analysis of bureaucra-
cies led him to believe that they are too inherently limiting 11.3.3 Bureaucratic theory
to individual human freedom and he feared that people
would begin to be too controlled by bureaucracies.[18] His Main article: Bureaucracy
rationale comes from the knowledge that the strict meth-
ods of administration and legitimate forms of authority The scholar most closely associated with Bureaucratic
associated with bureaucracy act to eliminate human free- theory is Max Weber. In Economy and Society, his
dom. seminal book published in 1922, Weber articulates the
11.3. CLASSICAL PERSPECTIVE 89
necessary conditions and descriptive features of bureau- career opportunities for ambitious new hires and overall
cracy. An organization governed under Weber’s concep- technical efficiency becomes less guaranteed[26]
tion of bureaucracy is characterized by the presence of In a bureaucracy, salaries are provided to officials. The
impersonal positions that are earned and not inherited, amount is determined on the basis of rank and helps to
rule-governed decision-making, professionalism, chain signify the desirability of a position. Bureaucratic posi-
of command, defined responsibility, and bounded author- tions also exist as part of stable career tracks that reward
ity. office-holders for seniority.[26]
Weber begins his discussion of bureaucracy by introduc- Weber argues that the development of a 'money econ-
ing the concept of 'jurisdictional areas’: institutions gov- omy' is the “normal precondition for the unchanged
erned by a specific set of rules or laws.[26] In a 'juris- survival, if not the establishment, of pure bureau-
dictional area' regular activities are assigned as official cratic administrations”.[26] Since bureaucracy requires
duties, the authority to assign these duties is distributed sustained revenues from taxation or private profits in or-
through a set of rules, and duties are fulfilled continu- der to be maintained, a money economy is the most ra-
ously by qualified individuals. These elements make up a tional way to ensure its continued existence.
bureaucratic agency in the case of the state and a bureau-
cratic enterprise in the private economy. Weber posits that officials in a bureaucracy have a prop-
erty right to their office and attempts at exploitation by
There are several additional features that comprise a We- a superior means the abandonment of bureaucratic prin-
berian bureaucracy:[26] ciples. He articulates that providing a status incentive to
inferior officers helps them to maintain self-respect and
• It is possible to find the utilization of hierarchical fully participate in hierarchical frameworks.[26] Michel
subordination in all bureaucratic structures. This Crozier reexamined Weber’s theory in 1964 and de-
means that higher-level offices supervise lower level termined that bureaucracy is flawed because hierarchy
offices. causes officers to engage in selfish power struggles that
damage the efficiency of the organization.[27]
• In bureaucracies, personal possessions are kept sep-
arate from the monies of the agency or the enter-
prise.
11.3.4 Criticism of the Weber’s theory of
• People who work within a bureaucracy are usually bureaucracy
trained in the appropriate field of specialization.
Weber’s theories were purposed to set a stage for other or-
• Bureaucratic officials are expected to contribute ganizations to follow, and the characteristics are so ideal
their full working capacity to the organization. that they may be impossible for any actual organization
to succeed. He wanted to come up with a set of guide-
• Positions within a bureaucratic organization must lines that would favor both efficiency and, most impor-
follow a specific set of general rules. tantly, conditions that would make the workers top prior-
ity. It was common for earlier theorists to distort Weber’s
Weber argued that in bureaucracy, taking on a position or views, and today, people still make the same mistakes as
office signifies an assumption of a specific duty necessary they did when Weber’s views first came into play. He has
for the organization. This conception is distinct from his- always been critiqued for the branches of his ideas that
torical working relationships in which a worker served a don't work in reality, but the point of his theory was not
specific ruler, not an institution.[26] to actually create an organization, but to create an ideal
model for other organizations to follow.
The hierarchical nature of bureaucracies allows employ-
[26]
ees to demonstrate achieved social status. When an One big misconception that people have had in the past
office holder is elected instead of appointed, that person is a question of Weber’s morality due to their oversim-
is no longer a purely bureaucratic figure. He derives his plification of his characteristics of a pure bureaucracy.
power 'from below' instead of 'from above'. When a high- “There is dangerous risk of oversimplification in mak-
ranking officer selects officials, they are more likely to be ing Weber seem cold and heartless to such a degree
chosen for reasons related to the benefit of the superior that an efficiently-run Nazi death camp might appear ad-
than the competency of the new hire. When high-skilled mirable” (Bureaucracy Theory). In reality, Weber be-
employees are necessary for the bureaucracy and public lieved that by using human logic in his system, organiza-
opinion shapes decision-making, competent officers are tions could achieve improvement of human condition in
more likely to be selected.[26] various workplaces. Complexity in an organization yields
According to Weber, if 'tenure for life' is legally guaran- the highest success, therefore simplifying it leads to the il-
teed, an office becomes perceived as less prestigious than lusions of over-authority and intense hierarchical power
a position that can be replaced at any time. If 'tenure for that are inaccurate of Weber’s beliefs.
life' or a 'right to the office' develops, there is a decrease in Another critique of Weber’s theory is the argument of
efficiency. Highest efficiency, in theory, can be attained 11.4.1 Hawthorne study

through pure work with no regard for the workers (for
example, long hours with little pay), which is why over- A number of sociologists and psychologists made major
simplification can be dangerous. If we were to take one contributions to the study of the neoclassical perspective,
characteristic focusing on efficiency, it would seem like which is also known as the human relations school of
Weber is promoting unhealthy work conditions, when in thought. Elton Mayo and his colleagues were the most
fact, he wanted the complete opposite. Taking all of the important contributors to this study because of their fa-
characteristics together will produce the ideal organiza- mous Hawthorne study from the “Hawthorne plant of the
tion, but since a pure bureaucracy is nearly impossible Western Electric Company between 1927 and 1932.”[32]
to obtain, efficiency takes the back seat in his beliefs.
The Hawthorne study suggested that employees have so-
Though his theories include characteristics of a highly ef-
cial and psychological needs along with economic needs
ficient organization, these characteristics are only meant
in order to be motivated to complete their assigned tasks.
to set a model for other organizations to follow, and if all
This theory of management was a product of the strong
the other conditions are not perfect, the organization is
opposition against “the Scientific and universal manage-
not pure.
ment process theory of Taylor and Fayol.”[32] This the-
With this said, the characteristics of Weber’s theory have ory was a response to the way employees were treated in
to all be perfect for a bureaucracy to function at its highest companies and how they were deprived of their needs and
potential. “Think of the concept as a bureau or desk with ambitions.
drawers in it, which seems to call out to you, demanding
In November 1924, a team of researcher – professors
that everything must fit in its place” (Bureaucracy The-
from the renowned Harvard Business school of USA be-
ory). If one object in the drawer does not fit properly, the
gan investigating into the human aspects of work and
entire drawer becomes untidy, which is exactly the case
working conditions at the Hawthorne plant of Western
in Weber’s theory; if one characteristic is not fulfilled the
Electric Company, Chicago. The company was pro-
rest of them are unable to work in unison, leaving the or-
ducing bells and other electric equipments for the tele-
ganization performing below its full potential.
phone industry. Prominent Professors included in the re-
One characteristic that was meant to better workplace search team were Elton Mayo (Psychologist), Roethlis-
conditions was his rule that “Organization follows hierar- berger and Whilehead (Sociologist), and William Dick-
chical principle – subordinates follow orders or superiors, son (Company representative). The team conducted four
but have right of appeal (in contrast to more diffuse struc- separate experimental and behavioural studies over a
ture in traditional authority)" (Bureaucracy (Weber)). In seven-year period. These were:
other words, everyone in a company or any sort of work
environment has the opportunity and right to disagree or
to speak up if they are unhappy with something rather 1. 'Illumination Experiments (1924–27) to find out the
than not voice their opinion in fear of losing their job. effect of illumination on worker’s productivity.'
Open communication is a very important part of Weber’s
ideal bureaucracy, and is practiced today. Because of 2. 'Relay Assembly Test Room experiment (1927–28) to
the communication it may not be the most efficient, but find out the effect of changes in number of work hour
Weber would argue that improved human conditions are and related working condition on worker productiv-
more important than efficiency. ity.'
It is hard to critique Weber’s theories strictly because of
the fact that they are theories; they are nearly impossible 3. 'Experiment in interviewing Working: In 1928, a
to perform in real life, and therefore difficult to verify. number of researchers went directly to workers,
They are merely a set of guidelines that make up bureau- kept the variables of previous experiment aside, and
cracy, which today many believe is the best way to run talked about what was, in their opinion, important to
organizations in all aspects.[28][29][30] them. Around 20,000 workers were interviewed over
a period of two years. The interviews enabled the re-
searchers to discover a rich and intriguing world that
previously remained undiscovered and unexamined
within the Hawthorne studies undertaken so far. The
11.4 Neoclassical perspective discovery of the informal organisation and its rela-
tionship to the formal organization was the landmark
The Neoclassical perspective began with the Hawthorne of experiments in interviewing workers. These exper-
studies in the 1920s. This approach gave emphasis to “af- iment led to a richer understanding of the social, in-
fective and socio-psychological aspects of human behav- terpersonal dynamics of people at work.'
ior in organizations.”[31] The human relations movement
was a movement which had the primary concerns of con- 4. 'Bank wiring Room Experiments (1931–32) to find
centrating on topics such as morale, leadership. out social system of an organization.'
11.5. MODERN ORGANIZATIONAL THEORY 91
11.4.2 Results of the Hawthorne studies 11.5.1 Polyphonic organizations
The Hawthorne studies helped conclude that “a hu- The scholar most closely associated with the research
man/social element operated in the workplace and that about polyphonic organizations is de:Niels Åkerstrøm
productivity increases were as much an outgrowth of Andersen\. Niels Andersen believes that modern orga-
group dynamics as of managerial demands and physical nizations have exploded beyond their original organiza-
factors.”[32] The Hawthorne studies also concluded that tional boundaries.[34] For many years, private companies
although financial motives were important, social factors have automatically been understood as part of the econ-
are just as important in defining the worker-productivity. omy in the same way that political parties are considered a
part of politics and museums are considered a part of art.
Hawthorne Effect was the improvement of productivity
Today, concepts are linked together, according to Niels
between the employees, it was characterized by:
Andersen, is this called the polyphonic organizational-
movement. This claim was first made back in 1963 by
• The satisfactory interrelationships between the Richard M. Cyert and James G. March in the book "A be-
coworkers havioral theory of the firm". They said that organizations
rarely operate with only one value, according to Cyert and
• It classifies personnel as social beings and proposes March, do organizations actually often operate with more
that sense of belonging in the workplace is important values in their everyday behavior. Niels Andersen elabo-
to increase productivity levels in the workforce. rate on this assertion in many of his publications.
• An effective management understood the way peo-

The theory of the polyphonic organization
ple interacted and behaved within the group.
Niels Andersen’s research about polyphonic organization
• The management attempts to improve the interper-
arise out of his understanding of the society as function-
sonal skills through motivations, leading, communi-
ally differentiated. The society is divided into a num-
cation and counseling.
ber of countless communication systems (social systems)
with their own values and commutative code. Niels An-
• This study encourages managers to acquire minimal dersen is inspired by the German sociologist Nicklas
knowledge of behavioral sciences to be able to un- Nicklas Luhmann and his theory about social systems.
derstand and improve the interactions between em- The core element of Luhmann’s theory, pivots around
ployees the problem of the contingency of the meaning. In other
words, the system theory becomes a theory of communi-
cation and how meaning is created within different social
11.4.3 Criticism of the Hawthorne study systems.
Niels Anders uses the elements of Luhmann’s system the-
Critics believed that Mayo gave a lot of importance to the ory to describe the differentiation of the society and con-
social side of the study rather than addressing the needs of nect that to the evolution of the modern organization.
an organization. Also, they believed that the study takes According to Andersen is the society functionally dif-
advantage of employees because it influences their emo- ferentiated into a wide range of systems with their own
tions by making it seem as if they are satisfied and con- binary code. The binary codes set some distinctions be-
tent, however it is merely a tool that is being used to fur- tween a positive and negative value and divide the world
ther advance the productivity of the organization.[32] in two halves. The understanding of the world is made
throughout one side of the binary code. Andersen says,
that an organizational system always communicates and
create meaning through a function system (binary code).
11.5 Modern organizational theory In other words, an organization can only communicate
through one side of one binary code at the same time.
There was a wave of scholarly attention to organizational Throughout history organizations have always used sev-
theory in the 1950s, which from some viewpoints held eral codes in their communication, but they have always
the field to still be in its infancy. A 1959 symposium had a primary codification. Andersen call this type of
held by the Foundation for Research on Human Behav- organization a homophonic organization.[34] The homo-
ior in Ann Arbor, Michigan, was published as Modern phonic organization is no longer exercised in today’s so-
Organization Theory. Among a group of eminent orga- ciety. According to Andersen, we have today have poly-
nizational theorists active in during this decade were E. phonic organizations. The polyphonic organizations have
Wight Bakke, Chris Argyris, James G. March, Rensis emerged as a result of the way that the function systems
Likert, Jacob Marschak, Anatol Rapoport, and William have exploded beyond their organizational forms. A poly-
Foote Whyte.[33] phonic organization is an organization that is connected
to several function systems without a predefined primary 2. Contingency theory of leadership In the contin-
function system (multiple binary codifications). In other gency theory of leadership, the success of the leader is a
words, the polyphonic organization is an organization that
function of various factors in the form of subordinate,
describes itself through many codes. task, and/ or group variables. The following theories
Andersen addresses how it can be difficult for compa- stress using different styles of leadership appropriate to
nies to plan their communication and action because they the needs created by different organizational situations.
have to mediate between many codes at the same time. Some of these theories are:
There is no longer a predicted hierarchy of codes and
therefore no connection between organizations and spe- • The contingency theory: The contingency model
cific communication. This can also create management theory, developed by Fred Fiedler, explains that
challenges for companies because they have to take more group performance is a result of interaction between
factors into account compared earlier. Andersen’s view the style of the leader and the characteristics of the
on polyphonic organizations provides a new way to criti- environment in which the leader works.
cal examine modern organization and their communica-
tion decisions. • The Hersey–Blanchard situational theory: This the-
ory is an extension of Blake and Mouton’s Manage-
rial Grid and Reddin’s 3-D Management style the-
ory. This model expanded the notion of relationship
11.6 Environmental perspective and task dimensions to leadership, and readiness di-
mension.
11.6.1 Contingency theory
3. Contingency theory of decision-making The ef-
Main article: Contingency theory fectiveness of a decision procedure depends upon a num-
ber of aspects of the situation:
The contingency theory views organization design as “a
constrained optimization problem,” meaning that an or- • The importance of the decision quality and accep-
ganization must try to maximize performance by mini- tance.
mizing the effects of varying environmental and internal
constraints.[35] Contingency theory claims there is no best • The amount of relevant information possessed by
way to organize a corporation, to lead a company, or to the leader and subordinates.
make decisions. An organizational, leadership, or deci-
• The amount of disagreement among subordinates
sion making style that is effective in some situations, may
with respect to their alternatives.[36]
not be successful in other situations. The optimal organi-
zation, leadership, or decision making style depends upon
various internal and external constraints (factors). Criticism It has been argued that the contingency the-
ory implies that a leader switch is the only method to cor-
rect any problems facing leadership styles in certain orga-
Factors nizational structures. In addition, the contingency model
itself has been questioned in its credibility.[37]
Some examples of such constraints (factors) include:
• The size of the organization 11.7 See also
• How the firm adapts itself to its environment • Organizational culture
• Organization theory (Castells)

• Differences among resources and operations activi-
ties
11.8 References
1. Contingency on the organization In the contin-
gency theory on the organization, it states that there is no [1] p. 597
universal or one best way to manage an organization. Sec-
[2] Perrow, Charles (1991). “A Society of Organizations”.
ondly, the organizational design and its subsystems must Theory and Society: 725–762.
“fit” with the environment and lastly, effective organiza-
tions must not only have a proper “fit” with the environ- [3] Chandler, Alfred (1977). The Visible Hand. Cambridge:
ment, but also between its subsystems. Cambridge University Press.
[4] Greiner, Larry (June 1998). “Evolution and Revolution as [23] Leonard J. Brooks, Paul Dunn (2009-03-31). Business
Organizations Grow”. Harvard Business Review. & Professional Ethics for Directors, Executives & Ac-
countants. Cengage Learning. p. 149.ISBN 978-0-324-
[5] Weber, Max. Economy and Society: An Outline of Inter- 59455-3
pretive Sociology (2 Volume Set). University of California
Press. [24] Hertz, D.; Livingston, R. (1950). “Contemporary
Organizational theory: A review of current concepts
[6] Vaughan, Diane. “The Trickle-Down Effect: Policy Deci- and methods”. Human Relations. 3 (4): 373–394.
sions, Risky Work, and the Challenger Effect”. California doi:10.1177/001872675000300403.
Management Review.
[25] Taylor,F.W. (1911). The principles of scientific manage-
[7] Perrow, Charles. “Normal Accidents”. Princeton Univer- ment. New York: Harper Brothers.
sity Press.
[26] Weber, Max. “Bureaucracy.” In Economy and society: an
[8] Taylor, Frederick. Scientific Management. outline of interpretive sociology. Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1968. 956–969.
[9] Smith, Adam (1974). The Wealth of Nations. Penguin.
[27] “Bureaucratic Management”. Management Library. Re-
[10] Hemant, Shah (2011). The Production of Modernization: trieved June 30, 2016.
Daniel Lerner, Mass Media, and the Passing of Traditional
Society. Philadelphia: Temple UP. [28] Bureaucracy Theory. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Nov. 2012.
[11] Dobbin, Frank (1994). Cultural Models of Organization: [29] Bureaucracy (Weber). N.p., n.d. Web. 19 Nov. 2012.
The Social Construction of Rational Organizing Principles. [30] Criticism of Weberian Bureaucratic Theory. N.p., n.d.
Oxford: Basil Blackwell. pp. 117–141. Web. 20 Nov. 2012.
[12] “Modernization Theory”. Retrieved 19 November 2012. [31] Sapru, R.K. (2008). Administrative Theories and Man-
agement Thought. New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India Pri-
[13] Perrow, Chares (1991). “A Society of Organiza-
vate Limited, p 276.
tions”. Theory and Society. 6. 20: 725–762.
doi:10.1007/bf00678095. [32] The Wisest. (Jul 15, 2011). Neo-Classical School of
Management Thought. Idea Today’s. Retrieved from http:
[14] Shafritz, Jay; Ott, J. Steven. “Classical Organization The- //www.ideatodays.com/business/business-management/
ory”. In Shafritz, Jay; Ott, J. Steven. Classics of Organi- neo-classical-school-of-management-thought.html
zation Theory (5 ed.). Orlando: Harcourt. ISBN 0-15-
506869-5. [33] Posey, Rollin B. (March 1961). "Modern Organiza-
tion Theory edited by Mason Haire”. Administrative Sci-
[15] Daft, R.L and A.Armstrong. (2009). Organization The- ence Quarterly. 5 (4): 609–611. JSTOR 2390625.
ory and Design. Toronto:Nelson. doi:10.2307/2390625.
[16] Dobbin, Frank. “The Rise of Bureaucracy.” Harvard Uni- [34] Andersen, Niels: Polyphonic Organisations, 2001
versity. Harvard Hall, Cambridge, MA. 12 September
2012. [35] Van De Ven, Andrew H.; Ganco, Martin; Hinings, C.R.
(Bob) (2013). “Returning to the Frontier of Conti-
[17] Akrani, Gaurav. “Bureaucratic Theory of gency Theory of Organizational and Institutional De-
Management by Max Weber.” 22 April 2011. signs”. The Academy of Management Annals. 7: 393–
Web. <http://kalyan-city.blogspot.ca/2011/04/ 440. doi:10.1080/19416520.2013.774981.
bureaucratic-theory-of-management-by.html>
[36] 12MANAGE. (2012). Contingency Theory. Available
[18] “Rationalization and Bureaucracy.” 14 October 1999. at: http://www.12manage.com/methods_contingency_
Web. <http://uregina.ca/~{}gingrich/o14f99.htm> theory.html(accessed 26/03/12)
[19] Kendall, Diana, Jane L. Murray, and Rick Linden. So- [37] Bass, B. M. (1990). Leader March, a Handbook of Lead-
ciology in Our Times. 3rd ed. Nelson Education Ltd., ership. New York: The Free Press, 494–510, 651–2,
2004. 190. 840–41.
[20] Weber, Max. “Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the
Spirit of Capitalism.” Marxists Internet Archive. N.p.,
n.d. Web. 20 Nov. 2012.<http://marxists.org/reference/
11.9 External links
archive/weber/protestant-ethic/ch05.htm>.
• Media related to Human resources management at
[21] Weber, Max. Economy and Society: An Outline of Inter- Wikimedia Commons
pretive Sociology. University of California Press, 1978.
1403
[22] Hamilton, Peter. Max Weber: Critical Assessments. 1st

ed. Routledge, 1991. 294.
Chapter 12
Political science
“Political Analysis” redirects here. For the academic 12.1 Overview

journal, see Political Analysis (journal).
“Political Science” redirects here. For other uses, see
Political Science (disambiguation). Political scientists study matters concerning the alloca-
tion and transfer of power in decision making, the roles
and systems of governance including governments and
Political science, also called government,[1][2] is a social international organizations, political behaviour and public
science which deals with systems of governance, and the policies. They measure the success of governance and
analysis of political activities, political thoughts and po- specific policies by examining many factors, including
litical behaviour.[3] It deals extensively with the theory stability, justice, material wealth, peace and public health.
and practice of politics which is commonly thought of as Some political scientists seek to advance positive (at-
determining of the distribution of power and resources. tempt to describe how things are, as opposed to how they
Political scientists “see themselves engaged in revealing should be) theses by analysing politics. Others advance
the relationships underlying political events and condi- normative theses, by making specific policy recommen-
tions, and from these revelations they attempt to con- dations.
struct general principles about the way the world of poli-
tics works.”[4] Political scientists provide the frameworks from which
journalists, special interest groups, politicians, and the
Political science comprises numerous subfields, includ- electorate analyse issues. According to Chaturvedy,
ing comparative politics, political economy, international "...Political scientists may serve as advisers to specific
relations, political theory, public administration, public politicians, or even run for office as politicians them-
policy and political methodology. Furthermore, po- selves. Political scientists can be found working in gov-
litical science is related to, and draws upon, the ernments, in political parties or as civil servants. They
fields of economics, law, sociology, history, philosophy, may be involved with non-governmental organizations
geography, psychology, and anthropology. (NGOs) or political movements. In a variety of capac-
Comparative politics is the science of comparison and ities, people educated and trained in political science can
teaching of different types of constitutions, political ac- add value and expertise to corporations. Private enter-
tors, legislature and associated fields, all of them from an prises such as think tanks, research institutes, polling
intrastate perspective. International relations deals with and public relations firms often employ political scien-
the interaction between nation-states as well as intergov- tists.” [5] In the United States, political scientists known
ernmental and transnational organizations. Political the- as "Americanists" look at a variety of data including
ory is more concerned with contributions of various clas- constitutional development, elections, public opinion and
sical and contemporary thinkers and philosophers. public policy such as Social Security reform, foreign pol-
icy, US Congressional committees, and the US Supreme
Political science is methodologically diverse and ap-
Court — to name only a few issues.
propriates many methods originating in social re-
search. Approaches include positivism, interpretivism, Political science, possibly like the social sciences as a
rational choice theory, behaviouralism, structuralism, whole, “as a discipline lives on the fault line between
post-structuralism, realism, institutionalism, and plural- the 'two cultures’ in the academy, the sciences and the
ism. Political science, as one of the social sciences, uses humanities.”[6] Thus, in some American colleges where
methods and techniques that relate to the kinds of in- there is no separate School or College of Arts and Sci-
quiries sought: primary sources such as historical doc- ences per se, political science may be a separate depart-
uments and official records, secondary sources such as ment housed as part of a division or school of Human-
scholarly journal articles, survey research, statistical anal- ities or Liberal Arts.[7] Whereas classical political phi-
ysis, case studies, experimental research and model build- losophy is primarily defined by a concern for Hellenic
ing. and Enlightenment thought, political scientists are also
marked by a great concern for "modernity" and the con-
94
12.3. MODERN POLITICAL SCIENCE 95
temporary nation state, along with the study of classical observed and who have the capacity for making conscious
thought, and as such share a greater deal of terminology choices unlike other subjects such as non-human organ-
with sociologists (e.g. structure and agency). isms in biology or inanimate objects as in physics. De-
Most United States colleges and universities offer B.A. spite the complexities, contemporary political science has
programs in political science. M.A. or M.A.T. and Ph.D. progressed by adopting a variety of methods and theo-
or Ed.D. programs are common at larger universities. retical approaches to understanding politics and method-
The term political science is more popular in North Amer- ological pluralism is a defining feature of contemporary
ica than elsewhere; other institutions, especially those political science.
outside the United States, see political science as part of a
The advent of political science as a university discipline
broader discipline of political studies, politics, or govern-
was marked by the creation of university departments and
ment. While political science implies use of the scientific chairs with the title of political science arising in the late
method, political studies implies a broader approach, al- 19th century. In fact, the designation “political scientist”
though the naming of degree courses does not necessar- is typically for those with a doctorate in the field, but can
ily reflect their content.[8] Separate degree granting pro- also apply to those with a master’s in the subject.[13] In-
grams in international relations and public policy are not tegrating political studies of the past into a unified disci-
uncommon at both the undergraduate and graduate lev- pline is ongoing, and the history of political science has
els. Master’s level programs in political science are com- provided a rich field for the growth of both normative and
mon when political scientists engage in public adminis- positive political science, with each part of the discipline
tration.[9] sharing some historical predecessors. The American Po-
The national honor society for college and university stu- litical Science Association was founded in 1903 and the
dents of government and politics in the United States is American Political Science Review was founded in 1906
Pi Sigma Alpha. in an effort to distinguish the study of politics from eco-
nomics and other social phenomena.
12.2 Ancient 12.3.1 Behavioural revolution and new in-

stitutionalism
As a social science, contemporary political science
started to take shape in the latter half of the 19th cen- In the 1950s and the 1960s, a behavioural revolution
tury. At that time it began to separate itself from politi-
stressing the systematic and rigorously scientific study of
cal philosophy, which traces its roots back to the works of
individual and group behaviour swept the discipline. A
Chanakya, Aristotle and Plato which were written nearly focus on studying political behaviour, rather than institu-
2,500 years ago. tions or interpretation of legal texts, characterized early
Seeing in the work of Chinese “Legalist” Shen Buhai behavioural political science, including work by Robert
the “seeds of the civil service examination", Sinologist Dahl, Philip Converse, and in the collaboration between
Herrlee G. Creel considered him possibly the first politi- sociologist Paul Lazarsfeld and public opinion scholar
cal scientist - with exaggeration.[10] Bernard Berelson.
The late 1960s and early 1970s witnessed a take off in
the use of deductive, game theoretic formal modelling
12.3 Modern political science techniques aimed at generating a more analytical corpus
of knowledge in the discipline. This period saw a surge
Modern political science was founded by Niccolò Machi- of research that borrowed theory and methods from eco-
avelli. Because political science is essentially a study nomics to study political institutions, such as the United
of human behaviour, in all aspects of politics, observa- States Congress, as well as political behaviour, such as
tions in controlled environments are often challenging voting. William H. Riker and his colleagues and students
to reproduce or duplicate, though experimental meth- at the University of Rochester were the main proponents
ods are increasingly common (see experimental politi- of this shift.
cal science).[11] Citing this difficulty, former American Despite considerable research progress in the discipline
Political Science Association President Lawrence Lowell based on all the kinds of scholarship discussed above, it
once said “We are limited by the impossibility of exper- has been observed that progress toward systematic theory
iment. Politics is an observational, not an experimental has been modest and uneven.[14]
science.”[12] Because of this, political scientists have his-
torically observed political elites, institutions, and indi-
vidual or group behaviour in order to identify patterns, 12.3.2 Anticipating of crises
draw generalizations, and build theories of politics.
Like all social sciences, political science faces the diffi- The theory of political transitions,[15] and the methods
culty of observing human actors that can only be partially of their analysis and anticipating of crises,[16] form an
96 CHAPTER 12. POLITICAL SCIENCE
important part of political science. Several general in- nisms evolved for dealing with the small group politics
dicators of crises and methods were proposed for antic- that characterized the ancestral environment and not the
ipating critical transitions.[17] Among them, a statistical much larger political structures in today’s world. This is
indicator of crisis, simultaneous increase of variance and argued to explain many important features and systematic
correlations in large groups, was proposed for crises an- cognitive biases of current politics.[23]
ticipation and successfully used in various areas.[18] Its
applicability for early diagnosis of political crises was
demonstrated by the analysis of the prolonged stress pe- 12.4 Cognate fields
riod preceding the 2014 Ukrainian economic and polit-
ical crisis. There was a simultaneous increase in the to-
Most political scientists work broadly in one or more of
tal correlation between the 19 major public fears in the
the following five areas:
Ukrainian society (by about 64%) and also in their statis-
tical dispersion (by 29%) during the pre-crisis years.[19]
• Comparative politics, including area studies
A feature shared by certain major revolutions is that they
were not predicted. The theory of apparent inevitability • International relations
of crises and revolutions was also developed.[20]
• Political philosophy or political theory
• Public administration
12.3.3 Political science in the Soviet Union
• Public law
In the Soviet Union, political studies were carried out un-
der the guise of some other disciplines like theory of state Some political science departments also classify
and law, area studies, international relations, studies of la- methodology as well as scholarship on the domestic
bor movement, “critique of bourgeois theories”, etc. So- politics of a particular country as distinct fields. In the
viet scholars were represented at the International Polit- United States, American politics is often treated as a
ical Science Association (IPSA) since 1955 (since 1960 separate subfield.
by the Soviet Association of Political and State Studies). In contrast to this traditional classification, some aca-
In 1979, the 11th World Congress of IPSA took place in demic departments organize scholarship into thematic
Moscow. Until the late years of the Soviet Union, po- categories, including political philosophy, political be-
litical science as a field was subjected to tight control of haviour (including public opinion, collective action, and
the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and was thus identity), and political institutions (including legislatures
subjected to distrust. Anti-communists accused political and international organizations). Political science confer-
scientists of being “false” scientists and of having served ences and journals often emphasize scholarship in more
the old regime.[21] specific categories. The American Political Science As-
sociation, for example, has 42 organized sections that ad-
After the fall of the Soviet Union, two of the major in- dress various methods and topics of political inquiry.[24]
stitutions dealing with political science, the Institute of
Contemporary Social Theories and the Institute of Inter-
national Affairs, were disbanded, and most of their mem-
bers were left without jobs. These institutes were victims
12.5 History
of the first wave of anticommunist opinion and ideologi-
cal attacks. Today, the Russian Political Science Associa- Main article: History of political science
tion unites professional political scientists from all around
Russia. Political science as a separate field is a rather late arrival
in terms of social sciences. However, the term “polit-
ical science” was not always distinguished from politi-
12.3.4 Recent developments cal philosophy, and the modern discipline has a clear set
of antecedents including also moral philosophy, political
In 2000, the Perestroika Movement in political science economy, political theology, history, and other fields con-
was introduced as a reaction against what supporters of cerned with normative determinations of what ought to be
the movement called the mathematicization of political and with deducing the characteristics and functions of the
science. Those who identified with the movement argued ideal state.
for a plurality of methodologies and approaches in polit-
ical science and for more relevance of the discipline to
those outside of it.[22] 12.6 See also
Evolutionary psychology theories argue that humans have
evolved a highly developed set of psychological mecha- • Outline of political science – structured list of po-
nisms for dealing with politics. However, these mecha- litical topics, arranged by subject area
12.7. REFERENCES 97
• Index of politics articles – alphabetical list of polit- Sound. Government and politics is used by the University
ical subjects of Maryland, College Park.
• Political lists – lists of political topics [9] Vernardakis, George (1998). Graduate education in gov-
ernment. University Press of America. p. 77. ISBN 0-
• Political science terminology 7618-1171-0. ...existing practices at Harvard University,
the University of California at Berkeley, and the Univer-
• Outline of law sity of Michigan.
• Index of law articles [10] Creel, What Is Taoism?, 94
• Process tracing • Creel, 1974 p.4, 119 Shen Pu-hai: A Chinese Po-
litical Philosopher of the Fourth Century B.C.
• Creel 1964: 155-6
12.7 References • Herrlee G. Creel, 1974 p.119. Shen Pu-Hai: A Sec-
ular Philosopher of Administration, Journal of Chi-
[1] ahdictionary.com https://ahdictionary.com/word/search. nese Philosophy Volume 1.
html?q=Government. Definition 8: 'Political science' • Paul R. Goldin, p.16 Persistent Mis-
Missing or empty |title= (help) conceptions about Chinese Legalism.
http://www.academia.edu/24999390/Persistent_
[2] merriam-webster.com https://www.merriam-webster.
Misconceptions_about_Chinese_Legalism_
com/dictionary/government. Definition 7: 'political
science' Missing or empty |title= (help) [11] Druckman, James; Green, Donald; Kuklinski, James; et
al., eds. (2011). Cambridge Handbook of Experimental
[3] Oxford Dictionary: political science Political Science. New York: Cambridge University Press.
[4] Political Science. The University of North Carolina at ISBN 978-0-521-17455-8.
Chapel Hill (22 February 1999). Retrieved on 27 May [12] Lowell, A. Lawrence. 1910. “The Physiology of Politics.”
2014. American Political Science Review 4: 1-15.
[5] Chaturvedy, J. C. Political Governance: Political theory. [13] Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.
Isha Books. p. 4. Retrieved 28 October 2014. “How to Become a Political Scientist”. Retrieved 13
[6] Stoner, J. R. (22 February 2008). “Political Science September 2016.
and Political Education”. Paper presented at the annual [14] Kim Quaile Hill, “In Search of General Theory,” Journal
meeting of the APSA Teaching and Learning Confer- of Politics 74(October, 2012), 917-931.
ence (APSA), San José Marriott, San José, California.
Archived from the original on 30 November 2009. Re- [15] Acemoglu D., Robinson J.A. “A theory of political tran-
trieved 19 October 2011. ... although one might allege sitions.” American Economic Review. 2001 Sep 1:938-
the same for social science as a whole, political scien- 963.
tists receive funding from and play an active role in both
the National Science Foundation and the National Endow- [16] McClelland C.A. “The Anticipation of International
ment for the Humanities [in the United States]. <http: Crises: Prospects for Theory and Research.” International
//www.allacademic.com/meta/p245585_index.html>. Studies Quarterly, Vol. 21, No. 1, Special Issue on Inter-
national Crisis:Progress and Prospects for Applied Fore-
[7] See, e.g., the department of Political Science at Marist casting and Management (Mar., 1977), pp. 15-38
College, part of a Division of Humanities before that di-
vision became the School of Liberal Arts (c. 2000). [17] Scheffer M., Carpenter S.R., Lenton T.M., Bascompte
J., Brock W., Dakos V., Van De Koppel J., Van De
[8] Politics is the term used to refer to this field by Brandeis Leemput I.A., Levin S.A., Van Nes E.H., Pascual M.
University; Cornell College; University of California, “Anticipating critical transitions.” Science. 2012 Oct
Santa Cruz; Hendrix College; Lake Forest College; 19;338(6105):344-348.
Monash University; Mount Holyoke College; New York
University; Occidental College; Princeton University; [18] Gorban, A.N.; Smirnova, E.V.; Tyukina, T. A. (Au-
Ursinus College; and Washington and Lee University. gust 2010). “Correlations, risk and crisis: From
Government is the term used for this field by Bowdoin Col- physiology to finance”. Physica A: Statistical Me-
lege; Colby College; Cornell University; Dartmouth Col- chanics and its Applications. 389 (16): 3193–3217.
lege; Georgetown University; Harvard University; Smith doi:10.1016/j.physa.2010.03.035.
College; Wesleyan University; the College of William and [19] Rybnikov, S.R.; Rybnikova, N.A.; Portnov, B.A. (March
Mary; the University of Sydney; the University of Texas 2017). “Public fears in Ukrainian society: Are crises pre-
at Austin; the University of Ulster; the University of Es- dictable?". Psychology & Developing Societies. 29 (1):
sex; Victoria University of Wellington, which has both a 98–123. doi:10.1177/0971333616689398.
“School of Government” and a separate “Political Science
and International Relations Programme"; and the London [20] Kuran T. “Sparks and prairie fires: A theory of unantici-
School of Economics and Political Science. Politics and pated political revolution.” Public Choice, Vol. 61, No. 1
government is the term used by the University of Puget (Apr., 1989), pp. 41-74
98 CHAPTER 12. POLITICAL SCIENCE
[21] Political Science in Russia: Institutionalization of the Dis- • Oxford Handbooks of Political Science
cipline and Development of the Professional Community
• Noel, Hans (2010) “Ten Things Political Scientists
[22] Perestroika!: The Raucous Rebellion in Political Science. Know that You Don’t” The Forum: Vol. 8: Iss. 3,
Yale University Press. ISBN 0300130201.
Article 12.
[23] Michael Bang Petersen. “The evolutionary psychol-
ogy of mass politics”. In Roberts, S. C. (2011). • Zippelius, Reinhold (2003). Geschichte der Staat-
Roberts, S. Craig, ed. “Applied Evolutionary Psychol- sideen (=History of political Ideas), 10th ed. Mu-
ogy”. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199586073. nich: C.H. Beck. ISBN 3-406-49494-3.
doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199586073.001.0001.
• Zippelius, Reinhold (2010). Allgemeine Staat-
[24] APSA Organized Sections | APSA(subscription required) slehre, Politikwissenschaft (=Political Science),16th
ed. Munich: C.H. Beck. ISBN 978-3-406-60342-
6.
• The Evolution of Political Science (November 2006). 12.9 External links
APSR Centennial Volume of American Political Sci-
ence Review. Apsanet.org. 4 February 2009.
• Institute for Comparative Research in Human and
• European Political Processes: Essays and Readings Social Sciences (ICR) -Japan
(1968). [Compiled and] ed., with original essays, by
Henry S. Albinski [and] Lawrence K. Pettit. Boston: • European Consortium for Political Research
Allyn and Bacon. vii, 448 p.
• International Political Science Association
• Goodin, R. E.; Klingemann, Hans-Dieter (1996).
A New Handbook of Political Science. Oxford and • International Studies Association
New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-
829471-9. • IPSAPortal : Top 300 websites for Political Science
• Grinin, L., Korotayev, A. and Tausch A. (2016) • International Association for Political Science Stu-
Economic Cycles, Crises, and the Global Periphery. dents
Springer International Publishing, Heidelberg, New
York, Dordrecht, London, ISBN 978-3-319-17780- • American Political Science Association
9;
• Midwest Political Science Association
• Klingemann, Hans-Dieter, ed. (2007) The State of
Political Science in Western Europe. Opladen: Bar- • Southern Political Science Association
bara Budrich Publishers. ISBN 978-3-86649-045-
1. • Graduate Institute of International and Development
Studies. "Political Science Department which offers
• Schramm, S. F.; Caterino, B., eds. (2006). Making MA and PhD programmes"
Political Science Matter: Debating Knowledge, Re-
search, and Method. New York and London: New • Dalmacio Negro, Political Science Emeritus Profes-
York University Press. Making Political Science sor at CEU San Pablo University, Madrid (SPAIN)
Matter. Google Books. 4 February 2009.
• Political Studies Association of the UK
• Roskin, M.; Cord, R. L.; Medeiros, J. A.; Jones, W.
S. (2007). Political Science: An Introduction. 10th • PROL: Political Science Research Online (prepub-
ed. New York: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0- lished research)
13-242575-9 (10). ISBN 978-0-13-242575-9 (13).
• Truman State University Political Science Research
• Tausch, A.; Prager, F. (1993). Towards a Socio- Design Handbook
Liberal Theory of World Development. Basingstoke:
Macmillan; New York: St. Martin’s Press and • A New Nation Votes: American Elections Returns
Springer Publishers. 1787–1825
• Tausch, Arno (2015). The political algebra of global • Comparative Politics in Argentina & Latin America:
value change. General models and implications Site dedicated to the development of comparative
for the Muslim world. With Almas Heshmati and politics in Latin America.
Hichem Karoui. (1st ed.). Nova Science Publishers,
New York. ISBN 978-1-62948-899-8. • Introduction to Political Science Video
12.9.1 Library Guides to Political Science

• Library. “Political Science”. Research Guides.
USA: University of Michigan.
• Bodleian Libraries. “Political Science”. LibGuides.

UK: University of Oxford.
• Library. “Politics Research Guide”. LibGuides.

New Jersey, USA: Princeton University.
• Libraries. “Political Science”. Research Guides.

New York, USA: Syracuse University.
• University Libraries. “Political Science”. Research

Guides. USA: Texas A&M University.
Chapter 13
Positive statement
In the social sciences and philosophy, a positive or de- • Positivism

scriptive statement concerns what “is”, “was”, or “will
be”, and contains no indication of approval or disapproval • Normative statement
(what should be). Positive statements are thus the oppo-
site of normative statements. Positive statement is based
on empirical evidence. For examples, “An increase in 13.4 References
taxation will result in less consumption” and “A fall in
supply of petrol will lead to an increase in its price”. How- [1] “Positive and normative economics”. http:
ever, positive statement can be factually incorrect: “The //www.soas.ac.uk/cedep-demos/000_P570_IEEP_
moon is made of green cheese” is empirically false, but is K3736-Demo/unit1/page_16.htm. External link in
still a positive statement, as it is a statement about what |website= (help);
is, not what should be.[1]
• Lipsey, Richard G. (1975). An introduction to posi-
tive economics (fourth ed.). Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
13.1 Positive statements and nor- pp. 4–6. ISBN 0-297-76899-9.
mative statements • http://www.unc.edu/depts/econ/byrns_web/
Economicae/Figures/Positive-Normative.htm
Positive statements are distinct from normative state- Economae: An Encyclopedia
ments. Positive statements are based on empirical evi-
dence, can be tested, and involve no value judgements.
Positive statements refer to what is and contain no indi-
cation of approval or disapproval. When values or opin-
ions come into the analysis, then it is in the realm of nor-
mative economics. A normative statement expresses a
judgment about whether a situation is desirable or unde-
sirable, which can carry value judgements. These refer to
what ought to be.
13.2 Use of positive statement

Positive statements are widely used to describe some-
thing measurable, like the rate of inflation in an economy.
They are mainly used in explanations of theories and con-
cepts. Using a positive statement does not mean you can't
have your own opinions on issues. However, when you
are writing academic essays it’s important to use positive
statements to support an argument, since it can be verified
by evidence.
13.3 See also

• Falsifiability
100
Chapter 14
Sociology
This article is about the discipline. For the journal, see 14.1 Classification
Sociology (journal).
Sociology is distinguished from various general social
Sociology is the scientific study of society, including studies courses, which bear little relation to sociological
patterns of social relationships, social interaction, and theory or to social-science research-methodology. The
culture.[1][2][3] It is a social science that uses various US National Science Foundation classifies sociology as a
methods of empirical investigation[4] and critical analy- STEM field.[10][11]
sis[5] to develop a body of knowledge about social order,
acceptance, and change. Many sociologists aim to con-
duct research that may be applied directly to social pol- 14.2 History
icy and welfare, while others focus primarily on refining
the theoretical understanding of social processes. Subject
Main articles: History of sociology, List of sociologists,
matter ranges from the micro-sociology level of individ-
and Timeline of sociology
ual agency and interaction to the macro level of systems
and the social structure.[6]
The traditional focuses of sociology include social
stratification, social class, social mobility, religion, 14.2.1 Origins
secularization, law, sexuality and deviance. As all spheres
of human activity are affected by the interplay between Sociological reasoning pre-dates the foundation of the
social structure and individual agency, sociology has discipline. Social analysis has origins in the common
gradually expanded its focus to further subjects, such as stock of Western knowledge and philosophy, and has
health, medical, military and penal institutions, the Inter- been carried out from as far back as the time of ancient
net, education, social capital and the role of social activity Greek philosopher Plato, if not before. The origin of the
in the development of scientific knowledge. survey, i.e., the collection of information from a sam-
The range of social scientific methods has also expanded. ple of individuals, can be traced back to at least the
Social researchers draw upon a variety of qualitative Domesday Book in 1086,[12][13] while ancient philoso-
and quantitative techniques. The linguistic and cultural phers such as Confucius wrote on the importance of so-
turns of the mid-twentieth century led to increasingly cial roles. There is evidence of early sociology in me-
interpretative, hermeneutic, and philosophic approaches dieval Arab writings. Some Muslim sources consider Ibn
towards the analysis of society. Conversely, the end of Khaldun, a 14th-century Arab[14][15] Islamic scholar from
the 1990s and the beginning of 2000s have seen the rise North Africa (Tunisia), to have been the first sociologist
of new analytically, mathematically and computationally and father of sociology (see Branches of the early Islamic
rigorous techniques, such as agent-based modelling and philosophy); his Muqaddimah was perhaps the first work
social network analysis.[7][8] to advance social-scientific reasoning on social cohesion
and social conflict.[16][17][18][19][20][21]
Social research informs politicians and policy mak-
ers, educators, planners, legislators, administrators, The word sociology (or “sociologie”) is derived from
developers, business magnates, managers, social work- both Latin and Greek origins. The Latin word: socius,
ers, non-governmental organizations, non-profit organi- “companion"; the suffix -logy, “the study of” from
zations, and people interested in resolving social issues in Greek -λογία from λόγος, lógos, “word”, “knowledge”.
general. There is often a great deal of crossover between It was first coined in 1780 by the French essayist
social research, market research, and other statistical Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès (1748–1836) in an unpub-
fields.[9] lished manuscript.[22] Sociology was later defined inde-
pendently by the French philosopher of science, Auguste
Comte (1798–1857), in 1838.[23] Comte used this term
101
102 CHAPTER 14. SOCIOLOGY
Auguste Comte (1798–1857)
irreducibility of each of his basic sciences to

Ibn Khaldun statue in Tunis, Tunisia (1332–1406)
the particular science of sciences which it pre-
supposed in the hierarchy and by emphasizing
the nature of sociology as the scientific study
to describe a new way of looking at society.[24] Comte of social phenomena Comte put sociology
had earlier used the term “social physics”, but that had on the map. To be sure, [its] beginnings can
subsequently been appropriated by others, most notably be traced back well beyond Montesquieu, for
the Belgian statistician Adolphe Quetelet. Comte en- example, and to Condorcet, not to speak of
deavoured to unify history, psychology and economics Saint-Simon, Comte’s immediate predecessor.
through the scientific understanding of the social realm. But Comte’s clear recognition of sociology
Writing shortly after the malaise of the French Revo- as a particular science, with a character of its
lution, he proposed that social ills could be remedied own, justified Durkheim in regarding him as
through sociological positivism, an epistemological ap- the father or founder of this science, in spite
proach outlined in The Course in Positive Philosophy of the fact that Durkheim did not accept the
(1830–1842) and A General View of Positivism (1848). idea of the three states and criticized Comte’s
Comte believed a positivist stage would mark the final era, approach to sociology.[27]
after conjectural theological and metaphysical phases, in — Frederick Copleston, A History of Philoso-
the progression of human understanding.[25] In observing phy: IX Modern Philosophy 1974
the circular dependence of theory and observation in sci-
ence, and having classified the sciences, Comte may be
regarded as the first philosopher of science in the mod- Both Auguste Comte and Karl Marx (1818–1883) set out
ern sense of the term.[26] to develop scientifically justified systems in the wake of
European industrialization and secularization, informed
Comte gave a powerful impetus to the by various key movements in the philosophies of history
development of sociology, an impetus which and science. Marx rejected Comtean positivism[28] but
bore fruit in the later decades of the nine- in attempting to develop a science of society nevertheless
teenth century. To say this is certainly not came to be recognized as a founder of sociology as the
to claim that French sociologists such as word gained wider meaning. For Isaiah Berlin, Marx may
Durkheim were devoted disciples of the high be regarded as the “true father” of modern sociology, “in
priest of positivism. But by insisting on the so far as anyone can claim the title.”[29]
14.2. HISTORY 103
Herbert Spencer (1820–1903)

Karl Marx (1818–1883)
circles, especially in the United States and England.[32]

To have given clear and unified answers in
familiar empirical terms to those theoretical
questions which most occupied men’s minds
at the time, and to have deduced from them 14.2.2 Foundations of the academic disci-
clear practical directives without creating pline
obviously artificial links between the two, was
the principal achievement of Marx’s theory. Main articles: Émile Durkheim and Social facts
The sociological treatment of historical and The first formal Department of Sociology in the world
moral problems, which Comte and after was established by Albion Small - at the invitation of
him, Spencer and Taine, had discussed and William Rainey Harper - at the University of Chicago
mapped, became a precise and concrete study in 1892, and the American Journal of Sociology was
only when the attack of militant Marxism founded shortly thereafter in 1895 by Small as well.[33]
made its conclusions a burning issue, and so However, the institutionalization of sociology as an aca-
made the search for evidence more zealous demic discipline was chiefly led by Émile Durkheim
and the attention to method more intense.[30] (1858–1917), who developed positivism as a foundation
— Isaiah Berlin, Karl Marx: His Life and to practical social research. While Durkheim rejected
Environment 1937 much of the detail of Comte’s philosophy, he retained
and refined its method, maintaining that the social sci-
ences are a logical continuation of the natural ones into
Herbert Spencer (27 April 1820 – 8 December 1903) was the realm of human activity, and insisting that they may
one of the most popular and influential 19th-century so- retain the same objectivity, rationalism, and approach
ciologists. It is estimated that he sold one million books to causality.[34] Durkheim set up the first European de-
in his lifetime, far more than any other sociologist at partment of sociology at the University of Bordeaux in
the time. So strong was his influence that many other 1895, publishing his Rules of the Sociological Method
19th century thinkers, including Émile Durkheim, de- (1895).[35] For Durkheim, sociology could be described
fined their ideas in relation to his. Durkheim’s Division of as the “science of institutions, their genesis and their
Labour in Society is to a large extent an extended debate functioning”.[36]
with Spencer from whose sociology, many commenta- Durkheim’s monograph, Suicide (1897) is considered
tors now agree, Durkheim borrowed extensively.[31] Also a seminal work in statistical analysis by contemporary
a notable biologist, Spencer coined the term "survival of sociologists. Suicide is a case study of variations in
the fittest". While Marxian ideas defined one strand of suicide rates among Catholic and Protestant popula-
sociology, Spencer was a critic of socialism as well as tions, and served to distinguish sociological analysis from
strong advocate for a laissez-faire style of government. psychology or philosophy. It also marked a major contri-
His ideas were highly observed by conservative political bution to the theoretical concept of structural function-
Vilfredo Pareto, Alexis de Tocqueville, Werner Som-

bart, Thorstein Veblen, Ferdinand Tönnies, Georg Sim-
mel and Karl Mannheim are often included on academic
curricula as founding theorists. Curricula also may in-
clude Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Marianne Weber and
Friedrich Engels as founders of the feminist tradition in
sociology. Each key figure is associated with a particular
theoretical perspective and orientation.[39]
Marx and Engels associated the emergence

of modern society above all with the devel-
opment of capitalism; for Durkheim it was
connected in particular with industrialization
and the new social division of labor which this
brought about; for Weber it had to do with the
emergence of a distinctive way of thinking, the
rational calculation which he associated with
the Protestant Ethic (more or less what Marx
and Engels speak of in terms of those 'icy
waves of egotistical calculation'). Together
the works of these great classical sociologists
suggest what Giddens has recently described
as 'a multidimensional view of institutions of
modernity' and which emphasises not only
capitalism and industrialism as key institutions
of modernity, but also 'surveillance' (meaning
Émile Durkheim
'control of information and social supervision')
and 'military power' (control of the means of
violence in the context of the industrialisation
alism. By carefully examining suicide statistics in dif-
of war).[39]
ferent police districts, he attempted to demonstrate that
— John Harriss, The Second Great Transfor-
Catholic communities have a lower suicide rate than that
mation? Capitalism at the End of the Twentieth
of Protestants, something he attributed to social (as op-
Century 1992
posed to individual or psychological) causes. He devel-
oped the notion of objective sui generis “social facts” to
delineate a unique empirical object for the science of so-
ciology to study.[34] Through such studies he posited that 14.2.3 Positivism and anti-positivism
sociology would be able to determine whether any given
society is 'healthy' or 'pathological', and seek social re- Positivism
form to negate organic breakdown or “social anomie".
Sociology quickly evolved as an academic response Main article: Positivism
to the perceived challenges of modernity, such as
industrialization, urbanization, secularization, and the The overarching methodological principle of positivism
process of "rationalization".[37] The field predominated is to conduct sociology in broadly the same manner as
in continental Europe, with British anthropology and natural science. An emphasis on empiricism and the
statistics generally following on a separate trajectory. By scientific method is sought to provide a tested founda-
the turn of the 20th century, however, many theorists tion for sociological research based on the assumption
were active in the English-speaking world. Few early so- that the only authentic knowledge is scientific knowledge,
ciologists were confined strictly to the subject, interact- and that such knowledge can only arrive by positive affir-
ing also with economics, jurisprudence, psychology and mation through scientific methodology.
philosophy, with theories being appropriated in a variety
of different fields. Since its inception, sociological epis- Our main goal is to extend scientific ratio-
temology, methods, and frames of inquiry, have signifi- nalism to human conduct.... What has been
cantly expanded and diverged.[6] called our positivism is but a consequence of
Durkheim, Marx, and the German theorist Max We- this rationalism.[40]
ber (1864–1920) are typically cited as the three princi- — Émile Durkheim, The Rules of Sociological
pal architects of sociology.[38] Herbert Spencer, William Method (1895)
Graham Sumner, Lester F. Ward, W. E. B. Du Bois,
14.2. HISTORY 105
The term has long since ceased to carry this meaning; ical analysis, seeking to supplement the empirical acqui-
there are no fewer than twelve distinct epistemologies sition of “facts” with the elimination of illusions.[47] He
that are referred to as positivism.[34][41] Many of these maintained that appearances need to be critiqued rather
approaches do not self-identify as “positivist”, some be- than simply documented. Early hermeneuticians such as
cause they themselves arose in opposition to older forms Wilhelm Dilthey pioneered the distinction between nat-
of positivism, and some because the label has over time ural and social science ('Geisteswissenschaft'). Various
become a term of abuse[34] by being mistakenly linked neo-Kantian philosophers, phenomenologists and human
with a theoretical empiricism. The extent of antiposi- scientists further theorized how the analysis of the social
tivist criticism has also diverged, with many rejecting the world differs to that of the natural world due to the irre-
scientific method and others only seeking to amend it to ducibly complex aspects of human society, culture, and
reflect 20th century developments in the philosophy of being.[48][49]
science. However, positivism (broadly understood as a At the turn of the 20th century the first generation of
scientific approach to the study of society) remains dom-
German sociologists formally introduced methodologi-
inant in contemporary sociology, especially in the United cal anti-positivism, proposing that research should con-
States.[34]
centrate on human cultural norms, values, symbols, and
Loïc Wacquant distinguishes three major strains of pos- social processes viewed from a resolutely subjective per-
itivism: Durkheimian, Logical, and Instrumental.[34] spective. Max Weber argued that sociology may be
None of these are the same as that set forth by Comte, loosely described as a science as it is able to identify
who was unique in advocating such a rigid (and per- causal relationships of human "social action"—especially
haps optimistic) version.[42][43] While Émile Durkheim among "ideal types", or hypothetical simplifications of
rejected much of the detail of Comte’s philosophy, he complex social phenomena.[50] As a non-positivist, how-
retained and refined its method. Durkheim maintained ever, Weber sought relationships that are not as “histor-
that the social sciences are a logical continuation of the ical, invariant, or generalisable”[51] as those pursued by
natural ones into the realm of human activity, and insisted natural scientists. Fellow German sociologist, Ferdinand
that they should retain the same objectivity, rationalism, Tönnies, theorized on two crucial abstract concepts with
and approach to causality.[34] He developed the notion of his work on "Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft" (lit. com-
objective sui generis “social facts” to delineate a unique munity and society). Tönnies marked a sharp line between
empirical object for the science of sociology to study.[34] the realm of concepts and the reality of social action: the
The variety of positivism that remains dominant today is first must be treated axiomatically and in a deductive way
(“pure sociology”), whereas the second empirically and
termed instrumental positivism. This approach eschews
epistemological and metaphysical concerns (such as the inductively (“applied sociology”).[52]
nature of social facts) in favour of methodological clar-
ity, replicability, reliability and validity.[44] This posi-
tivism is more or less synonymous with quantitative re-
search, and so only resembles older positivism in practice.
Since it carries no explicit philosophical commitment, its
practitioners may not belong to any particular school of
thought. Modern sociology of this type is often credited
to Paul Lazarsfeld,[34] who pioneered large-scale survey
studies and developed statistical techniques for analysing
them. This approach lends itself to what Robert K. Mer-
ton called middle-range theory: abstract statements that
generalize from segregated hypotheses and empirical reg-
ularities rather than starting with an abstract idea of a so-
cial whole.[45]
Anti-positivism
Main article: Anti-positivism
Reactions against social empiricism began when Ger-

man philosopher Hegel voiced opposition to both em-
piricism, which he rejected as uncritical, and determin-
ism, which he viewed as overly mechanistic.[46] Karl
Marx's methodology borrowed from Hegelian dialecti- Max Weber
cism but also a rejection of positivism in favour of crit-
[Sociology is] ... the science whose object

is to interpret the meaning of social action and
thereby give a causal explanation of the way
in which the action proceeds and the effects
which it produces. By 'action' in this definition
is meant the human behaviour when and to
the extent that the agent or agents see it as
subjectively meaningful ... the meaning to
which we refer may be either (a) the meaning
actually intended either by an individual agent
on a particular historical occasion or by a
number of agents on an approximate average
in a given set of cases, or (b) the meaning
attributed to the agent or agents, as types, in
a pure type constructed in the abstract. In
neither case is the 'meaning' to be thought
of as somehow objectively 'correct' or 'true'
by some metaphysical criterion. This is the
difference between the empirical sciences of
action, such as sociology and history, and any
kind of prior discipline, such as jurisprudence,
logic, ethics, or aesthetics whose aim is to
extract from their subject-matter 'correct' or
'valid' meaning.[53]
— Max Weber, The Nature of Social Action Georg Simmel
1922
ties which grew up historically in politics,

Both Weber and Georg Simmel pioneered the in religion, in morality and in economics in
"Verstehen" (or 'interpretative') method in social order to permit the original natural virtue of
science; a systematic process by which an outside man, which is equal in everyone, to develop
observer attempts to relate to a particular cultural group, without inhibition; the nineteenth century
or indigenous people, on their own terms and from their may have sought to promote, in addition to
own point of view.[54] Through the work of Simmel, man’s freedom, his individuality (which is
in particular, sociology acquired a possible character connected with the division of labor) and his
beyond positivist data-collection or grand, deterministic achievements which make him unique and
systems of structural law. Relatively isolated from the indispensable but which at the same time
sociological academy throughout his lifetime, Simmel make him so much the more dependent on the
presented idiosyncratic analyses of modernity more complementary activity of others; Nietssche
reminiscent of the phenomenological and existential may have seen the relentless struggle of the
writers than of Comte or Durkheim, paying particular individual as the prerequisite for his full
concern to the forms of, and possibilities for, social development, while socialism found the same
individuality.[55] His sociology engaged in a neo-Kantian thing in the suppression of all competition –
inquiry into the limits of perception, asking 'What is but in each of these the same fundamental
society?' in a direct allusion to Kant’s question 'What is motive was at work, namely the resistance of
nature?'[56] the individual to being leveled, swallowed up
in the social-technological mechanism.[57]
The deepest problems of modern life — Georg Simmel, The Metropolis and Mental
flow from the attempt of the individual to Life 1903
maintain the independence and individuality
of his existence against the sovereign powers
of society, against the weight of the historical
heritage and the external culture and technique 14.2.4 Other developments
of life. The antagonism represents the most
modern form of the conflict which primitive The first college course entitled “Sociology” was taught
man must carry on with nature for his own in the United States at Yale in 1875 by William Gra-
bodily existence. The eighteenth century ham Sumner.[58] In 1883 Lester F. Ward, the first pres-
may have called for liberation from all the ident of the American Sociological Association, pub-
14.3. THEORETICAL TRADITIONS 107
Martineau, an English translator of Comte, has been cited

as the first female sociologist.[68] In 1909 the Deutsche
Gesellschaft für Soziologie (German Sociological Associ-
ation) was founded by Ferdinand Tönnies and Max We-
ber, among others. Weber established the first depart-
ment in Germany at the Ludwig Maximilian University
of Munich in 1919, having presented an influential new
antipositivist sociology.[69] In 1920, Florian Znaniecki set
up the first department in Poland. The Institute for Social
Research at the University of Frankfurt (later to become
the Frankfurt School of critical theory) was founded in
1923.[70] International co-operation in sociology began
in 1893, when René Worms founded the Institut Inter-
national de Sociologie, an institution later eclipsed by
the much larger International Sociological Association
(ISA), founded in 1949.[71]
14.3 Theoretical traditions
Bust of Ferdinand Tönnies in Husum, Germany Main article: Sociological theory
lished Dynamic Sociology—Or Applied social science as

based upon statical sociology and the less complex sci-
14.3.1 Classical theory
ences and attacked the laissez-faire sociology of Herbert
Spencer and Sumner.[32] Ward’s 1200 page book was The contemporary discipline of sociology is theoretically
used as core material in many early American sociol- multi-paradigmatic[72] as a result of the contentions of
ogy courses. In 1890, the oldest continuing American classical social theory. In Randall Collins' well-cited
course in the modern tradition began at the University survey of sociological theory[73] he retroactively labels
of Kansas, lectured by Frank W. Blackmar.[59] The De- various theorists as belonging to four theoretical tra-
partment of Sociology at the University of Chicago was ditions: Functionalism, Conflict, Symbolic Interaction-
established in 1892 by Albion Small, who also pub- ism, and Utilitarianism.[74] Modern sociological theory
lished the first sociology textbook: An introduction to descends predominately from functionalist (Durkheim)
the study of society 1894.[60] George Herbert Mead and and conflict-centred (Marx and Weber) accounts of so-
Charles Cooley, who had met at the University of Michi- cial structure, as well as the symbolic interactionist tra-
gan in 1891 (along with John Dewey), would move to dition consisting of micro-scale structural (Simmel) and
Chicago in 1894.[61] Their influence gave rise to social pragmatist (Mead, Cooley) theories of social interaction.
psychology and the symbolic interactionism of the mod- Utilitarianism, also known as Rational Choice or Social
ern Chicago School.[62] The American Journal of Sociol- Exchange, although often associated with economics, is
ogy was founded in 1895, followed by the American Soci- an established tradition within sociological theory.[75][76]
ological Association (ASA) in 1905.[60] The sociological Lastly, as argued by Raewyn Connell, a tradition that is
“canon of classics” with Durkheim and Max Weber at the often forgotten is that of Social Darwinism, which brings
top owes in part to Talcott Parsons, who is largely credited the logic of Darwinian biological evolution and applies
with introducing both to American audiences.[63] Par- it to people and societies.[77] This tradition often aligns
sons consolidated the sociological tradition and set the with classical functionalism. It was the dominant theo-
agenda for American sociology at the point of its fastest retical stance in American sociology from around 1881
disciplinary growth. Sociology in the United States was to 1915[78] and is associated with several founders of so-
less historically influenced by Marxism than its European ciology, primarily Herbert Spencer, Lester F. Ward and
counterpart, and to this day broadly remains more statis- William Graham Sumner. Contemporary sociological
tical in its approach.[64] theory retains traces of each of these traditions and they
are by no means mutually exclusive.
The first sociology department to be established in the
United Kingdom was at the London School of Economics
and Political Science (home of the British Journal of So- Functionalism
ciology) in 1904.[65] Leonard Trelawny Hobhouse and
Edvard Westermarck became the lecturers in the disci- Main article: Structural functionalism
pline at the University of London in 1907.[66][67] Harriet
A broad historical paradigm in both sociology and Freeman and slave, patrician and plebeian,
anthropology, functionalism addresses the social struc- lord and serf, guild-master and journeyman, in
ture, referred to as social organization in among the clas- a word, oppressor and oppressed, stood in con-
sical theorists, as a whole and in terms of the necessary stant opposition to one another, carried on an
function of its constituent elements. A common anal- uninterrupted, now hidden, now open fight, a
ogy (popularized by Herbert Spencer) is to regard norms fight that each time ended, either in a revolu-
and institutions as 'organs’ that work towards the proper- tionary re-constitution of society at large, or in
functioning of the entire 'body' of society.[79] The per- the common ruin of the contending classes.[83]
spective was implicit in the original sociological posi- — Karl Marx & Friedrich Engels, The
tivism of Comte, but was theorized in full by Durkheim, Communist Manifesto 1848
again with respect to observable, structural laws. Func-
tionalism also has an anthropological basis in the work of
theorists such as Marcel Mauss, Bronisław Malinowski
and Radcliffe-Brown. It is in Radcliffe-Brown’s spe- Symbolic Interactionism
cific usage that the prefix 'structural' emerged.[80] Clas-
sical functionalist theory is generally united by its ten- Main articles: Symbolic interactionism, Dramaturgy (so-
dency towards biological analogy and notions of social ciology), Interpretive sociology, and Phenomenological
evolutionism, in that the basic form of society would in- sociology
crease in complexity and those forms of social organiza-
tion that promoted solidarity would eventually overcome Symbolic interaction; often associated with
social disorganization. As Giddens states: “Functional- Interactionism, Phenomenological sociology,
ist thought, from Comte onwards, has looked particu- Dramaturgy, Interpretivism, is a sociological tradi-
larly towards biology as the science providing the clos- tion that places emphasis on subjective meanings and
est and most compatible model for social science. Biol- the empirical unfolding of social processes, generally
ogy has been taken to provide a guide to conceptualiz- accessed through micro-analysis.[84] This tradition
ing the structure and the function of social systems and emerged in the Chicago School of the 1920s and 1930s,
to analysing processes of evolution via mechanisms of which prior to World War II “had been the center
adaptation ... functionalism strongly emphasizes the pre- of sociological research and graduate study”.[85] The
eminence of the social world over its individual parts (i.e. approach focuses on creating a framework for building a
its constituent actors, human subjects).”[81] theory that sees society as the product of the everyday
interactions of individuals. Society is nothing more
than the shared reality that people construct as they
Conflict theory interact with one another. This approach sees people
interacting in countless settings using symbolic commu-
Main article: Conflict theory nications to accomplish the tasks at hand. Therefore,
society is a complex, ever-changing mosaic of subjective
Functionalist theories emphasize “cohesive systems” and meanings.[86] Some critics of this approach argue that
are often contrasted with “conflict theories”, which cri- it only looks at what is happening in a particular social
tique the overarching socio-political system or emphasize situation, and disregards the effects that culture, race
the inequality between particular groups. The following or gender (i.e. social-historical structures) may have in
quotes from Durkheim and Marx epitomize the political, that situation.[87] Some important sociologists associated
as well as theoretical, disparities, between functionalist with this approach include Max Weber, George Herbert
and conflict thought respectively: Mead, Erving Goffman, George Homans and Peter
Blau. It is also in this tradition that the radical-empirical
approach of Ethnomethodology emerges from the work
To aim for a civilisation beyond that made of Harold Garfinkel.
possible by the nexus of the surrounding envi-
ronment will result in unloosing sickness into
the very society we live in. Collective activity Utilitarianism
cannot be encouraged beyond the point set by
the condition of the social organism without Main articles: Utilitarianism, Rational choice theory,
undermining health.[82] and Exchange theory
— Émile Durkheim, The Division of Labour
in Society 1893
Utilitarianism is often referred to as exchange theory or
rational choice theory in the context of sociology. This
tradition tends to privilege the agency of individual ratio-
The history of all hitherto existing society nal actors and assumes that within interactions individu-
is the history of class struggles. als always seek to maximize their own self-interest. As
14.3. THEORETICAL TRADITIONS 109
argued by Josh Whitford, rational actors are assumed to Pax Wisconsana

have four basic elements, the individual has (1) “a knowl-
edge of alternatives,” (2) “a knowledge of, or beliefs While some conflict approaches also gained popularity in
about the consequences of the various alternatives,” (3) the United States, the mainstream of the discipline in-
“an ordering of preferences over outcomes,” (4) “A de- stead shifted to a variety of empirically oriented middle-
cision rule, to select among the possible alternatives”[88] range theories with no single overarching, or “grand”,
Exchange theory is specifically attributed to the work of theoretical orientation. John Levi Martin refers to this
George C. Homans, Peter Blau and Richard Emerson.[89] “golden age of methodological unity and theoretical
Organizational sociologists James G. March and Herbert calm” as the Pax Wisconsana,[95] as it reflected the com-
A. Simon noted that an individual’s rationality is bounded position of the sociology department at the University
by the context or organizational setting. The utilitarian of Wisconsin–Madison: numerous scholars working on
perspective in sociology was, most notably, revitalized in separate projects with little contention.[96] Omar Lizardo
the late 20th century by the work of former ASA presi- describes the Pax Wisconsana as: “a Midwestern fla-
dent James Coleman. vored, Mertonian resolution of the theory/method wars
in which [sociologists] all agreed on at least two working
hypotheses: (1) grand theory' is a waste of time; (2) [and]
good theory has to be good to think with or goes in the
trash bin.”[97] Despite the aversion to grand theory in the
later half of the 20th century, several new traditions have
14.3.2 20th-century social theory emerged that propose various syntheses: structuralism,
post-structuralism, cultural sociology and systems theory.
Following the decline of theories of sociocultural evo-
lution, in the United States, the interactionism of the
Chicago School dominated American sociology. As Structuralism
Anselm Strauss describes, “We didn't think symbolic in-
teraction was a perspective in sociology; we thought it
was sociology.”[85] After World War II, mainstream soci-
ology shifted to the survey-research of Paul Lazarsfeld at
Columbia University and the general theorizing of Pitirim
Sorokin, followed by Talcott Parsons at Harvard Univer-
sity. Ultimately, “the failure of the Chicago, Columbia,
and Wisconsin [sociology] departments to produce a sig-
nificant number of graduate students interested in and
committed to general theory in the years 1936–45 was
to the advantage of the Harvard department.”[90] As Par-
sons began to dominate general theory, his work pre-
dominately referenced European sociology—almost en-
tirely omitting citations of both the American tradition
of sociocultural-evolution as well as pragmatism. In addi-
tion to Parsons’ revision of the sociological canon (which
included Marshall, Pareto, Weber and Durkheim), the
lack of theoretical challenges from other departments
nurtured the rise of the Parsonian structural-functionalist
movement, which reached its crescendo in the 1950s, but
by the 1960s was in rapid decline.[91]
By the 1980s, most functionalisms in Europe had broadly
been replaced by conflict-oriented approaches[92] and to
many in the discipline, functionalism was considered “as
dead as a dodo.”[93] “According to Giddens, the orthodox Anthony Giddens
consensus terminated in the late 1960s and 1970s as the
middle ground shared by otherwise competing perspec- The structuralist movement originated primarily from the
tives gave way and was replaced by a baffling variety of work of Durkheim as interpreted by two European an-
competing perspectives. This third 'generation' of social thropologists. Anthony Giddens' theory of structuration
theory includes phenomenologically inspired approaches, draws on the linguistic theory of Ferdinand de Saus-
critical theory, ethnomethodology, symbolic interaction- sure and the French anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss.
ism, structuralism, post-structuralism, and theories writ- In this context, 'structure' refers not to 'social struc-
ten in the tradition of hermeneutics and ordinary language ture' but to the semiotic understanding of human cul-
philosophy.”[94] ture as a system of signs. One may delineate four cen-
tral tenets of structuralism: First, structure is what de- The problem of subjectivity and objectivity can be di-
termines the structure of a whole. Second, structuralists vided into a concern over the general possibilities of so-
believe that every system has a structure. Third, struc- cial actions, and, on the other hand the specific problem
turalists are interested in 'structural' laws that deal with of social scientific knowledge. In the former, the sub-
coexistence rather than changes. Finally, structures are jective is often equated (though not necessarily) with the
the 'real things’ beneath the surface or the appearance of individual, and the individual’s intentions and interpreta-
meaning.[98] tions of the objective. The objective is often considered
The second tradition of structuralist thought, contem- any public or external action or outcome, on up to soci-
ety writ large. A primary question for social theorists is
poraneous with Giddens, emerges from the American
school of social network analysis,[99] spearheaded by the how knowledge reproduces along the chain of subjective-
objective-subjective, that is to say: how is intersubjectivity
Harvard Department of Social Relations led by Harrison
White and his students in the 1970s and 1980s. This achieved? While, historically, qualitative methods have
attempted to tease out subjective interpretations, quanti-
tradition of structuralist thought argues that, rather than
semiotics, social structure is networks of patterned so- tative survey methods also attempt to capture individual
subjectivities. Also, some qualitative methods take a rad-
cial relations. And, rather than Levi-Strauss, this school
of thought draws on the notions of structure as theorized ical approach to objective description in situ.
by Levi-Strauss’ contemporary anthropologist, Radcliffe- The latter concern with scientific knowledge results from
Brown.[100] Some[101] refer to this as “network structural- the fact that a sociologist is part of the very object they
ism,” and equate it to “British structuralism” as opposed seek to explain. Bourdieu puts this problem rather suc-
to the “French structuralism” of Levi-Strauss. cinctly:
Post-structuralism How can the sociologist effect in practice

this radical doubting which is indispensable
Post-structuralist thought has tended to reject 'humanist' for bracketing all the presuppositions inherent
assumptions in the conduct of social theory.[102] Michel in the fact that she is a social being, that she
Foucault provides a potent critique in his Archaeology of is therefore socialised and led to feel “like a
the Human Sciences, though Habermas and Rorty have fish in water” within that social world whose
both argued that Foucault merely replaces one such sys- structures she has internalised? How can she
tem of thought with another.[103][104] The dialogue be- prevent the social world itself from carrying
tween these intellectuals highlights a trend in recent years out the construction of the object, in a sense,
for certain schools of sociology and philosophy to inter- through her, through these unself-conscious
sect. The anti-humanist position has been associated with operations or operations unaware of them-
"postmodernism", a term used in specific contexts to de- selves of which she is the apparent subject
scribe an era or phenomena, but occasionally construed — Pierre Bourdieu, “The Problem of Reflex-
as a method. ive Sociology” in An Invitation to Reflexive
Sociology,1992, pg 235
14.4 Central theoretical problems

14.4.2 Structure and agency
Overall, there is a strong consensus regarding the central
problems of sociological theory, which are largely inher-
Main article: Structure and agency
ited from the classical theoretical traditions. This consen-
sus is: how to link, transcend or cope with the following
“big three” dichotomies:[105] subjectivity and objectivity,Structure and agency, sometimes referred to as determin-
structure and agency, and synchrony and diachrony. The ism versus voluntarism,[106] form an enduring ontologi-
first deals with knowledge, the second with action, and the cal debate in social theory: “Do social structures deter-
last with time. Lastly, sociological theory often grapples mine an individual’s behaviour or does human agency?"
with the problem of integrating or transcending the divide In this context 'agency' refers to the capacity of individ-
between micro, meso and macro-scale social phenomena, uals to act independently and make free choices, whereas
which is a subset of all three central problems. 'structure' relates to factors that limit or affect the choices
and actions of individuals (such as social class, religion,
gender, ethnicity, and so on). Discussions over the pri-
14.4.1 Subjectivity and objectivity macy of either structure and agency relate to the core
of sociological epistemology (“What is the social world
Main articles: Objectivity (science), Objectivity (philos- made of?", “What is a cause in the social world, and
ophy), and Subjectivity what is an effect?").[107] A perennial question within this
debate is that of "social reproduction": how are struc-
14.5. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 111
tures (specifically, structures producing inequality) re- qualitative and quantitative approaches involve a system-
produced through the choices of individuals? atic interaction between theory and data.[109] Quantita-
tive methodologies hold the dominant position in soci-
ology, especially in the United States.[34] In the disci-
14.4.3 Synchrony and diachrony pline’s two most cited journals, quantitative articles have
historically outnumbered qualitative ones by a factor of
[110]
Synchrony and diachrony, or statics and dynamics, within two. (Most articles published in the largest British
social theory are terms that refer to a distinction emerg- journal, on the other hand, are qualitative.) Most text-
ing out of the work of Levi-Strauss who inherited it from books on the methodology of social research are writ-
the linguistics of Ferdinand de Saussure. [100]
The former ten from the quantitative perspective,[111] and the very
slices moments of time for analysis, thus it is an analy- term “methodology” is often used synonymously with
sis of static social reality. Diachrony, on the other hand, "statistics.” Practically all sociology PhD programmes in
attempts to analyse dynamic sequences. Following Saus- the United States require training in statistical methods.
sure, synchrony would refer to social phenomena as a The work produced by quantitative researchers is also
static concept like a language, while diachrony would re- deemed more 'trustworthy' and 'unbiased' by the greater
[112]
fer to unfolding processes like actual speech. In Anthony public, though this judgment continues to be chal-
[112]
Giddens’ introduction to Central Problems in Social The- lenged by antipositivists.
ory, he states that, “in order to show the interdependence The choice of method often depends largely on what
of action and structure ... we must grasp the time space the researcher intends to investigate. For example, a
relations inherent in the constitution of all social inter- researcher concerned with drawing a statistical gener-
action.” And like structure and agency, time is integral alization across an entire population may administer a
to discussion of social reproduction. In terms of sociol- survey questionnaire to a representative sample popula-
ogy, historical sociology is often better positioned to anal- tion. By contrast, a researcher who seeks full contex-
yse social life as diachronic, while survey research takes tual understanding of an individual’s social actions may
a snapshot of social life and is thus better equipped to choose ethnographic participant observation or open-
understand social life as synchronized. Some argue that ended interviews. Studies will commonly combine, or
the synchrony of social structure is a methodological per- 'triangulate', quantitative and qualitative methods as part
spective rather than an ontological claim.[100] Nonethe- of a 'multi-strategy' design. For instance, a quantitative
less, the problem for theory is how to integrate the two study may be performed to gain statistical patterns or a
manners of recording and thinking about social data. target sample, and then combined with a qualitative in-
terview to determine the play of agency.[109]
14.5 Research methodology

14.5.1 Sampling
Main article: Social research
Many people divide sociological research methods into

two broad categories, although many others see research
methods as a continuum:[108]
• Quantitative designs approach social phenomena

through quantifiable evidence, and often rely on sta-
tistical analysis of many cases (or across intention-
ally designed treatments in an experiment) to create
valid and reliable general claims
• Qualitative designs emphasize understanding of so-

cial phenomena through direct observation, commu-
nication with participants, or analysis of texts, and
may stress contextual and subjective accuracy over
The bean machine, designed by early social research methodol-
generality
ogist Sir Francis Galton to demonstrate the normal distribution,
which is important to much quantitative hypothesis testing.
Many sociologists are divided into camps of support for
particular research techniques. These disputes relate to Quantitative methods are often used to ask questions
the epistemological debates at the historical core of so- about a population that is very large, making a census or
cial theory. While very different in many aspects, both a complete enumeration of all the members in that pop-
ulation infeasible. A 'sample' then forms a manageable global warming in some part of the that is less pop-
subset of a population. In quantitative research, statistics ulated.
are used to draw inferences from this sample regarding
the population as a whole. The process of selecting a sam- • Survey research: The researcher gathers data using
ple is referred to as 'sampling'. While it is usually best to interviews, questionnaires, or similar feedback from
sample randomly, concern with differences between spe- a set of people sampled from a particular population
cific subpopulations sometimes calls for stratified sam- of interest. Survey items from an interview or ques-
pling. Conversely, the impossibility of random sampling tionnaire may be open-ended or closed-ended.[116]
sometimes necessitates nonprobability sampling, such as Data from surveys is usually analysed statistically on
convenience sampling or snowball sampling.[109] a computer.
14.5.2 Methods 14.5.3 Computational sociology
The following list of research methods is neither exclusive

nor exhaustive:
• Archival research or the Historical method: draws

upon the secondary data located in historical
archives and records, such as biographies, memoirs,
journals, and so on.
• Content analysis: The content of interviews and
other texts is systematically analysed. Often data is
'coded' as a part of the 'grounded theory' approach
using qualitative data analysis (QDA) software, such
as Atlas.ti, MAXQDA, NVivo,[113] or QDA Miner.
• Experimental research: The researcher isolates a
single social process and reproduces it in a labora-
tory (for example, by creating a situation where un-
conscious sexist judgements are possible), seeking
to determine whether or not certain social variables
can cause, or depend upon, other variables (for in-
stance, seeing if people’s feelings about traditional
gender roles can be manipulated by the activation
of contrasting gender stereotypes).[114] Participants
A social network diagram: individuals (or 'nodes’) connected by
are randomly assigned to different groups that ei-
relationships
ther serve as controls—acting as reference points
because they are tested with regard to the depen-
Main article: Computational sociology
dent variable, albeit without having been exposed
to any independent variables of interest—or receive
one or more treatments. Randomization allows the Sociologists increasingly draw upon computation-
researcher to be sure that any resulting differences ally intensive methods to analyse and model social
between groups are the result of the treatment. phenomena.[117] Using computer simulations, artificial
intelligence, text mining, complex statistical methods,
• Longitudinal study: An extensive examination of a and new analytic approaches like social network analysis
specific person or group over a long period of time. and social sequence analysis, computational sociology
• Observation: Using data from the senses, the develops and tests theories of complex social processes [118]
researcher records information about social phe- through bottom-up modelling of social interactions.
nomenon or behaviour. Observation techniques may Although the subject matter and methodologies in social
or may not feature participation. In participant ob- science differ from those in natural science or computer
servation, the researcher goes into the field (such as science, several of the approaches used in contemporary
a community or a place of work), and participates social simulation originated from fields such as physics
in the activities of the field for a prolonged period and artificial intelligence.[119][120] By the same token,
of time in order to acquire a deep understanding of some of the approaches that originated in computational
it.[115] Data acquired through these techniques may sociology have been imported into the natural sciences,
be analysed either quantitatively or qualitatively. In such as measures of network centrality from the fields
the observation research, a sociologist might study of social network analysis and network science. In rel-
14.6. SCOPE AND TOPICS 113
evant literature, computational sociology is often re- some sociologists employ historical-comparative or quan-
lated to the study of social complexity.[121] Social com- titative techniques in the analysis of culture, Weber and
plexity concepts such as complex systems, non-linear Bourdieu for instance. The subfield is sometimes allied
interconnection among macro and micro process, and with critical theory in the vein of Theodor W. Adorno,
emergence, have entered the vocabulary of computational Walter Benjamin, and other members of the Frankfurt
sociology.[122] A practical and well-known example is the School. Loosely distinct from the sociology of culture is
construction of a computational model in the form of an the field of cultural studies. Birmingham School theorists
"artificial society", by which researchers can analyse the such as Richard Hoggart and Stuart Hall questioned the
structure of a social system.[123][124] division between “producers” and “consumers” evident in
earlier theory, emphasizing the reciprocity in the produc-
tion of texts. Cultural Studies aims to examine its sub-
14.6 Scope and topics ject matter in terms of cultural practices and their relation
to power. For example, a study of a subculture (such as
white working class youth in London) would consider the
Main article: Outline of sociology social practices of the group as they relate to the dom-
inant class. The "cultural turn" of the 1960s ultimately
placed culture much higher on the sociological agenda.
14.6.1 Culture
Art, music and literature
Main articles: Sociology of literature, Sociology of art,

Sociology of film, and Sociology of music
Sociology of literature, film, and art is a subset of the so-

ciology of culture. This field studies the social production
of artistic objects and its social implications. A notable
example is Pierre Bourdieu’s 1992 Les Règles de L'Art:
Genèse et Structure du Champ Littéraire, translated by Su-
san Emanuel as Rules of Art: Genesis and Structure of the
Literary Field (1996). None of the founding fathers of
sociology produced a detailed study of art, but they did
develop ideas that were subsequently applied to literature
Max Horkheimer (left, front), Theodor Adorno (right, front),
and Jürgen Habermas (right, back) 1965
by others. Marx’s theory of ideology was directed at lit-
erature by Pierre Macherey, Terry Eagleton and Fredric
Jameson. Weber’s theory of modernity as cultural ratio-
Main articles: Sociology of culture and Cultural studies nalization, which he applied to music, was later applied to
all the arts, literature included, by Frankfurt School writ-
Sociologists’ approach to culture can be di- ers such as Adorno and Jürgen Habermas. Durkheim’s
vided into a “sociology of culture” and “cultural view of sociology as the study of externally defined so-
sociology”—the terms are similar, though not entirely cial facts was redirected towards literature by Robert Es-
interchangeable.[125] The sociology of culture is an carpit. Bourdieu’s own work is clearly indebted to Marx,
older term, and considers some topics and objects as Weber and Durkheim.
more-or-less “cultural” than others. Conversely, cul-
tural sociology sees all social phenomena as inherently
cultural.[126] Sociology of culture often attempts to 14.6.2 Criminality, deviance, law and pun-
explain certain cultural phenomena as a product of social ishment
processes, while cultural sociology sees culture as a
potential explanation of social phenomena.[127] Main articles: Criminology, Sociology of law, Sociology
For Simmel, culture referred to “the cultivation of indi- of punishment, Deviance (sociology), and Social disor-
viduals through the agency of external forms which have ganization theory
been objectified in the course of history”.[55] While early
theorists such as Durkheim and Mauss were influential Criminologists analyse the nature, causes, and control of
in cultural anthropology, sociologists of culture are gen- criminal activity, drawing upon methods across sociol-
erally distinguished by their concern for modern (rather ogy, psychology, and the behavioural sciences. The so-
than primitive or ancient) society. Cultural sociology ciology of deviance focuses on actions or behaviours that
often involves the hermeneutic analysis of words, arte- violate norms, including both formally enacted rules (e.g.,
facts and symbols, or ethnographic interviews. However, crime) and informal violations of cultural norms. It is
the remit of sociologists to study why these norms ex- the impact of the other digital media and devices that have
ist; how they change over time; and how they are en- emerged since the first decade of the twenty-first century.
forced. The concept of social disorganization is when the
broader social systems leads to violations of norms. For
instance, Robert K. Merton produced a typology of de- Media
viance, which includes both individual and system level
causal explanations of deviance.[128] Main article: Media studies
Sociology of law As with cultural studies, media study is a distinct disci-

pline that owes to the convergence of sociology and other
The study of law played a significant role in the formation social sciences and humanities, in particular, literary crit-
of classical sociology. Durkheim famously described law icism and critical theory. Though the production pro-
as the “visible symbol” of social solidarity.[129] The soci- cess or the critique of aesthetic forms is not in the re-
ology of law refers to both a sub-discipline of sociology mit of sociologists, analyses of socializing factors, such
and an approach within the field of legal studies. Sociol- as ideological effects and audience reception, stem from
ogy of law is a diverse field of study that examines the in- sociological theory and method. Thus the 'sociology of
teraction of law with other aspects of society, such as the the media' is not a subdiscipline per se, but the media is
development of legal institutions and the effect of laws on a common and often-indispensable topic.
social change and vice versa. For example, an influential
recent work in the field relies on statistical analyses to ar-
gue that the increase in incarceration in the US over the 14.6.4 Economic sociology
last 30 years is due to changes in law and policing and not
to an increase in crime; and that this increase significantly Main article: Economic sociology
contributes to maintaining racial stratification.[130]
The term “economic sociology” was first used by William
14.6.3 Communications and information Stanley Jevons in 1879, later to be coined in the works
of Durkheim, Weber and Simmel between 1890 and
technologies
1920.[134] Economic sociology arose as a new approach to
the analysis of economic phenomena, emphasizing class
The sociology of communications and information tech-
relations and modernity as a philosophical concept. The
nologies includes “the social aspects of computing, the
relationship between capitalism and modernity is a salient
Internet, new media, computer networks, and other com-
issue, perhaps best demonstrated in Weber’s The Protes-
munication and information technologies”.[131]
tant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1905) and Sim-
mel’s The Philosophy of Money (1900). The contempo-
Internet and digital media rary period of economic sociology, also known as new
economic sociology, was consolidated by the 1985 work
Main articles: Sociology of the Internet and Digital of Mark Granovetter titled “Economic Action and Social
sociology Structure: The Problem of Embeddedness”. This work
elaborated the concept of embeddedness, which states
that economic relations between individuals or firms take
The Internet is of interest to sociologists in various ways;
place within existing social relations (and are thus struc-
most practically as a tool for research and as a discus-
tured by these relations as well as the greater social struc-
sion platform.[132] The sociology of the Internet in the
tures of which those relations are a part). Social network
broad sense regards the analysis of online communities
analysis has been the primary methodology for studying
(e.g. newsgroups, social networking sites) and virtual
this phenomenon. Granovetter’s theory of the strength of
worlds, thus there is often overlap with community so-
weak ties and Ronald Burt's concept of structural holes
ciology. Online communities may be studied statisti-
are two best known theoretical contributions of this field.
cally through network analysis or interpreted qualita-
tively through virtual ethnography. Moreover, organiza-
tional change is catalysed through new media, thereby
Work, employment, and industry
influencing social change at-large, perhaps forming the
framework for a transformation from an industrial to
an informational society. One notable text is Manuel Main articles: Industrial sociology, sociology of work,
Castells' The Internet Galaxy—the title of which forms and Industrial relations
an inter-textual reference to Marshall McLuhan's The
Gutenberg Galaxy.[133] Closely related to the sociology The sociology of work, or industrial sociology, examines
of the Internet, is digital sociology, which expands the “the direction and implications of trends in technological
scope of study to address not only the internet but also change, globalization, labour markets, work organization,
managerial practices and employment relations to the ex-

tent to which these trends are intimately related to chang- Human ecology deals with interdisciplinary study of the
ing patterns of inequality in modern societies and to the relationship between humans and their natural, social,
changing experiences of individuals and families the ways and built environments. In addition to Environmental so-
in which workers challenge, resist and make their own ciology, this field overlaps with architectural sociology,
contributions to the patterning of work and shaping of urban sociology, and to some extent visual sociology. In
work institutions.”[135] turn, visual sociology—which is concerned with all visual
dimensions of social life—overlaps with media studies in
that it uses photography, film and other technologies of
14.6.5 Education media.
Main article: Sociology of education
14.6.7 Family, gender, and sexuality
The sociology of education is the study of how edu-
cational institutions determine social structures, expe- Main articles: Sociology of the family, Sociology of
riences, and other outcomes. It is particularly con- childhood, Sociology of gender, Feminist sociology,
cerned with the schooling systems of modern industrial Feminist theory, and Queer theory
societies.[136] A classic 1966 study in this field by James Family, gender and sexuality form a broad area of in-
Coleman, known as the “Coleman Report”, analysed the
performance of over 150,000 students and found that
student background and socioeconomic status are much
more important in determining educational outcomes
than are measured differences in school resources (i.e.
per pupil spending).[137] The controversy over “school ef-
fects” ignited by that study has continued to this day.
The study also found that socially disadvantaged black
students profited from schooling in racially mixed class-
rooms, and thus served as a catalyst for desegregation bus-
ing in American public schools.
14.6.6 Environment
Main articles: Environmental sociology and Sociology "Rosie the Riveter" was an iconic symbol of the American
of disaster homefront and a departure from gender roles due to wartime
necessity.
Environmental sociology is the study of human interac-
tions with the natural environment, typically emphasiz-quiry studied in many sub-fields of sociology. A family is
ing human dimensions of environmental problems, social a group of people who are related by kinship ties :- Rela-
impacts of those problems, and efforts to resolve them. tions of blood / marriage / civil partnership or adoption.
The family unit is one of the most important social institu-
As with other sub-fields of sociology, scholarship in en-
tions found in some form in nearly all known societies. It
vironmental sociology may be at one or multiple levels of
is the basic unit of social organization and plays a key role
analysis, from global (e.g. world-systems) to local, soci-
in socializing children into the culture of their society.
etal to individual. Attention is paid also to the processes
by which environmental problems become defined and The sociology of the family examines the family, as an
known to humans. As argued by notable environmen- institution and unit of socialization, with special concern
tal sociologist John Bellamy Foster, the predecessor tofor the comparatively modern historical emergence of the
nuclear family and its distinct gender roles. The notion of
modern environmental sociology is Marx’s analysis of the
metabolic rift, which influenced contemporary thought on"childhood" is also significant. As one of the more basic
institutions to which one may apply sociological perspec-
sustainability. Environmental sociology is often interdis-
tives, the sociology of the family is a common component
ciplinary and overlaps with the sociology of risk, rural
sociology and the sociology of disaster. on introductory academic curricula. Feminist sociology,
on the other hand, is a normative sub-field that observes
and critiques the cultural categories of gender and sexual-
Human ecology ity, particularly with respect to power and inequality. The
primary concern of feminist theory is the patriarchy and
Main articles: Human ecology, Architectural sociology, the systematic oppression of women apparent in many so-
Visual sociology, and Sociology of space cieties, both at the level of small-scale interaction and in
terms of the broader social structure. Feminist sociology the 1920s, when a number of German-speaking theorists,
also analyses how gender interlocks with race and class most notably Max Scheler, and Karl Mannheim, wrote
to produce and perpetuate social inequalities.[138] “How extensively on it. With the dominance of functionalism
to account for the differences in definitions of femininity through the middle years of the 20th century, the soci-
and masculinity and in sex role across different societies ology of knowledge tended to remain on the periphery
and historical periods” is also a concern.[139] Social psy- of mainstream sociological thought. It was largely rein-
chology of gender, on the other hand, uses experimental vented and applied much more closely to everyday life in
methods to uncover the microprocesses of gender strat- the 1960s, particularly by Peter L. Berger and Thomas
ification. For example, one recent study has shown that Luckmann in The Social Construction of Reality (1966)
resume evaluators penalize women for motherhood while and is still central for methods dealing with qualitative
giving a boost to men for fatherhood.[140] understanding of human society (compare socially con-
structed reality). The “archaeological” and “genealogical”
studies of Michel Foucault are of considerable contempo-
14.6.8 Health, illness, and the body rary influence.
Main articles: Sociology of health and illness and The sociology of science involves the study of science as
Medical sociology a social activity, especially dealing “with the social con-
ditions and effects of science, and with the social struc-
tures and processes of scientific activity.”[146] Important
The sociology of health and illness focuses on the so- theorists in the sociology of science include Robert K.
cial effects of, and public attitudes toward, illnesses, dis- Merton and Bruno Latour. These branches of sociol-
eases, mental health and disabilities. This sub-field also ogy have contributed to the formation of science and
overlaps with gerontology and the study of the ageing technology studies. Both the ASA and the BSA have
process. Medical sociology, by contrast, focuses on the sections devoted to the subfield of Science, Knowledge
inner-workings of medical organizations and clinical in- and Technology.[147][148] The ISA maintains a Research
stitutions. In Britain, sociology was introduced into the Committee on Science and Technology[149]
medical curriculum following the Goodenough Report
(1944).[141]
The sociology of the body and embodiment[142] takes 14.6.10 Leisure
a broad perspective on the idea of “the body” and in-
cludes “a wide range of embodied dynamics including Main articles: Sociology of leisure and Sociology of sport
human and non-human bodies, morphology, human re-
production, anatomy, body fluids, biotechnology, genet- Sociology of leisure is the study of how humans organize
ics. This often intersects with health and illness, but alsotheir free time. Leisure includes a broad array of activ-
theories of bodies as political, social, cultural, economic ities, such as sport, tourism, and the playing of games.
and ideological productions.[143] The ISA maintains a Re- The sociology of leisure is closely tied to the sociology
search Committee devoted to “The Body in the Social of work, as each explores a different side of the work–
Sciences”.[144] leisure relationship. More recent studies in the field move
away from the work–leisure relationship and focus on the
Death, dying, bereavement relation between leisure and culture. This area of sociol-
ogy began with Thorstein Veblen's Theory of the Leisure
[150]
A subfield of the sociology of health and illness that over- Class.
laps with cultural sociology is the study of death, dying
and bereavement,[145] sometimes referred to broadly as
the sociology of death. This topic is exemplifed by the 14.6.11 Peace, war, and conflict
work of Douglas Davies and Michael C. Kearl.
Main articles: Peace and conflict studies, Military
sociology, and Sociology of terrorism
14.6.9 Knowledge and science
This subfield of sociology studies, broadly, the dynam-
Main articles: Sociology of knowledge, Sociology of ics of war, conflict resolution, peace movements, war
scientific knowledge, Sociology of the history of science, refugees, conflict resolution and military institutions.[151]
and Sociology of science As a subset of this subfield, military sociology aims to-
wards the systematic study of the military as a social
The sociology of knowledge is the study of the relation- group rather than as an organization. It is a highly spe-
ship between human thought and the social context within cialized sub-field which examines issues related to ser-
which it arises, and of the effects prevailing ideas have vice personnel as a distinct group with coerced collective
on societies. The term first came into widespread use in action based on shared interests linked to survival in
vocation and combat, with purposes and values that are of non-governmental organizations, the diffusion of the
more defined and narrow than within civil society. Mil- nation-state throughout the Earth as a social construct,
itary sociology also concerns civilian-military relations and the role of stateless entities in the modern world
and interactions between other groups or governmental society. Contemporary political sociologists also study
agencies. Topics include the dominant assumptions held inter-state interactions and human rights.
by those in the military, changes in military members’
willingness to fight, military unionization, military pro-
fessionalism, the increased utilization of women, the mil- 14.6.13 Population and demography
itary industrial-academic complex, the military’s depen-
dence on research, and the institutional and organiza- Main articles: Demography, Human ecology, and
tional structure of military.[152] Mobilities
Demographers or sociologists of population study the

14.6.12 Political sociology
size, composition and change over time of a given pop-
ulation. Demographers study how these characteristics
Main article: Political sociology
impact, or are impacted by, various social, economic
Historically, political sociology concerned the relations
or political systems. The study of population is also
closely related to human ecology and environmental so-
ciology, which studies a populations relationship with the
surrounding environment and often overlaps with urban
or rural sociology. Researchers in this field may study
the movement of populations: transportation, migrations,
diaspora, etc., which falls into the subfield known as
Mobilities studies and is closely related to human geog-
raphy. Demographers may also study spread of disease
within a given population or epidemiology.
14.6.14 Public sociology
Jürgen Habermas Main article: Public sociology
between political organization and society. A typical re- Public sociology refers to an approach to the discipline
search question in this area might be: “Why do so few which seeks to transcend the academy in order to engage
American citizens choose to vote?"[153] In this respect with wider audiences. It is perhaps best understood as a
questions of political opinion formation brought about style of sociology rather than a particular method, the-
some of the pioneering uses of statistical survey research ory, or set of political values. This approach is primar-
by Paul Lazarsfeld. A major subfield of political sociol- ily associated with Michael Burawoy who contrasted it
ogy developed in relation to such questions, which draws with professional sociology, a form of academic sociol-
on comparative history to analyse socio-political trends. ogy that is concerned primarily with addressing other pro-
The field developed from the work of Max Weber and fessional sociologists. Public sociology is also part of the
Moisey Ostrogorsky.[154] broader field of science communication or science jour-
Contemporary political sociology includes these areas nalism. In a distinct but similar vein,[157] applied soci-
of research, but it has been opened up to wider ques- ology, also known as clinical sociology, policy sociology
tions of power and politics.[155] Today political sociolo- or sociological practice, applies knowledge derived from
gists are as likely to be concerned with how identities are sociological research to solve societal problems.
formed that contribute to structural domination by one
group over another; the politics of who knows how and
with what authority; and questions of how power is con- 14.6.15 Race and ethnic relations
tested in social interactions in such a way as to bring about
widespread cultural and social change. Such questions are Main articles: Sociology of race and ethnic relations and
more likely to be studied qualitatively. The study of social Sociology of immigration
movements and their effects has been especially impor-
tant in relation to these wider definitions of politics and
The sociology of race and of ethnic relations is the area
power.[156] of the discipline that studies the social, political, and eco-
Political sociology has also moved beyond nomic relations between races and ethnicities at all levels
methodological nationalism and analysed the role of society. This area encompasses the study of racism,
residential segregation, and other complex social pro- mation of material circumstances. In contrast to both,
cesses between different racial and ethnic groups. This Durkheim argued that societies moved from simple to
research frequently interacts with other areas of sociology complex through a process of sociocultural evolution. So-
such as stratification and social psychology, as well as with ciologists in this field also study processes of globalization
postcolonial theory. At the level of political policy, ethnic and imperialism. Most notably, Immanuel Wallerstein
relations are discussed in terms of either assimilationism extends Marx’s theoretical frame to include large spans of
or multiculturalism.[158] Anti-racism forms another style time and the entire globe in what is known as world sys-
of policy, particularly popular in the 1960s and 70s. tems theory. Development sociology is also heavily influ-
enced by post-colonialism. In recent years, Raewyn Con-
nell issued a critique of the bias in sociological research
14.6.16 Religion towards countries in the Global North. She argues that
this bias blinds sociologists to the lived experiences of the
Main article: Sociology of religion Global South, specifically, so-called, “Northern Theory”
lacks an adequate theory of imperialism and colonialism.
The sociology of religion concerns the practices, histor- There are many organizations studying social change,
ical backgrounds, developments, universal themes and including the Fernand Braudel Center for the Study of
roles of religion in society.[159] There is particular em- Economies, Historical Systems, and Civilizations, and the
phasis on the recurring role of religion in all societies and Global Social Change Research Project.
throughout recorded history. The sociology of religion is
distinguished from the philosophy of religion in that so-
ciologists do not set out to assess the validity of religious 14.6.18 Social networks
truth-claims, instead assuming what Peter L. Berger has
described as a position of “methodological atheism”.[160]
It may be said that the modern formal discipline of soci-
ology began with the analysis of religion in Durkheim’s
1897 study of suicide rates among Roman Catholic and
Protestant populations. Max Weber published four major
texts on religion in a context of economic sociology and
social stratification: The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit
of Capitalism (1905), The Religion of China: Confucian-
ism and Taoism (1915), The Religion of India: The So-
ciology of Hinduism and Buddhism (1915), and Ancient
Judaism (1920). Contemporary debates often centre on
topics such as secularization, civil religion, the intersec-
tion of religion and economics and the role of religion in
a context of globalization and multiculturalism.
14.6.17 Social change and development

Main articles: Social change, Development studies,
Community development, and International development
The sociology of change and development attempts to

understand how societies develop and how they can be
changed. This includes studying many different aspects
of society, for example demographic trends[161] , polit-
Harrison White
ical or technological trends[162] , or changes in culture.
Within this field, sociologists often use macrosociological
methods or historical-comparative methods. In contem- Main articles: Social network, Social network analy-
porary studies of social change, there are overlaps with sis, Figurational Sociology, Relational sociology, and
international development or community development. Sociomapping
However, most of the founders of sociology had theories
of social change based on their study of history. For in- A social network is a social structure composed of in-
stance, Marx contended that the material circumstances dividuals (or organizations) called “nodes”, which are
of society ultimately caused the ideal or cultural aspects tied (connected) by one or more specific types of
of society, while Weber argued that it was in fact the cul- interdependency, such as friendship, kinship, financial ex-
tural mores of Protestantism that ushered in a transfor- change, dislike, sexual relationships, or relationships of
beliefs, knowledge or prestige. Social networks operate dividuals into social classes, castes, and divisions within
on many levels, from families up to the level of nations, a society.[166] Modern Western societies stratification tra-
and play a critical role in determining the way problems ditionally relates to cultural and economic classes ar-
are solved, organizations are run, and the degree to which ranged in three main layers: upper class, middle class,
individuals succeed in achieving their goals. An under- and lower class, but each class may be further subdivided
lying theoretical assumption of social network analysis is into smaller classes (e.g. occupational).[167] Social strat-
that groups are not necessarily the building blocks of soci- ification is interpreted in radically different ways within
ety: the approach is open to studying less-bounded social sociology. Proponents of structural functionalism suggest
systems, from non-local communities to networks of ex- that, since the stratification of classes and castes is evident
change. Drawing theoretically from relational sociology, in all societies, hierarchy must be beneficial in stabilizing
social network analysis avoids treating individuals (per- their existence. Conflict theorists, by contrast, critique
sons, organizations, states) as discrete units of analysis, the inaccessibility of resources and lack of social mobil-
it focuses instead on how the structure of ties affects and ity in stratified societies.
constitutes individuals and their relationships. In contrast Karl Marx distinguished social classes by their connec-
to analyses that assume that socialization into norms de-
tion to the means of production in the capitalist system:
termines behaviour, network analysis looks to see the ex- the bourgeoisie own the means, but this effectively in-
tent to which the structure and composition of ties af- cludes the proletariat itself as the workers can only sell
fect norms. On the other hand, recent research by Omar their own labour power (forming the material base of
Lizardo also demonstrates that network ties are shaped the cultural superstructure). Max Weber critiqued Marx-
and created by previously existing cultural tastes.[163] So- ist economic determinism, arguing that social stratifica-
cial network theory is usually defined in formal mathe- tion is not based purely on economic inequalities, but on
matics and may include integration of geographical data other status and power differentials (e.g. patriarchy). Ac-
into Sociomapping. cording to Weber, stratification may occur among at least
three complex variables: (1) Property (class): A person’s
14.6.19 Social psychology economic position in a society, based on birth and indi-
vidual achievement.[168] Weber differs from Marx in that
Main articles: Social psychology (sociology) and he does not see this as the supreme factor in stratification.
Psychoanalytic sociology Weber noted how managers of corporations or industries
control firms they do not own; Marx would have placed
such a person in the proletariat. (2) Prestige (status): A
Sociological social psychology focuses on micro-scale person’s prestige, or popularity in a society. This could be
social actions. This area may be described as adhering determined by the kind of job this person does or wealth.
to “sociological miniaturism”, examining whole societies and (3) Power (political party): A person’s ability to get
through the study of individual thoughts and emotions as their way despite the resistance of others. For example,
well as behaviour of small groups.[164] Of special con- individuals in state jobs, such as an employee of the Fed-
cern to psychological sociologists is how to explain a va- eral Bureau of Investigation, or a member of the United
riety of demographic, social, and cultural facts in terms States Congress, may hold little property or status but they
of human social interaction. Some of the major topics still hold immense power[169] Pierre Bourdieu provides a
in this field are social inequality, group dynamics, prej- modern example in the concepts of cultural and symbolic
udice, aggression, social perception, group behaviour, capital. Theorists such as Ralf Dahrendorf have noted
social change, non-verbal behaviour, socialization, con- the tendency towards an enlarged middle-class in modern
formity, leadership, and social identity. Social psychol- Western societies, particularly in relation to the necessity
ogy may be taught with psychological emphasis.[165] In of an educated work force in technological or service-
sociology, researchers in this field are the most promi- based economies.[170] Perspectives concerning globaliza-
nent users of the experimental method (however, unlike tion, such as dependency theory, suggest this effect owes
their psychological counterparts, they also frequently em- to the shift of workers to the developing countries.[171]
ploy other methodologies). Social psychology looks at
social influences, as well as social perception and social
interaction.[165] 14.6.21 Urban and rural sociology
Main articles: Urban sociology and Rural sociology
14.6.20 Stratification, poverty and in-
equality Urban sociology involves the analysis of social life and
human interaction in metropolitan areas. It is a discipline
Main articles: Social stratification, Social inequality, seeking to provide advice for planning and policy mak-
Social mobility, and Social class ing. After the industrial revolution, works such as Georg
Simmel's The Metropolis and Mental Life (1903) focused
Social stratification is the hierarchical arrangement of in- on urbanization and the effect it had on alienation and
anonymity. In the 1920s and 1930s The Chicago School the effect of various systems (i.e. family, school, commu-
produced a major body of theory on the nature of the nity, laws, political sphere) on the individual.[178] How-
city, important to both urban sociology and criminology, ever, social work is generally more focused on prac-
utilizing symbolic interactionism as a method of field retical strategies to alleviate social dysfunctions; sociol-
search. Contemporary research is commonly placed in a ogy in general provides a thorough examination of the
context of globalization, for instance, in Saskia Sassen's root causes of these problems.[179] For example, a so-
study of the "Global city".[172] Rural sociology, by con- ciologist might study why a community is plagued with
trast, is the analysis of non-metropolitan areas. As agri- poverty. The applied sociologist would be more fo-
culture and wilderness tend to be a more prominent social cused on practical strategies on what needs to be done
fact in rural regions, rural sociologists often overlap with to alleviate this burden. The social worker would
environmental sociologists. be focused on action; implementing theses strategies
“directly” or “indirectly” by means of mental health ther-
apy, counselling, advocacy, community organization or
Community sociology community mobilization.[178]
Often grouped with urban and rural sociology is Social anthropology is the branch of anthropology that
that of community sociology or the sociology of studies how contemporary living human beings behave
community.[173] Taking various communities—including in social groups. Practitioners of social anthropology,
online communities—as the unit of analysis, commu- like sociologists, investigate various facets of social or-
nity sociologists study the origin and effects of different ganization. Traditionally, social anthropologists analysed
associations of people. For instance, German sociolo- non-industrial and non-Western societies, whereas sociol-
gist Ferdinand Tönnies distinguished between two types ogists focused on industrialized societies in the Western
of human association: Gemeinschaft (usually translated world. In recent years, however, social anthropology has
as “community”) and Gesellschaft (“society” or “associa- expanded its focus to modern Western societies, meaning
tion”). In his 1887 work, Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft, that the two disciplines increasingly converge.[180][181]
Tönnies argued that Gemeinschaft is perceived to be a Sociobiology is the study of how social behaviour and or-
tighter and more cohesive social entity, due to the pres- ganization have been influenced by evolution and other
ence of a “unity of will”.[174] The 'development' or 'health'
biological process. The field blends sociology with a num-
of a community is also a central concern of community ber of other sciences, such as anthropology, biology, and
sociologists also engage in development sociology, exem- zoology. Sociobiology has generated controversy within
plified by the literature surrounding the concept of social the sociological academy for allegedly giving too much
capital. attention to gene expression over socialization and envi-
ronmental factors in general (see 'nature versus nurture').
Entomologist E. O. Wilson is credited as having origi-
14.6.22 Violence nally developed and described Sociobiology.[182] Besides
Sociobiology the bio-communication theory investigates
The late political theorist Hannah Arendt wrote widely on interactions between non-human organisms such as ani-
the connection between power and violence, in particular mal communication, plant communication, fungal com-
her book On Violence.[175] munication and communication in micro-organisms on
the basis of rule-governed sign-use. In this respect any
coordination of behaviour between at least two organisms
14.7 Other academic disciplines is sign-mediated that underlies combinatorial (syntactic),
context-dependent (pragmatic) and content-relevant (se-
[183]
Sociology overlaps with a variety of disciplines that study mantic) rules.
society, in particular anthropology, political science, Irving Louis Horowitz, in his The Decomposition of So-
economics, social work and social philosophy. Many ciology (1994), has argued that the discipline, while ar-
comparatively new fields such as communication studies, riving from a “distinguished lineage and tradition”, is
cultural studies, demography and literary theory, draw in decline due to deeply ideological theory and a lack
upon methods that originated in sociology. The terms of relevance to policy making: “The decomposition of
"social science" and "social research" have both gained a sociology began when this great tradition became sub-
degree of autonomy since their origination in classical so- ject to ideological thinking, and an inferior tradition sur-
ciology. The distinct field of social psychology emerged faced in the wake of totalitarian triumphs.”[184] Further-
from the many intersections of sociological and psycho- more: “A problem yet unmentioned is that sociology’s
logical interests, and is further distinguished in terms of malaise has left all the social sciences vulnerable to pure
sociological or psychological emphasis.[176] positivism—to an empiricism lacking any theoretical ba-
Sociology and applied sociology are connected to the sis. Talented individuals who might, in an earlier time,
professional and academic discipline of social work.[177] have gone into sociology are seeking intellectual stim-
Both disciplines study social interactions, community and ulation in business, law, the natural sciences, and even
14.10. REFERENCES 121
creative writing; this drains sociology of much needed [5] Ashley D, Orenstein DM (2005). Sociological theory:
potential.”[184] Horowitz cites the lack of a 'core disci- Classical statements (6th ed.). Boston, Massachusetts, US:
pline' as exacerbating the problem. Randall Collins, the Pearson Education. pp. 3–5, 38–40.
Dorothy Swaine Thomas Professor in Sociology at the
[6] Giddens, Anthony, Duneier, Mitchell, Applebaum,
University of Pennsylvania and a member of the Advi- Richard. 2007. Introduction to Sociology. Sixth Edition.
sory Editors Council of the Social Evolution & History New York: W.W. Norton and Company. Chapter 1.
journal, has voiced similar sentiments: “we have lost all
coherence as a discipline, we are breaking up into a con- [7] Macy, Michael; Willer, Robb (2002). “From Factors
glomerate of specialities, each going on its own way and to Actors: Computational Sociology and Agent-Based
with none too high regard for each other.”[185] Modeling”. Annual Review of Sociology. 28: 143–66.
doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.28.110601.141117.
In 2007, The Times Higher Education Guide published a
list of 'The most cited authors of books in the Humanities’ [8] Lazer, David; Pentland, Alex; Adamic, L; Aral, S;
(including philosophy and psychology). Seven of the top Barabasi, AL; Brewer, D; Christakis, N; Contractor, N; et
ten are listed as sociologists: Michel Foucault (1), Pierre al. (6 February 2009). “Computational Social Science”.
Bourdieu (2), Anthony Giddens (5), Erving Goffman (6), Science. 323 (5915): 721–723. PMC 2745217 . PMID
Jürgen Habermas (7), Max Weber (8), and Bruno Latour 19197046. doi:10.1126/science.1167742.
(10).[186] [9] Lynn R. Kahle; Pierre Valette-Florence (2012). Market-
place Lifestyles in an Age of Social Media. New York:
M.E. Sharpe, Inc. ISBN 978-0-7656-2561-8.
14.8 Journals [10] “Graduate Research Fellowship Program: Appendix”.
National Science Foundation. Retrieved 18 December
See also: List of sociology journals 2014.
[11] Sally T. Hillsman (February 2013). “Sociology Is a STEM

The most highly ranked general journals which pub- Discipline”. ASA Footnotes. American Sociological As-
lish original research in the field of sociology are the sociation. 41 (2). Retrieved 18 December 2014.
American Journal of Sociology and the American Soci-
ological Review.[187] The Annual Review of Sociology, [12] A. H. Halsey (2004), A history of sociology in Britain: sci-
ence, literature, and society, p. 34
which publishes original review essays, is also highly
[187]
ranked. Many other generalist and specialized jour- [13] Geoffrey Duncan Mitchell (1970), A new dictionary of so-
nals exist. ciology, p. 201
[14] “Saudi Aramco World : Ibn Khaldun and the Rise and Fall
of Empires”. saudiaramcoworld.com. Retrieved 4 April
14.9 See also 2015.
[15] “Ibn Khaldun | biography - Muslim historian | Encyclopæ-

• Bibliography of sociology
dia Britannica”. britannica.com. Retrieved 4 April 2015.
• Engaged theory [16] Dr; Akhtar, S. W. (1997). “The Islamic Concept of
Knowledge”. Al-Tawhid: A Quarterly Journal of Islamic
• History of the social sciences Thought & Culture. 12: 3.
• Outline of sociology [17] Haque, Amber (2004). “Psychology from Islamic
Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars
and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists”.
14.10 References Journal of Religion and Health. 43 (4): 357–377 [375].
doi:10.1007/s10943-004-4302-z.
[1] sociology. (n.d.). The American Heritage Science Dictio- [18] Enan, Muhammed Abdullah (2007). Ibn Khaldun: His
nary. Retrieved 13 July 2013, from Dictionary.com web- Life and Works. The Other Press. p. v. ISBN 983-9541-
site: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/sociology 53-6.
[2] “Sociology: A 21st Century Major” (PDF). American So- [19] Alatas, S. H. (2006). “The Autonomous, the Universal
ciological Association. Retrieved 19 July 2017 – via Col- and the Future of Sociology”. Current Sociology. 54: 7–
gate.edu. 23 [15]. doi:10.1177/0011392106058831.
[3] “An Introduction to Sociology”. asanet.org. [20] Warren E. Gates (July–September 1967). “The Spread
of Ibn Khaldun’s Ideas on Climate and Culture”. Journal
[4] Ashley D, Orenstein DM (2005). Sociological theory: of the History of Ideas. University of Pennsylvania
Classical statements (6th ed.). Boston, Massachusetts, US: Press. 28 (3): 415–422 [415]. JSTOR 2708627.
Pearson Education. pp. 3–5, 32–36. doi:10.2307/2708627.
[21] H. Mowlana (2001). “Information in the Arab World”, [38] “Max Weber – Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy”.
Cooperation South Journal 1. Plato.stanford.edu. 24 August 2007. Retrieved 5 January
2010.
[22] Des Manuscrits de Sieyès. 1773–1799, Volumes I and
II, published by Christine Fauré, Jacques Guilhaumou, [39] Harriss, John. The Second Great Transformation? Capi-
Jacques Vallier and Françoise Weil, Paris, Champion, talism at the End of the Twentieth Century in Allen, T. and
1999 and 2007. See also Christine Fauré and Jacques Thomas, Alan (eds) Poverty and Development in the 21st
Guilhaumou, Sieyès et le non-dit de la sociologie: du mot Century', Oxford University Press, Oxford. p. 325.
à la chose, in Revue d'histoire des sciences humaines,
Numéro 15, novembre 2006: Naissances de la science [40] Durkheim, Émile. 1895. The Rules of the Sociological
sociale. See also the article 'sociologie' in the French- Method. Cited in Wacquant (1992).
language Wikipedia.
[41] Halfpenny, Peter. Positivism and Sociology: Explaining
[23] A Dictionary of Sociology, Article: Comte, Auguste Social Science. London:Allen and Unwin, 1982.
[24] Macionis, John; Gerber, Linda (2010). Sociology (7th [42] Ashley D, Orenstein DM (2005). Sociological theory:
Canadian ed.). Toronto: Pearson Canada. p. 10. ISBN Classical statements (6th ed.). Boston, Massachusetts, US:
978-0-13-700161-3. Pearson Education. pp. 94–98, 100–104.
[43] Fish, Jonathan S. 2005. 'Defending the Durkheimian Tra-

[25] Dictionary of the Social Sciences, Article: Comte, Auguste
dition. Religion, Emotion and Morality' Aldershot: Ash-
[26] “Stanford Encyclopaedia: Auguste Comte”. gate Publishing.
Plato.Stanford.edu. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
[44] Gartell, David; Gartell, John (1996). “Positivism in soci-
[27] Copleson, Frederick S. J. [1974] A History of Philosophy: ological practice: 1967–1990”. Canadian Review of So-
IX Modern Philosophy (1994). Image Books, New York. ciology. 33: 2.
p. 118
[45] Boudon, Raymond. 1991. “Review: What Middle-Range
Theories are”. Contemporary Sociology, Vol. 20 Num. 4
[28] Calhoun, Craig J. (2002). Classical Sociological Theory.
pp 519–522.
Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-631-
21348-2. [46] Ashley D, Orenstein DM (2005). Sociological theory:
Classical statements (6th ed.). Boston, Massachusetts, US:
[29] Berlin, Isaiah. 1967. Karl Marx: His Life and Environ-
Pearson Education. p. 169.
ment. Time Inc Book Division, New York. p. 130
[47] Ashley D, Orenstein DM (2005). Sociological theory:
[30] Berlin, Isaiah. [1937] Karl Marx: His Life and Environ-
ment. 3rd edition (1967). Time Inc Book Division, New
Pearson Education. pp. 202–203.
York. pp. 13–14
[48] Rickman, H. P. (1960) The Reaction against Positivism
[31] Perrin, Robert G. (1995). "Émile Durkheim’s Division and Dilthey’s Concept of Understanding, The London
of Labor and the Shadow of Herbert Spencer”. Socio- School of Economics and Political Science. p. 307
logical Quarterly. 36 (4): 791–808. doi:10.1111/j.1533-
8525.1995.tb00465.x. [49] Weber, Max (1946). From Max Weber: essays in sociol-
ogy. New York: Oxford University Press.
[32] Commager, Henry Steele (10 September 1959). The
American mind: an interpretation of American thought [50] Ashley D, Orenstein DM (2005). Sociological theory:
and character since 1880s. ISBN 978-0-300-00046-7. Classical statements (6th ed.). Boston, Massachusetts, US:
Pearson Education. pp. 239–240.
[33] Dibble, Vernonk. 1975. “The Legacy of Albion Small.”
Chicago: University of Chicago Press. [51] Ashley D, Orenstein DM (2005). Sociological theory:
[34] Wacquant, Loic. 1992. “Positivism.” In Bottomore, Tom Pearson Education. p. 241.
and William Outhwaite, ed., The Blackwell Dictionary of
Twentieth-Century Social Thought [52] • Ferdinand Tönnies (ed. Jose Harris), Commu-
nity and Civil Society, Cambridge University Press
[35] Gianfranco Poggi (2000). Durkheim. Oxford: Oxford (2001), hardcover, 266 pages, ISBN 0-521-56119-
University Press. 1; trade paperback, Cambridge University Press
(2001), 266 pages, ISBN 0-521-56782-3
[36] Durkheim, Émile [1895] “The Rules of Sociological
Method” 8th edition, trans. Sarah A. Solovay and John [53] Weber, Max The Nature of Social Action in Runciman,
M. Mueller, ed. George E. G. Catlin (1938, 1964 edi- W.G. 'Weber: Selections in Translation' Cambridge Uni-
tion), p. 45 versity Press, 1991. p. 7.
[37] Habermas, Jürgen, The Philosophical Discourse of Moder- [54] Kaern, Phillips & Cohen. (1990) Georg Simmel and Con-
nity: Modernity’s Consciousness of Time, Polity Press temporary Sociology. Springer Publishing. ISBN 978-0-
(1990), paperback, ISBN 0-7456-0830-2, p. 2. 7923-0407-4. p. 15.
[55] Levine, Donald (ed) 'Simmel: On individuality and social [73] Collins, R. (1994). library.wur.nl. New York: Oxford
forms’ Chicago University Press, 1971. pxix. University Press. ISBN 019508702X.
[56] Levine, Donald (ed) Simmel: On individuality and social [74] Steven E. Barkan. “Theoretical Perspectives in Sociol-
forms Chicago University Press, 1971. p. 6. ogy”. Sociology: Understanding and Changing the Social
World, Brief Edition. Retrieved 18 December 2014.
[57] Simmel, Georg The Metropolis and Mental Life in Levine,
Donald (ed) 'Simmel: On individuality and social forms’ [75] Michael Hechter; Satoshi Kanazawa (1997). “Sociolog-
Chicago University Press, 1971. p. 324. ical Rational Choice Theory”. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 23:
191–214. JSTOR 2952549.
[58] “Sociology – History of Sociology | Encyclopedia.com:
Oxford Companion to United States History”. Encyclo- [76] Coleman, James S., and Thomas J. Fararo. Rational
pedia.com. Archived from the original on 5 July 2010. choice theory. New York: Sage (1992)
Retrieved 5 January 2010.
[77] Raewyn Connell (2007). Southern theory: the global dy-
[59] “University of Kansas Sociology Department Webpage”. namics of knowledge in social science. Polity. ISBN 978-
Ku.edu. Archived from the original on 27 June 2006. Re- 0745642482.
trieved 20 April 2009.
[78] Roscoe C. Hinkle (1982). “Reconstructing the History
[60] “American Journal of Sociology Website”. Jour- of Sociological Theory” (PDF). Mid-American Review of
nals.uchicago.edu. 1 January 1970. Retrieved 20 April Sociology. VII (1): 37–53. Retrieved 18 December 2014.
2009.
[79] Urry, John (2000). “Metaphors”. Sociology beyond soci-
[61] Miller, David (2009). George Herbert Mead: Self, Lan- eties: mobilities for the twenty-first century. Routledge. p.
guage, and the World. University of Texas Press. ISBN 23. ISBN 978-0-415-19089-3.
0-292-72700-3.
[80] Eric Porth; Kimberley Neutzling; Jessica Edwards.
[62] 1930: The Development of Sociology at Michigan. pp. 3– “Anthropological Theories: A Guide Prepared by Stu-
14 in Sociological Theory and Research, being Selected dents for Students: Anthropological theories: Function-
papers of Charles Horton Cooley, edited by Robert Coo- alism”. Department of Anthropology College of Arts
ley Angell, New York: Henry Holt and Sciences The University of Alabama. Retrieved 4
November 2011.
[63] Camic, Charles. 1992. “Reputation and Predecessor Se-
lection: Parsons and the Institutionalists”, American So- [81] Giddens, Anthony. “The Constitution of Society”. In
ciological Review, Vol. 57, No. 4 (August 1992), pp. Philip Cassell. The Giddens Reader. MacMillan Press.
421–445 p. 88.
[64] Morrison, Ken. 2006 (2nd ed.) “Marx, Durkheim, We-
[82] Durkheim, Émile The Division of Labor in Society [1893]
ber”, Sage, pp. 1–7
LA Coser: New York: The Free Press, 1984
[65] “British Journal of Sociology Website”. Lse.ac.uk. 2
[83] Marx and Engels, The Communist Manifesto, introduction
April 2009. Archived from the original on 23 October
by Martin Malia (New York: Penguin group, 1998), p. 35
2007. Retrieved 20 April 2009.
ISBN 0-451-52710-0
[66] “Leonard Trelawny Hobhouse”. Bookrags. Retrieved 4
[84] Macionis, John J. (2012). Sociology 14th Edition.
November 2011.
Boston: Pearson. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-205-11671-3
[67] “Pioneers of the social sciences”. The London School of
Economics and Political Science. 11 February 2013. Re- [85] Gary Alan Fine, ed. (1995). A Second Chicago School?:
trieved 18 December 2014. The Development of a Postwar American Sociology. Uni-
versity of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226249384.
[68] Hill, Michael R. (2002) “Harriet Martineau: theoretical
and methodological perspectives” Routledge. ISBN 0- [86] Macionis, John; Gerber, Linda (2010). Sociology (7th
415-94528-3 Canadian ed.). Toronto: Pearson Canada. p. 19. ISBN
978-0-13-700161-3.
[69] Bendix, Reinhard (1 July 1977). Max Weber: An Intellec-
tual Portrait. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520- [87] Macionis, John; Gerber, Linda (2010). Sociology (7th
03194-6. Canadian ed.). Toronto: Pearson Canada. ISBN 978-0-
13-700161-3.
[70] "Frankfurt School". (2009). from Encyclopædia Britan-
nica Online. Retrieved 12 September 2009. [88] “Pragmatism and the untenable dualism of means and
ends: Why rational choice theory does not deserve
[71] “International Sociological Association Website”. Isa- paradigmatic privilege” Theory and Society 31 (2002):
sociology.org. Retrieved 4 November 2011. 325–363.
[72] Abend, Gabriel. 2008. “The meaning of 'Theory'.” Soci- [89] Emerson, R. M. “Social Exchange Theory.” Annual Re-
ological Theory, 26:2 view of Sociology 2.1 (1976): 335–362.
[90] Roscoe C. Hinkle. Developments in American Sociolog- [108] Bamberger, Michael. “OPPORTUNITIES AND CHAL-
ical Theory, 1915–1950. SUNY Press. p. 335. ISBN LENGES FOR INTEGRATING QUANTITATIVE
9781438406770. Retrieved 18 December 2014. AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH”. World Bank.
Retrieved 29 October 2016.
[91] Jay J. Coakley, Eric Dunning, Handbook of sports studies
[109] Haralambos & Holborn. Sociology: Themes and perspec-
[92] Slattery, Martin. 1993. Key Ideas in Sociology. Chel- tives (2004) 6th ed, Collins Educational. ISBN 978-0-00-
tenham: Nelson Thornes, Ltd. 715447-0. Chapter 14: Methods
[93] Barnes, B. 1995. The Elements of Social Theory. Lon- [110] Hunter, Laura; Leahey, Erin (2008). “Collabora-
don: UCL Press. Quoted in Jay J. Coakley, Eric Dunning, tive Research in Sociology: Trends and Contributing
Handbook of sports studies Factors”. American Sociologist. 39 (4): 290–306.
doi:10.1007/s12108-008-9042-1.
[94] Cassell, Philip The Giddens Reader (1993) The Macmil-
lan Press Ltd, p. 6
[111] Hanson, Barbara (2008). “Whither Qualita-
[95] Martin, John Levi (2011). The Explanation of Social Ac- tive/Quantitative?: Grounds for Methodological
tion. Oxford University Press. Convergence”. Quality and Quantity. 42: 97–111.
doi:10.1007/s11135-006-9041-7.
[96] Christian Smith (2014). The Sacred Project of Ameri-
can Sociology. Oxford University Press. p. 142. ISBN [112] Grant, Linda; Ward, Kathryn B.; Rong, Xue Lan (1 Jan-
9780199377145. Retrieved 18 December 2014. uary 1987). “Is There An Association between Gender
and Methods in Sociological Research?". American So-
[97] http://www3.nd.edu/~{}olizardo/syllabi/ ciological Review. 52 (6): 856–862. JSTOR 2095839.
SOC63922-syllabus-spring11.pdf%5B%5D doi:10.2307/2095839.
[98] Assiter, A 1984, “Althusser and structuralism”, The [113] Martin, Patricia Yancey, Turner, Barry A.. (1986).
British journal of sociology, vol. 35, no. 2, Blackwell Pub- “Grounded Theory and Organisational Research”. The
lishing, pp. 272–296. Journal of Applied Behavioural Science, 22(2), 141.
Retrieved 21 June 2009, from ABI/INFORM Global
[99] Jonathan H. Turner. The Structure of Sociological Theory database. (Document ID: 1155984).
(PDF) (Fifth ed.). Belmont, California: Wadsworth Pub-
lishing Company. Retrieved 18 December 2014. [114] Jost, JT; Kay, AC (2005). “Exposure to benevolent
sexism and complementary gender stereotypes: Conse-
[100] Lizardo, Omar. “Beyond the antinomies of structure: quences for specific and diffuse forms of system justifica-
Levi-Strauss, Giddens, Bourdieu, and Sewell.” Theory tion” (PDF). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.
and society 39.6 (2010): 651–688. 88 (3): 498–509. PMID 15740442. doi:10.1037/0022-
3514.88.3.498.
[101] Fararo, Thomas J., and Carter T. Butts. “Advances in gen-
erative structuralism: structured agency and multilevel dy- [115] Macionis, John; Gerber, Linda (2010). Sociology (7th
namics.” Journal of Mathematical Sociology 24.1 (1999): Canadian ed.). Toronto: Pearson Canada. p. 42. ISBN
1–65. 978-0-13-700161-3.
[102] Giddens, Anthony “The Constitution of Society” in The
[116] Macionis, John; Gerber, Linda (2010). Sociology (7th
Giddens Reader Philip Cassell (eds.) MacMillan Press p.
Canadian ed.). Toronto: Pearson Canada. p. 40. ISBN
89
978-0-13-700161-3.
[103] Jürgen Habermas. Taking Aim at the Heart of the Present
[117] Bainbridge, William Sims (2007). “Computational Soci-
in Hoy, D (eds) Foucault: A critical reader Basil Black-
ology”. In Ritzer, George. Blackwell Encyclopedia of So-
well. Oxford, 1986.
ciology. Blackwell Reference Online. ISBN 978-1-4051-
[104] Richard Rorty. Foucault and Epistemology in Hoy, D (eds) 2433-1. doi:10.1111/b.9781405124331.2007.x.
Foucault: A critical reader Basil Blackwell. Oxford, 1986.
[118] Macy, Michael W.; Willer, Robert (2002). “From Fac-
[105] Margaret S. Archer; Jonathan Q. Tritt (2013). Jonathan tors to Actors: Computational Sociology and Agent-
Q. Tritter, ed. Rational Choice Theory: Resisting Coloni- Based Modeling”. Annual Review of Sociology. An-
sation. Routledge. ISBN 978-0415242714. nual Reviews. 28: 143–166. JSTOR 3069238.
doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.28.110601.141117.
[106] https://books.google.com/books?id=
SMbNRp5EseMC&lpg=PP1&dq=margaret% [119] Epstein, JM; Axell, R (1996). Growing Artificial Societies:
20archer&pg=PA65#v=onepage&q=objectivism& Social Science from the Bottom Up. Washington, D.C.:
f=false Realist Social Theory: The Morphogenetic Brookings Institution Press. ISBN 0-262-05053-6.
Approach
[120] Axelrod, Robert (1997). The Complexity of Coopera-
[107] Giddens, A (1996). The Constitution of Society. Califor- tion: Agent-Based Models of Competition and Collabora-
nia: University of California Press. pp. 14–19. ISBN tion. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
0-520-05728-7. ISBN 0-691-01568-6.
[121] Casti, J (1999). “The Computer as Laboratory: To- [139] Seybold, Kevin S.; Peter C. Hill (February 2001). “The
ward a Theory of Complex Adaptive Systems”. Com- Role of Religion and Spirituality in Mental and Physical
plexity. 4 (5): 12–14. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099- Health”. Current Directions in Psychological Science. 10
0526(199905/06)4:5<12::AID-CPLX3>3.0.CO;2-4. (1): 21–24. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00106.
[122] Goldspink, C (2002). “Methodological Implications of [140] Correll, Shelley, Stephen Benard, In Paik. 2007. “Getting
Complex Systems Approaches to Sociality: Simulation as a job: Is there a motherhood penalty?" American Journal
a Foundation for Knowledge”. 5 (1). Journal of Artificial of Sociology 112: 1297–1338.
Societies and Social Simulation.
[141] “British Sociological Association: Medical Sociology”.
[123] Gilbert, Nigel; Troitzsch, Klaus (2005). “Simulation and BSA. Archived from the original on 17 June 2008. Re-
social science”. Simulation for Social Scientists (2 ed.). trieved 23 October 2009.
Open University Press.
[142] “American Sociological Association:". asanet.org. Re-
[124] Epstein, Joshua (2007). Generative Social Science: Stud- trieved 4 April 2015.
ies in Agent-Based Computational Modeling. Princeto:
[143] “The British Sociological Association”. Archived from
Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-12547-3.
the original on 14 July 2014.
[125] “the sociology of culture versus cultural sociology”. orgth-
[144] “ISA - Research Committee on the Body in the Social Sci-
eory.net.
ences RC54”.
[126] “Sociology of Cutlure and Cultural Sociology”.
[145] “The British Sociological Association”. Archived from
blog.lib.umn.edu. Archived from the original on 5 May
the original on 14 July 2014.
2015. Retrieved 4 April 2015.
[146] Ben-David, Joseph; Teresa A. Sullivan (1975).
[127] Griswold, Wendy (10 January 2012). Cultures and Soci- “Sociology of Science”. Annual Review of Sociology. 1:
eties in a Changing World. ISBN 9781412990547. 203–222. doi:10.1146/annurev.so.01.080175.001223.
Retrieved 29 November 2006.
[128] “Robert K. Merton Remembered”. Retrieved 2 Decem-
ber 2009. [147] “American Sociological Association: Section on Science,
Knowledge and Technology”. asanet.org. Retrieved 4
[129] Banakar, Resa (2009) “Law Through Sociology’s Look-
April 2015.
ing Glass: Conflict and Competition in Sociological Stud-
ies of Law” in “The new ISA handbook in contemporary [148] “The British Sociological Association”. Archived from
international sociology: Conflict, Competition, and Co- the original on 14 July 2014.
operation”, Ann Denis, Devorah Kalekin-Fishman, eds.,
(London: Sage). An e-copy available at papers.ssrn.com [149] “ISA - Research Committee on Sociology of Science and
Technology RC23”.
[130] Western, Bruce. 2006. Punishment and Inequality in
America. New York: Russel Sage. [150] Lueschen, G. 1980. Sociology of Sport: Development,
Present State, and Prospects. Annual Review of Sociology,
[131] “American Sociological Association: Communication 6: 315–347.
and Information Technology Section”. asanet.org. Re-
trieved 4 April 2015. [151] “American Sociological Association: Section Informa-
tion”. asanet.org. Retrieved 4 April 2015.
[132] D. R. Wilson, Researching Sociology on the Internet,
Thomson/Wadsworth, 2004, ISBN 0-534-62437-5 [152] Siebold, Guy (2001). “Core Issues and Theory in Military
Sociology”. Journal of Political and Military Sociology.
[133] The Internet Galaxy, Reflections on the Internet, Business Archived from the original on 31 May 2005. Retrieved
and Society. Oxford, Oxford University Press (2001) 14 July 2008.
[134] “Principles of Economic Sociology by Richard Swedberg [153] Piven, F. (1988) Why Americans Don't Vote: And Why
– An extract”. Retrieved 2 December 2009. Politicians Want it That Way Pantheon. ISBN 0-679-
72318-8
[135] Watson, Tony J. 2008 Sociology, Work, and Industry.
Routledge. ISBN 0-415-43555-2. p. 392 [154] Lipset, S.M. Introduction: Ostrogorski and the Analytical
Approach to the Comparative Study of Political Parties in
[136] Gordon Marshall (ed) A Dictionary of Sociology (Article: M. Ostrogorski, Democracy and the Organisation of Po-
Sociology of Education), Oxford University Press, 1998 litical (2 vol, 1964; 1982 ed.)
[137] Hanushek, Eric A. (1998) “Conclusions and Controversies [155] Kate Nash (2009). Contemporary Political Sociology:
about the Effectiveness of School Resources” Economic Globalization, Politics and Power. John Wiley & Sons.
Policy Review Federal Reserve Bank of New York, 4(1): ISBN 9781444320770. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
pp. 11–27, accessed 30 December 2008.
[156] Social movements: an introduction – Donatella Della
[138] Bose, Christine. 2012. “Intersectionality and Global Gen- Porta, Mario Diani. Books.google.com. 9 February 2009.
der Inequality” Gender & Society 26(1): 67–72 ISBN 9781405148214. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
[157] Thibodeaux, Jarrett. 2016. Production as Social Change: [174] Tönnies, F. 1887. Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft, p. 22.
Policy Sociology as a Public Good. Sociological Spectrum.
36 (3): 183-190 [175] Arendt, Hannah (1970). On violence. San Diego
New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. ISBN
[158] “Milton Louw – Making A Better World.” : Oldest 9780156695008.
Coloured Owned Business in Namibia. Web. 22 Febru-
ary 2012. <http://milton-louw.blogspot.com/2011/03/ [176] Sherif, M., and CW Sherif. An Outline of Social Psychol-
oldest-coloured-owned-business-in.html>. ogy (rev. ed.). New York: Harper & Brothers, 1956
[159] Kevin J. Christiano, et al., (2nd ed., 2008), Sociology of [177] “Web page” (PDF). Sociology and Its Relationships to
Religion: Contemporary Developments, Lanham, Mary- Other Social Sciences. National Organisation of Sociol-
land: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-0- ogy. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 January
7425-6111-3 2011. Retrieved 15 July 2011.
[160] Berger, Peter L. The Sacred Canopy: Elements of a Soci- [178] Kirst-Ashman, K. K.; Hull, G. H. (2009). Generalist
ological Theory of Religion (1967). Anchor Books 1990 Practice with Organisations and Communities (4th ed.).
paperback: ISBN 0-385-07305-4 Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning. ISBN 0-
495-50715-6.
[161] Shackman, Gene; Wang, Xun; Liu, Yalin. “Brief Re-
view of World Demographic Trends Summary”. SSRN. [179] Hepworth, D.H, Rooney, R.H., Rooney, G.D, Strom-
Retrieved 13 June 2017. Gottfried, K., Larsen, J. A. (2006). “1”. Direct So-
[162] Silberglitt, Richard; Anton, Philip; Howell, David. “The cial Work Practice. Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole.
Global Technology Revolution 2020, In-Depth Analyses ISBN 0-534-64458-9.
Bio/Nano/Materials/Information Trends, Drivers, Barri-
[180] Janes, Craig Robert; Stall, Ron; Gifford, Sandra M
ers, and Social Implications”. Rand. Retrieved 13 June
(1986). James Trostle. Springer. ISBN 978-90-277-
2017.
2248-5. Retrieved 8 September 2009.
[163] Lizardo, Omar. “How cultural tastes shape personal
[181] “Sociology-Basic Concepts” (PDF). nos.org. Archived
networks.” American Sociological Review 71.5 (2006):
from the original (PDF) on 17 January 2011. Retrieved
778–807. “Archived copy” (PDF). Archived from the
28 November 2010.
original (PDF) on 8 August 2014. Retrieved 2014-07-26.
[164] Stolte, John F; Fine, Gary Alan; Cook, Karen S. (2001). [182] Dugan, David. “NOVA: Lord of the Ants.” NOVA:
“Sociological miniaturism: seeing the big through the Lord of the Ants. Dir. David Dugan. Prod. David
small in social psychology”. Annual Review of Sociology. Dugan. PBS. WGBH, Boston, Massachusetts, 20 May
27: 387–413. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.27.1.387. 2008. Television.
[165] “What Is Social Psychology – An Introduction to Social [183] Witzany, Guenther. (2010). Bio-communication and
Psychology”. Psychology.about.com. Retrieved 1 June Natural Genome Editing. Springer Science + Business
2010. Media. ISBN 978-90-481-3318-5.
[166] Macionis, John; Gerber, Linda (2010). Sociology (7th [184] Horowitz, Irving (1994) The Decomposition of Sociology
Canadian ed.). Toronto: Pearson Canada. p. 225. ISBN Oxford University Press. pp. 3–9
978-0-13-700161-3.
[185] Randall Collins, Cited in Horowitz, Irving (1994) The De-
[167] Saunders, Peter (1990). Social Class and Stratification. composition of Sociology Oxford University Press. p. 3–9
Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-04125-6.
[186] “The most cited authors of books in the humanities”.
[168] Macionis, John; Gerber, Linda (2010). Sociology (7th timeshighereducation.co.uk. 26 March 2009. Retrieved
Canadian ed.). Toronto: Pearson Canada. p. 243. ISBN 16 November 2009.
978-0-13-700161-3.
[187] “2011 Journal Citation Reports". Web of Science (Social
[169] Stark, Rodney (2006). Sociology. Wadsworth Publishing. Sciences ed.). Thomson Reuters. 2011.
ISBN 978-0-495-09344-2.
[170] Dahrendorf, Ralf. (1959) Class and Class Conflict in In-

dustrial Society. Stanford: Stanford University Press. 14.11 Further reading
[171] Bornschier V. (1996), 'Western society in transition' New
Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers. • Aby, Stephen H. Sociology: A Guide to Reference
and Information Sources, 3rd edn. Littleton, Col-
[172] Sassen, Saskia (2001) [1991]. The global city: New York,
orado, Libraries Unlimited Inc., 2005, ISBN 1-
London, Tokyo (2nd ed.). Princeton, New Jersey: Prince-
ton University Press. ISBN 9780691070636. 56308-947-5 OCLC 57475961
[173] “American Sociological Association: Section on Commu- • Babbie, Earl R.. 2003. The Practice of Social Re-
nity and Urban Sociology”. asanet.org. Retrieved 4 April search, 10th edition. Wadsworth, Thomson Learn-
2015. ing Inc., ISBN 0-534-62029-9 OCLC 51917727
• Collins, Randall. 1994. Four Sociological Tradi- • Wallace, Ruth A. & Alison Wolf. 1995. Contem-
tions. Oxford, Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19- porary Sociological Theory: Continuing the Classi-
508208-7 OCLC 28411490 cal Tradition, 4th ed., Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-
036245-X OCLC 31604842
• Coser, Lewis A., Masters of Sociological Thought:
Ideas in Historical and Social Context, New York, • White, Harrison C.. 2008. Identity and Con-
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1971. ISBN 0-15- trol. How Social Formations Emerge. (2nd ed.,
555128-0. Completely rev. ed.) Princeton, Princeton Uni-
versity Press. ISBN 978-0-691-13714-8 OCLC
• Giddens, Anthony. 2006. Sociology (5th edition), 174138884
Polity, Cambridge. ISBN 0-7456-3378-1 OCLC
63186308 • Willis, Evan. 1996. The Sociological Quest: An in-
troduction to the study of social life, New Brunswick,
• Landis, Judson R (1989). Sociology: Concepts New Jersey, Rutgers University Press. ISBN 0-
and Characteristics (7th ed.). Belmont, California: 8135-2367-2 OCLC 34633406
Wadsworth. ISBN 0-534-10158-5.
• Lipset, Seymour Martin and Everett Carll Ladd. 14.12 External links
“The Politics of American Sociologists,” Ameri-
can Journal of Sociology (1972) 78#1 pp. 67–104
• American Sociological Association (ASA)
JSTOR 2776571
• Australian Sociological Association (TASA)
• Macionis, John J (1991). Sociology (3rd ed.). En-
glewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. ISBN • Bangladesh Sociological Society (BSS)
0-13-820358-X.
• British Sociological Association (BSA)
• Merton, Robert K.. 1959. Social Theory and Social
• Canadian Sociological Association (CSA)
Structure. Toward the codification of theory and re-
search, Glencoe: Ill. (Revised and enlarged edition) • Canadian Association of French-speaking Sociolo-
OCLC 4536864 gists and Anthropologists
• Mills, C. Wright, The Sociological Imagina- • European Sociological Association (ESA)
tion,1959OCLC 165883
• French Sociological Association
• C. Wright Mills, Intellectual Craftsmanship Advices
how to Work for young Sociologist • German Sociological Association (DGS)
• Indian Sociological Society (ISS)
• Mitchell, Geoffrey Duncan (2007) [1968]. A Hun-
dred Years of Sociology: A Concise History of the • International Institute of Sociology (IIS)
Major Figures, Ideas, and Schools of Sociological
Thought. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transac- • International Sociological Association (ISA)
tion Publishers. ISBN 978-0-202-36168-0. OCLC
• Latin American Sociological Association (ALAS)
145146341.
• Portuguese Sociological Association (APS)
• Nisbet, Robert A. 1967. The Sociological Tradition,
London, Heinemann Educational Books. ISBN 1- • Sociological Association of Ireland (SAI)
56000-667-6 OCLC 26934810
• South African Sociological Association (SASA)
• Ritzer, George and Douglas J. Goodman. 2004.
Sociological Theory, Sixth Edition. McGraw Hill.
ISBN 0-07-281718-6 OCLC 52240022
• Scott, John & Marshall, Gordon (eds) A Dictionary

of Sociology (3rd Ed). Oxford University Press,
2005, ISBN 0-19-860986-8, OCLC 60370982
• Tausch, Arno (2015). The political algebra of global

value change. General models and implications
for the Muslim world. With Almas Heshmati and
Hichem Karoui. (1st ed.). Nova Science Publishers,
New York. ISBN 978-1-62948-899-8.
Chapter 15
Epistemology
Epistemology (/ɪˌpɪstɪˈmɒlədʒi/; from Greek ἐπιστήμη, 15.2 Epistemology

epistēmē, meaning 'knowledge', and λόγος, logos, mean-
ing 'logical discourse') is the branch of philosophy con- The word epistemology is derived from the ancient Greek
cerned with the theory of knowledge.[1] epistēmē meaning “knowledge” and the suffix -logy,
Epistemology studies the nature of knowledge, justifica- meaning “logical discourse" (derived from the Greek
tion, and the rationality of belief. Much of the debate in word logos meaning “discourse”). J.F. Ferrier coined
epistemology centers on four areas: (1) the philosophical epistemology on the model of 'ontology', to designate that
analysis of the nature of knowledge and how it relates branch of philosophy which aims to discover the mean-
to such concepts as truth, belief, and justification,[2][3] ing of knowledge, and called it the 'true beginning' of
(2) various problems of skepticism, (3) the sources and philosophy. The word is equivalent to the concept Wis-
scope of knowledge and justified belief, and (4) the cri- senschaftslehre, which was used by German philosophers
teria for knowledge and justification. Epistemology ad- Johann Fichte and Bernard Bolzano for different projects
dresses such questions as “What makes justified beliefs before it was taken up again by Husserl. French philoso-
justified?",[4] what does it mean to say that one knows phers then gave the term épistémologie a narrower mean-
something?[5] and fundamentally, how do we know that ing as 'theory of knowledge [théorie de la connaissance].'
we know?[6] E.g., Émile Meyerson opened his Identity and Reality,
written in 1908, with the remark that the word 'is be-
The term 'Epistemology' was first used by Scottish
coming current' as equivalent to 'the philosophy of the
philosopher James Frederick Ferrier in 1854.[lower-alpha 1]
sciences.'[9]
However, according to Brett Warren, King James VI
of Scotland had previously personified this philosophical
concept as the character Epistemon in 1591.[8]
15.3 Knowledge
In mathematics, it is known that 2 + 2 = 4, but there is also
15.1 Epistemon knowing how to add two numbers, and knowing a person
(e.g., oneself), place (e.g., one’s hometown), thing (e.g.,
Main article: Daemonologie cars), or activity (e.g., addition). Some philosophers think
there is an important distinction between “knowing that”
In a philosophical dialogue, King James VI of Scotland (know a concept), “knowing how” (understand an opera-
penned the character Epistemon as the personification of a tion), and “acquaintance-knowledge” (know by relation),
philosophical concept to debate on arguments of whether with epistemology being primarily concerned with the
the ancient religious perceptions of witchcraft should be first of these.[10]
punished in a politically fueled Christian society. The ar- While these distinctions are not explicit in English, they
guments King James poses, through the character Episte- are defined explicitly in other languages (N.B. some lan-
mon, are based on ideas of theological reasoning regard- guages related to English have been said to retain these
ing society’s belief, as his opponent Philomathes takes a verbs, e.g. Scots: “wit” and "ken"). In French, Por-
philosophical stance on society’s legal aspects but seeks to tuguese, Spanish, German and Dutch to know (a per-
obtain greater knowledge from Epistemon, whose name son) is translated using connaître, conhecer, conocer and
is Greek for scientist. This philosophical approach sig- kennen respectively, whereas to know (how to do some-
nified a Philomath seeking to obtain greater knowledge thing) is translated using savoir, saber and weten. Modern
through epistemology with the use of theology. The dia- Greek has the verbs γνωρίζω (gnorízo) and ξέρω (kséro).
logue was used by King James to educate society on var- Italian has the verbs conoscere and sapere and the nouns
ious concepts including the history and etymology of the for knowledge are conoscenza and sapienza. German has
subjects debated.[8] the verbs wissen and kennen. Wissen implies knowing a
128
15.3. KNOWLEDGE 129
fact, kennen implies knowing in the sense of being ac- under his weight, it could be said that he believed that the
quainted with and having a working knowledge of; there bridge was safe but that his belief was mistaken. It would
is also a noun derived from kennen, namely Erkennen, not be accurate to say that he knew that the bridge was
which has been said to imply knowledge in the form of safe, because plainly it was not. By contrast, if the bridge
recognition or acknowledgment. The verb itself implies actually supported his weight, then he might say that he
a process: you have to go from one state to another, from had believed that the bridge was safe, whereas now, after
a state of “not-erkennen" to a state of true erkennen. This proving it to himself (by crossing it), he knows it was safe.
verb seems to be the most appropriate in terms of de- Epistemologists argue over whether belief is the proper
scribing the “episteme” in one of the modern European
truth-bearer. Some would rather describe knowledge as
languages, hence the German name "Erkenntnistheorie". a system of justified true propositions, and others as a
The theoretical interpretation and significance of these
system of justified true sentences. Plato, in his Gorgias,
linguistic issues remains controversial. argues that belief is the most commonly invoked truth-
In his paper On Denoting and his later book Problems of bearer.[11]
Philosophy Bertrand Russell stressed the distinction be- See also: Criteria of truth
tween "knowledge by description" and "knowledge by ac-
quaintance". Gilbert Ryle is also credited with stress-
ing the distinction between knowing how and knowing
that in The Concept of Mind. In Personal Knowledge,
Michael Polanyi argues for the epistemological relevance
15.3.3 Justification
of knowledge how and knowledge that; using the exam-
In the Theaetetus, Socrates considers a number of theo-
ple of the act of balance involved in riding a bicycle, he
ries as to what knowledge is, the last being that knowl-
suggests that the theoretical knowledge of the physics in-
edge is true belief “with an account” (meaning explained
volved in maintaining a state of balance cannot substi-
or defined in some way). According to the theory that
tute for the practical knowledge of how to ride, and that
knowledge is justified true belief, in order to know that
it is important to understand how both are established
a given proposition is true, one must not only believe the
and grounded. This position is essentially Ryle’s, who
relevant true proposition, but one must also have a good
argued that a failure to acknowledge the distinction be-
reason for doing so. One implication of this would be that
tween knowledge that and knowledge how leads to infinite
no one would gain knowledge just by believing something
regress.
that happened to be true. For example, an ill person with
In recent times, epistemologists including (Sosa, Greco, no medical training, but with a generally optimistic atti-
Kvanvig, Zagzebski) and Duncan Pritchard have argued tude, might believe that he will recover from his illness
that epistemology should evaluate people’s “properties” quickly. Nevertheless, even if this belief turned out to be
(i.e., intellectual virtues) and not just the properties of true, the patient would not have known that he would get
propositions or of propositional mental attitudes. well since his belief lacked justification.
The definition of knowledge as justified true belief was
15.3.1 Belief widely accepted until the 1960s. At this time, a paper
written by the American philosopher Edmund Gettier
Main article: Belief provoked major widespread discussion. (See theories of
justification for other views on the idea.)
In common speech, a “statement of belief” is typically an

expression of faith or trust in a person, power or other 15.3.4 Gettier problem
entity—while it includes such traditional views, episte-
mology is also concerned with what we believe. This in- Main article: Gettier problem
cludes 'the' truth, and everything else we accept as 'true' Edmund Gettier is best known for a short paper entitled
for ourselves from a cognitive point of view. 'Is Justified True Belief Knowledge?' published in 1963,
which called into question the theory of knowledge that
had been dominant among philosophers for thousands of
15.3.2 Truth years.[12] This in turn called into question the actual value
of philosophy if such an obvious and easy counterexample
Main article: Truth to a major theory could exist without anyone noticing it
for thousands of years. In a few pages, Gettier argued that
Whether someone’s belief is true is not a prerequisite for there are situations in which one’s belief may be justified
(its) belief. On the other hand, if something is actually and true, yet fail to count as knowledge. That is, Gettier
known, then it categorically cannot be false. For example, contended that while justified belief in a true proposition
if a person believes that a bridge is safe enough to support is necessary for that proposition to be known, it is not
him, and attempts to cross it, but the bridge then collapses sufficient. As in the diagram, a true proposition can be
130 CHAPTER 15. EPISTEMOLOGY
Propositions ditional fourth condition, or proposing a completely new

set of conditions, disregarding the classical ones entirely.
Poorly
justified
true beliefs Infallibilism, indefeasibility In one response to Get-
tier, the American philosopher Richard Kirkham has ar-
Truths Beliefs gued that the only definition of knowledge that could
Knowledge ever be immune to all counterexamples is the infallibilist
one.[13] To qualify as an item of knowledge, goes the the-
ory, a belief must not only be true and justified, the jus-
tification of the belief must necessitate its truth. In other
words, the justification for the belief must be infallible.
Yet another possible candidate for the fourth condition of
Euler diagram representing a definition of knowledge.
knowledge is indefeasibility. Defeasibility theory main-
tains that there should be no overriding or defeating truths
believed by an individual (purple region) but still not fall for the reasons that justify one’s belief. For example, sup-
within the “knowledge” category (yellow region). pose that person S believes he saw Tom Grabit steal a
book from the library and uses this to justify the claim
According to Gettier, there are certain circumstances in that Tom Grabit stole a book from the library. A pos-
which one does not have knowledge, even when all of the sible defeater or overriding proposition for such a claim
above conditions are met. Gettier proposed two thought could be a true proposition like, “Tom Grabit’s identical
experiments, which have come to be known as “Gettier twin Sam is currently in the same town as Tom.” When
cases”, as counterexamples to the classical account of no defeaters of one’s justification exist, a subject would
knowledge. One of the cases involves two men, Smith be epistemologically justified.
and Jones, who are awaiting the results of their appli-
cations for the same job. Each man has ten coins in The Indian philosopher B. K. Matilal has drawn on the
his pocket. Smith has excellent reasons to believe that Navya-Nyāya fallibilism tradition to respond to the Get-
Jones will get the job and, furthermore, knows that Jones tier problem. Nyaya theory distinguishes between know
has ten coins in his pocket (he recently counted them). p and know that one knows p—these are different events,
From this Smith infers, “the man who will get the job has with different causal conditions. The second level is a
ten coins in his pocket.” However, Smith is unaware that sort of implicit inference that usually follows immedi-
he also has ten coins in his own pocket. Furthermore, ately the episode of knowing p (knowledge simpliciter).
Smith, not Jones, is going to get the job. While Smith The Gettier case is examined by referring to a view of
has strong evidence to believe that Jones will get the job, Gangesha Upadhyaya (late 12th century), who takes any
he is wrong. Smith has a justified true belief that the man true belief to be knowledge; thus a true belief acquired
who will get the job has ten coins in his pocket; however, through a wrong route may just be regarded as knowl-
according to Gettier, Smith does not know that the man edge simpliciter on this view. The question of justifica-
who will get the job has ten coins in his pocket, because tion arises only at the second level, when one considers the
Smith’s belief is "...true by virtue of the number of coins knowledgehood of the acquired belief. Initially, there is
in Jones’s pocket, while Smith does not know how many lack of uncertainty, so it becomes a true belief. But at
coins are in Smith’s pocket, and bases his belief...on a the very next moment, when the hearer is about to em-
count of the coins in Jones’s pocket, whom he falsely be- bark upon the venture of knowing whether he knows p,
lieves to be the man who will get the job.” (see[12] p. 122.) doubts may arise. “If, in some Gettier-like cases, I am
These cases fail to be knowledge because the subject’s be- wrong in my inference about the knowledgehood of the
lief is justified, but only happens to be true by virtue of given occurrent belief (for the evidence may be pseudo-
luck. In other words, he made the correct choice (in this evidence), then I am mistaken about the truth of my belief
case predicting an outcome) for the wrong reasons. This – and this is in accordance with Nyaya fallibilism: not all
example is similar to those often given when discussing knowledge-claims can be sustained.”[14]
belief and truth, wherein a person’s belief of what will
happen can coincidentally be correct without his or her Reliabilism Main article: Reliabilism
having the actual knowledge to base it on.
Reliabilism has been a significant line of response to

Responses to Gettier the Gettier problem among philosophers, originating with
work by Alvin Goldman in the 1960s. According to
The responses to Gettier have been varied. Usually, they reliabilism, a belief is justified (or otherwise supported
have involved substantial attempts to provide a definition in such a way as to count towards knowledge) only if
of knowledge different from the classical one, either by it is produced by processes that typically yield a suffi-
recasting knowledge as justified true belief with some ad- ciently high ratio of true to false beliefs. In other words,
15.3. KNOWLEDGE 131
this theory states that a true belief counts as knowledge Timothy Williamson has advanced a theory of knowl-
only if it is produced by a reliable belief-forming pro- edge according to which knowledge is not justified true
cess. Examples of reliable processes include: standard belief plus some extra condition(s), but primary. In his
perceptual processes, remembering, good reasoning, and book Knowledge and its Limits, Williamson argues that
introspection.[15] the concept of knowledge cannot be broken down into a
Reliabilism has been challenged by Gettier cases. An- set of other concepts through analysis—instead, it is sui
other argument that challenges reliabilism, like the Get- generis. Thus, though knowledge requires justification,
tier cases (although it was not presented in the same short truth, and belief, the word “knowledge” can't be, accord-
ing to Williamson’s theory, accurately regarded as simply
article as the Gettier cases), is the case of Henry and the
barn façades. In the thought experiment, a man, Henry, shorthand for “justified true belief”.
is driving along and sees a number of buildings that re- Alvin Goldman writes in his Causal Theory of Knowing
semble barns. Based on his perception of one of these, he that in order for knowledge to truly exist there must be
concludes that he has just seen barns. While he has seen a causal chain between the proposition and the belief of
one, and the perception he based his belief that the one that proposition.
he saw was of a real barn, all the other barn-like buildings
he saw were façades. Theoretically, Henry does not know
that he has seen a barn, despite both his belief that he has 15.3.5 Externalism and internalism
seen one being true and his belief being formed on the
basis of a reliable process (i.e. his vision), since he only Main article: Internalism and externalism
acquired his true belief by accident.[16]
A central debate about the nature of justification is a
debate between epistemological externalists on the one
Other responses Robert Nozick has offered the fol-
hand, and epistemological internalists on the other.
lowing definition of knowledge: S knows that P if and
only if: Externalists hold that factors deemed “external”, mean-
ing outside of the psychological states of those who gain
• P; knowledge, can be conditions of justification. For exam-
ple, an externalist response to the Gettier problem is to
• S believes that P; say that, in order for a justified true belief to count as
knowledge, there must be a link or dependency between
• if P were false, S would not believe that P; the belief and the state of the external world. Usually
this is understood to be a causal link. Such causation, to
• if P were true, S would believe that P.[17] the extent that it is “outside” the mind, would count as an
external, knowledge-yielding condition. Internalists, on
Nozick argues that the third of these conditions serves to the other hand, assert that all knowledge-yielding condi-
address cases of the sort described by Gettier. Nozick tions are within the psychological states of those who gain
further claims this condition addresses a case of the sort knowledge.
described by D. M. Armstrong:[18] A father believes his Though unfamiliar with the internalist/externalist debate
daughter innocent of committing a particular crime, both himself, many point to René Descartes as an early ex-
because of faith in his baby girl and (now) because he ample of the internalist path to justification. He wrote
has seen presented in the courtroom a conclusive demon- that, because the only method by which we perceive the
stration of his daughter’s innocence. His belief via the external world is through our senses, and that, because
method of the courtroom satisfies the four subjunctive the senses are not infallible, we should not consider our
conditions, but his faith-based belief does not. If his concept of knowledge to be infallible. The only way
daughter were guilty, he would still believe her innocent, to find anything that could be described as “indubitably
on the basis of faith in his daughter; this would violate the true”, he advocates, would be to see things “clearly and
third condition. distinctly”.[20] He argued that if there is an omnipotent,
The British philosopher Simon Blackburn has criticized good being who made the world, then it’s reasonable to
this formulation by suggesting that we do not want to ac- believe that people are made with the ability to know.
cept as knowledge beliefs, which, while they “track the However, this does not mean that man’s ability to know
truth” (as Nozick’s account requires), are not held for ap- is perfect. God gave man the ability to know, but not
propriate reasons. He says that “we do not want to award omniscience. Descartes said that man must use his ca-
the title of knowing something to someone who is only pacities for knowledge correctly and carefully through
meeting the conditions through a defect, flaw, or fail- methodological doubt.[21] The dictum “Cogito ergo sum”
ure, compared with someone else who is not meeting the (I think, therefore I am) is also commonly associated with
conditions.”[19] In addition to this, externalist accounts of Descartes’ theory, because in his own methodological
knowledge, such as Nozick’s, are often forced to reject doubt, doubting everything he previously knew in order
closure in cases where it is intuitively valid. to start from a blank slate, the first thing that he could not
logically bring himself to doubt was his own existence: “I reliability in itself has no value or disvalue, but Goldman
do not exist” would be a contradiction in terms; the act and Olsson disagree. They point out that Zagzebski’s con-
of saying that one does not exist assumes that someone clusion rests on the assumption of veritism: all that mat-
must be making the statement in the first place. Though ters is the acquisition of true belief.[27] To the contrary,
Descartes could doubt his senses, his body and the world they argue that a reliable process for acquiring a true be-
around him, he could not deny his own existence, belief adds value to the mere true belief by making it more
cause he was able to doubt and must exist in order to likely that future beliefs of a similar kind will be true. By
do so. Even if some “evil genius” were to be deceiving analogy, having a reliable espresso maker that produced
him, he would have to exist in order to be deceived. This a good cup of espresso would be more valuable than hav-
one sure point provided him with what he would call his ing an unreliable one that luckily produced a good cup
Archimedean point, in order to further develop his foun- because the reliable one would more likely produce good
dation for knowledge. Simply put, Descartes’ epistemo- future cups compared to the unreliable one.
logical justification depended upon his indubitable belief
The value problem is important to assessing the ade-
in his own existence and his clear and distinct knowledge quacy of theories of knowledge that conceive of knowl-
of God.[22]
edge as consisting of true belief and other components.
According to Kvanvig, an adequate account of knowl-
15.3.6 Value problem edge should resist counterexamples and allow an expla-
nation of the value of knowledge over mere true belief.
We generally assume that knowledge is more valuable Should a theory [28]
of knowledge fail to do so, it would prove
than mere true belief. If so, what is the explanation? A inadequate.
formulation of the value problem in epistemology first oc- One of the more influential responses to the problem is
curs in Plato's Meno. Socrates points out to Meno that a that knowledge is not particularly valuable and is not what
man who knew the way to Larissa could lead others there ought to be the main focus of epistemology. Instead, epis-
correctly. But so, too, could a man who had true beliefs temologists ought to focus on other mental states, such as
about how to get there, even if he had not gone there or understanding.[29] Advocates of virtue epistemology have
had any knowledge of Larissa. Socrates says that it seems argued that the value of knowledge comes from an inter-
that both knowledge and true opinion can guide action. nal relationship between the knower and the mental state
Meno then wonders why knowledge is valued more than of believing.[24]
true belief, and why knowledge and true belief are differ-
ent. Socrates responds that knowledge is more valuable
than mere true belief because it is tethered, or justified. 15.4 Acquiring knowledge
Justification, or working out the reason for a true belief,
locks down true belief.[23]
15.4.1 A priori and a posteriori knowledge
The problem is to identify what (if anything) makes
knowledge more valuable than mere true belief, or that Main article: A priori and a posteriori
makes knowledge more valuable than a more mini-
mal conjunction of its components, such as justifica-
tion, safety, sensitivity, statistical likelihood, and anti- The nature of this distinction has been disputed by various
Gettier conditions, on a particular analysis of knowl- philosophers; however, the terms may be roughly defined
edge that conceives of knowledge as divided into com- as follows:
ponents (to which knowledge-first epistemological the-
ories, which posit knowledge as fundamental, are no- • A priori knowledge is knowledge that is known inde-
table exceptions).[24] The value problem reemerged in the pendently of experience (that is, it is non-empirical,
philosophical literature on epistemology in the twenty- or arrived at beforehand, usually by reason). It will
first century following the rise of virtue epistemology in henceforth be acquired through anything that is in-
the 1980s, partly because of the obvious link to the con- dependent from experience.
cept of value in ethics.[25] • A posteriori knowledge is knowledge that is known
The value problem has been presented as an argument by experience (that is, it is empirical, or arrived at
against epistemic reliabilism by philosophers including afterward).
Linda Zagzebski, Wayne Riggs and Richard Swinburne.
Zagzebski analogizes the value of knowledge to the value A priori knowledge is a way of gaining knowledge with-
of espresso produced by an espresso maker: “The liquid out the need of experience. In Bruce Russell’s article “A
in this cup is not improved by the fact that it comes from Priori Justification and Knowledge”[30] he says that it is
a reliable espresso maker. If the espresso tastes good, “knowledge based on a priori justification,” (1) which re-
it makes no difference if it comes from an unreliable lies on intuition and the nature of these intuitions. A pri-
machine.”[26] For Zagzebski, the value of knowledge de- ori knowledge is often contrasted with posteriori knowl-
flates to the value of mere true belief. She assumes that edge, which is knowledge gained by experience. A way
15.4. ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE 133
to look at the difference between the two is through an Historical

example. Bruce Russell gives two propositions in which
the reader decides which one he believes more. Option The historical study of philosophical epistemology is the
A: All crows are birds. Option B: All crows are black. If historical study of efforts to gain philosophical under-
you believe option A, then you are a priori justified in be- standing or knowledge of the nature and scope of human
lieving it because you don't have to see a crow to know it’sknowledge.[34] Since efforts to get that kind of under-
a bird. If you believe in option B, then you are posteriori standing have a history, the questions philosophical epis-
justified to believe it because you have seen many crows temology asks today about human knowledge are not nec-
therefore knowing they are black. He goes on to say that essarily the same as they once were.[34] But that does not
it doesn't matter if the statement is true or not, only thatmean that philosophical epistemology is itself a historical
if you believe in one or the other that matters. subject, or that it pursues only or even primarily historical
[34]
The idea of a priori knowledge is that it is based on in- understanding.
tuition or rational insights. Laurence BonJour says in his
article “The Structure of Empirical Knowledge”,[31] that
a “rational insight is an immediate, non-inferential grasp,
Empiricism
apprehension or 'seeing' that some proposition is neces-
sarily true.” (3) Going back to the crow example, by Lau-
rence BonJour’s definition the reason you would believe In philosophy, empiricism is generally a theory of knowl-
in option A is because you have an immediate knowledge edge focusing on the role of experience, especially ex-
that a crow is a bird, without ever experiencing one. perience based on perceptual observations by the senses.
Certain forms treat all knowledge as empirical, while
Evolutionary psychology takes a novel approach to the some regard disciplines such as mathematics and logic as
problem. It says that there is an innate predisposition for exceptions.
certain types of learning. “Only small parts of the brain
resemble a tabula rasa; this is true even for human beings. There are many variants of empiricism, positivism,
The remainder is more like an exposed negative waiting realism and common sense being among the most com-
to be dipped into a developer fluid”[32] monly expounded. But central to all empiricist episte-
mologies is the notion of the epistemologically privileged
status of sense data.
15.4.2 Analytic–synthetic distinction
Main article: Analytic–synthetic distinction Idealism
Many idealists believe that knowledge is primarily (at

Immanuel Kant, in his Critique of Pure Reason, drew
least in some areas) acquired by a priori processes or is
a distinction between “analytic” and “synthetic” propo-
innate—for example, in the form of concepts not derived
sitions. He contended that some propositions are such
from experience. The relevant theoretical processes of-
that we can know them to be true just by understand-
ten go by the name "intuition".[35] The relevant theoretical
ing their meaning. For example, consider, “My father’s
concepts may purportedly be part of the structure of the
brother is my uncle.” We can know it to be true solely by
human mind (as in Kant's theory of transcendental ide-
virtue of our understanding what its terms mean. Philoso-
alism), or they may be said to exist independently of the
phers call such propositions “analytic”. Synthetic propo-
mind (as in Plato’s theory of Forms).
sitions, on the other hand, have distinct subjects and pred-
icates. An example would be, “My father’s brother has
black hair.” Kant stated that all mathematical and scien-
tific statements are analytic a priori propositions because Rationalism
they are necessarily true but our knowledge about the at-
tributes of the mathematical or physical subjects we can Main article: Rationalism
only get by logical inference.
The American philosopher W. V. O. Quine, in his Two By contrast with empiricism and idealism, which centres
Dogmas of Empiricism, famously challenged the distinc- around the epistemologically privileged status of sense
tion, arguing that the two have a blurry boundary. Some data (empirical) and the primacy of Reason (theoretical)
contemporary philosophers have offered more sustain- respectively, modern rationalism adds a third 'system of
able accounts of the distinction.[33] thinking', (as Gaston Bachelard has termed these areas)
and holds that all three are of equal importance: The em-
pirical, the theoretical and the abstract. For Bachelard,
15.4.3 Branches or schools of thought rationalism makes equal reference to all three systems of
thinking.
Constructivism Response to the regress problem
Constructivism is a view in philosophy according to Many epistemologists studying justification have at-
which all “knowledge is a compilation of human-made tempted to argue for various types of chains of reasoning
constructions”,[36] “not the neutral discovery of an objec- that can escape the regress problem.
tive truth”.[37] Whereas objectivism is concerned with the
“object of our knowledge”, constructivism emphasises
“how we construct knowledge”.[38] Constructivism pro- Foundationalism Foundationalists respond to the
poses new definitions for knowledge and truth that form regress problem by asserting that certain “foundations”
a new paradigm, based on inter-subjectivity instead of the or “basic beliefs” support other beliefs but do not them-
classical objectivity, and on viability instead of truth. Pi- selves require justification from other beliefs. These
agetian constructivism, however, believes in objectivity— beliefs might be justified because they are self-evident,
constructs can be validated through experimentation. The infallible, or derive from reliable cognitive mechanisms.
constructivist point of view is pragmatic;[39] as Vico said: Perception, memory, and a priori intuition are often
“The norm of the truth is to have made it.” considered to be possible examples of basic beliefs.
The chief criticism of foundationalism is that if a belief
is not supported by other beliefs, accepting it may be ar-
15.4.4 Regress problem bitrary or unjustified.[41]
Main article: Regress argument

Coherentism Another response to the regress problem
is coherentism, which is the rejection of the assump-
The regress problem is the problem of providing a com- tion that the regress proceeds according to a pattern of
plete logical foundation for human knowledge. The tra- linear justification. To avoid the charge of circularity,
ditional way of supporting a rational argument is to ap- coherentists hold that an individual belief is justified cir-
peal to other rational arguments, typically using chains cularly by the way it fits together (coheres) with the rest
of reason and rules of logic. A classic example that goes of the belief system of which it is a part. This theory
back to Aristotle is deducing that Socrates is mortal. We has the advantage of avoiding the infinite regress without
have a logical rule that says All humans are mortal and claiming special, possibly arbitrary status for some partic-
an assertion that Socrates is human and we deduce that ular class of beliefs. Yet, since a system can be coherent
Socrates is mortal. In this example how do we know that while also being wrong, coherentists face the difficulty
Socrates is human? Presumably we apply other rules such of ensuring that the whole system corresponds to reality.
as: All born from human females are human. Which then Additionally, most logicians agree that any argument that
leaves open the question how do we know that all born is circular is trivially valid. That is, to be illuminating, ar-
from humans are human? This is the regress problem: guments must be linear with conclusions that follow from
how can we eventually terminate a logical argument with stated premises.
some statement(s) that do not require further justification
but can still be considered rational and justified? However, Warburton writes in 'Thinking from A to Z',
“Circular arguments are not invalid; in other words, from
As John Pollock stated: a logical point of view there is nothing intrinsically wrong
with them. However, they are, when viciously circular,
... to justify a belief one must appeal to a spectacularly uninformative. (Warburton 1996).”
further justified belief. This means that one of
two things can be the case. Either there are
some beliefs that we can be justified for hold- Foundherentism A position known as
ing, without being able to justify them on the "foundherentism", advanced by Susan Haack, is
basis of any other belief, or else for each justi- meant to be a unification of foundationalism and co-
fied belief there is an infinite regress of (poten- herentism. One component of this theory is what is
tial) justification [the nebula theory]. On this called the “analogy of the crossword puzzle.” Whereas,
theory there is no rock bottom of justification. for example, infinitists regard the regress of reasons as
Justification just meanders in and out through “shaped” like a single line, Susan Haack has argued that
our network of beliefs, stopping nowhere. [40] it is more like a crossword puzzle, with multiple lines
mutually supporting each other.[42]
The apparent impossibility of completing an infinite

chain of reasoning is thought by some to support Infinitism An alternative resolution to the regress
skepticism. It is also the impetus for Descartes’ famous problem is known as "infinitism". Infinitists take the in-
dictum: I think, therefore I am. Descartes was looking for finite series to be merely potential, in the sense that an
some logical statement that could be true without appeal individual may have indefinitely many reasons available
to other statements. to them, without having consciously thought through all
15.6. SKEPTICISM 135
of these reasons when the need arises. This position is 15.6 Skepticism
motivated in part by the desire to avoid what is seen as
the arbitrariness and circularity of its chief competitors, Main article: Philosophical skepticism
foundationalism and coherentism.
Skepticism is a position that questions the validity of

some or all of human knowledge. Skepticism does not
refer to any one specific school of philosophy, rather it is
15.5 Indian pramana a thread that runs through many philosophical discussions
of epistemology. The first well known Greek skeptic was
Main article: Pramana Socrates who claimed that his only knowledge was that
he knew nothing with certainty. In Indian philosophy,
Sanjaya Belatthiputta was a famous skeptic and the Bud-
Indian philosophical schools such as the Hindu Nyaya,
dhist Madhyamika school has been seen as taking up a
and Carvaka, and later, the Jain and Buddhist philo-
form of skepticism. Descartes' most famous inquiry into
sophical schools, developed an epistemological tradition
mind and body also began as an exercise in skepticism.
which is termed “pramana” independently of the West-
Descartes began by questioning the validity of all knowl-
ern philosophical tradition. Pramana can be translated as
edge and looking for some fact that was irrefutable. In so
“instrument of knowledge” and refers to various means
doing, he came to his famous dictum: I think, therefore I
or sources of knowledge which were held to be reliable
am.
by Indian philosophers. Each school of Indian philoso-
phy had their own theories about which pramanas were Foundationalism and the other responses to the regress
valid means to knowledge and which was unreliable (and problem are essentially defenses against skepticism. Sim-
why).[43] In the Indian traditions, the most widely dis- ilarly, the pragmatism of William James can be viewed
cussed pramanas are: Pratyakṣa (perception), Anumāṇa as a coherentist defense against skepticism. James dis-
(inference), Upamāṇa (comparison and analogy), Arthā- carded conventional philosophical views of truth and de-
patti (postulation, derivation from circumstances), Anu- fined truth to be based on how well a concept works in
palabdi (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof) and a specific context rather than objective rational criteria.
Śabda (word, testimony of past or present reliable ex- The philosophy of Logical Positivism and the work of
perts). While the Nyaya school (beginning with the philosophers such as Kuhn and Popper can be viewed as
Nyāya Sūtras of Gotama, 2nd century CE) were a propo- skepticism applied to what can truly be considered scien-
nent of realism and supported four pramanas (perception, tific knowledge.[52]
inference, comparison/analogy and testimony), the Bud-
dhist epistemologists (Dignaga and Dharmakirti) gener-
ally accepted only perception and inference. 15.7 See also
The theory of knowledge of the Buddha in the early
Buddhist texts has been interpreted as a form of prag- 15.7.1 On Wikipedia
matism as well as a form of correspondence theory.[44]
Likewise, the Buddhist philosopher Dharmakirti has For a topical guide to this subject, see Outline of
been interpreted both as holding a form of pragma- epistemology.
tism or correspondence theory for his view that what
is true is what has effective power (arthakriya).[45][46]
The Buddhist Madhyamika school’s theory of emptiness • Epistemological rupture
(shunyata) meanwhile has been interpreted as a form of
philosophical skepticism.[47] • Epistemic democracy
The main Jain contribution to epistemology has • Feminist epistemology
been their theory of “many sided-ness” or “multi-
perspectivism” (Anekantavada) which says that since the • Gödel’s incompleteness theorems
world is multifaceted, any single viewpoint is limited
(naya — a partial standpoint).[48] This has been inter- • Gnosiology
preted as a kind of pluralism or perspectivism.[49][50]
• Methodology
According to Jain epistemology, none of the pramanas
gives absolute or perfect knowledge since they are each • Methods of obtaining knowledge
limited points of view.
• Monopolies of knowledge
The Carvaka school of materialists only accepted the
pramana of perception and hence were one of the • Noölogy
first empiricists.[51] There was also another school of
philosophical skepticism, the Ajñana. • Participatory epistemology
• Philosophy of space and time [12] Gettier, Edmund (1963). “Is Justified True Belief Knowl-
edge?". Analysis. 23 (6): 121–23. JSTOR 3326922.
• Reformed epistemology doi:10.2307/3326922.
• Scientific method [13] Richard L. Kirkham (1984). “Does the Gettier Prob-
lem Rest on a Mistake?" (PDF). Mind. 93 (372): 501–
• Self-evidence
513. doi:10.1093/mind/XCIII.372.501. Archived from
• Semiotics the original (PDF) on 29 May 2010.
• Sociology of knowledge [14] Bimal Krishna Matilal (1986). Perception: An essay on

Classical Indian Theories of Knowledge. Oxford India
• Uncertainty principle 2002. ISBN 0-19-824625-0. The Gettier problem is dealt
with in Chapter 4, Knowledge as a mental episode. The
thread continues in the next chapter Knowing that one
15.7.2 On Wikibooks knows. It is also discussed in Matilal’s Word and the World
p. 71-72.
• Thierry Dugnolle, Handbook of epistemology
[15] Goldman, Alvin I. (1979). “Reliabilism: What Is Justi-
fied Belief?". In Pappas, G. S. (ed.). Justification and
Knowledge. Dordrecht, Holland: Reidel. p. 11. ISBN
15.8 Notes 978-9027710246.
[1] J. F. Ferrier (1854) Institutes of Metaphysic: The Theory [16] Goldman, Alan H. (December 1976). “Appearing as Irre-
of Knowing and Being, p. 46.[7] ducible in Perception”. Philosophy and Phenomenological
Research. International Phenomenological Society. 37
(2): 147–164. JSTOR 2107188. doi:10.2307/2107188.
15.9 References [17] Robert Nozick (1981). Philosophical Explanations.

Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-66448-
[1] Porter, Noah, ed. (1913). “Epistemology”. Webster’s Re- 5.Philosophical Explanations Chapter 3 “Knowledge and
vised Unabridged Dictionary. G & C. Merriam Co. p. Skepticism” I. Knowledge Conditions for Knowledge p.
501. Archived from the original on 15 October 2013. Re- 172-178.
trieved 29 January 2014. E*pis`te*mol"o*gy (?), n. [Gr.
knowledge + -logy.] The theory or science of the method [18] D. M. Armstrong (1973). Belief, Truth and Knowledge.
or grounds of knowledge. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-09737-1.
[2] Steup, Matthias. Zalta, Edward N., ed. “Epistemology”. [19] Blackburn, Simon (1999). Think: A compelling introduc-
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2014 ed.). tion to philosophy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-
199-76984-1.
[3] Borchert, Donald M., ed. (1967). “Epistemology”.
Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 3. Macmillan. [20] Descartes, Rene (1985). The Philosophical Writings of
Rene Descartes Vol. I. Cambridge University Press. ISBN
[4] Steup, Matthias (8 September 2017). Zalta, Edward N.,
978-0-521-28807-1.
ed. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Meta-
physics Research Lab, Stanford University – via Stanford
[21] Descartes, Rene (1985). Philosophical Writings of Rene
Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Descartes Vol. II. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-
[5] Carl J. Wenning. “Scientific epistemology: How scientists 0-521-28808-8.
know what they know” (PDF).
[22] Descartes, Rene (1985). The Philosophical Writings of
[6] “The Epistemology of Ethics”. 1 September 2011. Rene Descartes. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-
0-521-28808-8.
[7] Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 2007
[23] Plato (2002). Five Dialogues. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett
[8] King James; Warren, Brett. The Annotated Daemonolo-
Pub. Co. pp. 89–90; 97b–98a. ISBN 978-0872206335.
gie. A Critical Edition. In Modern English. 2016. p. x-xi.
ISBN 1-5329-6891-4. [24] Pritchard, Duncan; Turri, John. “The Value of Knowl-
[9] Suchting, Wal. “Epistemology”. Historical Materialism. edge”. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved
Academic Search Premier: 331–345. 2016-02-24.
[10] John Bengson (Editor), Marc A. Moffett (Editor): Essays [25] Pritchard, Duncan (April 2007). “Recent Work on Epis-
on Knowledge, Mind, and Action. New York: Oxford temic Value”. American Philosophical Quarterly. 44 (2):
University Press. 2011 85–110. JSTOR 20464361.
[11] “Gorgias”. Project Gutenberg. 5 October 2008. Retrieved [26] Zagzebski, Linda. “The Search for the Source of Epis-
31 March 2017. temic Good”. Metaphilosophy. 34 (1/2): 13.
15.10. WORKS CITED 137
[27] Goldman, Alvin I. & Olsson, E. J. (2009). “Reliabilism [42] Haack, Susan (1993). Evidence and Inquiry: Towards Re-
and the Value of Knowledge”. In Haddock, A.; Millar, A. construction in Epistemology. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 0-
& Pritchard, D. (Eds.). Epistemic Value. Oxford Univer- 631-19679-X.
sity Press. p. 24. ISBN 978-0199231188.
[43] James Lochtefeld, “Pramana” in The Illustrated Encyclo-
[28] Kvanvig, Jonathan (2003). The Value of Knowledge and pedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N-Z, Rosen Publishing. ISBN
the Pursuit of Understanding. Cambridge, UK; New 0-8239-2287-1, pages 520–521
York: Cambridge University Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-
0521037860. [44] Jayatilleke, K. N.; Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge,
p. 356
[29] Kvanvig, Jonathan (2003). The Value of Knowledge and
the Pursuit of Understanding. Cambridge, UK; New York: [45] Cabezón, José I., 2000, “Truth in Buddhist Theology,” in
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521037860. R. Jackson and J. Makransky, (eds.), Buddhist Theology,
Critical Reflections by Contemporary Buddhist Scholars.
[30] Russell, Bruce, “A Priori Justification and Knowledge”, London: Curzon, 136–154.
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2014
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <http://plato. [46] Tom Tillemans (2011), Dharmakirti, Stanford Encyclo-
stanford.edu/archives/sum2014/entries/apriori/>. pedia of Philosophy
[31] BonJour, Laurence, 1985, The Structure of Empirical [47] Arnold, Dan; Buddhists, Brahmins, and Belief: Episte-
Knowledge, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. mology in South Asian Philosophy of belief and religion,
p. 132.
[32] Wilson, E. O., Sociobiology: The New Synthesis. Cam-
bridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard [48] Griffin, David Ray (2005) p. 145
University Press. 1975
[49] Stroud, Scott R; Anekantavada and Engaged Rhetorical
[33] Russell, G.: Truth in Virtue of Meaning: A Defence of Pluralism: Explicating Jaina Views on Perspectivism, Vi-
the Analytic/Synthetic Distinction. Oxford: Oxford Uni- olence, and Rhetoric.
versity Press. 2008
[50] D. Long, Jeffery; Jainism: An Introduction 125.
[34] Stroud, Barry (2011). “The History of Epistemology”.
Erkenntnis. 75 (3): 495–503. doi:10.1007/s10670-011- [51] MM Kamal (1998), The Epistemology of the Cārvāka
9337-4. Philosophy, Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies,
46(2): 13–16
[35] Markie, Peter. “Rationalism vs. Empiricism”. The Stan-
ford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford University. [52] Popkin, Richard (1972). “Skepticism”. In Edwards, Paul.
Retrieved 17 July 2012. Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 7. Macmillan. pp.
449–461. ISBN 978-0028646510.
[36] Raskin, J. D. (2002). Constructivism in psychology: Per-
sonal construct psychology, radical constructivism, and
social constructivism. In J. D. Raskin & S. K. Bridges
(Eds.), Studies in meaning: Exploring constructivist psy- 15.10 Works cited
chology (pp. 1–25). New York, NY: Pace University
Press. p. 4
• Annis, David (1978). “A Contextualist Theory of
[37] Castelló M., & Botella, L. (2006). Constructivism and Epistemic Justification”. American Philosophical
educational psychology. In J. L. Kincheloe & R. A. Horn Quarterly. 15: 213–219.
(Eds.), The Praeger handbook of education and psychol-
ogy (Vol. 2, pp. 263–270). Westport, CT: Praeger. p. • Ayer, Alfred Jules. 1936. Language, Truth, and
263 Logic.
[38] Jonassen, D. H. (1991). Objectivism versus construc- • BonJour, Laurence. 2002. Epistemology: Classic
tivism, Do we need a new philosophical paradigm? Ed- Problems and Contemporary Responses. Lanham,
ucational technology research and development, 39(3), 5- MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
14. p. 10
• Boufoy-Bastick, Z. (2005). “Introducing 'Applica-
[39] For an example, see Weber, Eric Thomas. 2010. Rawls, ble Knowledge' as a Challenge to the Attainment of
Dewey, and Constructivism: On the Epistemology of Justice
Absolute Knowledge”. Sophia Journal of Philoso-
(London: Continuum).
phy. 8: 39–51.
[40] John L. Pollock (1975). Knowledge and Justification.
Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey. ISBN • Bovens, Luc & Hartmann, Stephan. 2003. Bayesian
0-691-07203-5. p. 26. Epistemology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
[41] “Foundational Theories of Epistemic Justification”. • Butchvarov, Panayot. 1970. The Concept of Knowl-
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. edge. Evanston, Northwestern University Press.
• Cohen, Stewart (1998). “Contextualist So- • Kirkham, Richard. 1984. “Does the Gettier Prob-
lutions to Epistemological Problems: Skepti- lem Rest on a Mistake?" Mind, 93.
cism, Gettier, and the Lottery”. Australasian
Journal of Philosophy. 76 (2): 289–306. • Klein, Peter. 1981. Certainty: a Refutation of Skep-
doi:10.1080/00048409812348411. ticism, Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota
Press.
• Cohen, Stewart. 1999. “Contextualism, Skepticism,
and Reasons”, in Tomberlin 1999. • Kyburg, H.E. 1961. Probability and the Logic of Ra-
tional Belief, Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University
• Dancy, Jonathan. 1991. An Introduction to Contem- Press.
porary Epistemology (Second Edition). John Wiley
& Sons. ISBN 0-631-13622-3 • Korzybski, Alfred. 1994 (1933). Science and San-
ity: An Introduction to Non-Aristotelian Systems and
• DeRose, Keith (1992). “Contextualism and Knowl- General Semantics, Fifth Edition. Ft. Worth, TX:
edge Attributions”. Philosophy and Phenomenolog- Institute of General Semantics.
ical Research. 15: 213–19.
• Lewis, David (1996). “Elusive Knowledge”. Aus-
• DeRose, Keith. 1999. “Contextualism: An Expla- tralian Journal of Philosophy. 74 (4): 549–67.
nation and Defense”, in Greco and Sosa 1999. doi:10.1080/00048409612347521.
• Descartes, Rene. 1641. Meditations on First Philos- • Morin, Edgar. 1986. La Méthode, Tome 3, La Con-
ophy naissance de la connaissance (Method, 3rd volume :
• Feldman, Richard. 1999. “Contextualism and The knowledge of knowledge)
Skepticism”, in Tomberlin 1999, pp. 91–114. • Morton, Adam. 2002. A Guide Through the The-
• Gettier, Edmund. 1963. “Is Justified True Be- ory of Knowledge (Third Edition) Oxford: Black-
lief Knowledge?", Analysis, Vol. 23, pp. 121–23. well Publishing. ISBN 1-4051-0012-5
Online text.
• Nelson, Quee. 2007. The Slightest Philosophy, Indi-
• Greco, J. & Sosa, E. 1999. Blackwell Guide to Epis- anapolis, IN: Dog Ear Publishing, 296 pages.
temology, Blackwell Publishing.
• Niiniluoto, Ilkka. 2002. Critical Scientific Realism,
• Harris, Errol E. 1970. Hypothesis And Perception, Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
George Allen and Unwin, London, Reprinted 2002
• Plato. Meno.
Routledge, London.
• Harwood, Sterling (1989). “Taking Skepticism Se- • Popper, Karl R. 1972. Objective Knowledge: An
riously – And In Context”. Philosophical Investi- Evolutionary Approach, Oxford: Oxford Univ.
gations. 12 (3): 223–233. doi:10.1111/j.1467- Press.
9205.1989.tb00275.x. • Preyer, G./Siebelt, F./Ulfig, A. 1994. Language,
• Hay, Clare. 2008. The Theory of Knowledge: Mind and Epistemology, Dordrecht: Kluwer Aca-
A Coursebook, The Lutterworth Press, Cambridge. demic Publishers.
ISBN 978-0-7188-3088-5
• Rand, Ayn. 1979. Introduction to Objectivist Episte-
• Hawthorne, John. 2005. “The Case for Closure”, mology, New York: Meridian.
Contemporary Debates in Epistemology, Peter Sosa
• Russell, Bertrand. 1912. The Problems of Philoso-
and Matthias Steup (ed.): 26–43.
phy, New York: Oxford University Press.
• Hendricks, Vincent F. 2006. Mainstream and For-
mal Epistemology, New York: Cambridge Univer- • Russell, Bertrand. 1940. An Inquiry into Meaning
sity Press. and Truth, Nottingham: Spokesman Books.
• Kant, Immanuel. 1781. Critique of Pure Reason. • Santayana, George. 1923. Scepticism and Animal
Faith, New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons – London:
• Keeton, Morris T. 1962. “Empiricism”, in Dictio- Constable and Co.
nary of Philosophy, Dagobert D. Runes (ed.), Lit-
tlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ, pp. 89– • Spir, African. 1877. Denken und Wirklichkeit:
90. Versuch einer Erneuerung der kritischen Philosophie
(Thought and Reality: Attempt at a Renewal of Crit-
• Kierkegaard, Søren. 1844. Philosophical Frag- ical Philosophy), (Second Edition) Leipzig: J. G.
ments. Findel.
• Schiffer, Stephen (1996). “Contextualist Solutions • “Moral Epistemology”. Internet Encyclopedia of

to Skepticism”. Proceedings of the Aristotelian Soci- Philosophy.
ety. 96: 317–33.
• “Virtue Epistemology”. Internet Encyclopedia of
• Steup, Matthias. 2005. “Knowledge and Skepti- Philosophy.
cism”, Contemporary Debates in Epistemology, Peter
Sosa and Matthias Steup (eds.): 1–13. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy articles
• Tomberlin, James (ed.). 1999. Philosophical Per-
spectives 13, Epistemology, Blackwell Publishing. • Epistemology by Matthias Steup.
• Turri, John (2016). Knowledge and the Norm of • Bayesian Epistemology by William Talbott.
Assertion: An Essay in Philosophical Science. Cam-
• Evolutionary Epistemology by Michael Bradie &
bridge: Open Book Publishers.
William Harms.
• Wittgenstein, Ludwig. 1922. Tractatus Logico-
Philosophicus, Frank P. Ramsey and C.K. Ogden • Feminist Epistemology and Philosophy of Science
(trns.), Dover. Online text. by Elizabeth Anderson.
• Naturalized Epistemology by Richard Feldman.
15.11 External links • Social Epistemology by Alvin Goldman.
• Virtue Epistemology by John Greco.

Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy articles
• Knowledge How by Jeremy Fantl.
• “Epistemology”. Internet Encyclopedia of Philoso-
phy. Other links
• “Coherentism”. Internet Encyclopedia of Philoso-

• The London Philosophy Study Guide offers many
phy.
suggestions on what to read, depending on the stu-
• “Contextualism in Epistemology”. Internet Encyclo- dent’s familiarity with the subject: Epistemology &
pedia of Philosophy. Methodology
• “Epistemic Circularity”. Internet Encyclopedia of • Epistemology at PhilPapers

Philosophy.
• Knowledge-How at Philpapers
• “Epistemic Justification”. Internet Encyclopedia of
Philosophy. • Epistemology at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology
Project
• “Epistemology of Perception”. Internet Encyclope-
dia of Philosophy. • What Is Epistemology? – a brief introduction to the
topic by Keith DeRose.
• “Ethnoepistemology”. Internet Encyclopedia of Phi-
losophy. • Justified True Belief and Critical Rationalism by
Mathew Toll
• “Evolutionary Epistemology”. Internet Encyclope-
dia of Philosophy. • Epistemology Introduction, Part 1 and Part 2 by Paul
Newall at the Galilean Library.
• “Fallibilism”. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
• Teaching Theory of Knowledge (1986) – Marjorie
• “Feminist Epistemology”. Internet Encyclopedia of Clay (ed.), an electronic publication from The
Philosophy. Council for Philosophical Studies.
• “Infinitism in Epistemology”. Internet Encyclopedia • An Introduction to Epistemology by Paul Newall,
of Philosophy. aimed at beginners.
• “Internalism and Externalism in Epistemology”. • A short film about epistemology, for beginners on
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. YouTube
• “Moral Epistemology”. Internet Encyclopedia of
Philosophy.
• “Naturalistic Epistemology”. Internet Encyclopedia
of Philosophy.
Chapter 16
List of philosophies
Main article: Glossary of philosophy • U
• V
Philosophies: particular schools of thought, styles of
philosophy, or descriptions of philosophical ideas at- • W
tributed to a particular group or culture - listed in alpha-
betical order. • X
• Y
Contents :
• Z
• Top
• 0–9 16.1 A
• A
Ableism - Absolutism - Absurdism - Acquiescence -
• B Activism - Actual Idealism - Actualism - Advaita Vedanta
• C - Aesthetic Realism - Aesthetics - African philoso-
phy - Agential realism - Agnosticism - Agnotology -
• D Altruism - Amor fati - American philosophy - Animism
- Anti-imperialism - Anti-psychiatry - Antinatalism -
• E
Anti-intellectualism - Anti-realism - Antireductionism
• F - Analytic philosophy - Anarchism - Ancient philoso-
phy - Anthropocentrism - Anomalous monism - Applied
• G ethics - Aristotelianism - Asceticism - Atavism - Atheism
- Authoritarianism - Autodidacticism - Averroism -
• H
Avicennism - Axiology
• I
• J
16.2 B
• K
Ba'athism - Bahá'í teachings - Behaviorism - Biblical lit-
• L
eralism - Bioconservatism - Bioethics - Biolibertarianism
• M - Biosophy - Buddhist philosophy - Bushido - Business
ethics
• N
• O
16.3 C
• P
• Q Calvinism - Capitalism - Cartesianism - Catechism -
Categorical imperative - Centrism - Chaos theory -
• R Charvaka - Chauvinism - Chinese naturalism - Chinese
• S philosophy - Christian ecology - Christian existential-
ism - Christian humanism - Christian philosophy -
• T Christian theology - Christology - Classical liberalism
140
16.9. I 141
- Collectivism - Cogito ergo sum - Cognitive biases - 16.9 I

Cognitivism - Communitarianism - Compatibilism and
incompatibilism - Computer ethics - Confirmation holism Idealism - Identityism - Ideological criticism -
- Conformism - Confucianism - Consequentialism - Ignosticism - Illegalism - Illuminationism - Incontinence
Conservatism - Constructivist epistemology - Continental - Individualism - Indian logic - Indian philosophy -
philosophy - Continuationism - Cosmopolitanism - Indonesian philosophy - Induction / Inductionism -
Creationism - Critical rationalism - Critical realism - Informal logic - Innatism - Instrumental rationality -
Cultural relativism - Cynicism - Czech philosophy Instrumentalism - Integrity- Interactionism (philosophy
of mind) - Internalism and externalism - Interventionism
- Intuitionism - Iranian philosophy - Irrealism - Islamic
ethics - Islamic philosophy
16.4 D
Danish philosophy - Daoism - Darwinism -
Deconstruction - Deductive reasoning - Deism -
16.10 J
Defeatism - Democratic transhumanism - Denialism
- Deontology - Determinism - Dialectic - Dialectical Jainism - Jingoism - Japanese philosophy - Jesuism -
materialism - Didacticism - Digital philosophy - Jewish philosophy - Juche - Judaism - Judeo-Islamic
Discordianism - Dogma - Dualism - Dvaita philosophies (800–1400) - Just war theory
16.5 E 16.11 K
Kaizen - Kantianism - Kashmir Shaivism - Korean phi-
Ecocentrism - Ecumenism - Egalitarianism losophy
- Egocentrism - Eliminative materialism -
Empiricism - Environmentalism - Ephesian school
- Epiphenomenalism - Epicureanism - Epistemological
nihilism - Epistemology - Erudition - Eschatology - 16.12 L
Esotericism - Ethical Egoism - Ethics - Eudaimonism -
Eugenics - Evangelism - Existentialism - Externalism - Leaderless resistance - Legalism - Leibnizianism -
Extremism - Efilism Libertarianism (metaphysics) - Libertarianism - Literary
criticism - Literary theory - Logic / Informal logic
- Logical atomism - Logical positivism - Logicians -
Logicism - Logic in China - Logic in Islamic philosophy
16.6 F - Lutheranism
Fallacy - Fanaticism - Fascism - Feminism - Feminist

philosophy - Feng shui - Filial piety - Flower Ser- 16.13 M
mon - Foundationalism - Freemasonry - Free will -
Fundamentalism
Machiavellianism - Manichaeism - Maoism - Marxism
- Marxist philosophy of nature - Materialism -
Mathematicism - Mazdakism - Medical ethics -
16.7 G Medieval philosophy - Medievalism - Mentalism -
Mereological nihilism - Meta-philosophy - Metaphysics
- Meta-ethics - Methodism - Misanthropy - Misology -
German idealism - German philosophy - Globalism -
Modernism - Modern Islamic philosophy - Mohism -
Gnosticism - Gothicismus - Greek philosophy
Monism - Monogamy - Monotheism - Moral absolutism
- Moral realism - Moral relativism - Moral skepticism -
Multilateralism - Mysticism -
16.8 H
Hasidism - Hedonism - Hegelian synthesis - Hegelianism 16.14 N
- Hermeneutics - Hermeticism - Heterophenomenology
- Hindu philosophy - Historical materialism - Historical Naïve realism - Naturalism - Natalism - Negationism
revisionism - Historicism - Holism - Hongaku - Human - Neo-Confucianism - Neo-Hegelianism - Neo-
exceptionalism - Humanism - Humanistic naturalism Kantianism - Neoplatonism - Neopythagoreanism
142 CHAPTER 16. LIST OF PHILOSOPHIES
- Neo-Scholasticism - Neotaoism - Neuroethics - Pseudophilosophy - Psychological egoism - Pure prac-

Neurophilosophy - Neurotheology - New Age - New tical reason - Pure reason - Pyrrhonian skepticism -
realism - New Thought - New World Order (conspiracy Pythagoreanism
theory) - Neutral monism - Nihilism - Nominalism -
Nondualism - Non-philosophy -
16.17 Q
16.15 O Quantum mysticism - Quietism
Objective idealism - Objectivism (Ayn Rand) - Occam’s

razor - Occasionalism - Ontology - Ontotheology - Open 16.18 R
individualism - Opportunism - Optimism - Organicism -
Orientalism Racism - Raëlism - Rastafari - Rationalism - Realism
- Reconstructivism - Reductionism - Reductive ma-
terialism - Reformational philosophy - Reification
16.16 P - Relationalism - Relativism - Relevance logic -
Religious humanism - Religious philosophy - Reliabilism
Pacifism - Paganism - Pain (philosophy) - Pakistani - Renaissance humanism - Romanian philosophy -
philosophy - Pancritical rationalism - Pandeism - Romanticism - Russian philosophy
Panentheism - Panpsychism - Pantheism - Paradigm -
'Pataphysics - Patriotism - Pay it forward - Perennial
philosophy - Perfectionism - Peripatetic - Personalism 16.19 S
- Perspectivism - Pessimism - Phenomenalism -
Phenomenology - Philosophical anthropology - Sabellianism - Scandal - Scholasticism - Scientific De-
Philosophical Satanism - Philosophy of archaeol- velopment Concept - Scientism - Secret society -
ogy - Philosophy of art - Philosophy of Arithmetic - Secularism - Secular humanism - Semantic holism
Philosophy of artificial intelligence - Philosophy of - Sensualism - Sexualism - Sexism - Shamanism -
action - Philosophy of biology - Philosophy of busi- Sikhism - Simulism - Singularitarianism - Skepticism
ness - Philosophy of Common Sense - Philosophy - Social business - Social philosophy - Solipsism -
of culture - Philosophy of color - The Philosophy of Sophism - Spiritualism - Stoicism - Structuralism -
Chance - Philosophy of design - Philosophy of dialogue Subjective idealism - Subjectivism - Sufi metaphysics -
- Philosophy of eating - Philosophy of economics - Śūnyatā - Supersessionism - Supervenience - Surrealism
Philosophy of education - Philosophy of engineering - Survivalism - Synoptic philosophy - Systems philosophy
- Philosophy of environment - Philosophy of film -
Philosophy of futility - Philosophy of geography -
Philosophy of healthcare - Philosophy of history -
Philosophy of information - Philosophy of language -
16.20 T
Philosophy of logic - Philosophy of love - Philosophy of
mathematics - Philosophy of mathematics education - Taoism - Tautology - Teleology - Tetralemma - Theism -
Philosophy of mind - Philosophy of motion - Philosophy Thelema - Theology - Theosophy - Traditionalist School
of music - Philosophy of nature - Philosophy of Natural - Transcendent theosophy (al-Hikmat al-Muta’liyah)
Science - Philosophy of neuroscience - Philosophy of - Transcendental idealism - Transcendentalism -
perception - Philosophy of philosophy - Philosophy Transcendental perspectivism - Transhumanism -
of physics - Philosophy of psychology - Philosophy Transmodernism - Type physicalism
of psychiatry - Philosophy of religion - Philosophy of
religious language - Philosophy of science - Philosophy
of sex - Philosophy of self - Philosophy of social science 16.21 U
- Philosophy of space and time - Philosophy of sport
- Philosophy of statistics - Philosophy of thermal and Unilateralism - Universalism - Universal reconciliation -
statistical physics - Philosophy of war - Physicalism Utilitarian bioethics - Utilitarianism - Utopianism
- Physical ontology - Platonic realism - Platonism -
Pluralism - Political philosophy - Polygamy - Populism -
Positivism - Postanalytic philosophy - Post-structuralism
- Posthumanism - Post-materialism - Post-modernism 16.22 V
- Practical reason - Pragmatism - Praxis School -
Premillennialism - Presentism - Process philosophy Value judgment - Value pluralism - Value theory -
- Progressivism - Property dualism - Proselytism - Verificationism - Victorian morality - Vienna Circle -
16.24. Z 143
Virtue ethics - Vishishtadvaita - Vitalism - Voluntaryism
16.23 W
Wahdat-ul-Wujood - Wahdat-ul-Shuhud - Western phi-
losophy - Wiccan
16.24 Z
Zen - Zoroastrianism - Zurvanism
Contents :
• Top
• 0–9
• A
• B
• C
• D
• E
• F
• G
• H
• I
• J
• K
• L
• M
• N
• O
• P
• Q
• R
• S
• T
• U
• V
• W
• X
• Y
• Z
Chapter 17
Logic
This article is about the systematic study of the form of works of Aristotle contain the earliest known formal
arguments. For other uses, see Logic (disambiguation). study of logic. Modern formal logic follows and ex-
pands on Aristotle.[2] In many definitions of logic,
Logic (from the Ancient Greek: λογική, logikḗ [1] ), origi- logical inference and inference with purely formal
content are the same. This does not render the no-
nally meaning “the word” or “what is spoken” (but coming
to mean “thought” or “reason”), is generally held to con- tion of informal logic vacuous, because no formal
logic captures all of the nuances of natural language.
sist of the systematic study of the form of arguments. A
valid argument is one where there is a specific relation of • Symbolic logic is the study of symbolic abstrac-
logical support between the assumptions of the argument tions that capture the formal features of logi-
and its conclusion. (In ordinary discourse, the conclusion cal inference.[3][4] Symbolic logic is often divided
of such an argument may be signified by words like there- into two main branches: propositional logic and
fore, hence, ergo and so on.) predicate logic.
There is no universal agreement as to the exact scope
• Mathematical logic is an extension of symbolic
and subject matter of logic (see § Rival conceptions,
logic into other areas, in particular to the study
below), but it has traditionally included the classifica-
of model theory, proof theory, set theory, and
tion of arguments, the systematic exposition of the 'log-
recursion theory.
ical form' common to all valid arguments, the study of
inference, including fallacies, and the study of semantics,
including paradoxes. Historically, logic has been stud- However, agreement on what logic is has remained elu-
ied in philosophy (since ancient times) and mathematics sive, and although the field of universal logic has studied
(since the mid-1800s), and recently logic has been studied the common structure of logics, in 2007 Mossakowski et
in computer science, linguistics, psychology, and other al. commented that “it is embarrassing that there is no
fields. widely acceptable formal definition of 'a logic'".[5]
17.1.1 Logical form

17.1 Concepts
Main article: Logical form
The concept of logical form is central to logic. The valid-
ity of an argument is determined by its logical form, not
Logic is generally considered formal when it analyzes
by its content. Traditional Aristotelian syllogistic logic
and represents the form of any valid argument type. The
and modern symbolic logic are examples of formal logic.
form of an argument is displayed by representing its sen-
tences in the formal grammar and symbolism of a logical
• Informal logic is the study of natural language language to make its content usable in formal inference.
arguments. The study of fallacies is an important Simply put, formalising simply means translating English
branch of informal logic. Since much informal ar- sentences into the language of logic.
gument is not strictly speaking deductive, on some
conceptions of logic, informal logic is not logic at This is called showing the logical form of the argument.
all. See 'Rival conceptions’, below. It is necessary because indicative sentences of ordinary
language show a considerable variety of form and com-
• Formal logic is the study of inference with purely plexity that makes their use in inference impractical. It
formal content. An inference possesses a purely for- requires, first, ignoring those grammatical features irrel-
mal content if it can be expressed as a particular ap- evant to logic (such as gender and declension, if the ar-
plication of a wholly abstract rule, that is, a rule that gument is in Latin), replacing conjunctions irrelevant to
is not about any particular thing or property. The logic (such as “but”) with logical conjunctions like “and”
144
17.1. CONCEPTS 145
and replacing ambiguous, or alternative logical expres- Early modern logic defined semantics purely as a rela-
sions (“any”, “every”, etc.) with expressions of a standard tion between ideas. Antoine Arnauld in the Port Royal
type (such as “all”, or the universal quantifier ∀). Logic, says that 'after conceiving things by our ideas, we
Second, certain parts of the sentence must be replaced compare these ideas, and, finding that some belong to-
with schematic letters. Thus, for example, the expression gether and some do not, we unite or separate them. This [8]
“all Ps are Qs” shows the logical form common to the is called affirming or denying, and in general judging.
sentences “all men are mortals”, “all cats are carnivores”, Thus truth and falsity are no more than the agreement or
“all Greeks are philosophers”, and so on. The schema can disagreement of ideas. This suggests obvious difficulties,
leading Locke to distinguish between 'real' truth, when
further be condensed into the formula A(P,Q), where the
letter A indicates the judgement 'all - are -'. our ideas have 'real existence' and 'imaginary' or 'verbal'
truth, where ideas like harpies or centaurs exist only in
The importance of form was recognised from ancient the mind.[9] This view (psychologism) was taken to the
times. Aristotle uses variable letters to represent valid extreme in the nineteenth century, and is generally held
inferences in Prior Analytics, leading Jan Łukasiewicz to by modern logicians to signify a low point in the decline
say that the introduction of variables was “one of Aristo- of logic before the twentieth century.
tle’s greatest inventions”.[6] According to the followers of
Aristotle (such as Ammonius), only the logical principles Modern semantics is in some ways closer to the medieval
stated in schematic terms belong to logic, not those given view, in rejecting such psychological truth-conditions.
in concrete terms. The concrete terms “man”, “mor- However, the introduction of quantification, needed to
tal”, etc., are analogous to the substitution values of the solve the problem of multiple generality, rendered im-
schematic placeholders P, Q, R, which were called the possible the kind of subject-predicate analysis that un-
“matter” (Greek hyle) of the inference. derlies medieval semantics. The main modern approach
is model-theoretic semantics, based on Alfred Tarski's
There is a big difference between the kinds of formulas semantic theory of truth. The approach assumes that the
seen in traditional term logic and the predicate calculus meaning of the various parts of the propositions are given
that is the fundamental advance of modern logic. The by the possible ways we can give a recursively specified
formula A(P,Q) (all Ps are Qs) of traditional logic corre- group of interpretation functions from them to some pre-
sponds to the more complex formula ∀x.(P (x) → Q(x)) defined domain of discourse: an interpretation of first-
in predicate logic, involving the logical connectives for order predicate logic is given by a mapping from terms
universal quantification and implication rather than just to a universe of individuals, and a mapping from propo-
the predicate letter A and using variable arguments P (x) sitions to the truth values “true” and “false”. Model-
where traditional logic uses just the term letter P. With theoretic semantics is one of the fundamental concepts
the complexity comes power, and the advent of the pred- of model theory. Modern semantics also admits rival ap-
icate calculus inaugurated revolutionary growth of the proaches, such as the proof-theoretic semantics that asso-
subject. ciates the meaning of propositions with the roles that they
can play in inferences, an approach that ultimately derives
from the work of Gerhard Gentzen on structural proof
17.1.2 Semantics theory and is heavily influenced by Ludwig Wittgenstein's
later philosophy, especially his aphorism “meaning is
Main article: Semantics of logic use”.
The validity of an argument depends upon the meaning 17.1.3 Inference

or semantics of the sentences that make it up.
Aristotle’s Organon, especially On Interpretation, gives Inference is not to be confused with implication. An im-
a cursory outline of semantics which the scholastic logi- plication is a sentence of the form 'If p then q', and can be
cians, particularly in the thirteenth and fourteenth cen- true or false. The Stoic logician Philo of Megara was the
tury, developed into a complex and sophisticated the- first to define the truth conditions of such an implication:
ory, called Supposition Theory. This showed how the false only when the antecedent p is true and the conse-
truth of simple sentences, expressed schematically, de- quent q is false, in all other cases true. An inference, on
pend on how the terms 'supposit' or stand for certain the other hand, consists of two separately asserted propo-
extra-linguistic items. For example, in part II of his sitions of the form 'p therefore q'. An inference is not true
Summa Logicae, William of Ockham presents a compre- or false, but valid or invalid. However, there is a connec-
hensive account of the necessary and sufficient conditions tion between implication and inference, as follows: if the
for the truth of simple sentences, in order to show which implication 'if p then q' is true, the inference 'p therefore
arguments are valid and which are not. Thus “every A q' is valid. This was given an apparently paradoxical for-
is B' is true if and only if there is something for which mulation by Philo, who said that the implication 'if it is
'A' stands, and there is nothing for which 'A' stands, for day, it is night' is true only at night, so the inference 'it is
which 'B' does not also stand.” [7] day, therefore it is night' is valid in the night, but not in
146 CHAPTER 17. LOGIC
the day. arithmetic formal systems with equality can be complete

[12]
The theory of inference (or 'consequences’) was system- and consistent.
atically developed in medieval times by logicians such as
William of Ockham and Walter Burley. It is uniquely me-
dieval, though it has its origins in Aristotle’s Topics and
Boethius' De Syllogismis hypotheticis. This is why many 17.1.5 Logic and rationality
terms in logic are Latin. For example, the rule that li-
censes the move from the implication 'if p then q' plus the
Main article: Logic and rationality
assertion of its antecedent p, to the assertion of the con-
sequent q is known as modus ponens (or 'mode of posit-
ing'). Its Latin formulation is 'Posito antecedente ponitur As the study of argument is of clear importance to the rea-
consequens’. The Latin formulations of many other rules sons that we hold things to be true, logic is of essential im-
such as 'ex falso quodlibet' (anything follows from a false- portance to rationality. Here we have defined logic to be
hood), 'reductio ad absurdum' (disproof by showing the “the systematic study of the form of arguments"; the rea-
consequence is absurd) also date from this period. soning behind argument is of several sorts, but only some
of these arguments fall under the aegis of logic proper.
However, the theory of consequences, or of the so-called
'hypothetical syllogism' was never fully integrated into the Deductive reasoning concerns the logical consequence of
theory of the 'categorical syllogism'. This was partly be- given premises and is the form of reasoning most closely
cause of the resistance to reducing the categorical judg- connected to logic. On a narrow conception of logic (see
ment 'Every S is P' to the so-called hypothetical judgment below) logic concerns just deductive reasoning, although
'if anything is S, it is P'. The first was thought to imply such a narrow conception controversially excludes most
'some S is P', the second was not, and as late as 1911 in of what is called informal logic from the discipline.
the Encyclopædia Britannica article on Logic, we find the There are other forms of reasoning that are rational but
Oxford logician T.H. Case arguing against Sigwart’s and that are generally not taken to be part of logic. These
Brentano’s modern analysis of the universal proposition. include inductive reasoning, which covers forms of in-
ference that move from collections of particular judge-
ments to universal judgements, and abductive reason-
17.1.4 Logical systems ing,[13] which is a form of inference that goes from obser-
vation to a hypothesis that accounts for the reliable data
Main article: Formal system
(observation) and seeks to explain relevant evidence. The
American philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce (1839–
A formal system is an organization of terms used for the 1914) first introduced the term as “guessing”.[14] Peirce
analysis of deduction. It consists of an alphabet, a lan- said that to abduce a hypothetical explanation a from
guage over the alphabet to construct sentences, and a rule an observed surprising circumstance b is to surmise that
for deriving sentences. Among the important properties a may be true because then b would be a matter of
that logical systems can have are: course.[15] Thus, to abduce a from b involves determining
that a is sufficient (or nearly sufficient), but not necessary,
• Consistency, which means that no theorem of the for b .
system contradicts another.[10] While inductive and abductive inference are not part of
• Validity, which means that the system’s rules logic proper, the methodology of logic has been applied
of proof never allow a false inference from true to them with some degree of success. For example, the
premises. notion of deductive validity (where an inference is deduc-
tively valid if and only if there is no possible situation in
• Completeness, which means that if a formula is which all the premises are true but the conclusion false)
true, it can be proven, i.e. is a theorem of the system. exists in an analogy to the notion of inductive validity,
or “strength”, where an inference is inductively strong if
• Soundness, meaning that if any formula is a theo- and only if its premises give some degree of probability
rem of the system, it is true. This is the converse of to its conclusion. Whereas the notion of deductive valid-
completeness. (Note that in a distinct philosophical ity can be rigorously stated for systems of formal logic
use of the term, an argument is sound when it is both in terms of the well-understood notions of semantics, in-
valid and its premises are true).[11] ductive validity requires us to define a reliable generaliza-
tion of some set of observations. The task of providing
Some logical systems do not have all four properties. As this definition may be approached in various ways, some
an example, Kurt Gödel's incompleteness theorems show less formal than others; some of these definitions may
that sufficiently complex formal systems of arithmetic use logical association rule induction, while others may
cannot be consistent and complete;[4] however, first-order use mathematical models of probability such as decision
predicate logics not extended by specific axioms to be trees.
17.2. HISTORY 147
17.1.6 Rival conceptions
Main article: Rival conceptions of logic
Logic arose (see below) from a concern with correctness

of argumentation. Modern logicians usually wish to en-
sure that logic studies just those arguments that arise from
appropriately general forms of inference. For example,
Thomas Hofweber writes in the Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy that logic “does not, however, cover good
reasoning as a whole. That is the job of the theory of
rationality. Rather it deals with inferences whose valid-
ity can be traced back to the formal features of the rep-
resentations that are involved in that inference, be they
linguistic, mental, or other representations.”[16]
Logic has been defined as “the study of arguments correct
in virtue of their form”. This has not been the definition
taken in this article, but the idea that logic treats special
forms of argument, deductive argument, rather than ar-
gument in general, has a history in logic that dates back at
least to logicism in mathematics (19th and 20th centuries)
and the advent of the influence of mathematical logic on
philosophy. A consequence of taking logic to treat special
kinds of argument is that it leads to identification of spe-
Aristotle, 384–322 BCE.
cial kinds of truth, the logical truths (with logic equiva-
lently being the study of logical truth), and excludes many
of the original objects of study of logic that are treated
as informal logic. Robert Brandom has argued against The Chinese logical philosopher Gongsun Long (c. 325–
the idea that logic is the study of a special kind of log- 250 BCE) proposed the paradox “One and one cannot
ical truth, arguing that instead one can talk of the logic become two, since neither becomes two.”[24] In China,
of material inference (in the terminology of Wilfred Sel- the tradition of scholarly investigation into logic, however,
lars), with logic making explicit the commitments that was repressed by the Qin dynasty following the legalist
were originally implicit in informal inference.[17] philosophy of Han Feizi.
In India, innovations in the scholastic school, called
Nyaya, continued from ancient times into the early 18th
17.2 History century with the Navya-Nyaya school. By the 16th cen-
tury, it developed theories resembling modern logic, such
Main article: History of logic as Gottlob Frege's “distinction between sense and refer-
In Europe, logic was first developed by Aristotle.[18] ence of proper names” and his “definition of number”, as
Aristotelian logic became widely accepted in science and well as the theory of “restrictive conditions for universals”
mathematics and remained in wide use in the West un- anticipating some of the developments in modern set the-
til the early 19th century.[19] Aristotle’s system of logic ory.[25] Since 1824, Indian logic attracted the attention of
was responsible for the introduction of hypothetical syl- many Western scholars, and has had an influence on im-
logism,[20] temporal modal logic,[21][22] and inductive portant 19th-century logicians such as Charles Babbage,
logic,[23] as well as influential terms such as terms, Augustus De Morgan, and George Boole.[26] In the 20th
predicables, syllogisms and propositions. In Europe century, Western philosophers like Stanislaw Schayer and
during the later medieval period, major efforts were Klaus Glashoff have explored Indian logic more exten-
made to show that Aristotle’s ideas were compatible with sively.
Christian faith. During the High Middle Ages, logic be- The syllogistic logic developed by Aristotle predominated
came a main focus of philosophers, who would engage in in the West until the mid-19th century, when interest
critical logical analyses of philosophical arguments, of- in the foundations of mathematics stimulated the de-
ten using variations of the methodology of scholasticism. velopment of symbolic logic (now called mathematical
In 1323, William of Ockham's influential Summa Log- logic). In 1854, George Boole published An Investiga-
icae was released. By the 18th century, the structured tion of the Laws of Thought on Which are Founded the
approach to arguments had degenerated and fallen out Mathematical Theories of Logic and Probabilities, intro-
of favour, as depicted in Holberg's satirical play Erasmus ducing symbolic logic and the principles of what is now
Montanus. known as Boolean logic. In 1879, Gottlob Frege pub-
lished Begriffsschrift, which inaugurated modern logic Aristotle’s work was regarded in classical times and from
with the invention of quantifier notation. From 1910 medieval times in Europe and the Middle East as the very
to 1913, Alfred North Whitehead and Bertrand Russell picture of a fully worked out system. However, it was not
published Principia Mathematica[3] on the foundations of alone: the Stoics proposed a system of propositional logic
mathematics, attempting to derive mathematical truths that was studied by medieval logicians. Also, the problem
from axioms and inference rules in symbolic logic. In of multiple generality was recognized in medieval times.
1931, Gödel raised serious problems with the foundation- Nonetheless, problems with syllogistic logic were not seen
alist program and logic ceased to focus on such issues. as being in need of revolutionary solutions.
The development of logic since Frege, Russell, and Today, some academics claim that Aristotle’s system
Wittgenstein had a profound influence on the practice is generally seen as having little more than historical
of philosophy and the perceived nature of philosophical value (though there is some current interest in extend-
problems (see Analytic philosophy), and Philosophy of ing term logics), regarded as made obsolete by the advent
mathematics. Logic, especially sentential logic, is imple- of propositional logic and the predicate calculus. Others
mented in computer logic circuits and is fundamental to use Aristotle in argumentation theory to help develop and
computer science. Logic is commonly taught by univer- critically question argumentation schemes that are used in
sity philosophy departments, often as a compulsory dis- artificial intelligence and legal arguments.
cipline.
17.3.2 Propositional logic

17.3 Types Main article: Propositional calculus
17.3.1 Syllogistic logic A propositional calculus or logic (also a sentential calcu-

lus) is a formal system in which formulae representing
propositions can be formed by combining atomic propo-
sitions using logical connectives, and in which a system of
formal proof rules establishes certain formulae as “theo-
rems”. An example of a theorem of propositional logic is
A → B → A , which says that if A holds, then B implies
A.
17.3.3 Predicate logic
x F(x)
Gottlob Frege's Begriffschrift introduced the notion of quantifier
in a graphical notation, which here represents the judgement that
A depiction from the 15th century of the square of opposition, ∀x.F (x) is true.
which expresses the fundamental dualities of syllogistic.
Main article: Predicate logic
Main article: Aristotelian logic
Predicate logic is the generic term for symbolic for-
The Organon was Aristotle's body of work on logic, with mal systems such as first-order logic, second-order logic,
the Prior Analytics constituting the first explicit work in many-sorted logic, and infinitary logic. It provides an ac-
formal logic, introducing the syllogistic.[27] The parts of count of quantifiers general enough to express a wide set
syllogistic logic, also known by the name term logic, are of arguments occurring in natural language. For exam-
the analysis of the judgements into propositions consist- ple, Bertrand Russell's famous barber paradox, “there is a
ing of two terms that are related by one of a fixed number man who shaves all and only men who do not shave them-
of relations, and the expression of inferences by means of selves” can be formalised by the sentence (∃x)(man(x)∧
syllogisms that consist of two propositions sharing a com- (∀y)(man(y) → (shaves(x, y) ↔ ¬shaves(y, y)))) , us-
mon term as premise, and a conclusion that is a proposi- ing the non-logical predicate man(x) to indicate that x is a
tion involving the two unrelated terms from the premises. man, and the non-logical relation shaves(x, y) to indicate
17.3. TYPES 149
that x shaves y; all other symbols of the formulae are log- plied the same formal language to treat temporal logic
ical, expressing the universal and existential quantifiers, and paved the way for the marriage of the two subjects.
conjunction, implication, negation and biconditional. Saul Kripke discovered (contemporaneously with rivals)
Whilst Aristotelian syllogistic logic specifies a small num- his theory of frame semantics, which revolutionized the
ber of forms that the relevant part of the involved judge- formal technology available to modal logicians and gave
ments may take, predicate logic allows sentences to be a new graph-theoretic way of looking at modality that has
analysed into subject and argument in several additional driven many applications in computational linguistics and
ways—allowing predicate logic to solve the problem of computer science, such as dynamic logic.
multiple generality that had perplexed medieval logicians.
The development of predicate logic is usually attributed 17.3.5 Informal reasoning and dialectic
to Gottlob Frege, who is also credited as one of the
founders of analytical philosophy, but the formulation of Main articles: Informal logic and Logic and dialectic
predicate logic most often used today is the first-order
logic presented in Principles of Mathematical Logic by
The motivation for the study of logic in ancient times was
David Hilbert and Wilhelm Ackermann in 1928. The
clear: it is so that one may learn to distinguish good ar-
analytical generality of predicate logic allowed the for-
guments from bad arguments, and so become more ef-
malization of mathematics, drove the investigation of set
fective in argument and oratory, and perhaps also to be-
theory, and allowed the development of Alfred Tarski's
come a better person. Half of the works of Aristotle’s
approach to model theory. It provides the foundation of
Organon treat inference as it occurs in an informal setting,
modern mathematical logic.
side by side with the development of the syllogistic, and
Frege’s original system of predicate logic was second- in the Aristotelian school, these informal works on logic
order, rather than first-order. Second-order logic is most were seen as complementary to Aristotle’s treatment of
prominently defended (against the criticism of Willard rhetoric.
Van Orman Quine and others) by George Boolos and
This ancient motivation is still alive, although it no
Stewart Shapiro.
longer takes centre stage in the picture of logic; typically
dialectical logic forms the heart of a course in critical
thinking, a compulsory course at many universities. Di-
17.3.4 Modal logic
alectic has been linked to logic since ancient times, but
it has not been until recent decades that European and
Main article: Modal logic
American logicians have attempted to provide mathe-
matical foundations for logic and dialectic by formalis-
In languages, modality deals with the phenomenon that ing dialectical logic. Dialectical logic is also the name
sub-parts of a sentence may have their semantics modified given to the special treatment of dialectic in Hegelian and
by special verbs or modal particles. For example, "We go Marxist thought. There have been pre-formal treatises
to the games" can be modified to give "We should go to the on argument and dialectic, from authors such as Stephen
games", and "We can go to the games" and perhaps "We Toulmin (The Uses of Argument), Nicholas Rescher (Di-
will go to the games". More abstractly, we might say that alectics),[29][30][31] and van Eemeren and Grootendorst
modality affects the circumstances in which we take an (Pragma-dialectics). Theories of defeasible reasoning
assertion to be satisfied. Confusing modality is known as can provide a foundation for the formalisation of dialec-
the modal fallacy. tical logic and dialectic itself can be formalised as moves
Aristotle's logic is in large parts concerned with the the- in a game, where an advocate for the truth of a proposi-
ory of non-modalized logic. Although, there are passages tion and an opponent argue. Such games can provide a
in his work, such as the famous sea-battle argument in formal game semantics for many logics.
De Interpretatione § 9, that are now seen as anticipations Argumentation theory is the study and research of infor-
of modal logic and its connection with potentiality and mal logic, fallacies, and critical questions as they relate to
time, the earliest formal system of modal logic was devel- every day and practical situations. Specific types of dia-
oped by Avicenna, whom ultimately developed a theory logue can be analyzed and questioned to reveal premises,
of "temporally modalized" syllogistic.[28] conclusions, and fallacies. Argumentation theory is now
While the study of necessity and possibility remained applied in artificial intelligence and law.
important to philosophers, little logical innovation hap-
pened until the landmark investigations of Clarence Irv-
ing Lewis in 1918, who formulated a family of rival ax-
17.3.6 Mathematical logic
iomatizations of the alethic modalities. His work un-
leashed a torrent of new work on the topic, expanding Main article: Mathematical logic
the kinds of modality treated to include deontic logic and
epistemic logic. The seminal work of Arthur Prior ap- Mathematical logic comprises two distinct areas of re-
search: the first is the application of the techniques of Philosophical logic deals with formal descriptions of or-
formal logic to mathematics and mathematical reasoning, dinary, non-specialist (“natural”) language, that is strictly
and the second, in the other direction, the application of only about the arguments within philosophy’s other
mathematical techniques to the representation and anal- branches. Most philosophers assume that the bulk of ev-
ysis of formal logic.[32] eryday reasoning can be captured in logic if a method
The earliest use of mathematics and geometry in relation or methods to translate ordinary language into that logic
to logic and philosophy goes back to the ancient Greeks can be found. Philosophical logic is essentially a contin-
such as Euclid, Plato, and Aristotle.[33] Many other an- uation of the traditional discipline called “logic” before
the invention of mathematical logic. Philosophical logic
cient and medieval philosophers applied mathematical
ideas and methods to their philosophical claims.[34] has a much greater concern with the connection between
natural language and logic. As a result, philosophical lo-
One of the boldest attempts to apply logic to mathemat- gicians have contributed a great deal to the development
ics was the logicism pioneered by philosopher-logicians of non-standard logics (e.g. free logics, tense logics) as
such as Gottlob Frege and Bertrand Russell. Mathemati- well as various extensions of classical logic (e.g. modal
cal theories were supposed to be logical tautologies, and logics) and non-standard semantics for such logics (e.g.
the programme was to show this by means of a reduction Kripke's supervaluationism in the semantics of logic).
of mathematics to logic.[3] The various attempts to carry
this out met with failure, from the crippling of Frege’s Logic and the philosophy of language are closely related.
project in his Grundgesetze by Russell’s paradox, to the Philosophy of language has to do with the study of how
defeat of Hilbert’s program by Gödel’s incompleteness our language engages and interacts with our thinking.
theorems. Logic has an immediate impact on other areas of study.
Studying logic and the relationship between logic and or-
Both the statement of Hilbert’s program and its refutation dinary speech can help a person better structure his own
by Gödel depended upon their work establishing the sec- arguments and critique the arguments of others. Many
ond area of mathematical logic, the application of mathe- popular arguments are filled with errors because so many
matics to logic in the form of proof theory.[35] Despite the people are untrained in logic and unaware of how to for-
negative nature of the incompleteness theorems, Gödel’s mulate an argument correctly.[39][40]
completeness theorem, a result in model theory and an-
other application of mathematics to logic, can be un-
derstood as showing how close logicism came to being 17.3.8 Computational logic
true: every rigorously defined mathematical theory can
be exactly captured by a first-order logical theory; Frege’s Main article: Logic in computer science
proof calculus is enough to describe the whole of mathe- Logic cut to the heart of computer science as it
matics, though not equivalent to it.
If proof theory and model theory have been the founda-
tion of mathematical logic, they have been but two of the
four pillars of the subject.[36] Set theory originated in the
study of the infinite by Georg Cantor, and it has been Q
D
the source of many of the most challenging and impor-
tant issues in mathematical logic, from Cantor’s theorem,
through the status of the Axiom of Choice and the ques- clk
tion of the independence of the continuum hypothesis, to
the modern debate on large cardinal axioms.
Combination logic Register
Recursion theory captures the idea of computation in log-
ical and arithmetic terms; its most classical achievements
are the undecidability of the Entscheidungsproblem by
Alan Turing, and his presentation of the Church–Turing A simple toggling circuit is expressed using a logic gate and a
thesis.[37] Today recursion theory is mostly concerned synchronous register.
with the more refined problem of complexity classes—
when is a problem efficiently solvable?—and the classifi- emerged as a discipline: Alan Turing's work on the
cation of degrees of unsolvability.[38] Entscheidungsproblem followed from Kurt Gödel's work
on the incompleteness theorems. The notion of the gen-
eral purpose computer that came from this work was of
fundamental importance to the designers of the computer
17.3.7 Philosophical logic machinery in the 1940s.
In the 1950s and 1960s, researchers predicted that when
Main article: Philosophical logic human knowledge could be expressed using logic with
mathematical notation, it would be possible to create a
17.4. CONTROVERSIES 151
machine that reasons, or artificial intelligence. This was of excluded fourth and logic tolerant to contradiction.[42]
more difficult than expected because of the complexity of In the early 20th century Jan Łukasiewicz investigated the
human reasoning. In logic programming, a program con- extension of the traditional true/false values to include a
sists of a set of axioms and rules. Logic programming third value, “possible”, so inventing ternary logic, the first
systems such as Prolog compute the consequences of the multi-valued logic in the Western tradition.[43]
axioms and rules in order to answer a query. Logics such as fuzzy logic have since been devised with
Today, logic is extensively applied in the fields of an infinite number of “degrees of truth”, represented by
Artificial Intelligence and Computer Science, and these a real number between 0 and 1.[44]
fields provide a rich source of problems in formal and in-Intuitionistic logic was proposed by L.E.J. Brouwer as
formal logic. Argumentation theory is one good example the correct logic for reasoning about mathematics, based
of how logic is being applied to artificial intelligence. The
upon his rejection of the law of the excluded middle as
ACM Computing Classification System in particular re- part of his intuitionism. Brouwer rejected formalization
gards: in mathematics, but his student Arend Heyting studied
intuitionistic logic formally, as did Gerhard Gentzen. In-
• Section F.3 on Logics and meanings of programs tuitionistic logic is of great interest to computer scientists,
and F.4 on Mathematical logic and formal languages as it is a constructive logic and can be applied for extract-
as part of the theory of computer science: this work ing verified programs from proofs.
covers formal semantics of programming languages,
as well as work of formal methods such as Hoare Modal logic is not truth conditional, and so it has often
logic; been proposed as a non-classical logic. However, modal
logic is normally formalized with the principle of the ex-
• Boolean logic as fundamental to computer hard- cluded middle, and its relational semantics is bivalent, so
ware: particularly, the system’s section B.2 on this inclusion is disputable.
Arithmetic and logic structures, relating to opera-
tives AND, [[[negation|NOT]], and OR;
• Many fundamental logical formalisms are essential
to section I.2 on artificial intelligence, for example
17.4 Controversies
modal logic and default logic in Knowledge repre-
sentation formalisms and methods, Horn clauses in 17.4.1 “Is Logic Empirical?"
logic programming, and description logic.
For more details on this topic, see Is Logic Empirical?.
Furthermore, computers can be used as tools for logi-
cians. For example, in symbolic logic and mathematical
What is the epistemological status of the laws of logic?
logic, proofs by humans can be computer-assisted. Using
What sort of argument is appropriate for criticizing pur-
automated theorem proving, the machines can find and
ported principles of logic? In an influential paper enti-
check proofs, as well as work with proofs too lengthy to
tled "Is Logic Empirical?"[45] Hilary Putnam, building
write out by hand.
on a suggestion of W. V. Quine, argued that in general
the facts of propositional logic have a similar epistemo-
17.3.9 Non-classical logic logical status as facts about the physical universe, for ex-
ample as the laws of mechanics or of general relativity,
Main article: Non-classical logic and in particular that what physicists have learned about
quantum mechanics provides a compelling case for aban-
doning certain familiar principles of classical logic: if
The logics discussed above are all "bivalent" or “two- we want to be realists about the physical phenomena de-
valued"; that is, they are most naturally understood as di- scribed by quantum theory, then we should abandon the
viding propositions into true and false propositions. Non- principle of distributivity, substituting for classical logic
classical logics are those systems that reject various rules the quantum logic proposed by Garrett Birkhoff and John
of Classical logic. von Neumann.[46]
Hegel developed his own dialectic logic that extended Another paper of the same name by Michael Dummett
Kant's transcendental logic but also brought it back to argues that Putnam’s desire for realism mandates the law
ground by assuring us that “neither in heaven nor in earth, of distributivity.[47] Distributivity of logic is essential for
neither in the world of mind nor of nature, is there any- the realist’s understanding of how propositions are true
where such an abstract 'either–or' as the understanding of the world in just the same way as he has argued the
maintains. Whatever exists is concrete, with difference principle of bivalence is. In this way, the question, “Is
and opposition in itself”.[41] Logic Empirical?" can be seen to lead naturally into the
In 1910, Nicolai A. Vasiliev extended the law of excluded fundamental controversy in metaphysics on realism ver-
middle and the law of contradiction and proposed the law sus anti-realism.
17.4.2 Implication: Strict or material form, correct inference, or meaning, typically leading to
the conclusion that there are no logical truths. Observe
Main article: Paradoxes of material implication that this is opposite to the usual views in philosophical
skepticism, where logic directs skeptical enquiry to doubt
The notion of implication formalized in classical logic received wisdoms, as in the work of Sextus Empiricus.
does not comfortably translate into natural language by Friedrich Nietzsche provides a strong example of the re-
means of “if ... then ...”, due to a number of problems jection of the usual basis of logic: his radical rejection of
called the paradoxes of material implication. idealization led him to reject truth as a "... mobile army
The first class of paradoxes involves counterfactuals, such of metaphors, metonyms, and anthropomorphisms—in
as If the moon is made of green cheese, then 2+2=5, which short ... metaphors which are worn out and without sensu-
are puzzling because natural language does not support ous power; coins which have lost their pictures [49]
and now
the principle of explosion. Eliminating this class of para- matter only as metal, no longer as coins.” His rejec-
doxes was the reason for C. I. Lewis's formulation of strict tion of truth did not lead him to reject the idea of either
implication, which eventually led to more radically revi- inference or logic completely, but rather suggested that
sionist logics such as relevance logic. “logic [came] into existence in man’s head [out] of illogic,
whose realm originally must have been immense. Innu-
The second class of paradoxes involves redundant merable beings who made inferences in a way different
premises, falsely suggesting that we know the succedent from ours perished”.[50] Thus there is the idea that logical
because of the antecedent: thus “if that man gets elected, inference has a use as a tool for human survival, but that
granny will die” is materially true since granny is mor- its existence does not support the existence of truth, nor
tal, regardless of the man’s election prospects. Such does it have a reality beyond the instrumental: “Logic,
sentences violate the Gricean maxim of relevance, and too, also rests on assumptions that do not correspond to
can be modelled by logics that reject the principle of anything in the real world”.[51]
monotonicity of entailment, such as relevance logic.
This position held by Nietzsche however, has come un-
der extreme scrutiny for several reasons. Some philoso-
17.4.3 Tolerating the impossible phers, such as Jürgen Habermas, claim his position is self-
refuting—and accuse Nietzsche of not even having a co-
Main article: Paraconsistent logic herent perspective, let alone a theory of knowledge.[52]
Georg Lukács, in his book The Destruction of Reason,
asserts that, “Were we to study Nietzsche’s statements in
Hegel was deeply critical of any simplified notion of the
this area from a logico-philosophical angle, we would be
Law of Non-Contradiction. It was based on Leibniz's idea
confronted by a dizzy chaos of the most lurid assertions,
that this law of logic also requires a sufficient ground to
arbitrary and violently incompatible.”[53] Bertrand Rus-
specify from what point of view (or time) one says that
sell described Nietzsche’s irrational claims with “He is
something cannot contradict itself. A building, for ex-
fond of expressing himself paradoxically and with a view
ample, both moves and does not move; the ground for the
to shocking conventional readers” in his book A History
first is our solar system and for the second the earth. In
of Western Philosophy.[54]
Hegelian dialectic, the law of non-contradiction, of iden-
tity, itself relies upon difference and so is not indepen-
dently assertable.
17.5 See also
Closely related to questions arising from the paradoxes of
implication comes the suggestion that logic ought to tol-
• Digital electronics (also known as digital logic or
erate inconsistency. Relevance logic and paraconsistent
logic gates)
logic are the most important approaches here, though the
concerns are different: a key consequence of classical • Fallacies
logic and some of its rivals, such as intuitionistic logic,
is that they respect the principle of explosion, which • List of logicians
means that the logic collapses if it is capable of deriv- • List of logic journals
ing a contradiction. Graham Priest, the main propo-
nent of dialetheism, has argued for paraconsistency on • List of logic symbols
the grounds that there are in fact, true contradictions.[48]
• Logic puzzle
• Mathematics
17.4.4 Rejection of logical truth
• List of mathematics articles
The philosophical vein of various kinds of skepticism • Outline of mathematics
contains many kinds of doubt and rejection of the var-
ious bases on which logic rests, such as the idea of logical • Metalogic
17.6. NOTES AND REFERENCES 153
• Outline of logic • R. Josephson, J. & G. Josephson, S. “Abductive

Inference: Computation, Philosophy, Technology”
• Philosophy Cambridge University Press, New York & Cam-
bridge (U.K.). viii. 306 pages. Hard cover (1994),
• List of philosophy topics ISBN 0-521-43461-0, Paperback (1996), ISBN 0-
• Outline of philosophy 521-57545-1.
• Bunt, H. & Black, W. “Abduction, Belief and Con-
• Reason
text in Dialogue: Studies in Computational Prag-
• Truth matics” (Natural Language Processing, 1.) John
Benjamins, Amsterdam & Philadelphia, 2000. vi.
• Vector logic 471 pages. Hard cover, ISBN 90-272-4983-0 (Eu-
rope),
1-58619-794-2 (U.S.)
17.6 Notes and references
[14] See Abduction and Retroduction at Commens Dictionary
[1] “possessed of reason, intellectual, dialectical, argumenta- of Peirce’s Terms, and see Peirce’s papers:
tive”, also related to λόγος (logos), “word, thought, idea,
argument, account, reason, or principle” (Liddell & Scott • “On the Logic of drawing History from Ancient
1999; Online Etymology Dictionary 2001). Documents especially from Testimonies” (1901),
Collected Papers v. 7, paragraph 219.
[2] Aristotle (2001). "Posterior Analytics". In Mckeon,
Richard. The Basic Works. Modern Library. ISBN 0- • “PAP” ["Prolegomena to an Apology for Pragma-
375-75799-6. tism"], MS 293 c. 1906, New Elements of Mathe-
matics v. 4, pp. 319-320.
[3] Whitehead, Alfred North; Russell, Bertrand (1967).
• A Letter to F. A. Woods (1913), Collected Papers
Principia Mathematica to *56. Cambridge University
v. 8, paragraphs 385-388.
Press. ISBN 0-521-62606-4.
[4] For a more modern treatment, see Hamilton, A. G. [15] Peirce, C. S. (1903), Harvard lectures on pragmatism,
(1980). Logic for Mathematicians. Cambridge University Collected Papers v. 5, paragraphs 188–189.
Press. ISBN 0-521-29291-3.
[16] Hofweber, T. (2004). “Logic and Ontology”. In Zalta,
[5] T. Mossakowski, J. A. Goguen, R. Diaconescu, A. Tar- Edward N. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
lecki, “What is a Logic?", Logica Universalis 2007
Birkhauser, pp. 113–133. [17] Brandom, Robert (2000). Articulating Reasons. Cam-
bridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-
[6] Łukasiewicz, Jan (1957). Aristotle’s syllogistic from the 00158-3.
standpoint of modern formal logic (2nd ed.). Oxford Uni-
versity Press. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-19-824144-7. [18] E.g., Kline (1972, p.53) wrote “A major achievement of
Aristotle was the founding of the science of logic”.
[7] Summa Logicae Part II c.4 transl. as Ockam’s Theory of
Propositions, A. Freddoso and H. Schuurman, St Augus- [19] "Aristotle", MTU Department of Chemistry.
tine’s Press 1998, p.96
[20] Jonathan Lear (1986). "Aristotle and Logical Theory".
[8] Arnauld, Logic or the Art of Thinking Part 2 Chapter 3.
Cambridge University Press. p.34. ISBN 0-521-31178-0
[9] Locke, 1690. An Essay Concerning Human Understand-
ing, IV. v. 1-8) [21] Simo Knuuttila (1981). "Reforging the great chain of be-
ing: studies of the history of modal theories". Springer
[10] Bergmann, Merrie; Moor, James; Nelson, Jack (2009). Science & Business. p.71. ISBN 90-277-1125-9
The Logic Book (Fifth ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-
Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-353563-0. [22] Michael Fisher, Dov M. Gabbay, Lluís Vila (2005).
"Handbook of temporal reasoning in artificial intelli-
[11] Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Validity and Sound- gence". Elsevier. p.119. ISBN 0-444-51493-7
ness
[23] Harold Joseph Berman (1983). "Law and revolution: the
[12] Mendelson, Elliott (1964). “Quantification Theory: Com-
formation of the Western legal tradition". Harvard Univer-
pleteness Theorems”. Introduction to Mathematical Logic.
sity Press. p.133. ISBN 0-674-51776-8
Van Nostrand. ISBN 0-412-80830-7.
[13] On abductive reasoning, see: [24] The four Catuṣkoṭi logical divisions are formally very
close to the four opposed propositions of the Greek
• Magnani, L. “Abduction, Reason, and Science: tetralemma, which in turn are analogous to the four truth
Processes of Discovery and Explanation”. Kluwer values of modern relevance logic Cf. Belnap (1977); Jay-
Academic Plenum Publishers, New York, 2001. xvii. atilleke, K. N., (1967, The logic of four alternatives, in
205 pages. Hard cover, ISBN 0-306-46514-0. Philosophy East and West, University of Hawaii Press).
[25] Kisor Kumar Chakrabarti (June 1976). “Some Compar- [39] Goldman, Alvin I. (1986), Epistemology and Cognition,
isons Between Frege’s Logic and Navya-Nyaya Logic”. Harvard University Press, p. 293, ISBN 9780674258969,
Philosophy and Phenomenological Research. International untrained subjects are prone to commit various sorts of
Phenomenological Society. 36 (4): 554–563. JSTOR fallacies and mistakes.
2106873. doi:10.2307/2106873. This paper consists of
three parts. The first part deals with Frege’s distinction [40] Demetriou, A.; Efklides, A., eds. (1994), Intelligence,
between sense and reference of proper names and a simi- Mind, and Reasoning: Structure and Development, Ad-
lar distinction in Navya-Nyaya logic. In the second part vances in Psychology, 106, Elsevier, p. 194, ISBN
we have compared Frege’s definition of number to the 9780080867601.
Navya-Nyaya definition of number. In the third part we
[41] Hegel, G. W. F (1971) [1817]. Philosophy of Mind. En-
have shown how the study of the so-called 'restrictive con-
cyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences. trans. William
ditions for universals’ in Navya-Nyaya logic anticipated
Wallace. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 174. ISBN 0-19-
some of the developments of modern set theory.
875014-5.
[26] Jonardon Ganeri (2001). Indian logic: a reader.
[42] Joseph E. Brenner (3 August 2008). Logic in Reality.
Routledge. pp. vii, 5, 7. ISBN 0-7007-1306-9.
Springer. pp. 28–30. ISBN 978-1-4020-8374-7. Re-
trieved 9 April 2012.
[27] “Aristotle”. Encyclopædia Britannica.
[43] Zegarelli, Mark (2010), Logic For Dummies, John Wiley
[28] “History of logic: Arabic logic”. Encyclopædia Britan- & Sons, p. 30, ISBN 9781118053072.
nica.
[44] Hájek, Petr (2006). “Fuzzy Logic”. In Zalta, Edward N.
[29] Rescher, Nicholas (1978). “Dialectics: A Controversy- Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Oriented Approach to the Theory of Knowledge”. Infor-
mal Logic. 1 (#3). [45] Putnam, H. (1969). “Is Logic Empirical?". Boston Studies
in the Philosophy of Science. 5.
[30] Hetherington, Stephen (2006). “Nicholas Rescher: Philo-
sophical Dialectics”. Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews [46] Birkhoff, G.; von Neumann, J. (1936). “The Logic of
(2006.07.16). Quantum Mechanics”. Annals of Mathematics. Annals
of Mathematics. 37 (4): 823–843. JSTOR 1968621.
[31] Rescher, Nicholas (2009). Jacquette,Dale, ed. Reason, doi:10.2307/1968621.
Method, and Value: A Reader on the Philosophy of
Nicholas Rescher. Ontos Verlag. [47] Dummett, M. (1978). “Is Logic Empirical?". Truth and
Other Enigmas. ISBN 0-674-91076-1.
[32] Stolyar, Abram A. (1983). Introduction to Elementary
Mathematical Logic. Dover Publications. p. 3. ISBN [48] Priest, Graham (2008). “Dialetheism”. In Zalta, Edward
0-486-64561-4. N. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
[49] Nietzsche, 1873, On Truth and Lies in a Nonmoral Sense.

[33] Barnes, Jonathan (1995). The Cambridge Companion to
Aristotle. Cambridge University Press. p. 27. ISBN 0- [50] Nietzsche, 1882, The Gay Science.
521-42294-9.
[51] Nietzsche, 1878, Human, All Too Human
[34] Aristotle (1989). Prior Analytics. Hackett Publishing Co.
p. 115. ISBN 978-0-87220-064-7. [52] Babette Babich, Habermas, Nietzsche, and Critical The-
ory
[35] Mendelson, Elliott (1964). “Formal Number The-
ory: Gödel’s Incompleteness Theorem”. Introduction [53] Georg Lukács. “The Destruction of Reason by Georg
to Mathematical Logic. Monterey, Calif.: Wadsworth Lukács 1952”. Marxists.org. Retrieved 2013-06-16.
& Brooks/Cole Advanced Books & Software. OCLC
[54] Russell, Bertrand (1945), A History of Western Philosophy
13580200.
And Its Connection with Political and Social Circumstances
[36] Barwise (1982) divides the subject of mathematical logic from the Earliest Times to the Present Day (PDF), Simon
into model theory, proof theory, set theory and recursion and Schuster, p. 762, archived from the original (PDF) on
theory. 28 May 2014
[37] Brookshear, J. Glenn (1989). “Computability: Founda-

tions of Recursive Function Theory”. Theory of compu- 17.7 Bibliography
tation: formal languages, automata, and complexity. Red-
wood City, Calif.: Benjamin/Cummings Pub. Co. ISBN
0-8053-0143-7. • Barwise, J. (1982). Handbook of Mathematical
Logic. Elsevier. ISBN 9780080933641.
[38] Brookshear, J. Glenn (1989). “Complexity”. Theory of
computation: formal languages, automata, and complex- • Belnap, N. (1977). “A useful four-valued logic”. In
ity. Redwood City, Calif.: Benjamin/Cummings Pub. Dunn & Eppstein, Modern uses of multiple-valued
Co. ISBN 0-8053-0143-7. logic. Reidel: Boston.
• Bocheński, J. M. (1959). A précis of mathematical • Smith, B. (1989). “Logic and the Sachverhalt”. The
logic. Translated from the French and German edi- Monist 72(1):52–69.
tions by Otto Bird. D. Reidel, Dordrecht, South
Holland. • Whitehead, Alfred North and Bertrand Russell
(1910). Principia Mathematica. Cambridge Univer-
• Bocheński, J. M. (1970). A history of formal logic. sity Press: Cambridge, England. OCLC 1041146
2nd Edition. Translated and edited from the Ger-
man edition by Ivo Thomas. Chelsea Publishing,
New York. 17.8 External links
• Brookshear, J. Glenn (1989). Theory of computa-
• Logic at PhilPapers
tion: formal languages, automata, and complexity.
Redwood City, Calif.: Benjamin/Cummings Pub. • Logic at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project
Co. ISBN 0-8053-0143-7.
• “Logic”. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
• Cohen, R.S, and Wartofsky, M.W. (1974). Log-
ical and Epistemological Studies in Contemporary • Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001) [1994], “Logical
Physics. Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Sci- calculus”, Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer
ence. D. Reidel Publishing Company: Dordrecht, Science+Business Media B.V. / Kluwer Academic
Netherlands. ISBN 90-277-0377-9. Publishers, ISBN 978-1-55608-010-4
• Finkelstein, D. (1969). “Matter, Space, and Logic”. • An Outline for Verbal Logic
in R.S. Cohen and M.W. Wartofsky (eds. 1974). • Introductions and tutorials
• Gabbay, D.M., and Guenthner, F. (eds., 2001– • An Introduction to Philosophical Logic, by
2005). Handbook of Philosophical Logic. 13 vols., Paul Newall, aimed at beginners.
2nd edition. Kluwer Publishers: Dordrecht.
• forall x: an introduction to formal logic, by
• Haack, Susan (1996). Deviant Logic, Fuzzy Logic: P.D. Magnus, covers sentential and quantified
Beyond the Formalism, University of Chicago Press. logic.
• Logic Self-Taught: A Workbook (originally
• Harper, Robert (2001). “Logic”. Online Etymology prepared for on-line logic instruction).
Dictionary. Retrieved 8 May 2009.
• Nicholas Rescher. (1964). Introduction
• Hilbert, D., and Ackermann, W, (1928). Grundzüge to Logic, St. Martin’s Press.
der theoretischen Logik (Principles of Mathematical • Essays
Logic). Springer-Verlag. OCLC 2085765* Hodges,
W. (2001). Logic. An introduction to Elementary • “Symbolic Logic” and “The Game of Logic”,
Logic, Penguin Books. Lewis Carroll, 1896.
• Hofweber, T. (2004), Logic and Ontology. Stanford • Math & Logic: The history of formal math-
Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Edward N. Zalta (ed.). ematical, logical, linguistic and methodologi-
cal ideas. In The Dictionary of the History of
• Hughes, R.I.G. (1993, ed.). A Philosophical Com- Ideas.
panion to First-Order Logic. Hackett Publishing.
• Online Tools
• Kline, Morris (1972). Mathematical Thought From • Interactive Syllogistic Machine A web based
Ancient to Modern Times. Oxford University Press. syllogistic machine for exploring fallacies, fig-
ISBN 0-19-506135-7. ures, terms, and modes of syllogisms.
• Kneale, William, and Kneale, Martha, (1962). The • Reference material
Development of Logic. Oxford University Press,
London, UK. • Translation Tips, by Peter Suber, for translat-
ing from English into logical notation.
• Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert. “Logikos”. A
• Ontology and History of Logic. An Introduc-
Greek-English Lexicon. Perseus Project. Retrieved
tion with an annotated bibliography.
8 May 2009.
• Reading lists
• Mendelson, Elliott, (1964). Introduction to Math-
ematical Logic. Wadsworth & Brooks/Cole Ad- • The London Philosophy Study Guide offers
vanced Books & Software: Monterey, Calif. OCLC many suggestions on what to read, depending
13580200 on the student’s familiarity with the subject:
• Logic & Metaphysics

• Set Theory and Further Logic
• Mathematical Logic
Chapter 18
Logical positivism
Logical positivism and logical empiricism, which 18.2 Definitions

together formed neopositivism, was a movement
in Western philosophy whose central thesis was Logical positivism is sometimes stereotyped as forbid-
verificationism, a theory of knowledge which asserted ding talk of unobservables, such as microscopic enti-
that only statements verifiable through empirical ob- ties or such notions as causality and general principles,
servation are cognitively meaningful. The movement but that is an exaggeration. Rather, most neopositivists
flourished in the 1920s and 1930s in several European viewed talk of unobservables as metaphorical or ellipti-
centers. cal: direct observations phrased abstractly or indirectly.
Efforts to convert philosophy to this new “scientific phi- So theoretical terms would garner meaning from obser-
losophy”, shared with empirical sciences' best examples, vational terms via correspondence rules, and thereby the-
such as Einstein’s general theory of relativity, sought to oretical laws would be reduced to empirical laws. Via
prevent confusion rooted in unclear language and unver- Bertrand Russell's logicism, reducing mathematics to
ifiable claims.[1] logic, physics’ mathematical formulas would be converted
to symbolic logic. And via Russell’s logical atomism,
The Berlin Circle and Vienna Circle—groups of philoso-
ordinary language would break into discrete units of
phers, scientists, and mathematicians in Berlin and
meaning. Rational reconstruction, then, would convert
Vienna—propounded logical positivism, starting in the
ordinary statements into standardized equivalents, all net-
late 1920s.
worked and united by a logical syntax. A scientific theory
would be stated with its method of verification, whereby
a logical calculus or empirical operation could verify its
falsity or truth.
18.3 Development
18.1 Influences
In the late 1930s, logical positivists fled Germany and
Austria for Britain and United States. By then, many
Logical positivists culled from Ludwig Wittgenstein’s had replaced Mach’s phenomenalism with Otto Neurath's
early philosophy of language the verifiability principle physicalism, whereby science’s content is not actual or
or criterion of meaningfulness. As in Ernst Mach's potential sensations, but instead is entities publicly ob-
phenomenalism, whereby the mind can know only ac- servable. And Rudolf Carnap, who had sparked logical
tual or potential sensory experience, verificationists took positivism in the Vienna Circle, had sought to replace ver-
all sciences’ basic content to be only sensory experience. ification with simply confirmation. With World War II's
And some influence came from Percy Bridgman's mus- close in 1945, logical positivism became milder, logical
ings that others proclaimed as operationalism, whereby empiricism, led largely by Carl Hempel, in America, who
a physical theory is understood by what laboratory pro- expounded the covering law model of scientific explana-
cedures scientists perform to test its predictions. In ver- tion. Logical positivism became a major underpinning of
ificationism, only the verifiable was scientific, and thus analytic philosophy,[2] and dominated English-speaking
meaningful (or cognitively meaningful), whereas the un- world philosophy, including philosophy of science, while
verifiable, being unscientific, was meaningless “pseu- influencing sciences, but especially social sciences, into
dostatements” (just emotively meaningful). Unscientific the 1960s. Yet the movement failed to resolve its central
discourse, as in ethics and metaphysics, would be unfit problems,[3][4][5] and its doctrines were increasingly crit-
for discourse by philosophers, newly tasked to organize icized, most trenchantly by W. V. O. Quine, Norwood
knowledge, not develop new knowledge. Hanson, Karl Popper, Thomas Kuhn, and Carl Hempel.
157
158 CHAPTER 18. LOGICAL POSITIVISM
18.4 Roots later converted, via Carnap’s 1928 book Der logische
Aufbau der Welt—that is, The Logical Structure of the
World—which became Vienna Circle’s “bible”, Aufbau.
18.4.1 Language
A 1929 pamphlet written by Otto Neurath, Hans Hahn,
and Rudolf Carnap summarized the Vienna Circle’s po-
Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, by the young Ludwig
sitions. Another member of Vienna Circle to later prove
Wittgenstein, introduced the view of philosophy as “cri-
very influential was Carl Hempel. A friendly but tena-
tique of language”, offering the possibility of a theoreti-
cious critic of the Circle was Karl Popper, whom Neurath
cally principled distinction of intelligible versus nonsen-
nicknamed the “Official Opposition”.
sical discourse. Tractatus adhered to a correspondence
theory of truth (versus a coherence theory of truth). Carnap and other Vienna Circle members, including
Wittgenstein’s influence also shows in some versions Hahn and Neurath, saw need for a weaker criterion
of the verifiability principle.[6][7] In tractarian doctrine,of meaningfulness than verifiability.[12] A radical “left”
truths of logic are tautologies, a view widely accepted by wing—led by Neurath and Carnap—began the program
logical positivists who were also influenced by Wittgen- of “liberalization of empiricism”, and they also empha-
stein’s interpretation of probability although, according tosized fallibilism and pragmatics, which latter Carnap even
Neurath, some logical positivists found Tractatus to con- suggested as empiricism’s basis.[12] A conservative “right”
tain too much metaphysics.[8] wing—led by Schlick and Waismann—rejected both
the liberalization of empiricism and the epistemological
nonfoundationalism of a move from phenomenalism to
18.4.2 Logicism physicalism.[12] As Neurath and somewhat Carnap posed
science toward social reform, the split in Vienna Circle
Gottlob Frege began the program of reducing mathemat- also reflected political views.[12]
ics to logic, continued it with Bertrand Russell, but lost
interest in this logicism, and Russell continued it with
Alfred North Whitehead in their monumental Principia 18.5.2 Berlin
Mathematica, inspiring some of the more mathemati-
cal logical posivists, such as Hans Hahn and Rudolf The Berlin Circle was led principally by Hans Reichen-
Carnap.[9] (Carnap’s early anti-metaphysical works em- bach.
ployed Russell’s theory of types.)[10] Carnap envisioned
a universal language that could reconstruct mathemat-
ics and thereby encode physics.[9] Yet Kurt Gödel's 18.5.3 Rivals
incompleteness theorem showed this impossible except in
trivial cases, and Alfred Tarski's undefinability theorem Both Moritz Schlick and Rudolf Carnap had been influ-
shattered all hopes of reducing mathematics to logic.[9] enced by and sought to define logical positivism versus the
Thus, a universal language failed to stem from Carnap’s neo-Kantianism of Ernst Cassirer—the then leading fig-
1934 work Logische Syntax der Sprache (Logical Syntax ure of Marburg school, so called—and against Edmund
of Language).[9] Still, some logical positivists, including Husserl's phenomenology. Logical positivists especially
Carl Hempel, continued support of logicism.[9] opposed Martin Heidegger's obscure metaphysics, the
epitome of what logical positivism rejected. In the early
1930s, Carnap debated Heidegger over “metaphysical
18.4.3 Empiricism
pseudosentences”.[13] Despite its revolutionary aims, log-
ical positivism was but one view among many vying
In Germany, Hegelian metaphysics was a dominant
within Europe, and logical positivists initially spoke their
movement, and Hegelian successors such as F H Bradley
language.[13]
explained reality by postulating metaphysical entities
lacking empirical basis, drawing reaction in the form of
positivism.[11] Starting in the late 19th century, there was
“back to Kant” movement. Ernst Mach's positivism and 18.5.4 Export
phenomenalism were a major influence.
As the movement’s first emissary to the New World,
Moritz Schlick visited Stanford University in 1929, yet
otherwise remained in Vienna and was murdered at the
18.5 Origins University, reportedly by a deranged student, in 1936.[13]
That year, a British attendee at some Vienna Circle meet-
18.5.1 Vienna ings since 1933, A J Ayer saw his Language, Truth and
Logic, written in English, import logical positivism to the
The Vienna Circle, gathering around University of Vi- English-speaking world. By then, Nazi political party’s
enna and Café Central, was led principally by Moritz 1933 rise to power in Germany had triggered flight of
Schlick. Schlick had held a neo-Kantian position, but intellectuals.[13] In exile in England, Otto Neurath died
18.6. PRINCIPLES 159
in 1945.[13] Rudolf Carnap, Hans Reichenbach, and Carl and 1937 papers “Testability and meaning”, individual
Hempel—Carnap’s protégé who had studied in Berlin terms replace sentences as the units of meaning.[12] Fur-
with Reichenbach—settled permanently in America.[13] ther, theoretical terms no longer need to acquire mean-
Upon Germany’s annexation of Austria in 1938, remaining by explicit definition from observational terms: the
ing logical positivists, many of whom were also Jewish, connection may be indirect, through a system of implicit
were targeted and continued flight. Logical positivism definitions.[12] (Carnap also provides an important, pio-
thus became dominant in the English-speaking world. neering discussion of disposition predicates.)[12]
18.6 Principles 18.6.3 Cognitive meaningfulness
Verification
18.6.1 Analytic/synthetic gap
The logical positivists’ initial stance was that a state-
Concerning reality, the necessary is a state true in ment is “cognitively meaningful” only if some finite
all possible worlds—mere logical validity—whereas the procedure conclusively determines its truth.[16] By this
contingent hinges on the way the particular world is. Con- verifiability principle, only statements verifiable either by
cerning knowledge, the a priori is knowable before or their analyticity or by empiricism were cognitively mean-
without, whereas the a posteriori is knowable only after or ingful. Metaphysics, ontology, as well as much of ethics
through, relevant experience. Concerning statements, the failed this criterion, and so were found cognitively mean-
analytic is true via terms’ arrangement and meanings, thus ingless. Moritz Schlick, however, did not view ethical or
a tautology—true by logical necessity but uninformative aesthetic statements as cognitively meaningless.[17] Cog-
about the world—whereas the synthetic adds reference to nitive meaningfulness was variously defined: having a
a state of facts, a contingency. truth value; corresponding to a possible state of affairs;
In 1739, Hume cast a fork aggressively dividing “rela- naming a proposition; intelligible or understandable as
[18]
tions of ideas” from “matters of fact and real existence”, are scientific statements.
[14][15]
such that all truths are of one type or the other. Ethics and aesthetics were subjective preferences, while
By Hume’s fork, truths by relations among ideas (ab- theology and other metaphysics contained “pseudostate-
stract) all align on one side (analytic, necessary, a priori), ments”, neither true nor false. This meaningfulness was
whereas truths by states of actualities (concrete) always cognitive, although other types of meaningfulness—for
align on the other side (synthetic, contingent, a posteri- instance, emotive, expressive, or figurative—occurred in
ori).[14] At any treatises containing neither, Hume orders, metaphysical discourse, dismissed from further review.
“Commit it then to the flames, for it can contain nothing Thus, logical positivism indirectly asserted Hume’s law,
but sophistry and illusion”.[14] the principle that is statements cannot justify ought state-
Thus awakened from “dogmatic slumber”, Kant quested ments, but are separated by an unbridgeable gap. A
to answer Hume’s challenge—but by explaining how J Ayer's 1936 book asserted an extreme variant—the
metaphysics is possible. Eventually, in his 1781 work, boo/hooray doctrine—whereby all evaluative judgments
Kant crossed the tines of Hume’s fork to identify an- are but emotional reactions.
other range of truths by necessity—synthetic a priori,
statements claiming states of facts but known true be-
Confirmation
fore experience—by arriving at transcendental idealism,
attributing the mind a constructive role in phenomena by
In an important pair of papers in 1936 and 1937, “Testa-
arranging sense data into the very experience space, time,
bility and meaning”, Carnap replaced verification with
and substance. Thus, Kant saved Newton’s law of uni-
confirmation, on the view that although universal laws
versal gravitation from Hume’s problem of induction by
cannot be verified they can be confirmed.[12] Later, Car-
finding uniformity of nature to be a priori knowledge.
nap employed abundant logical and mathematical meth-
Logical positivists rejected Kant’s synthethic a priori, and
ods in researching inductive logic while seeking to pro-
staked Hume’s fork, whereby a statement is either ana-
vide and account of probability as “degree of confirma-
lytic and a priori (thus necessary and verifiable logically)
tion”, but was never able to formulate a model.[19] In Car-
or synthetic and a posteriori (thus contingent and verifi-
nap’s inductive logic, every universal law’s degree of con-
able empirically).[14]
firmation is always zero.[19] In any event, the precise for-
mulation of what came to be called the “criterion of cog-
18.6.2 Observation/theory gap nitive significance” took three decades (Hempel 1950,
Carnap 1956, Carnap 1961).[12]
Early, most logical positivists proposed that all knowl- Carl Hempel became a major critic within the logical pos-
edge is based on logical inference from simple “proto- itivism movement.[20] Hempel elucidated the paradox of
col sentences” grounded in observable facts. In the 1936 confirmation.
Weak verification always carries only $1 bills in his wallet—a law suggests
what must be true,[27] and is consequent of a scientific
The second edition of A J Ayer's book arrived in 1946, theory's axiomatic structure.[28] )
and discerned strong versus weak forms of verification. By the Humean empiricist view that humans observe
Ayer concluded, “A proposition is said to be verifiable, in sequence of events, not cause and effect—as causality
the strong sense of the term, if, and only if, its truth could and causal mechanisms are unobservable—DN model ne-
be conclusively established by experience”, but is verifi- glects causality beyond mere constant conjunction, first
able in the weak sense “if it is possible for experience to event A and then always event B.[23] Hempel’s explica-
render it probable”.[21] And yet, “no proposition, other tion of DN model held natural laws—empirically con-
than a tautology, can possibly be anything more than a firmed regularities—as satisfactory and, if formulated re-
probable hypothesis".[21] Thus, all are open to weak ver- alistically, approximating causal explanation.[25] In later
ification. articles, Hempel defended DN model and proposed a
probabilistic explanation, inductive-statistical model (IS
model).[25] DN model and IS model together form cov-
18.7 Philosophy of science ering law model,[25] as named by a critic, William
Dray.[29] (Derivation of statistical laws from other sta-
tistical laws goes to deductive-statistical model (DS
Upon the global defeat of Nazism, and the removal from
model).)[30] Georg Henrik von Wright, another critic,
philosophy of rivals for radical reform—Marburg neo-
named it subsumption theory,[31] fitting the ambition of
Kantianism, Husserlian phenomenology, Heidegger's
theory reduction.
“existential hermeneutics”—and while hosted in the cli-
mate of American pragmatism and commonsense em-
piricism, the neopositivists shed much of their earlier,
revolutionary zeal.[1] No longer crusading to revise tradi-
18.7.2 Unity of science
tional philosophy into a new scientific philosophy, they be-
came respectable members of a new philosophy subdis- Logical positivists were generally committed to "Unified
cipline, philosophy of science.[1] Receiving support from Science", and sought a common language or, in Neurath’s
Ernest Nagel, logical empiricists were especially influen- phrase, a “universal slang”[32]whereby all scientific proposi-
tial in the social sciences.[22] tions could be expressed. The adequacy of proposals
or fragments of proposals for such a language was often
asserted on the basis of various “reductions” or “explica-
tions” of the terms of one special science to the terms of
18.7.1 Explanation another, putatively more fundamental. Sometimes these
reductions consisted of set-theoretic manipulations of a
Comtean positivism had viewed science as description,
few logically primitive concepts (as in Carnap’s Logical
whereas the logical positivists posed science as explana-
Structure of the World (1928)). Sometimes, these reduc-
tion, perhaps to better realize the envisioned unity of sci-
tions consisted of allegedly analytic or a priori deductive
ence by covering not only fundamental science—that is,
relationships (as in Carnap’s “Testability and meaning”).
fundamental physics—but the special sciences, too, for
A number of publications over a period of thirty years
instance biology, anthropology, psychology, sociology,
would attempt to elucidate this concept.
and economics.[23] The most widely accepted concept of
scientific explanation, held even by neopositivist critic
Karl Popper, was the deductive-nomological model (DN
model).[24] Yet DN model received its greatest explica-
18.7.3 Theory reduction
tion by Carl Hempel, first in his 1942 article “The func-
As in Comptean positivism's envisioned unity of sci-
tion of general laws in history”, and more explicitly with
ence, neopositivists aimed to network all special sciences
Paul Oppenheim in their 1948 article “Studies in the logic
[24] through the covering law model of scientific explanation.
of explanation”.
And ultimately, by supplying boundary conditions and
In DN model, the stated phenomenon to be explained supplying bridge laws within the covering law model, all
is the explanandum—which can be an event, law, or the special sciences’ laws would reduce to fundamental
theory—whereas premises stated to explain it are the ex- physics, the fundamental science.
planans.[25] Explanans must be true or highly confirmed,
contain at least one law, and entail the explanandum.[25]
Thus, given initial conditions C1 , C2 . . . Cn plus general
laws L1 , L2 . . . Ln, event E is a deductive consequence 18.8 Critics
and scientifically explained.[25] In DN model, a law is an
unrestricted generalization by conditional proposition— After the Second World War's close in 1945, key tenets
If A, then B—and has empirical content testable.[26] (Dif- of logical positivism, including its atomistic philosophy
fering from a merely true regularity—for instance, George of science, the verifiability principle, and the fact/value
18.8. CRITICS 161
gap, drew escalated criticism. It was clear that empir- method as hypotheticodeduction, whose inference form
ical claims cannot be verified to be universally true.[12] is denying the consequent, Popper finds scientific method
Thus, as initially stated, the verifiability criterion made unable to proceed without falsifiable predictions. Popper
universal statements meaningless, and even made state- thus identifies falsifiability to demarcate not meaningful
ments beyond empiricism for technological but not con- from meaningless but simply scientific from unscientific—
ceptual reasons meaningless, which would pose signif- a label not in itself unfavorable.
icant problems for science.[20][33][34] These problems Popper finds virtue in metaphysics, required to develop
were recognized within the movement, which hosted new scientific theories. And an unfalsifiable—thus un-
attempted solutions—Carnap’s move to confirmation,
scientific, perhaps metaphysical—concept in one era can
Ayer’s acceptance of weak verification—but the program later, through evolving knowledge or technology, become
drew sustained criticism from a number of directions by
falsifiable, thus scientific. Popper also found science’s
the 1950s. Even philosophers disagreeing among them- quest for truth to rest on values. Popper disparages the
selves on which direction general epistemology ought
pseudoscientific, which occurs when an unscientific the-
to take, as well as on philosophy of science, agreed ory is proclaimed true and coupled with seemingly scien-
that the logical empiricist program was untenable, and tific method by “testing” the unfalsifiable theory—whose
it became viewed as self-contradictory.[35] The verifia- predictions are confirmed by necessity—or when a scien-
bility criterion of meaning was itself unverified.[35] No- tific theory’s falsifiable predictions are strongly falsified
table critics were Nelson Goodman, Willard Van Orman but the theory is persistently protected by “immunizing
Quine, Norwood Hanson, Karl Popper, Thomas Kuhn, J stratagems”, such as the appendage of ad hoc clauses sav-
L Austin, Peter Strawson, Hilary Putnam, and Richard ing the theory or the recourse to increasingly speculative
Rorty. hypotheses shielding the theory.
Popper’s scientific epistemology is falsificationism, which
18.8.1 Quine finds that no number, degree, and variety of empiri-
cal successes can either verify or confirm scientific the-
Although quite empiricist, American logician Willard ory. Falsificationism finds science’s aim as corrobora-
Van Orman Quine published the 1951 paper Two tion of scientific theory, which strives for scientific real-
Dogmas of Empiricism,[36] which challenged conven- ism but accepts the maximal status of strongly corrobo-
tional empiricist presumptions. Quine attacked the rated verisimilitude (“truthlikeness”). Explicitly denying
analytic/synthetic division, which the verificationist pro- the positivist view that all knowledge is scientific, Popper
gram had been hinged upon in order to entail, by con- developed the general epistemology critical rationalism,
sequence of Hume’s fork, both necessity and apriocity. which finds human knowledge to evolve by conjectures
Quine’s ontological relativity explained that every term and refutations. Popper thus acknowledged the value of
in any statement has its meaning contingent on a vast the positivist movement, driving evolution of human un-
network of knowledge and belief, the speaker’s concep- derstanding, but claimed that he had “killed positivism”.
tion of the entire world. Quine later proposed naturalized
epistemology.
18.8.4 Kuhn
18.8.2 Hanson With his landmark, The Structure of Scientific Revo-
lutions, Thomas Kuhn critically destabilized the ver-
In 1958, Norwood Hanson's Patterns of Discovery under-
ificationist program, which was presumed to call for
mined the division of observation versus theory,[37] as one
foundationalism. (Actually, even in the 1930s, Otto Neu-
can predict, collect, prioritize, and assess data only via
rath had argued for nonfoundationalism via coherentism
some horizon of expectation set by a theory. Thus, any
by likening science to a boat (Neurath’s boat) that scien-
dataset—the direct observations, the scientific facts—is
tists must rebuild at sea.[39] ) Although Kuhn’s thesis it-
laden with theory.
self was attacked even by opponents of neopositivism, in
the 1970 postscript to Structure, Kuhn asserted, at least,
that there was no algorithm to science—and, on that, even
18.8.3 Popper
most of Kuhn’s critics agreed.
An early, tenacious critic was Karl Popper whose 1934 Powerful and persuasive, Kuhn’s book, unlike the vocab-
book Logik der Forschung, arriving in English in 1959 as ulary and symbols of logic’s formal language, was writ-
The Logic of Scientific Discovery, directly answered ver- ten in natural language open to the layperson.[40] Ironi-
ificationism. Popper heeded the problem of induction as cally, Kuhn’s book was first published in a volume of En-
rendering empirical verification logically impossible.[38] cyclopedia of Unified Science—a project begun by logi-
And the deductive fallacy of affirming the consequent cal positivists—and some sense unified science, indeed,
reveals any phenomenon’s capacity to host over one but by bringing it into the realm of historical and so-
logically possible explanation. Accepting scientific cial assessment, rather than fitting it to the model of
physics.[40] Kuhn’s ideas were rapidly adopted by schol- Hempel was key in establishing the philosophy subdisci-
ars in disciplines well outside natural sciences,[40] and, pline philosophy of science[13] where Thomas Kuhn and
as logical empiricists were extremely influential in the Karl Popper brought in the era of postpositivism.[40] John
social sciences,[22] ushered academia into postpositivism Passmore found logical positivism to be “dead, or as dead
or postempiricism.[40] as a philosophical movement ever becomes”.[43]
Logical positivism’s fall reopened debate over the meta-
18.8.5 Putnam physical merit of scientific theory, whether it can of-
fer knowledge of the world beyond human experience
The "received view" operates on the correspondence rule (scientific realism) versus whether it is but a human tool
that states, “The observational terms are taken as refer- to predict human experience (instrumentalism).[46][47]
ring to specified phenomena or phenomenal properties, Meanwhile, it became popular among philosophers to
and the only interpretation given to the theoretical terms rehash the faults and failures of logical positivism with-
is their explicit definition provided by the correspondence out investigation of it.[48] Thereby, logical positivism has
rules”.[11] According to Hilary Putnam, a former student been generally misrepresented, sometimes severely.[49]
of Reichenbach and of Carnap, the dichotomy of obser- Arguing for their own views, often framed versus logical
vational terms versus theoretical terms introduced a prob- positivism, many philosophers have reduced logical posi-
lem within scientific discussion that was nonexistent until tivism to simplisms and stereotypes, especially the notion
this dichotomy was stated by logical positivists.[41] Put- of logical positivism as a type of foundationalism.[49] In
nam’s four objections: any event, the movement helped anchor analytic philoso-
phy in the English-speaking world, and returned Britain
to empiricism. Without the logical positivists, who have
1. Something is referred to as “observational” if it is
been tremendously influential outside philosophy, espe-
observable directly with our senses. Then an obser-
cially in psychology and social sciences, intellectual life
vation term cannot be applied to something unob-
of the 20th century would be unrecognizable.[13]
servable. If this is the case, there are no observation
terms.
2. With Carnap’s classification, some unobservable 18.10 Footnotes
terms are not even theoretical and belong to neither
observation terms nor theoretical terms. Some the- [1] Michael Friedman, Reconsidering Logical Positivism (New
oretical terms refer primarily to observation terms. York: Cambridge University Press, 1999), p xiv.
3. Reports of observation terms frequently contain the- [2] See “Vienna Circle” in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philoso-
oretical terms. phy.
4. A scientific theory may not contain any theoretical [3] Smith, L.D. (1986). Behaviorism and Logical Positivism:
terms (an example of this is Darwin’s original theory A Reassessment of the Alliance. Stanford University Press.
of evolution). p. 314. ISBN 9780804713016. LCCN 85030366. The
secondary and historical literature on logical positivism
affords substantial grounds for concluding that logical pos-
Putnam also alleged that positivism was actually a form of
itivism failed to solve many of the central problems it gen-
metaphysical idealism by its rejecting scientific theory’s erated for itself. Prominent among the unsolved prob-
ability to garner knowledge about nature’s unobservable lems was the failure to find an acceptable statement of the
aspects. With his “no miracles” argument, posed in 1974, verifiability (later confirmability) criterion of meaningful-
Putnam asserted scientific realism, the stance that science ness. Until a competing tradition emerged (about the late
achieves true—or approximately true—knowledge of the 1950’s), the problems of logical positivism continued to
world as it exists independently of humans’ sensory expe- be attacked from within that tradition. But as the new tra-
rience. In this, Putnam opposed not only the positivism dition in the philosophy of science began to demonstrate
but other instrumentalism—whereby scientific theory is its effectiveness—by dissolving and rephrasing old prob-
but a human tool to predict human observations—filling lems as well as by generating new ones—philosophers be-
gan to shift allegiances to the new tradition, even though
the void left by positivism’s decline.
that tradition has yet to receive a canonical formulation.
[4] Bunge, M.A. (1996). Finding Philosophy in Social

18.9 Retrospect Science. Yale University Press. p. 317. ISBN
9780300066067. LCCN lc96004399. To conclude, log-
ical positivism was progressive compared with the classi-
By the late 1960s, logical positivism had clearly run its cal positivism of Ptolemy, Hume, d'Alembert, Compte,
course.[42] Interviewed in the late 1970s, A J Ayer sup- John Stuart Mill, and Ernst Mach. It was even more
posed that “the most important” defect “was that nearly so by comparison with its contemporary rivals—neo-
all of it was false”.[43][44] Although logical positivism Thomisism, neo-Kantianism, intuitionism, dialectical ma-
tends to be recalled as a pillar of scientism,[45] Carl terialism, phenomenology, and existentialism. However,
18.10. FOOTNOTES 163
neo-positivism failed dismally to give a faithful account [15] Helen B Mitchell, Roots of Wisdom: A Tapestry of Philo-
of science, whether natural or social. It failed because it sophical Traditions: A Tapestry of Philosophical Tradi-
remained anchored to sense-data and to a phenomenal- tions, 6th edn (Boston: Wadsworth, 2011), “Hume’s fork
ist metaphysics, overrated the power of induction and un- and logical positivism”, pp 249-50.
derrated that of hypothesis, and denounced realism and
[16] For a classic survey of other versions of verificationism,
materialism as metaphysical nonsense. Although it has
see Carl G Hempel, “Problems and changes in the em-
never been practiced consistently in the advanced natural
piricist criterion of meaning”, Revue Internationale de
sciences and has been criticized by many philosophers,
Philosophie, 1950;41:41-63.
notably Popper (1959 [1935], 1963), logical positivism
remains the tacit philosophy of many scientists. Regret- [17] See Moritz Schlick, “The future Of philosophy”, in The
tably, the anti-positivism fashionable in the metatheory of Linguistic Turn, Richard Rorty, ed, (Chicago: University
social science is often nothing but an excuse for sloppiness of Chicago Press, 1992), pp 43-53.
and wild speculation.
[18] Examples of these different views can be found in Schef-
[5] “Popper, Falsifiability, and the Failure of Positivism”. 7 fler’s Anatomy of Inquiry, Ayer’s Language, Truth, and
August 2000. Archived from the original on 7 January Logic, Schlick’s “Positivism and realism” (reprinted in
2014. Retrieved 30 June 2012. The upshot is that the pos- Sarkar 1996 and Ayer 1959), and Carnap’s Philosophy
itivists seem caught between insisting on the V.C. [Veri- and Logical Syntax.
fiability Criterion]—but for no defensible reason—or ad- [19] Mauro Murzi “Rudolf Carnap (1891—1970)", Internet
mitting that the V.C. requires a background language, etc., Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 12 Apr 2001.
which opens the door to relativism, etc. In light of this
dilemma, many folk—especially following Popper’s “last- [20] Fetzer, James (2012). Edward N. Zalta, ed. “Carl
ditch” effort to “save” empiricism/positivism/realism with Hempel”. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
the falsifiability criterion—have agreed that positivism is (Summer 2012 ed.). It would fall to Hempel to be-
a dead-end. come perhaps the most astute critic of that movement
and to contribute to its refinement as logical empiricism...
[6] For example, compare “Proposition 4.024” of Tractatus, Hempel himself attained a certain degree of prominence
asserting that we understand a proposition when we know as a critic of this movement... The analytic/synthetic dis-
the outcome if it is true, with Schlick’s asserting, “To state tinction and the observational/theoretical distinction were
the circumstances under which a proposition is true is the tied together by the verifiability criterion of meaningful-
same as stating its meaning”. ness... By this standard, sentences that are non-analytic
but also non-verifiable, including various theological or
[7] “Positivismus und realismus”, Erkenntnis 3:1–31, English metaphysical assertions concerning God or The Absolute,
trans in Sarkar, Sahotra, ed, Logical Empiricism at its qualify as cognitively meaningless. This was viewed as a
Peak: Schlick, Carnap, and Neurath (New York: Garland desirable result. But, as Hempel would demonstrate, its
Publishing, 1996), p 38. scope was far too sweeping, since it also rendered mean-
ingless the distinctively scientific assertions made by laws
[8] For summary of the effect of Tractatus on logical pos- and theories... The analytic/synthetic distinction took a
itivists, see the Entwicklung der Thesen des “Wiener decided hit when the noted logician, Willard van Orman
Kreises”. Quine, published “Two Dogmas of Empiricism” (1953),
challenging its adequacy... While the analytic/synthetic
[9] Jaako Hintikka, “Logicism”, in Andrew D Irvine, ed, Phi- distinction appears to be justifiable in modeling impor-
losophy of Mathematics (Burlington MA: North Holland, tant properties of languages, the observational/theoretical
2009), pp 283–84. distinction does not fare equally well. Within logical pos-
itivism, observation language was assumed to consist of
[10] See Rudolf Carnap, “The elimination Of metaphysics names and predicates whose applicability or not can be
through logical analysis of language”, Erkenntnis, 1932;2, ascertained, under suitable conditions, by means of di-
reprinted in Logical Positivism, Alfred Jules Ayer, ed, rect observation... Karl Popper (1965, 1968), however,
(New York: Free Press, 1959), pp 60–81. would carry the argument in a different direction by look-
ing at the ontic nature of properties... Hempel (1950,
[11] Frederick Suppe, “The positivist model of scientific the- 1951), meanwhile, demonstrated that the verifiability cri-
ories”, in Scientific Inquiry, Robert Klee, ed, (New York: terion could not be sustained. Since it restricts empiri-
Oxford University Press, 1999), pp 16-24. cal knowledge to observation sentences and their deduc-
tive consequences, scientific theories are reduced to logi-
[12] Sarkar, S; Pfeifer, J (2005). The Philosophy of Science: cal constructions from observables. In a series of studies
An Encyclopedia. 1. Taylor & Francis. p. 83. ISBN about cognitive significance and empirical testability, he
9780415939270. demonstrated that the verifiability criterion implies that
existential generalizations are meaningful, but that uni-
[13] Friedman, Reconsidering Logical Positivism (Cambridge versal generalizations are not, even though they include
U P, 1999), p xii. general laws, the principal objects of scientific discovery.
Hypotheses about relative frequencies in finite sequences
[14] Antony G Flew, A Dictionary of Philosophy, rev 2nd edn are meaningful, but hypotheses concerning limits in infi-
(New York: St Martin’s Press, 1984), “Hume’s fork”, p nite sequences are not. The verifiability criterion thus im-
156. posed a standard that was too strong to accommodate the
characteristic claims of science and was not justifiable... [30] Stuart Glennan, p 276, in Sarkar S & Pfeifer J, eds, The
Both theoretical and dispositional predicates, which refer Philosophy of Science: An Encyclopedia, Volume 1: A–M
to non-observables, posed serious problems for the posi- (New York: Routledge, 2006).
tivist position, since the verifiability criterion implies they
must be reducible to observables or are empirically mean- [31] Manfred Riedel, pp 3–4, in Manninen J & Tuomela R,
ingless... The need to dismantle the verifiability criterion eds, Essays on Explanation and Understanding: Studies in
of meaningfulness together with the demise of the ob- the Foundation of Humanities and Social Sciences (Dor-
servational/theoretical distinction meant that logical posi- drecht: D Reidel Publishing, 1976).
tivism no longer represented a rationally defensible posi- [32] For a review of “unity of science” to, see Gregory Frost-
tion. At least two of its defining tenets had been shown Arnold, “The large-scale structure of logical empiricism:
to be without merit. Since most philosophers believed Unity of science and the rejection of metaphysics”.
that Quine had shown the analytic/synthetic distinction
was also untenable, moreover, many concluded that the [33] John Vicker (2011). Edward N Zalta, ed. “The problem
enterprise had been a total failure. Among the impor- of induction”. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
tant benefits of Hempel’s critique, however, was the pro- (Fall 2011 ed.). This initial formulation of the criterion
duction of more general and flexible criteria of cognitive was soon seen to be too strong; it counted as meaningless
significance... Hempel suggested multiple criteria for as- not only metaphysical statements but also statements that
sessing the cognitive significance of different theoretical are clearly empirically meaningful, such as that all copper
systems, where significance is not categorical but rather conducts electricity and, indeed, any universally quanti-
a matter of degree... The elegance of Hempel’s study fied statement of infinite scope, as well as statements that
laid to rest any lingering aspirations for simple criteria of were at the time beyond the reach of experience for tech-
cognitive significance and signaled the demise of logical nical, and not conceptual, reasons, such as that there are
positivism as a philosophical movement. Precisely what mountains on the back side of the moon. These difficul-
remained, however, was in doubt. Presumably, anyone ties led to modification of the criterion: The latter to allow
who rejected one or more of the three principles defining empirical verification if not in fact then at least in princi-
positivism—the analytic/synthetic distinction, the obser- ple, the former to soften verification to empirical confir-
vational/theoretical distinction, and the verifiability crite- mation.
rion of significance—was not a logical positivist. The pre-
cise outlines of its philosophical successor, which would [34] Uebel, Thomas (2008). Edward N. Zalta, ed. “Vienna
be known as “logical empiricism”, were not entirely evi- Circle”. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall
dent. Perhaps this study came the closest to defining its 2008 ed.). What Carnap later called the “liberalization
intellectual core. Those who accepted Hempel’s four cri- of empiricism” was underway and different camps be-
teria and viewed cognitive significance as a matter of de- came discernible within the Circle... In the first place,
gree were members, at least in spirit. But some new prob- this liberalization meant the accommodation of univer-
lems were beginning to surface with respect to Hempel’s sally quantified statements and the return, as it were, to
covering-law explication of explanation and old problems salient aspects of Carnap’s 1928 conception. Everybody
remained from his studies of induction, the most remark- had noted that the Wittgensteinian verificationist criterion
able of which was known as “the paradox of confirma- rendered universally quantified statements meaningless.
tion”. Schlick (1931) thus followed Wittgenstein’s own sugges-
tion to treat them instead as representing rules for the for-
[21] Ayer, Language, Truth and Logic, 1946, p 50–51. mation of verifiable singular statements. (His abandon-
ment of conclusive verifiability is indicated only in Schlick
[22] Novick, That Noble Dream (Cambridge U P, 1988), p
1936a.) A second element that began to do so soon was
546.
the recognition of the problem of the irreducibility of dis-
[23] James Woodward, “Scientific explanation”—sec 1 “Back- position terms to observation terms... A third element was
ground and introduction”, in Zalta EN, ed,The Stanford that disagreement arose as to whether the in-principle ver-
Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Winter 2011 edn ifiability or support turned on what was merely logically
possible or on what was nomologically possible, as a mat-
[24] James Woodward, “Scientific explanation”—Article ter of physical law etc. A fourth element, finally, was that
overview, Zalta EN, ed, The Stanford Encyclopedia of differences emerged as to whether the criterion of signif-
Philosophy, Winter 2011 edn icance was to apply to all languages or whether it was to
apply primarily to constructed, formal languages. Schlick
[25] Suppe, Structure of Scientific Theories (U Illinois P, 1977),
retained the focus on logical possibility and natural lan-
pp 619–21.
guages throughout, but Carnap had firmly settled his fo-
[26] Eleonora Montuschi, Objects in Social Science (London & cus on nomological possibility and constructed languages
New York: Continuum, 2003), pp 61–62. by the mid-thirties. Concerned with natural language,
Schlick (1932, 1936a) deemed all statements meaning-
[27] Bechtel, Philosophy of Science (Lawrence Erlbaum, ful for which it was logically possible to conceive of a
1988), p 25. procedure of verification; concerned with constructed lan-
[28] Bechtel, Philosophy of Science (Lawrence Erlbaum, guages only, Carnap (1936-37) deemed meaningful only
1988), pp 27–28. statements for whom it was nomologically possible to con-
ceive of a procedure of confirmation of disconfirmation.
[29] Georg Henrik von Wright, Explanation and Understand- Many of these issues were openly discussed at the Paris
ing (Ithaca NY: Cornell University Press, 1971), p 11. congress in 1935. Already in 1932 Carnap had sought
18.11. SEE ALSO 165
to sharpen his previous criterion by stipulating that those [44] “Ayer on Logical Positivism: Section 4”. 6:30.
statements were meaningful that were syntactically well-
formed and whose non-logical terms were reducible to [45] Stahl et al, Webs of Reality (Rutgers U P, 2002), p 180.
terms occurring in the basic observational evidence state-
[46] Hilary Putnam, “What is realism?", in Jarrett Leplin, ed,
ments of science. While Carnap’s focus on the reduc-
Scientific Realism (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: Uni-
tion of descriptive terms allows for the conclusive ver-
versity of California Press, 1984), p 140.
ification of some statements, his criterion also allowed
universally quantified statements to be meaningful, pro- [47] Ruth Lane, “Positivism, scientific realism and political
vided they were syntactically and terminologically correct science: Recent developments in the philosophy of sci-
(1932a, §2). It was not until one of his Paris addresses, ence”, Journal of Theoretical Politics, 1996 Jul8(3):361-
however, that Carnap officially declared the meaning cri- 82, abstract.
terion to be mere confirmability. Carnap’s new crite-
rion required neither verification nor falsification but only [48] Friedman, Reconsidering Logical Positivism (Cambridge,
partial testability so as now to include not only universal 1999), p 1.
statements but also the disposition statements of science...
Though plausible initially, the device of introducing non- [49] Friedman, Reconsidering Logical Positivism (Cambridge,
observational terms in this way gave rise to a number of 1999), p 2.
difficulties which impugned the supposedly clear distinc-
tions between logical and empirical matters and analytic
and synthetic statements (Hempel 1951). Independently, 18.11 See also
Carnap himself (1939) soon gave up the hope that all the-
oretical terms of science could be related to an obser-
vational base by such reduction chains. This admission 18.12 References
raised a serious problem for the formulation of a meaning
criterion: how was one to rule out unwanted metaphys-
ical claims while admitting as significant highly abstract Bechtel, William, Philosophy of Science: An Overview for
scientific claims? Cognitive Science (Hillsdale NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum As-
soc, 1988).
[35] Hilary Putnam (1985). Philosophical Papers: Volume 3,
Realism and Reason. Philosophical Papers. Cambridge Friedman, Michael, Reconsidering Logical Positivism
University Press. p. 184. ISBN 9780521313940. LCCN (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999).
lc82012903.
Novick, Peter, That Noble Dream: The 'Objectivity Ques-
[36] W V O Quine, “Two Dogmas of Empiricism”, Philosoph- tion' and the American Historical Profession (Cambridge
ical Review 1951;60:20-43, collected in Quine, From a UK: Cambridge University Press, 1988).
Logical Point of View (Cambridge MA: Harvard Univer-
sity Press, 1953).
Stahl, William A & Robert A Campbell, Yvonne Petry,
Gary Diver, Webs of Reality: Social Perspectives on Sci-
[37] Novick, That Noble Dream (Cambridge U P, 1988), p ence and Religion (Piscataway NJ: Rutgers University
527. Press, 2002).
[38] Popper then denies that science requires inductive infer- Suppe, Frederick, ed, The Structure of Scientific Theories,
ence or that it actually exists, although most philosophers 2nd edn (Urbana IL: University of Illinois Press, 1977).
believe it exists and that science requires it [Samir Okasha,
The Philosophy of Science: A Very Short Introduction (NY:
OUP, 2002), p 23].
[39] Cartwright, Nancy; Cat, Jordi; Fleck, Lola; Uebel,
Thomas E. (2008). “On Neurath’s Boat”. Otto Neurath:
• Achinstein, Peter and Barker, Stephen F. The
Philosophy Between Science and Politics. Ideas in Con-
text. 38. Cambridge University Press. pp. 89–94. ISBN Legacy of Logical Positivism: Studies in the Philos-
9780521041119. ophy of Science. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press,
1969.
[40] Novick, That Noble Dream (Cambridge U P, 1988), pp
526-27. • Ayer, Alfred Jules. Logical Positivism. Glencoe, Ill:
Free Press, 1959.
[41] Hilary Putnam, “Problems with the observa-
tional/theoretical distinction”, in Scientific Inquiry, • Barone, Francesco. Il neopositivismo logico. Roma
Robert Klee, ed (New York, USA: Oxford University Bari: Laterza, 1986.
Press, 1999), pp 25-29.
• Bergmann, Gustav. The Metaphysics of Logical Pos-
[42] Nicholas G Fotion (1995). Ted Honderich, ed. The Ox-
ford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford Univer- itivism. New York: Longmans Green, 1954.
sity Press. p. 508. ISBN 0-19-866132-0.
• Cirera, Ramon. Carnap and the Vienna Circle: Em-
[43] Hanfling, Oswald (2003). “Logical Positivism”. Routledge piricism and Logical Syntax. Atlanta, GA: Rodopi,
History of Philosophy. Routledge. pp. 193f. 1994.
• Edmonds, David & Eidinow, John; Wittgenstein’s • Richardson, Alan and Thomas Uebel (eds.) The
Poker, ISBN 0-06-621244-8 Cambridge Companion to Logical Positivism. New
York: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
• Friedman, Michael. Reconsidering Logical Pos-
itivism. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University • Salmon, Wesley and Wolters, Gereon (ed.) Logic,
Press, 1999 Language, and the Structure of Scientific Theories:
Proceedings of the Carnap-Reichenbach Centennial,
• Gadol, Eugene T. Rationality and Science: A Memo- University of Konstanz, 21–24 May 1991, Pitts-
rial Volume for Moritz Schlick in Celebration of the burgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1994.
Centennial of his Birth. Wien: Springer, 1982.
• Sarkar, Sahotra (ed.) The Emergence of Logical
• Geymonat, Ludovico. La nuova filosofia della Empiricism: From 1900 to the Vienna Circle. New
natura in Germania. Torino, 1934. York: Garland Publishing, 1996.
• Giere, Ronald N. and Richardson, Alan W. Origins • Sarkar, Sahotra (ed.) Logical Empiricism at its Peak:
of Logical Empiricism. Minneapolis: University of Schlick, Carnap, and Neurath. New York: Garland
Minnesota Press, 1997. Pub., 1996.
• Hanfling, Oswald. Logical Positivism. Oxford: B. • Sarkar, Sahotra (ed.) Logical Empiricism and the
Blackwell, 1981. Special Sciences: Reichenbach, Feigl, and Nagel.
New York: Garland Pub., 1996.
• Jangam, R. T. Logical Positivism and Politics. Delhi:
Sterling Publishers, 1970. • Sarkar, Sahotra (ed.) Decline and Obsolescence of
Logical Empiricism: Carnap vs. Quine and the Crit-
• Janik, Allan and Toulmin, Stephen. Wittgenstein’s ics. New York: Garland Pub., 1996.
Vienna. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1973.
• Sarkar, Sahotra (ed.) The Legacy of the Vienna
• Kraft, Victor. The Vienna Circle: The Origin of Circle: Modern Reappraisals. New York: Garland
Neo-positivism, a Chapter in the History of Recent Pub., 1996.
Philosophy. New York: Greenwood Press, 1953.
• Spohn, Wolfgang (ed.) Erkenntnis Orientated: A
• McGuinness, Brian. Wittgenstein and the Vienna Centennial Volume for Rudolf Carnap and Hans Re-
Circle: Conversations Recorded by Friedrich Wais- ichenbach, Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers,
mann. Trans. by Joachim Schulte and Brian 1991.
McGuinness. New York: Barnes & Noble Books,
1979. • Stadler, Friedrich. The Vienna Circle. Studies in the
Origins, Development, and Influence of Logical Em-
• Milkov, Nikolay (ed.). Die Berliner Gruppe. Texte piricism. New York: Springer, 2001. – 2nd Edition:
zum Logischen Empirismus von Walter Dubislav, Dordrecht: Springer, 2015.
Kurt Grelling, Carl G. Hempel, Alexander Herzberg,
Kurt Lewin, Paul Oppenheim und Hans Reichenbach. • Stadler, Friedrich (ed.). The Vienna Circle and Log-
Hamburg: Meiner 2015. (German) ical Empiricism. Re-evaluation and Future Perspec-
tives. Dordrecht – Boston – London, Kluwer 2003.
• Mises von, Richard. Positivism: A Study in Hu-
man Understanding. Cambridge: Harvard Univer- • Werkmeister, William (May 1937). “Seven The-
sity Press, 1951. ses of Logical Positivism Critically Examined”. The
Philosophical Review. Cornell University. 46 (3):
• Parrini, Paolo. Empirismo logico e convenzional- 276–297. JSTOR 2181086. doi:10.2307/2181086.
ismo: saggio di storia della filosofia della scienza.
Milano: F. Angeli, 1983.
• Parrini, Paolo; Salmon, Wesley C.; Salmon, Mer- 18.14 External links
rilee H. (ed.) Logical Empiricism — Historical and
Contemporary Perspectives, Pittsburgh: University Articles by logical positivists
of Pittsburgh Press, 2003.
• The Scientific Conception of the World: The Vienna
• Reisch, George. How the Cold War Transformed Circle
Philosophy of Science : To the Icy Slopes of Logic.
New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005. • Carnap, Rudolf. 'The Elimination of Metaphysics
Through Logical Analysis of Language'
• Rescher, Nicholas. The Heritage of Logical Posi-
tivism. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, • Carnap, Rudolf. 'Empiricism, Semantics, and On-
1985. tology.'
• Excerpt from Carnap, Rudolf. Philosophy and Log-

ical Syntax.
• Feigl, Herbert. 'Positivism in the Twentieth Century
(Logical Empiricism)', Dictionary of the History of
Ideas, 1974, Gale Group (Electronic Edition)
• Hempel, Carl. 'Problems and Changes in the Em-

piricist Criterion of Meaning.'
Articles on logical positivism
• Creath, Richard. “Logical Empiricism”. Stanford

Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
• Kemerling, Garth. 'Logical Positivism', Philosophy
Pages
• Murzi, Mauro. 'Logical Positivism', The New Ency-
clopedia of Unbelief, Tom Flynn (ed.). Prometheus
Books, 2007 (PDF version)
• Murzi, Mauro. 'The Philosophy of Logical Posi-

tivism.'
• Passmore, John. 'Logical Positivism', The Encyclo-

pedia of Philosophy, Paul Edwards (ed.). New York:
Macmillan, 1967, first edition
Articles on related philosophical topics
• Hájek, Alan. 'Interpretations of Probability', The

Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2003
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)
• Rey, Georges. 'The Analytic/Synthetic Distinction',
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2003
• Ryckman, Thomas A., 'Early Philosophical Inter-

pretations of General Relativity', The Stanford En-
cyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2001 Edition), Ed-
ward N. Zalta (ed.)
• Woleński, Jan. 'Lvov-Warsaw School', The Stanford

Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2003 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.)
• Woodward, James. 'Scientific Explanation', The

Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2003
Chapter 19
Frankfurt School
The Frankfurt School (Frankfurter Schule) is a school course of modernity”.[7] Nonetheless, the critical theo-
of social theory and critical philosophy associated with rists Raymond Geuss and Nikolas Kompridis have op-
the Institute for Social Research, at Goethe University posed Habermas’s propositions, claiming he has under-
Frankfurt. Founded in the Weimar Republic (1918– mined the original social-change purposes of critical the-
33), during the European interwar period (1918–39), the ory, problems such as: What should reason mean?, the
Frankfurt School comprised intellectuals, academics, and analysis and expansion of the conditions necessary to re-
political dissidents who were ill-fitted to the contempo- alise social emancipation; and critiques of contemporary
rary socio-economic systems (capitalist, fascist, commu- capitalism.[8]
nist) of that time. The Frankfurt theoreticians proposed
that social theory was inadequate for explaining the tur-
bulent factionalism and reactionary politics of capitalist
societies in the twentieth century. Critical of capitalism 19.1 History
and Marxism–Leninism as philosophically inflexible sys-
tems, the School’s critical theory research indicated al- 19.1.1 Institute for Social Research
ternative paths to realising the social development of a
nation.[1] Main article: Institute for Social Research
Although loosely affiliated as intellectuals, the Frank-
furt School theoreticians spoke from the perspective The term Frankfurt School informally described the
of a common paradigm (open-ended, self-critical ap- intellectuals who were the Institute for Social Research
proach) based upon Marxist and Hegelian premises of (Institut für Sozialforschung), founded in 1923, by Carl
idealist philosophy.[2] To fill the omissions of 19th- Grünberg, a Marxist professor of law at the University of
century classical Marxism, which could not address 20th- Vienna, as an adjunct organization of the Goethe Uni-
century social problems, they sought answers in the versity Frankfurt.[9] The Frankfurt School was the first
philosophies of antipositivist sociology, psychoanalysis, Marxist research center at a German university; as such,
existentialism, etc.[3] The School’s sociologic works de- the School was originated by the wealthy student Felix
rived from syntheses of the thematically pertinent works Weil (1898–1975).[3]
of Immanuel Kant, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Karl
Marx, Sigmund Freud, Max Weber, Georg Simmel, and At university, Weil wrote his doctoral thesis on the practi-
Georg Lukács.[4][5] cal problems of implementing socialism. In 1922, he or-
ganized the First Marxist Workweek (Erste Marxistische
Like K. H. Marx, the Frankfurt School concerned them- Arbeitswoche) in effort to intertwine different trends of
selves with the conditions (political, economic, societal) Marxism into a coherent, practical philosophy; the sym-
that allow for social change, by way of rational social posium included Georg Lukács, Karl Korsch, Karl Au-
institutions.[6] The emphasis upon the critical component gust Wittfogel, and Friedrich Pollock. The success of
of social theory derived from surpassing the ideological the First Marxist Workweek prompted Weil to realise the
limitations of positivism, materialism, and determinism, formal establishment of a permanent institute for social
by returning to the critical philosophy of Kant, and his research. Weil negotiated with the Ministry of Educa-
successors in German idealism — principally the philos- tion that the director of the Institute for Social Research
ophy of G. W. F. Hegel, which emphasised dialectic and would be a professor from the state system of universi-
contradiction as intellectual properties inherent to human ties, thereby ensuring that the Frankfurt School would
reality. formally be a university institution.[10]
Since the 1960s, the critical-theory work of the Frank- Georg Lukács and Karl Korsch participated in the Ar-
furt School has been guided by the work of Jürgen beitswoche, which included study of Marxism and Phi-
Habermas in the fields of communicative rationality, losophy (1923), by Karl Korsch, but their communist-
linguistic intersubjectivity, and “the philosophical dis- party membership precluded formal membership to the
168
19.1. HISTORY 169
Frankfurt School; Korsch participated in the School’s

publishing ventures. Moreover, the political correct-
ness by which Lukács was compelled to repudiate his
book History and Class Consciousness (1923) indicated
that independence (political and ideologic) from the
Communist Party was a necessary condition for realising
intellectual work.[10] The philosophical tradition of the
Frankfurt School usually is associated with the philoso-
pher Max Horkheimer, who became director in 1930,
and recruited intellectuals such as Theodor W. Adorno
(philosopher, sociologist, musicologist), Erich Fromm
(psychoanalyst), and Herbert Marcuse (philosopher).[3]
Scholars of the Frankfurt School: Max Horkheimer (ft. left),
Theodor Adorno (ft. right), Jürgen Habermas (background,
19.1.2 Germany before WWII right), Heidelberg, 1965.
The political turmoil that characterized the Weimar Re-

public (1918–33) during the interwar years (1918–39) Horkheimer, Teodor Adorno, Herbert Marcuse, Leo
much affected the School’s philosophic development. Löwenthal, and Friedrich Pollock. Moreover, as a gen-
The scholars were especially influenced by the German eration, the academics and intellectuals who were the
Revolution of 1918–19, as the failure of communist revo- School, before the Second World War (1939–45), shared
lution in Western Europe (where Marx predicted it would a paradigm for critical investigation.[6] In the event, criti-
occur) and by the rise of Nazism (1933–45) in post–WWI cal scholarship yielded new knowledge, and produced di-
Germany. To explain such reactionary politics, some visions among of the School’s inner-circle, from which
Frankfurt scholars presented selections of Marxist phi- Jürgen Habermas was the first scholar to diverge from
losophy to illuminate the origins and causes of contempo- Horkheimer’s research program; the divergence pro-
rary socio-economics, in 20th-century Europe (of a type duced a new generation of critical theoreticians for and
Marx never witnessed in the 19th century). Further intel- from the Frankfurt School.[13]
lectual influence in developing the Frankfurt School de-
rived from the publication, in the 1930s, of the Economic Early scholars of the Frankfurt School were
and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844 (1932) and The
German Ideology (1932), in which Karl Marx showed log- • Max Horkheimer
ical continuity with Hegelianism, as the basis of Marxist
philosophy. • Theodor W. Adorno
As the threat of National Socialism increased to vio- • Herbert Marcuse
lent political anti-intellectualism, the founders decided
to move the Institute for Social Research out of Nazi • Friedrich Pollock
Germany.[11] Soon after Adolf Hitler’s rise to power in
• Erich Fromm
1933, the Institute first moved from Germany to Switzer-
land (Geneva), and then to the U.S. (New York City) in • Otto Kirchheimer
1935, and there became affiliated with Columbia Uni-
versity. Accordingly, the School’s journal, the Zeitschrift • Leo Löwenthal
für Sozialforschung (“Magazine of Social Research”)
• Franz Leopold Neumann
was renamed Studies in Philosophy and Social Science.
Thence began the emergence of the School’s important • Henryk Grossman[14]
critical-theory work, which gained acceptance among the
academy, in the U.S and in Britain. By the 1950s the
Intellectuals associated with the School include
paths of scholarship led to Horkheimer, Adorno, and Pol-
lock to leave the U.S. for West Germany, whilst Mar-
cuse, Löwenthal, and Kirchheimer remained in the U.S. • Siegfried Kracauer
In 1953, the Frankfurt School was formally re-established • Alfred Sohn-Rethel
in Frankfurt, West Germany.[12]
• Walter Benjamin
19.1.3 Theorists • Jürgen Habermas
• Claus Offe
See also: List of critical theorists
The scholars of the Frankfurt School were Max • Axel Honneth
170 CHAPTER 19. FRANKFURT SCHOOL
• Oskar Negt According to Horkheimer, the appropriate response to

this dilemma is the development of a critical theory.[19]
• Alfred Schmidt
The problem, Horkheimer argued, is epistemological: we
• Albrecht Wellmer should reconsider not merely the scientist but the know-
ing individual in general.[20] Unlike orthodox Marxism,
which merely applies a ready-made “template” to both
critique and action, critical theory seeks to be self-critical
19.2 Theoretical work and rejects any pretensions to absolute truth. Critical the-
ory defends the primacy of neither matter (materialism)
19.2.1 Critical theory and the critique of nor consciousness (idealism), and argues that both epis-
ideology temologies distort reality to the benefit, eventually, of
some small group. What critical theory attempts to do
The works of the Frankfurt School are understood in the is to place itself outside of philosophical strictures and
context of the objectives of critical theory. In Traditional the confines of existing structures. However, as a way
and Critical Theory (1937), Max Horkheimer defined of thinking and “recovering” humanity’s self-knowledge,
critical theory as social critique meant to realize social critical theory often looks to Marxism for its methods and
change and intellectual emancipation, by way of enlight- tools.[16]
enment that is not dogmatic in its assumptions.[15][16] The Horkheimer maintained that critical theory should be di-
original aim of critical theory was to analyze the true sig-rected at the totality of society in its historical specificity
nificance of the ruling understandings (dominant ideol- (i.e., how it came to be configured at a specific point in
ogy) generated in bourgeois society, by showing the ide- time), just as it should improve understanding of soci-
ological misrepresentations of how human relations oc- ety by integrating all the major social sciences, including
cur in the real world, and how such misrepresentations geography, economics, sociology, history, political sci-
function to justify and legitimate the domination of peo- ence, anthropology, and psychology. While critical the-
ple by capitalism. In the praxis of cultural hegemony, the ory must at all times be self-critical, Horkheimer insisted
dominant ideology is a ruling-class narrative story, which that a theory is critical only if it is explanatory. Criti-
explains that what is happening in society is normal, but cal theory must, therefore, combine practical and norma-
the story conceals as much as it reveals. The sociologi- tive thinking to “explain what is wrong with current so-
cal task of the Frankfurt School was to interpret the ar- cial reality, identify actors to change it, and provide clear
eas of social-relation that Marx had not discussed in the norms for criticism and practical goals for the future.”[21]
19th century, especially in the superstructure of a capi- Whereas traditional theory can only mirror and explain
talist society.[17] reality as it presently is, critical theory’s purpose is to
Horkheimer opposed critical theory to traditional the- change it; in Horkheimer’s words the goal of critical the-
ory, which term refers to theory in the positivistic sense ory is “the emancipation of human [22]
beings from the cir-
of scientism, of purely observational mode that derives cumstances that enslave them”.
generalization (scientific law) about an aspect of the real Frankfurt School theorists explicitly linked up with the
world. That the social sciences differ from the natural sci- critical philosophy of Immanuel Kant, in which the term
ences inasmuch as scientific generalizations cannot easily critique meant philosophical reflection on the limits of
be derived from experience, because the researcher’s un- claims made for certain kinds of knowledge and direct
derstanding of a social experience is always fashioned by connection between such critique and the emphasis on
ideas in the researcher’s mind. What the researcher does moral autonomy as opposed to traditionally determinis-
not understand is that he or she is in an historical con- tic and static theories of human action. In an intellec-
text, wherein ideologies shape human thought; thus, the tual context defined by dogmatic positivism and scientism
theory being tested would conform to the ideas of the re- on the one hand and dogmatic "scientific socialism" on
searcher, rather than conform to the experience proper; the other, critical theorists intended to rehabilitate Marx’s
in “Traditional and Critical Theory”, Horkheimer said: ideas through a philosophically critical approach.
For Horkheimer, approaches to understanding in the so- Whereas both Marxist–Leninist and social democratic or-
cial sciences cannot simply imitate those in the natural thodox thinkers viewed Marxism as a new kind of positive
sciences. Although various theoretical approaches would science, Frankfurt School theorists such as Horkheimer
come close to breaking out of the ideological constraints instead based their work on the epistemological base of
that restricted them, such as positivism, pragmatism, neo- Marx’s work, which presented itself as critique, as in
Kantianism, and phenomenology, Horkheimer argued Marx’s Capital: Critique of Political Economy. They thus
that they failed because all were subject to a “logico- emphasized that Marx attempted to create a new kind of
mathematical” prejudice that separates theoretical activ- critical analysis oriented toward the unity of theory and
ity from actual life (meaning that all these schools sought revolutionary practice rather than a new kind of positive
to find a logic that always remains true, independently of science. Critique, in this Marxian sense, means taking the
and without consideration for ongoing human activities).
19.2. THEORETICAL WORK 171
ideology of a society (for example, the belief in individual exposes the underlying struggle between opposing forces.
freedom or free market capitalism) and critiquing it by For Marx, it is only by becoming aware of the dialec-
comparing it with a posited social reality of that very tic (i.e. class consciousness) of such opposing forces, in
society (for example, social inequality and exploitation). a struggle for power, that individuals can liberate them-
Frankfurt School theorists grounded this on the dialecti- selves and change the existing social order.[30]
cal methodology established by Hegel and Marx. For their part, Frankfurt School theorists quickly came
to realize that a dialectical method could only be adopted
if it could be applied to itself—that is to say, if they
19.2.2 Dialectical method adopted a self-correcting method—a dialectical method
that would enable them to correct previous false dialecti-
The Institute also attempted to reformulate dialectics as cal interpretations. Accordingly, critical theory rejected
a concrete method. The use of such a dialectical method the historicism and materialism of orthodox Marxism.[31]
can be traced back to the philosophy of Hegel, who con- Indeed, the material tensions and class struggles of which
ceived dialectic as the tendency of a notion to pass over Marx spoke were no longer seen by Frankfurt School the-
into its own negation as the result of conflict between its orists as having the same revolutionary potential within
inherent contradictory aspects.[23] In opposition to previ- contemporary Western societies—an observation that in-
ous modes of thought, which viewed things in abstraction, dicated that Marx’s dialectical interpretations and predic-
each by itself and as though endowed with fixed proper- tions were either incomplete or incorrect.
ties, Hegelian dialectic has the ability to consider ideas
Contrary to orthodox Marxist praxis, which solely seeks
according to their movement and change in time, as well
to implement an unchangeable and narrow idea of “com-
as according to their interrelations and interactions.[23]
munism” into practice, critical theorists held that praxis
History, according to Hegel, proceeds and evolves in a and theory, following the dialectical method, should be
dialectical manner: the present embodies the rational interdependent and should mutually influence each other.
sublation, or “synthesis”, of past contradictions. His- When Marx famously stated in his Theses on Feuerbach
tory may thus be seen as an intelligible process (which that “philosophers have only interpreted the world in var-
Hegel referred to as Weltgeist), which is the moving to- ious ways; the point is to change it”, his real idea was that
wards a specific condition—the rational realization of hu- philosophy’s only validity was in how it informed action.
man freedom.[24] However, considerations about the fu- Frankfurt School theorists would correct this by claiming
ture were of no interest to Hegel,[25][26] for whom philos- that when action fails, then the theory guiding it must be
ophy cannot be prescriptive because it understands only reviewed. In short, socialist philosophical thought must
in hindsight. The study of history is thus limited to the be given the ability to criticize itself and “overcome” its
description of past and present realities.[24] Hence for own errors. While theory must inform praxis, praxis must
Hegel and his successors, dialectics inevitably lead to the also have a chance to inform theory.
approval of the status quo—indeed, Hegel’s philosophy
served as a justification for Christian theology and the
Prussian state. 19.2.3 Influences and early works
This was fiercely criticized by Marx and the Young
Hegelians, who claimed that Hegel had gone too far in de- The intellectual influences on and theoretical focus of the
first generation of Frankfurt School critical theorists can
fending his abstract conception of “absolute Reason” and
had failed to notice the “real” —i.e. undesirable and irra- be summarized as follows:
tional— life conditions of the working class. By turning Responding to the intensification of alienation and
Hegel’s idealist dialectics upside-down, Marx advanced irrationality in an advanced capitalist society, critical
his own theory of dialectical materialism, arguing that “it theory is a comprehensive, ideology-critical, historically
is not the consciousness of men that determines their be- self-reflective body of theory aiming simultaneously to
ing, but, on the contrary, their social being that deter- explain domination and point to the possibilities of bring-
mines their consciousness.”[27] Marx’s theory follows a ing about a rational, humane, and free society. Frankfurt
materialist conception of history and space,[28] where the School critical theorists developed numerous theories of
development of the productive forces is seen as the pri- the economic, political, cultural, and psychological dom-
mary motive force for historical change, and according ination structures of advanced industrial civilization.
to which the social and material contradictions inherent The Institute made major contributions in two areas relat-
to capitalism inevitably lead to its negation—thereby re- ing to the possibility of human subjects to be rational, i.e.,
placing capitalism with a new rational form of society: individuals who could act rationally to take charge of their
communism.[29] own society and their own history. The first consisted of
Marx thus extensively relied on a form of dialectical anal- social phenomena previously considered in Marxism as
ysis. This method—to know the truth by uncovering the part of the "superstructure" or as ideology: personality,
contradictions in presently predominant ideas and, by ex- family and authority structures (one of the earliest works
tension, in the social relations to which they are linked— published bore the title Studies of Authority and the Fam-
ily), and the realm of aesthetics and mass culture. Stud- ism. That the capitalist economics of the free market (an
ies saw a common concern here in the ability of capital- unconscious mechanism for distributing goods) and the
ism to destroy the preconditions of critical, revolutionary irrevocable nature of private property, from the time of
political consciousness. This meant arriving at a sophis- Marx, were replaced with the economics of the planned
ticated awareness of the depth dimension in which so- economy and public ownership of the means of produc-
cial oppression sustains itself. It also meant the beginning tion .[36]
of critical theory’s recognition of ideology as part of the About the second-phase Frankfurt School, the philoso-
foundations of social structure. pher Nikolas Kompridis said that:
Kompridis said that the cul-de-sac of scepticism was ar-
19.2.4 Critique of Western civilization rived at with much “help from the once unspeakable and
unprecedented barbarity of European fascism”, and could
Dialectic of Enlightenment and Minima Moralia not be escaped without a well-marked exit from the re-
curring nightmare in which the humanist hopes of the
The second phase of Frankfurt School critical-theory de- Enlightenment and the horrors of the Holocaust horrors
rives from two works: (i) the Dialectic of Enlighten- are entangled. In the event, the work of Jürgen Haber-
ment(1944), by Theodor Adorno and Max Horkheimer, mas on the intersubjective bases of communicative ratio-
and (ii) Minima Moralia: Reflections from Damaged Life nality made possible the escape from such an ideological
(1951), by Adorno, which present Marxist critiques of cul-de-sac.[37]
Western civilization. In the Dialectic of Enlightenment,
the Odyssey is the investigational paradigm for analysis
of bourgeois consciousness. Horkheimer and Adorno Philosophy of music
present the themes that dominate contemporary social
thought, such as the human domination of nature as char- Adorno, a trained classical pianist, wrote The Philosophy
acteristic of the instrumental rationality in Western civ- of Modern Music (1949), in which he, in essence, polemi-
ilization, before ecology and environmentalism had be- cizes against music ― because it has become part of the
come political matters in the late 20th century. The anal- ideology of advanced capitalist society and the false con-
ysis of reason indicates that the rationality of the West is a sciousness that contributes to social domination. He ar-
fusion of domination and technological rationality meant gued that radical art and music may preserve the truth by
to subordinate Nature (external and internal) to human- capturing the reality of human suffering. Hence:
ity; Adorno said: This view of modern art as producing truth only through
Consequently, when reality is a basis for ideology, crit- the negation of traditional aesthetic form and traditional
ical theory explores the dialectical contradictions of in- norms of beauty because they have become ideological
dividual subjective-experience and preserves the truth of is characteristic of Adorno and of the Frankfurt School
theory. Even dialectical progress is tested: “its truth or generally. It has been criticized by those who do not share
untruth is not inherent in the method, itself, but in its in- its conception of modern society as a false totality that
tention in the historical process”, which must be oriented renders obsolete traditional conceptions and images of
towards integral freedom as “the only philosophy which beauty and harmony.
can be responsibly practiced in face of despair is the at- In particular, Adorno despised jazz and popular mu-
tempt to contemplate all things as they would present sic, viewing it as part of the culture industry, that con-
themselves from the standpoint of redemption.” Adorno tributes to the present sustainability of capitalism by ren-
thus distances himself from the optimism of orthodox dering it “aesthetically pleasing” and “agreeable”. The
Marxism: “besides the demand thus placed on thought, British philosopher Roger Scruton saw Adorno as pro-
the question of the reality or unreality of redemption, it- ducing 'reams of turgid nonsense devoted to showing that
self, hardly matters.”[33] the American people are just as alienated as Marxism re-
Horkheimer and Adorno are ambivalent about the ul- quires them to be, and that their cheerful life-affirming
timate source of social domination, from which arose music is a ‘fetishized’ commodity, expressive of their
the critical pessimism of the second-phase Frankfurt deep spiritual enslavement to the capitalist machine.'[39]
School about the possibility of human emancipation and
freedom.[34] Their ambivalence was rooted in the histor-
ical circumstances of the interwar years (1918–39) in 19.2.5 Critical theory and domination
Germany, such as the rise of Nazism, of state capital-
ism, and of mass culture as new forms of social domi- Negative dialectics
nation, which 19th-century Marxist sociology could not
explain.[35] That state economic interventionism ended With the growth of advanced industrial society during the
the tension in capitalism, between the relations of produc- Cold War era, critical theorists recognized that the path
tion and the material productive forces of society, which of capitalism and history had changed decisively, that the
Marx identified as the primary contradiction in capital- modes of oppression operated differently, and that the
19.3. CRITICISM OF FRANKFURT SCHOOL THEORISTS 173
industrial working class no longer remained the determi- Habermas and communicative rationality
nate negation of capitalism. This led to the attempt to
root the dialectic in an absolute method of negativity, as Main article: Jürgen Habermas
in Marcuse’s One-Dimensional Man (1964) and Adorno’s
Negative Dialectics (1966). During this period the Insti- Habermas’s work takes the Frankfurt School’s abiding
tute of Social Research resettled in Frankfurt (although interests in rationality, the human subject, democratic
many of its associates remained in the United States) with socialism, and the dialectical method and overcomes
the task not merely of continuing its research but of be- a set of contradictions that always weakened critical
coming a leading force in the sociological education and theory: the contradictions between the materialist and
democratization of West Germany. This led to a certain transcendental methods, between Marxian social theory
systematization of the Institute’s entire accumulation of and the individualist assumptions of critical rationalism
empirical research and theoretical analysis. between technical and social rationalization, and between
During this period, Frankfurt School critical theory par- cultural and psychological phenomena on the one hand
ticularly influenced some segments of the left wing and and the economic structure of society on the other.
leftist thought, particularly the New Left. Herbert Mar- The Frankfurt School avoided taking a stand on the pre-
cuse has occasionally been described as the theorist or cise relationship between the materialist and transcen-
intellectual progenitor of the New Left. Their critique of dental methods, which led to ambiguity in their writ-
technology, totality, teleology and (occasionally) civiliza- ings and confusion among their readers. Habermas’s
tion is an influence on anarcho-primitivism. Their work epistemology synthesizes these two traditions by showing
also heavily influenced intellectual discourse on popular that phenomenological and transcendental analysis can be
culture and scholarly popular culture studies. subsumed under a materialist theory of social evolution,
More importantly, however, the Frankfurt School at- while the materialist theory makes sense only as part of a
tempted to define the fate of reason in the new his- quasi-transcendental theory of emancipatory knowledge
torical period. While Marcuse did so through anal- that is the self-reflection of cultural evolution. The simul-
ysis of structural changes in the labor process under taneously empirical and transcendental nature of emanci-
capitalism and inherent features of the methodology of patory knowledge becomes the foundation stone of criti-
science, Horkheimer and Adorno concentrated on a re- cal theory.
examination of the foundation of critical theory. This ef- By locating the conditions of rationality in the social
fort appears in systematized form in Adorno’s Negative structure of language use, Habermas moves the locus
Dialectics, which tries to redefine dialectics for an era in of rationality from the autonomous subject to subjects
which “philosophy, which once seemed obsolete, lives on in interaction. Rationality is a property not of indi-
because the moment to realize it was missed”. Negative viduals per se, but rather of structures of undistorted
dialectics expresses the idea of critical thought so con- communication. In this notion Habermas has overcome
ceived that the apparatus of domination cannot co-opt it. the ambiguous plight of the subject in critical theory. If
Its central notion, long a focal one for Horkheimer and capitalistic technological society weakens the autonomy
Adorno, suggests that the original sin of thought lies in its and rationality of the subject, it is not through the domi-
attempt to eliminate all that is other than thought, the at- nation of the individual by the apparatus but through tech-
tempt by the subject to devour the object, the striving for nological rationality supplanting a describable rationality
identity. This reduction makes thought the accomplice of of communication. And, in his sketch of communicative
domination. Negative Dialectics rescues the “preponder- ethics as the highest stage in the internal logic of the evo-
ance of the object”, not through a naïve epistemological lution of ethical systems, Habermas hints at the source of
or metaphysical realism but through a thought based on a new political practice that incorporates the imperatives
differentiation, paradox, and ruse: a “logic of disinte- of evolutionary rationality.
gration”. Adorno thoroughly criticizes Heidegger's fun-
damental ontology, which he thinks reintroduces idealis-
tic and identity-based concepts under the guise of having 19.3 Criticism of Frankfurt School
overcome the philosophical tradition.
theorists
Negative dialectics comprises a monument to the end of
the tradition of the individual subject as the locus of crit-
icism. Without a revolutionary working class, the Frank- 19.3.1 Horkheimer and Adorno’s pes-
furt School had no one to rely on but the individual sub- simism
ject. But, as the liberal capitalist social basis of the au-
tonomous individual receded into the past, the dialectic Left-wing critics of the Frankfurt School said the critical
based on it became more and more abstract. theory is a form of bourgeois idealism unrelated to polit-
ical praxis, and isolated from the reality of a revolution-
ary movement. In the Theory of the Novel, Georg Lukács
summarised the criticism:
Likewise, in The Myth of the Framework, the philosopher In the ideology of right-wing politics, the term Cultural
Karl Popper said that the Frankfurt School did not fulfil Marxism identifies a conspiracy theory that portrays the
the better future promised by Marxism: critical-theory scholarship of the Frankfurt School as part
of an ongoing left-wing effort to destroy and replace
Western culture.[53][54][55][56] In the field of Cultural stud-
19.3.2 Habermas’s solutions: critical the- ies, the term Cultural Marxism identifies an anti-capitalist
ory “between past and future” critique of cultural practices motivated only by the profit
motive.[57][58][59][60][61]
In 2006, Nikolas Kompridis published new criticisms of
Adherents of conspiracy-theory Cultural Marxism usu-
Habermas’s approach to critical theory, and called for a
ally claim that the existence of social ideologies, such as
break with the proceduralist ethics of communicative ra-
modern feminism, anti-white racism, and sexualization
tionality:
are real-world consequences of the critical-theory of the
Moreover, that: Frankfurt School, despite such social realities dating from
To prevent premature dissolution, Kompridis said that the 1920s. Although the conspiracy-theory version of
critical theory should “reinvent” itself as a “possibility- the term dates from the late 1990s, the contemporary it-
disclosing” enterprise, incorporating Heidegger’s con- eration of the “Cultural Marxism conspiracy” was pre-
troversial insights into world disclosure, and drawing sented in the essay “New Dark Age: Frankfurt School
from the sources of normativity that, he feels, were and ‘Political Correctness’ ” (1992), by [53][62][63] Michael Minni-
blocked from critical theory, by its recent change of cino, published by the Schiller Institute, which
paradigm. Calling for what [the philosopher] Charles is a branch organization of the LaRouche movement,
Taylor has named a “new department” of reason,[46] that further promoted [64]
conspiracy-theory Cultural Marx-
with a possibility-disclosing role that Kompridis calls ism, in 1994. In the essay, Minnicino said the Frank-
“reflective disclosure”, that critical theory must embrace furt School promoted Modernism in the arts, as a form
its neglected German Romantic inheritance, and, once of Cultural pessimism, and shaped the Counterculture
again, imagine alternatives to existing social and political of the 1960s (such as The Beatles) in likeness to the
[62]
conditions, “if it is to have a future worthy of its past.”[47] Wandervogel of the Ascona commune.
Mass-controlled society
19.3.3 Criticism of psychoanalytic catego-
rizations Frankfurt-School discourse about Cultural Marxism con-
siders The Culture Industry (the industrialized, mass-
In an interview with Casey Blake and Christopher production of culture) as acting negatively upon the psy-
Phelps, historian Christopher Lasch criticized the Frank- chology of society. That the consumption of mass cul-
furt School’s initial tendencies towards “automatically” ture reifies people from critical readers, listeners, view-
rejecting opposing political criticisms on “psychiatric” ers into consumers disabled from perceiving authentic
grounds: human values.[65][58] In Britain, Richard Hoggart, a theo-
rist of The Birmingham School, developed a British Cul-
tural Marxism, of working-class sensibility, which op-
19.3.4 Economic and media critiques posed the massification —a generic British culture — and
drift away from the local, British sub-cultures, as social
During the 1980s, anti-authoritarian socialists in the engineering in service to commercialization, the local es-
United Kingdom and New Zealand criticised the rigid tablishment of which was enabled by tabloid newspapers,
and determinist view of popular culture deployed within advertising, and American movies.[66]
the Frankfurt School theories of capitalist culture, which
seemed to preclude any prefigurative role for social cri-
tique within such work. They argued that EC Comics of- Culture war
ten did contain such cultural critiques.[49][50] Recent crit-
icism of the Frankfurt School by the libertarian Cato In- In the late 1990s, the term Cultural Marxism remained
stitute focused on the claim that culture has grown more an academic usage, until paleoconservative politicians,
sophisticated and diverse as a consequence of free mar- fighting the continual Culture War that features in U.S.
kets and the availability of niche cultural text for niche politics, used the term Cultural Marxism to claim that
audiences.[51][52] the Frankfurt School intellectuals who objected to the
massification of culture as mass-control, were conspiring
to establish their mass-control of Western culture, by at-
19.3.5 Cultural Marxism conspiracy the- tacking the traditional value system of the West with the
ory liberal value-systems of the 1960s counter culture and of
multiculturalism, of progressive politics and political cor-
Subversion of the West rectness.[55][67][68] The conspiracy-theory version of the
19.3. CRITICISM OF FRANKFURT SCHOOL THEORISTS 175
term Cultural Marxism is associated with religious pale- migrants, and black nationalists.”[84] Moreover, from the
oconservatives, such as William S. Lind, Pat Buchanan, study of extreme right-wing movements, Chip Berlet re-
and Paul Weyrich, and is contemporary ideological us- ported that Cultural Marxism conspiracy theory was read-
age among alt-right politicians, white nationalist political ily accepted among the Tea Party movement of 2009,
groups, and the neo-reactionary Dark Enlightenment po- with articles in the American Thinker and WorldNetDaily,
litical movement.[68][56][69] highlighted by some Tea Party websites.[85][86][87]
In 1998, Weyrich first published his misconception of
Cultural Marxism in “Letter to Conservatives”, a speech Disguised anti-Semitism
to the Conservative Leadership Conference of the Civ-
itas Institute; later, he repeated his usage and concep- In the report “Ally of Christian Right Heavyweight Paul
tion in the “Culture War Letter”.[68][70][71] In What is Cul- Weyrich Addresses Holocaust Denial Conference”, the
tural Marxism?, William S. Lind presents Weyrich’s con- Southern Poverty Law Center said that, in 2002, William
ception of Cultural Marxism, which identified the pres- S. Lind spoke of Cultural Marxism to a conference of
ence of homosexuals featured in commercial television Holocaust deniers. Lind said that every member of The
as proof of Cultural Marxist control of the mass com- Frankfurt School was “to a man, Jewish”, yet said that
munication medium of television; and claimed that Her- he did not question the occurrence of the Holocaust, and
bert Marcuse considered a coalition of “blacks, students, admitted that he was present at the holocaust-denier con-
feminist women, and homosexuals” as the vanguard of ference officially representing the Free Congress Founda-
cultural revolution in the West.[55][67][72] Since then, tion “to work with a wide variety of groups, on an issue-
Lind published Victoria: A Novel of 4th Generation by-issue basis”.[88][89]
Warfare (0000), which depicts of a Cultural Marxist
apocalypse.[73][74] Moreover, Lind and Weyrich advo- Disguised racist nationalism
cate fighting Cultural Marxism with “a vibrant cultural
conservatism" composed of “retro-culture” fashions from In 2011, in Norway, the right-wing terrorist Anders
the past, a return to railroad public transport, and Behring Breivik included the term Cultural Marxism to
an agrarian culture of self-reliance modeled after the his manifesto, 2083: A European Declaration of Inde-
Amish.[55][74][75][76][77][78][79] In 1999, Lind presented pendence; the manifesto and a copy of Political Correct-
the documentary “Political Correctness: The Frankfurt ness: A Short History of an Ideology (from The Free
School”,[53] from which content was re-published online Congress Foundation ) were e-mailed to 1,003 peo-
in the YouTube movie Cultural Marxism: The Corruption ple, some 90 minutes before Breivik committed the
of America, by James Jaeger.[80] The intellectual histo- 2011 Norway attacks.[90][91][92] To support his nationalist
rian Martin Jay said that the phenomenon of multi-media- racism, Breivik quoted the Cultural Marxism conspiracy
replication of Weyrich’s misconception of Cultural Marx- theory of William S. Lind.[93]
ism derived from Lind’s original documentary, which:
In July 2017, the US National Security Advisor, H. R.
. . . spawned a number of condensed, McMaster, removed Richard Higgins from the U.S. Na-
textual versions, which were reproduced on a tional Security Council, because he wrote a seven-page
number of radical right-wing sites. These, in memorandum that purported to describe an active plot
turn, led to a welter of new videos, now avail- to destroy the presidency of Donald Trump. The anti-
able on YouTube, which feature an odd cast of Trump conspirators that Higgins identified were the cul-
pseudo-experts regurgitating exactly the same tural Marxists and the Islamists, globalist politicians,
line. The message is numbingly simplistic: bankers, the news media, and politicians from the Re-
All the ills of modern American culture, from publican and Democratic parties.[94][95][96]
feminism, affirmative action, sexual liberation, In “Cultural Marxism and the Radical Right”, the po-
and gay rights to the decay of traditional ed- litical philosopher Jérôme Jamin said that, “Next to the
ucation, and even environmentalism, are ulti- global dimension of the Cultural Marxism conspiracy the-
mately attributable to the insidious influence ory, there is its innovative and original dimension, which
of the members of the Institute for Social Re- lets its authors avoid racist discourses, and pretend to be
search, who came to America in the 1930s.[53] defenders of democracy”.[54] Prof. Matthew Feldman
traced the the concept and term Cultural Marxism as de-
In Theory and Practice: A Program for the New rived from the Cultural Bolshevism concept and term that
Traditionalist Movement (2001), Weyrich and Eric were common usage in Germany, before the First World
Heubeck advocated directly “taking over [the] political War (1914–18) — locating it as part of the degeneration
structures”.[81][82][83] Likewise, Heidi Beirich said that theory that greatly facilitated Hitler’s rise to power.[97]
political conservatives use conspiracy-theory Cultural William S. Lind confirms this as his period of interest,
Marxism to demonize ideological bêtes noires of the right claiming that “It [Cultural Marxism] is an effort that goes
wing, such as “feminists, homosexuals, secular human- back not to the 1960s and the hippies and the peace move-
ists, multiculturalist, sex educators, environmentalist, im- ment, but back to World War I.”[89]
19.4 See also [11] “The Origins of Critical Theory: An interview with Leo
Lowenthal”, by Helmut Dubiel, Telos 49
• Analytical Marxism [12] Held, David (1980), p. 38.
• Birmingham School of Cultural Studies [13] Finlayson, James Gordon (2005), Habermas: A Very
Short Introduction, p. 4
• Culture Industry
[14] Kuhn, Rick Henryk Grossman and the Recovery of Marx-
• Social conflict theory ism Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press,
2007
• Fredric Jameson
[15] Geuss, Raymond (1981). The idea of a critical theory:
• Gerhard Stapelfeldt Habermas and the Frankfurt school. Cambridge Univer-
sity Press, p. 58
• Leo Kofler
[16] Carr, Adrian (2000). “Critical theory and the Manage-
• Neo-Gramscianism ment of Change in Organizations”, Journal of Organiza-
tional Change Management, pp. 13, 3, 208–220.
• New Marx Reading
[17] Martin Jay, The Dialectical Imagination: A History of
• Psychoanalytic sociology the Frankfurt School and the Institute of Social Research
• Western Marxism 1923–1950. London: Heinemann, 1973, p. 21.
[18] Horkheimer, Max (1976). “Traditional and critical the-

• Zygmunt Bauman
ory”. In: Connerton, P (Eds), Critical Sociology: Selected
• Georg Simmel Readings, Penguin, Harmondsworth, p. 213
[19] Rasmussen, D. (1996). “Critical theory and philosophy”.

• Karl Manheim
In: Rasmussen, D. (Eds), The Handbook of Critical The-
ory, Blackwell, Oxford, p .18
19.5 References [20] Horkheimer, Max (1976), p. 221
[21] Bohman, J (1996). “Critical theory and democracy”. In:

[1] Held, David (1980). Introduction to Critical Theory: Rasmussen, D. (Eds), The Handbook of Critical Theory,
Horkheimer to Habermas. University of California Press, Blackwell, Oxford, p. 190
p. 14.
[22] Horkheimer, Max (1976), p. 219 (see also p. 224)
[2] Finlayson, James Gordon (2005). Habermas a Very Short
Introduction. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. ISBN 0-19- [23] dialectic. (2009). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Re-
284095-9. Retrieved 26 March 2016. trieved December 19, 2009, from Encyclopædia Bri-
tannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/
[3] “Frankfurt School”. (2009). Encyclopædia Bri- topic/161174/dialectic
tannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/
topic/217277/Frankfurt-School (Retrieved 19 December [24] Little, D. (2007). “Philosophy of History”, The Stanford
2009) Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Sun Feb 18, 2007), http://
plato.stanford.edu/entries/history/#HegHis
[4] Held, David (1980), p. 16
[25] “When philosophy paints its grey on grey, then has a shape
[5] Jameson, Fredric (2002). “The Theoretical Hesitation: of life grown old. (...) The owl of Minerva spreads its
Benjamin’s Sociological Predecessor”. In Nealon, Jef- wings only with the falling of the dusk” – Hegel, G. W. F.
frey; Irr, Caren. Rethinking the Frankfurt School: Alterna- (1821). Grundlinien der Philosophie des Rechts, p.13
tive Legacies of Cultural Critique. Albany: SUNY Press.
[26] “Hegel’s philosophy, and in particular his political philos-
pp. 11–30.
ophy, purports to be the rational formulation of a definite
[6] Held, David (1980), p. 15. historical period, and Hegel refuses to look further ahead
into the future.” – Peĺczynski, Z. A. (1971). Hegel’s po-
[7] Habermas, Jürgen. (1987). The Philosophical Discourse litical philosophy—problems and perspectives: a collection
of Modernity. MIT Press. of new essays, CUP Archive. Google Print, p. 200
[8] Kompridis, Nikolas. (2006). Critique and Disclosure: [27] Karl Marx (1859), Preface to Das Kapital: Kritik der poli-
Critical Theory between Past and Future, MIT Press tischen Ökonomie.
[9] Corradetti, Claudio (2011). “The Frankfurt School and [28] Soja, E. (1989). Postmodern Geographies. London:
Critical Theory”, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Verso. (esp. pp. 76–93)
(published: 21 October 2011).
[29] Jonathan Wolff, Ph.D. (ed.). “Karl Marx”. Stanford En-
[10] “The Frankfurt School and Critical Theory”, Marxist In- cyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford. Retrieved 2009-09-
ternet Archive (Retrieved 12 September 2009) 17.
[30] Seiler, Robert M. “Human Communication in the Critical [48] Blake, Casey and Christopher Phelps. (1994). “History as
Theory Tradition”, University of Calgary, Online Publi- social criticism: Conversations with Christopher Lasch” –
cation Journal of American History 80, no.4 (March) (p.1310-
1332)
[31] Bernstein, J. M. (1994) The Frankfurt School: critical as-
sessments, Volume 3, Taylor & Francis, p. 208 (See also [49] Martin Barker: A Haunt of Fears: The Strange History
pp. 199–202) of the British Horror Comics Campaign: London: Pluto
Press: 1984
[32] Adorno, Theodor W. Minima Moralia: Reflections on a
Damaged Life (2006), pp. 15–16. [50] Roy Shuker, Roger Openshaw and Janet Soler: Youth, Me-
dia and Moral Panic: From Hooligans to Video Nasties:
[33] Adorno, Theodor W. (2006), p. 247. Palmerston North: Massey University Department of Ed-
ucation: 1990
[34] Adorno, T. W., with Max Horkheimer. (2002). Dialectic
of Enlightenment. Trans. Edmund Jephcott. Stanford: [51] Cowen, Tyler (1998) “Is Our Culture in Decline?" Cato
Stanford University Press, p. 242. Policy Report, http://www.cato.org/pubs/policy_report/
v20n5/culture.pdf
[35] “Critical Theory was initially developed in Horkheimer’s
circle to think through political disappointments at the ab- [52] Radoff, Jon (2010) “The Attack on Imagination,” http://
sence of revolution in the West, the development of Stal- radoff.com/blog/2010/05/27/attack-imagination/
inism in Soviet Russia, and the victory of fascism in Ger- [53] Jay, Martin (2010), "Dialectic of Counter-Enlightenment:
many. It was supposed to explain mistaken Marxist prog- The Frankfurt School as Scapegoat of the Lunatic Fringe".
noses, but without breaking Marxist intentions” — Haber- Salmagundi (Fall 2010-Winter 2011, 168–169): 30–40.
mas, Jürgen. (1987). The Philosophical Discourse of Quote:“On August 18, 2010, Fidel Castro contributed an
Modernity: Twelve Lectures. Trans. Frederick Lawrence. article to the Cuban Communist Party paper Granma in
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, p. 116. which he endorsed the bizarre allegations of an obscure
See also: Dubiel, Helmut. (1985). Theory and Politics: Lithuanian-born conspiracy theorist, named Daniel Es-
Studies in the Development of Critical Theory. Trans. Ben- tulin, in a 2005 book entitled The Secrets of the Bilder-
jamin Gregg. Cambridge, Massachusetts and London. berg Club . . . what makes his embrace of Estulin’s book
[36] “Gone are the objective laws of the market, which ruled in especially risible is the subordinate argument — and this
the actions of the entrepreneurs, and tended toward catas- is the part that most concerns me here — that the inspi-
trophe. Instead, the conscious decision of the managing ration for the subversion of domestic unrest came from
directors executes as results (which are more obligatory Max Horkheimer, Theodor W. Adorno, Herbert Marcuse,
than the blindest price-mechanisms) the old law of value, Leo Löwenthal, and their colleagues at the Institute for
and hence the destiny of capitalism.” — Horkheimer, Max Social Research in the 1950s. Here, we have clearly bro-
and Theodor Adorno. (2002). Dialectic of Enlightenment, ken through the looking-glass, and entered a parallel uni-
p. 38. verse in which normal rules of evidence and plausibility
have been suspended. It is a mark of the silliness of these
[37] Kompridis, Nikolas. (2006), p. 256 claims that they [were] even subjected to ridicule by Rush
Limbaugh on his August 20, 2010 radio show . . . Lim-
[38] Adorno, Theodor W. (2003) The Philosophy of Modern baugh, to be sure, ignored the other, most blatant absurdity
Music. Translated into English by Anne G. Mitchell and in Estulin’s scheme, which was attributing to the Frankfurt
Wesley V. Blomster. Continuum International Publishing School a position precisely opposite to what its members
Group, pp. 41–42. had always taken. That is, when they discussed the “cul-
ture industry” it was with the explicit criticism, ironically
[39] Scruton, R. 'The Uses of Pessimism: and the Danger of echoed here by Castro, that it functioned to reconcile peo-
False Hope' 2010, p.89, Oxford University Press ple to their misery, and dull the pain of their suffering. .
[40] Lukács, Georg. (1971). The Theory of the Novel. MIT . . But the opening salvo had, in fact, been fired a decade
Press, p. 22. earlier, in a lengthy essay by one Michael Minnicino called
“New Dark Age: Frankfurt School and ‘Political Correct-
[41] Karl R. Popper: Addendum 1974: The Frankfurt School. ness’ ”, published in 1992, in the obscure journal Fide-
in: The Myth of the Framework. London New York 1994, lio.[4] Its provenance is particularly telling: it was an or-
p. 80 gan of the Lyndon Larouche movement-cum-cult, one of
the less savory curiosities of nightmare-fringe politics . .
[42] Habermas, Jürgen, The Philosophical Discourse of Moder- . What began as a bizarre Lyndon Larouche coinage has
nity, MIT Press, 1987. p. 301. become the common currency of a larger and larger public
of addled enragés. . . .
[43] Habermas, Jürgen (1987), p. 42
[54] Jamin, Jérôme (2014). “Cultural Marxism and the
[44] Kompridis, Nikolas. (2006), pp. 23–24 Radical Right”. In Shekhovtsov, A.; Jackson, P. The
Post-War Anglo-American Far Right: A Special Re-
[45] Kompridis, Nikolas. (2006), p. 25
lationship of Hate. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmil-
[46] Charles Taylor, Philosophical Arguments pp. 12, 15. lan. pp. 84–103. ISBN 978-1-137-39619-8.
doi:10.1057/9781137396211.0009. Retrieved 18 Jan-
[47] Kompridis, Nikolas. (2006), p. xi uary 2015.
[55] Berkowitz, Bill (2003), “Reframing the Enemy: [70] Moonves, Leslie. “Death of The Moral Majority?". CBS
‘Cultural Marxism’, a Conspiracy Theory with an news. The Associated Press. Retrieved 19 April 2016.
Anti-Semitic Twist, is being Pushed by Much
of the American Right”, Intelligence Report of [71] Koyzis, David T. (2003). Political Visions and Illusions: A
the Southern Poverty Law Center, Summer. Survey and Christian Critique of Contemporary Ideologies.
https://web.archive.org/web/20040207095318/http: Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press. p. 82. ISBN
//www.splcenter.org/intel/intelreport/article.jsp?aid= 0-8308-2726-9. Retrieved 5 March 2016.
53&printable=1
[72] Lind, William S. “Political Correctness: A Short History
[56] Richardson, John E. "‘Cultural-Marxism’ and the British of an Ideology”. Discover The Networks. David Horowitz.
National Party: A Transnational Discourse”. In Copsey, Retrieved 5 March 2016.
Nigel; Richardson, John E. Cultures of Post-War British [73] Lind, William S. “Washington’s Legitimacy Crisis”. The
Fascism. American Conservative. Retrieved May 4, 2015.
[57] Adorno, Theodor. “The Culture Industry: Enlightenment [74] Lind, William S. Victoria: A Novel of 4th Generation
as Mass Deception”. www.marxists.org. Retrieved 25 Warefare. Castalia House. ISBN 978-952-7065-45-7.
April 2017. Retrieved 30 November 2015.
[58] Barker, Chris; Jane, Emma. Cultural Studies: Theory and [75] Lind, William S.; Weyrich, Paul M. (12 February 2007).
Practice. SAGE. ISBN 9781473968349. “The Next Conservatism”. The American Conservative.
American Ideas Institute. Retrieved 5 March 2016.
[59] Habermas, Jürgen (1985). Theory of Communicative Ac-
tion. Beacon Press. ISBN 978-0807015070. Retrieved [76] Lind, William S.; Weyrich, Paul M. (2009). The Next
29 August 2016. Conservatism (1 ed.). South Bend, Ind.: St. Augustine’s
Press. ISBN 978-1-58731-561-9. Retrieved 5 March
[60] Kellner, Douglas. “Cultural Studies and Social Theory: A 2016.
Critical Intervention” (PDF). UCLA. ucla.edu. Retrieved
31 August 2016. [77] O'Meara, Michael. “The Next Conservatism? a review”.
Counter Currents Publishing. Counter-Currents Publish-
[61] Ritzer, ed. George (2005). Encyclopedia of social theory ing, Ltd. Retrieved 5 March 2016.
([2nd print.] ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA [u.a.]: Sage. p.
171. ISBN 978-0761926115. [78] Terry, Tommy (2012). The Quelled Conscience of Con-
servative Evangelicals in the Age of Inverted Totalitarian-
[62] “New Dark Age: Frankfurt School and 'Political Correct- ism. p. 9. ISBN 978-1-105-67534-8. Retrieved 5 March
ness’", Schiller Institute 2016.
[63] Jay (2010) notes that Daniel Estulin’s book cites this es- [79] Lind, William S. “The Discarded Image”. Various. Re-
say and that it inspired the Free Congress Foundation’s trieved 5 March 2016.
program.
[80] Jaeger, James. “Cultural Marxism: The Corruption of
[64] Michael Minnicino (1994), Freud and the Frankfurt America”. Youtube. Google. Retrieved 3 April 2016.
School (Schiller Institute, 1994) part of “Solving the Para-
[81] The Integration of Theory and Practice: A Program for
dox of Current World History”, a conference report in
the New Traditionalist Movement Eric Heubeck. Origi-
Executive Intelligence Review
nally published on the Free Congress Foundation website
[65] Horkheimer, Max; W. Adorno, Theodor (2002). Dialectic in 2001, available through the Internet Archive.
of enlightenment philosophical fragments ([Nachdr.] ed.).
[82] Conquering by Stealth and Deception, How the Domin-
Stanford, Calif.: Stanford Univ. Press. ISBN 978-
ionists are Succeeding in Their Quest for National Control
0804736336.
and World Power Katherine Yurica. The Yurica Report.
September 14, 2004.
[66] Hoggart, Richard (1957). The Uses of Literacy. New
Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers. pp. 260–268. [83] “The Rise of the Religious Right in the Republican Party”,
TheocracyWatch. December 2005.
[67] Lind, William S. “What is Cultural Marxism?". Maryland
Thursday Meeting. Retrieved 9 April 2015. [84] Perry, Barbara (ed.); Beirich, Heidi (2009). Hate crimes
[vol.5]. Westport, Conn.: Praeger Publishers. p.
[68] Weyrich, Paul. “Letter to Conservatives by Paul M. 119. ISBN 978-0-275-99569-0. Retrieved 30 November
Weyrich”. Conservative Think Tank: “The National Cen- 2015.
ter for Public Policy Research”. Retrieved 30 November
2015. [85] Berlet, Chip (July 2012). “Collectivists, Communists, La-
bor Bosses, and Treason: The Tea Parties as Right-Wing
[69] Wodak, ed. by Ruth; KhosraviNik, Majid; Mral, Brigitte Populist Counter-Subversion Panic”. Critical Sociology.
(2012). Right wing Populism in Europe: Politics and Dis- 38 (4): 565–587. doi:10.1177/0896920511434750.
course (1st. publ. 2013. ed.). London: Bloomsbury Aca-
demic. pp. 96, 97. ISBN 978-1-7809-3245-3. Retrieved [86] Lind, William S. “Who Stole Our Culture?". World Net
30 July 2015. Daily. Retrieved 8 November 2015.
[87] Kimball, Linda. “Cultural Marxism”. American Thinker. • Crone, Michael (ed.): Vertreter der Frankfurter
Retrieved 11 March 2016. Schule in den Hörfunkprogrammen 1950–1992.
Hessischer Rundfunk, Frankfurt am Main 1992.
[88] Berkowitz, Bill. “Ally of Christian Right Heavyweight
(Bibliography.)
Paul Weyrich Addresses Holocaust Denial Conference”.
Southern Poverty Law Center. SPLC 2003. Retrieved 19
• Friedman, George. The Political Philosophy of the
April 2016.
Frankfurt School. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University
[89] Lind, William S. “The Origins of Political Correctness”. Press, 1981.
Accuracy in Academia. Accuracy in Academia/Daniel J.
Flynn. Retrieved 8 November 2015. • Held, David. Introduction to Critical Theory:
Horkheimer to Habermas. Berkeley: University of
[90] "'Breivik manifesto' details chilling attack preparation”. California Press, 1980.
BBC News. 24 July 2011. Retrieved 2 August 2015.
• Gerhardt, Christina. “Frankfurt School. The In-
[91] Trilling, Daniel (18 April 2012). “Who are Breivik’s fel-
low travellers?". New Statesman. Retrieved 18 July 2015. ternational Encyclopedia of Revolution and Protest,
1500 to the Present. 8 vols. Ed. Immanuel Ness.
[92] Buruma, Ian. “Breivik’s Call to Arms”. Qantara. German Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 2009. 12–13.
Federal Agency for Civic Education & Deutsche Welle.
Retrieved 25 July 2015. • Immanen, Mikko (2017). A Promise of Concrete-
ness: Martin Heidegger’s Unacknowledged Role in
[93] Shanafelt, Robert; Pino, Nathan W. (2014). Rethinking
the Formation of Frankfurt School in the Weimar Re-
Serial Murder, Spree Killing, and Atrocities: Beyond the
public (Ph.D. thesis). University of Helsinki. ISBN
Usual Distinctions. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-56467-
6. 978-951-51-3205-5. Lay summary.
[94] “How Trump’s Paranoid White House Sees ‘Deep Dtate’ • Jay, Martin. The Dialectical Imagination: A History
Enemies on All Sides”. The Guardian. 13 August 2017. of the Frankfurt School and the Institute for Social
Research 1923–1950. Berkeley, CA: University of
[95] “Here’s the Memo That Blew Up the NSC”. Foreign Pol- California Press. 1996.
icy. 10 August 2017.
• Jeffries, Stuart (2016). Grand Hotel Abyss: The
[96] “An NSC Staffer is Forced Out Over a Controversial
Memo”. The Atlantic. 2 August 2017. Lives of the Frankfurt School. London – Brooklyn,
NY: Verso. ISBN 978-1-78478-568-0.
[97] Matthew, Feldman; Griffin, Roger (editor) (2003).
Fascism: Fascism and culture (1. publ. ed.). New York: • Kompridis, Nikolas. Critique and Disclosure: Crit-
Routledge. p. 343. ISBN 0-415-29018-X. Retrieved 28 ical Theory between Past and Future. Cambridge,
October 2015. MA: MIT Press, 2006.
• Postone, Moishe. Time, Labor, and Social Dom-

19.6 Further reading ination: A Reinterpretation of Marx’s Critical The-
ory. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press,
1993.
• Arato, Andrew and Eike Gebhardt, Eds. The Essen-
tial Frankfurt School Reader. New York: Contin- • Schwartz, Frederic J. Blind Spots: Critical Theory
uum, 1982. and the History of Art in Twentieth-Century Ger-
many. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press,
• Bernstein, Jay (ed.). The Frankfurt School: Critical
2005.
Assessments I–VI. New York: Routledge, 1994.
• Benhabib, Seyla. Critique, Norm, and Utopia: A • Shapiro, Jeremy J. “The Critical Theory of Frank-
Study of the Foundations of Critical Theory. New furt”. Times Literary Supplement 3 (October 4,
York: Columbia University Press, 1986. 1974) 787.
• Bottomore, Tom. The Frankfurt School and its Crit- • Scheuerman, William E. Frankfurt School Perspec-
ics. New York: Routledge, 2002. tives on Globalization, Democracy, and the Law. 3rd
ed. New York: Routledge, 2008.
• Bronner, Stephen Eric and Douglas MacKay Kellner
(eds.). Critical Theory and Society: A Reader. New • Wiggershaus, Rolf. The Frankfurt School: Its His-
York: Routledge, 1989. tory, Theories and Political Significance. Cam-
bridge, MA: MIT Press, 1995.
• Brosio, Richard A. The Frankfurt School: An Anal-
ysis of the Contradictions and Crises of Liberal Cap- • Wheatland, Thomas. The Frankfurt School in Exile.
italist Societies. 1980. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2009.
19.7 External links

• Official website of the Institute for Social Research
at the University of Frankfurt
• “Critical Theory” on Stanford Encyclopedia of Phi-
losophy
• Gerhardt, Christina. “Frankfurt School (Jewish

émigrés).” The International Encyclopedia of Revo-
lution and Protest. Ness, Immanuel (ed). Blackwell
Publishing, 2009. Blackwell Reference Online.
• “The Frankfurt School and Critical Theory”.

Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
• The Frankfurt School on the Marxists Internet

Archive
• BBC Radio 4 Audio documentary “In our time: the

Frankfurt School”
Chapter 20
Critical theory
“Critical sociology” redirects here. For the journal, see 20.1 Definition
Critical Sociology (journal).
The meaning of critical theory derives from the Greek
Critical theory (or "social critical theory")[1] is a school word κριτικός, kritikos meaning judgment or discern-
of thought that stresses the reflective assessment and ment, and in its present form goes back to the 18th cen-
critique of society and culture by applying knowledge tury.
from the social sciences and the humanities. As a term, Critical theory (German: Kritische Theorie) was first de-
critical theory has two meanings with different origins and fined by Max Horkheimer of the Frankfurt School of so-
histories: the first originated in sociology and the sec- ciology in his 1937 essay Traditional and Critical The-
ond originated in literary criticism, whereby it is used ory: Critical theory is a social theory oriented toward
and applied as an umbrella term that can describe a critiquing and changing society as a whole, in contrast
theory founded upon critique; thus, the theorist Max to traditional theory oriented only to understanding or
Horkheimer described a theory as critical insofar as it explaining it. Horkheimer wanted to distinguish criti-
seeks “to liberate human beings from the circumstances cal theory as a radical, emancipatory form of Marxian
that enslave them”.[2] theory, critiquing both the model of science put forward
In sociology and political philosophy, the term criti- by logical positivism and what he and his colleagues saw
cal theory describes the neo-Marxist philosophy of the as the covert positivism and authoritarianism of ortho-
Frankfurt School, which was developed in Germany in dox Marxism and Communism. He described a theory as
the 1930s. Frankfurt theorists drew on the critical meth- critical insofar as it seeks “to liberate human beings from
ods of Karl Marx and Sigmund Freud. Critical theory the circumstances that enslave them.”[7] Critical theory
maintains that ideology is the principal obstacle to human involves a normative dimension, either through criticiz-
liberation.[3] Critical theory was established as a school of ing society from some general theory of values, norms,
thought primarily by five Frankfurt School theoreticians: or “oughts”, or through criticizing it in terms of its own
Herbert Marcuse, Theodor Adorno, Max Horkheimer, espoused values.[8]
Walter Benjamin, and Erich Fromm. Modern critical The core concepts of critical theory are as follows:
theory has additionally been influenced by György Lukács
and Antonio Gramsci, as well as the second generation
1. That critical social theory should be directed at the
Frankfurt School scholars, notably Jürgen Habermas. In
totality of society in its historical specificity (i.e.
Habermas’s work, critical theory transcended its theoret-
how it came to be configured at a specific point in
ical roots in German idealism, and progressed closer to
time), and
American pragmatism. Concern for social "base and su-
perstructure" is one of the remaining Marxist philosoph- 2. That critical theory should improve understand-
ical concepts in much of contemporary critical theory.[4] ing of society by integrating all the major so-
While critical theorists have been frequently defined cial sciences, including geography, economics,
[5]
as Marxist intellectuals, their tendency to denounce sociology, history, political science, anthropology,
some Marxist concepts and to combine Marxian anal- and psychology.
ysis with other sociological and philosophical traditions
has resulted in accusations of revisionism by Classical, This version of “critical” theory derives from Kant's
Orthodox, and Analytical Marxists, and by Marxist- (18th-century) and Marx's (19th-century) use of the
Leninist philosophers. Martin Jay has stated that the first term "critique", as in Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason
generation of critical theory is best understood as not and Marx’s concept that his work Das Kapital (Capi-
promoting a specific philosophical agenda or a specific tal) forms a “critique of political economy.” For Kant’s
ideology, but as “a gadfly of other systems”.[6] transcendental idealism, “critique” means examining and
establishing the limits of the validity of a faculty, type,
181
182 CHAPTER 20. CRITICAL THEORY
or body of knowledge, especially through accounting for which critique could base its hope.”[13] For Adorno and
the limitations imposed by the fundamental, irreducible Horkheimer, this posed the problem of how to account
concepts in use in that knowledge system. for the apparent persistence of domination in the absence
Kant’s notion of critique has been associated with the of the very contradiction that, according to traditional
overturning of false, unprovable, or dogmatic philosophi- critical theory, was the source of domination itself.
cal, social, and political beliefs, because Kant’s critique of In the 1960s, Jürgen Habermas raised the epistemological
reason involved the critique of dogmatic theological and discussion to a new level in his Knowledge and Human
metaphysical ideas and was intertwined with the enhance- Interests, by identifying critical knowledge as based on
ment of ethical autonomy and the Enlightenment critique principles that differentiated it either from the natural sci-
of superstition and irrational authority. Ignored by many ences or the humanities, through its orientation to self-
in “critical realist” circles, however, is that Kant’s imme- reflection and emancipation. Although unsatisfied with
diate impetus for writing his “Critique of Pure Reason” Adorno and Horkeimer’s thought presented in Dialectic
was to address problems raised by David Hume's skep- of Enlightenment, Habermas shares the view that, in the
tical empiricism which, in attacking metaphysics, em- form of instrumental rationality, the era of modernity
ployed reason and logic to argue against the knowability marks a move away from the liberation of enlightenment
of the world and common notions of causation. Kant, by and toward a new form of enslavement.[14] In Habermas’s
contrast, pushed the employment of a priori metaphysi- work, critical theory transcended its theoretical roots in
cal claims as requisite, for if anything is to be said to be German idealism, and progressed closer to American
knowable, it would have to be established upon abstrac- pragmatism.
tions distinct from perceivable phenomena. Habermas is now influencing the philosophy of Law in
Marx explicitly developed the notion of critique into the many countries - for example the creation of the social
critique of ideology and linked it with the practice of so- philosophy of Law in Brazil, and his theory also has
cial revolution, as stated in the famous 11th of his Theses the potential to make the discourse of law one impor-
on Feuerbach: “The philosophers have only interpreted tant institution of the modern world as a heritage of the
the world, in various ways; the point is to change it.”[9] Enlightenment.[15]
One of the distinguishing characteristics of critical the- His ideas regarding the relationship between modernity
ory, as Adorno and Horkheimer elaborated in their and rationalization are in this sense strongly influenced
Dialectic of Enlightenment (1947), is a certain ambiva- by Max Weber. Habermas dissolved further the elements
lence concerning the ultimate source or foundation of so- of critical theory derived from Hegelian German Ideal-
cial domination, an ambivalence which gave rise to the ism, although his thought remains broadly Marxist in its
"pessimism" of the new critical theory over the possi- epistemological approach. Perhaps his two most influ-
bility of human emancipation and freedom.[10] This am- ential ideas are the concepts of the public sphere and
bivalence was rooted, of course, in the historical circum- communicative action; the latter arriving partly as a re-
stances in which the work was originally produced, in par- action to new post-structural or so-called "post-modern"
ticular, the rise of National Socialism, state capitalism, challenges to the discourse of modernity. Habermas en-
and mass culture as entirely new forms of social domi- gaged in regular correspondence with Richard Rorty and
nation that could not be adequately explained within the a strong sense of philosophical pragmatism may be felt in
terms of traditional Marxist sociology.[11] his theory; thought which frequently traverses the bound-
For Adorno and Horkheimer, state intervention in econ- aries between sociology and philosophy.
omy had effectively abolished the tension between the
"relations of production" and “material productive forces
20.1.1 Postmodern critical theory
of society,” a tension which, according to traditional crit-
ical theory, constituted the primary contradiction within
While modernist critical theory (as described above) con-
capitalism. The market (as an “unconscious” mecha-
cerns itself with “forms of authority and injustice that ac-
nism for the distribution of goods) and private property
companied the evolution of industrial and corporate cap-
had been replaced by centralized planning and socialized
italism as a political-economic system,” postmodern crit-
ownership of the means of production.[12]
ical theory politicizes social problems “by situating them
Yet, contrary to Marx's famous prediction in the Pref- in historical and cultural contexts, to implicate themselves
ace to a Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, in the process of collecting and analyzing data, and to rel-
this shift did not lead to “an era of social revolution,” ativize their findings”.[16] Meaning itself is seen as unsta-
but rather to fascism and totalitarianism. As such, crit- ble due to the rapid transformation in social structures.
ical theory was left, in Jürgen Habermas' words, without As a result, the focus of research is centered on local man-
“anything in reserve to which it might appeal; and when ifestations, rather than broad generalizations.
the forces of production enter into a baneful symbiosis
Postmodern critical research is also characterized by the
with the relations of production that they were supposed
crisis of representation, which rejects the idea that a re-
to blow wide open, there is no longer any dynamism upon
searcher’s work is an “objective depiction of a stable
20.2. EDUCATION 183
other.” Instead, many postmodern scholars have adopted There is a common interest in the processes (often of
“alternatives that encourage reflection about the 'politics a linguistic or symbolic kind) that give rise to observ-
and poetics’ of their work. In these accounts, the embod- able phenomena and here there is some mutual influ-
ied, collaborative, dialogic, and improvisational aspects ence among the different versions of critical theory. Ul-
of qualitative research are clarified”.[17] timately, this emphasis on production and construction
The term “critical theory” is often appropriated when an goes back to the revolution in philosophy wrought by
author works within sociological terms, yet attacks the so- Kant, namely his focus in the Critique of Pure Reason on
cial or human sciences (thus attempting to remain “out- synthesis according to rules as the fundamental activity
of the mind that creates the order of our experience.
side” those frames of inquiry). Michel Foucault is one of
[18]
these authors.
Jean Baudrillard has also been described as a critical the- 20.2 Education
orist to the extent that he was an unconventional and crit-
ical sociologist;[19] this appropriation is similarly casual,
holding little or no relation to the Frankfurt School.[20] Critical theorists have widely credited Paulo Freire for
Jürgen Habermas of The Frankfurt School is one of the the first applications of critical theory towards education.
key critics of Post-modernism.[21] They consider his best-known work, Pedagogy of the Op-
pressed, a seminal text in what is now known as the phi-
Critical theory is focused on language, symbolism, com- losophy and social movement of critical pedagogy.
munication, and social construction.
Since 2010, the Birkbeck Institute for the Humanities has
organized annually the London Critical Theory Summer
20.1.2 Language and communication School.
From the 1960s and 1970s onward, language, symbol-

ism, text, and meaning came to be seen as the theoreti- 20.3 See also
cal foundation for the humanities, through the influence
of Ludwig Wittgenstein, Ferdinand de Saussure, George • Frankfurt School
Herbert Mead, Noam Chomsky, Hans-Georg Gadamer,
Roland Barthes, Jacques Derrida and other thinkers • Outline of critical theory
in linguistic and analytic philosophy, structural linguis-
tics, symbolic interactionism, hermeneutics, semiology,
linguistically oriented psychoanalysis (Jacques Lacan, 20.3.1 Lists
Alfred Lorenzer), and deconstruction.
• Information criticism
When, in the 1970s and 1980s, Jürgen Habermas rede-
fined critical social theory as a theory of communication, • List of critical theorists
i.e. communicative competence and communicative ra-
tionality on the one hand, distorted communication on the • List of works in critical theory
other.
20.3.2 Subfields
20.1.3 Construction
• American studies in Britain
Critical theory has focused on the processes by which hu- • Black feminism
man communication, culture, and political consciousness
are created. This includes: • Comparative literature
• Continental philosophy
• Whether it is through universal pragmatic principles
through which mutual understanding is achieved • Critical discourse analysis
(Habermas).
• Critical ethnography
• The semiotic rules by which objects obtain symbolic
meanings (Barthes). • Critical legal studies
• The psychological processes by which the phe- • Critical management studies

nomena of everyday consciousness are generated • Critical pedagogy
(psychoanalytic thinkers).
• Critical philosophy
• The episteme that underlies our cognitive formations
(Foucault), • Critical psychiatry
• Critical psychology 20.4 Footnotes

• Critical race theory [1] “Critical theory” in Anthony Elliott (ed.), The Routledge
Companion to Social Theory, Routledge, 2009.
• Critical thinking
[2] (Horkheimer 1982, 244)
• Critique of technology [3] [Geuss, R. The Idea of a Critical Theory, Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press]
• Cultural materialism
[4] Outhwaite, William. 1988. Habermas: Key Contempo-
• Cultural studies rary Thinkers 2nd Edition (2009), pp. 5-8 (ISBN 978-0-
7456-4328-1)
• Culture theory [5] See, e.g., Leszek Kołakowski's Main Currents of Marxism
(1979), vol. 3 chapter X; W. W. Norton & Company,
• Engaged theory ISBN 0393329437
• Feminist theory [6] Jay, Martin (1996) The Dialectical Imagination: A History
of the Frankfurt School and the Institute of Social Research,
1923–1950. University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-
• Foucault–Habermas debate
520-20423-2, p. 41
• Gender studies [7] Horkheimer 1982, p. 244.
[8] Bohman, James (2016-01-01). Zalta, Edward N., ed.

• Hermeneutics
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2016 ed.).
Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.
• Living educational theory
[9] “Theses on Feuerbach”. §XI. Marxists Internet Archive.
• Humanist Marxism Retrieved 11 April 2015.
[10] Adorno, T. W., with Max Horkheimer. Dialectic of En-

• Literary theory
lightenment. Trans. Edmund Jephcott. Stanford: Stanford
UP, 2002. 242.
• Political philosophy
[11] “Critical Theory was initially developed in Horkheimer’s
• Political radicalism circle to think through political disappointments at the ab-
sence of revolution in the West, the development of Stal-
• Postcolonialism inism in Soviet Russia, and the victory of fascism in Ger-
many. It was supposed to explain mistaken Marxist prog-
• Queer theory noses, but without breaking Marxist intentions.” “The En-
twinement of Myth and Enlightenment: Horkheimer and
Adorno.” in Habermas, Jürgen. The Philosophical Dis-
• Rule according to higher law
course of Modernity: Twelve Lectures. trans. Frederick
Lawrence. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1987. 116. Also,
• Semiotics of culture see Helmut Dubiel, Theory and Politics: Studies in the
Development of Critical Theory, trans. Benjamin Gregg
• Social criticism (Cambridge, Mass. and London, 1985).
• Tartu–Moscow Semiotic School [12] "[G]one are the objective laws of the market which ruled
in the actions of the entrepreneurs and tended toward
catastrophe. Instead the conscious decision of the man-
aging directors executes as results (which are more oblig-
20.3.3 Journals related to critical theory or atory than the blindest price-mechanisms) the old law of
critical sociology value and hence the destiny of capitalism.” Dialectic of
Enlightenment. p. 38.
• Constellations
[13] “The Entwinement of Myth and Enlightenment,” p. 118.
• Representations [14] Outhwaite, William. 1988. Habermas: Key Contempo-

rary Thinkers 2nd Edition (2009). p6. ISBN 978-0-7456-
• Critical Inquiry 4328-1
[15] Bittar, Eduardo C. B., Democracia, Justiça e Emanci-

• Telos pação Social, São Paulo, Quartier Latin, 2013.
• Law and Critique [16] Lindlof & Taylor, 2002, p. 52

[17] Lindlof & Taylor, 2002, p. 53 • Conquergood, D. (1991). “Rethinking ethnogra-

phy: Towards a critical cultural politics” (PDF).
[18] Rivera Vicencio, E. (2012). “Foucault: His influence over Communication Monographs. 58 (2): 179–194.
accounting and management research. Building of a map
doi:10.1080/03637759109376222.
of Foucault’s approach”. Int. J. Critical Accounting. 4
(5/6): 728–756.
• Gandler, Stefan (2009) (in German), Fragmentos de
[19] “Introduction to Jean Baudrillard, Module on Postmoder- Frankfurt. Ensayos sobre la Teoría crítica, Méx-
nity”. www.cla.purdue.edu. Retrieved 2017-06-16. ico: Siglo XXI Editores/Universidad Autónoma de
Querétaro, ISBN 978-607-03-0070-7
[20] Kellner, Douglas (2015). Zalta, Edward N., ed. The
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2015 ed.).
Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. • Lindlof, T. R., & Taylor, B. C. (2002). Qualita-
tive Communication Research Methods, 2nd Edition.
[21] Aylesworth, Gary (2015). “Postmodernism”. The Stan- Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
ford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research
Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 24 June 2017. • Morgan, Marcia. (2012). Kierkegaard and Critical
Theory. New York: Lexington Books.
20.5 References • An example of critical postmodern work is Rolling,

Jr., J. H. (2008). Secular blasphemy: Utter(ed)
• Horkheimer, Max. 1982. Critical Theory Selected transgressions against names and fathers in the post-
Essays. New York: Continuum Pub. modern era. Qualitative Inquiry, 14, 926–948.
• An accessible primer for the literary aspect of crit- • Thomas, Jim (1993). Doing Critical Ethnography.
ical theory is Jonathan Culler’s Literary Theory: A London, New York (NY): Sage 1993, pp. 1–5 &
Very Short Introduction ISBN 0-19-285383-X 17–25
• Another short introductory volume with illustra- • An example of critical qualitative research is Tracy,
tions: “Introducing Critical Theory” Stuart Sim & S. J. (2000). Becoming a character for commerce:
Borin Van Loon, 2001. ISBN 1-84046-264-7 Emotion labor, self subordination and discursive
• A survey of and introduction to the current state of construction of identity in a total institution. Man-
critical social theory is Craig Calhoun’s Critical So- agement Communication Quarterly, 14, 90–128.
cial Theory: Culture, History, and the Challenge of
Difference (Blackwell, 1995) ISBN 1-55786-288-5 • Eduardo C. B. Bittar, Democracy, Justice and Hu-
man Rights: Studies of Critical Theory and Social
• Problematizing Global Knowledge. Theory, Culture Philosophy of Law. Saarbruken: Lambert, 2016.
& Society. Vol. 23 (2–3). (Sage, 2006) ISSN 0263-
2764 • Luca Corchia, La logica dei processi culturali. Jür-
gen Habermas tra filosofia e sociologia, Genova,
• Raymond Geuss The Idea of a Critical Theory. Edizioni ECIG, 2010, ISBN 978-88-7544-195-1.
Habermas and the Frankfurt School. (Cambridge
University Press, 1981) ISBN 0-521-28422-8
• Charles Arthur Willard Liberalism and the Problem 20.6 External links
of Knowledge: A New Rhetoric for Modern Democ-
racy. University of Chicago Press. 1996.
20.6.1 Archival collections
• Charles Arthur Willard, A Theory of Argumenta-
tion. University of Alabama Press. 1989. • Guide to the Critical Theory Offprint Collection.
Special Collections and Archives, The UC Irvine
• Charles Arthur Willard, Argumentation and the So- Libraries, Irvine, CaliGuide to the Critical The-
cial Grounds of Knowledge. University of Alabama ory Institute Audio and Video Recordings, Univer-
Press. 1982. sity of California, Irvine. Special Collections and
• Harry Dahms (ed.), No Social Science Without Crit- Archives, The UC Irvine Libraries, Irvine, Califor-
ical Theory. Volume 25 of Current Perspectives in nia.
Social Theory (Emerald/JAI, 2008).
• University of California, Irvine, Critical Theory In-
• Charmaz, K. (1995). Between positivism and post- stitute Manuscript Materials. Special Collections
modernism: Implications for methods. Studies in and Archives, The UC Irvine Libraries, Irvine, Cal-
Symbolic Interaction, 17, 43–72. ifornia.
20.6.2 Other
• Critical Theory, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philoso-
phy
• “The Frankfurt School and Critical Theory”.

Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
• Gerhardt, Christina. “Frankfurt School.” The In-

ternational Encyclopedia of Revolution and Protest.
Ness, Immanuel (ed). Blackwell Publishing, 2009.
Blackwell Reference Online.
• “Theory: Death Is Not the End” N+1 magazine’s

short history of academic critical theory.
• Critical Legal Thinking A Critical Legal Studies

website which uses critical theory in an analysis of
law and politics.
• L. Corchia, Jürgen Habermas. A Bibliography:

works and studies (1952-2013), Pisa, Edizioni Il
Campano – Arnus University Books, 2013, 606
pages.
Chapter 21
Conflict theories
Conflict theories are perspectives in sociology and social The history of all hitherto existing society
psychology that emphasize the social, political, or mate- is the history of class struggles.
rial inequality of a social group, that critique the broad Freeman and slave, patrician and plebeian,
socio-political system, or that otherwise detract from lord and serf, guild-master and journeyman, in
structural functionalism and ideological conservatism. a word, oppressor and oppressed, stood in con-
Conflict theories draw attention to power differentials, stant opposition to one another, carried on an
such as class conflict, and generally contrast historically uninterrupted, now hidden, now open fight, a
dominant ideologies. It is therefore a macro level analysis fight that each time ended, either in a revolu-
of society. Karl Marx is the father of the social conflict tionary re-constitution of society at large, or in
theory, which is a component of the four paradigms of so- the common ruin of the contending classes.
ciology. Certain conflict theories set out to highlight the — Karl Marx & Friedrich Engels The
ideological aspects inherent in traditional thought. While Communist Manifesto 1848, [1]
many of these perspectives hold parallels, conflict theory
does not refer to a unified school of thought, and should
not be confused with, for instance, peace and conflict
studies, or any other specific theory of social conflict. In the social productions of their exis-
tence, men inevitably enter into definite re-
lations, which are independent of their will,
namely relations of production appropriate to a
21.1 In classical sociology given stage in the development of their material
forces of production. The totality of these re-
Of the classical founders of social science, conflict the- lations of production constitutes the economic
ory is most commonly associated with Karl Marx (1818– structure of society, the real foundation, on
1883). Based on a dialectical materialist account of his- which arises a legal and political superstructure
tory, Marxism posited that capitalism, like previous so- and to which correspond definite forms of so-
cioeconomic systems, would inevitably produce internal cial consciousness. The mode of production of
tensions leading to its own destruction. Marx ushered material life conditions the general process of
in radical change, advocating proletarian revolution and social, political and intellectual life. It is not
freedom from the ruling classes. At the same time, Karl the consciousness of men that determines their
Marx was aware that most of the people living in cap- existence, but their social existence that deter-
italist societies did not see how the system shaped the mines their consciousness. At a certain stage of
entire operation of society. Just as modern individuals development, the material productive forces of
see private property (and the right to pass that property society come into conflict with the existing re-
on to their children) as natural, many of the members in lations of production or – this merely expresses
capitalistic societies see the rich as having earned their the same thing in legal terms – with the prop-
wealth through hard work and education, while seeing erty relations within the framework of which
the poor as lacking in skill and initiative. Marx rejected they have operated hitherto. From forms of
this type of thinking and termed it false consciousness, development of the productive forces, these re-
explanations of social problems as the shortcomings of lations turn into their fetters. Then an era of
individuals rather than the flaws of society. Marx wanted social revolution begins. The changes in the
to replace this kind of thinking with something Engels economic foundation lead sooner or later to the
termed class consciousness, the workers’ recognition of transformation of the whole immense super-
themselves as a class unified in opposition to capitalists structure.
and ultimately to the capitalist system itself. In general, In studying such transformations it is al-
Marx wanted the proletarians to rise up against the capi- ways necessary to distinguish between the ma-
talists and overthrow the capitalist system. terial transformation of the economic condi-
187
188 CHAPTER 21. CONFLICT THEORIES
tions of production, which can be determined system develops.[3] Horowitz says that Gumplowicz un-
with the precision of natural science, and the derstood conflict in all its forms: “class conflict, race con-
legal, political, religious, artistic or philosophic flict and ethnic conflict”, and calls him one of the fathers
– in short, ideological forms in which men be- of Conflict Theory.[4]
come conscious of this conflict and fight it out.
Just as one does not judge an individual by
what he thinks about himself, so one cannot
judge such a period of transformation by its
consciousness, but, on the contrary, this con- What happened in India, Babylon, Egypt,
sciousness must be explained from the contra- Greece and Rome may sometime happen in
dictions of material life, from the conflict exist- modern Europe. European civilization may
ing between the social forces of production and perish, over flooded by barbaric tribes. But if
the relations of production. No social order is any one believes that we are safe from such
ever destroyed before all the productive forces catastrophes he is perhaps yielding to an all
for which it is sufficient have been developed, too optimistic delusion. There are no barbaric
and new superior relations of production never tribes in our neighbourhood to be sure — but
replace older ones before the material condi- let no one be deceived, their instincts lie latent
tions for their existence have matured within in the populace of European states.
the framework of the old society. — Gumplowicz (1884), [5]
Mankind thus inevitably sets itself only
such tasks as it is able to solve, since closer ex-
amination will always show that the problem
itself arises only when the material conditions
for its solution are already present or at least in
the course of formation. In broad outline, the Ward directly attacked and attempted to systematically
Asiatic, ancient, [A] feudal and modern bour- refute the elite business class’s laissez-faire philosophy
geois modes of production may be designated as espoused by the hugely popular social philosopher
as epochs marking progress in the economic Herbert Spencer. Ward’s Dynamic Sociology (1883) was
development of society. The bourgeois mode an extended thesis on how to reduce conflict and compe-
of production is the last antagonistic form of tition in society and thus optimize human progress. At
the social process of production – antagonistic the most basic level Ward saw human nature itself to be
not in the sense of individual antagonism but deeply conflicted between self-aggrandizement and altru-
of an antagonism that emanates from the indi- ism, between emotion and intellect, and between male
viduals’ social conditions of existence – but the and female. These conflicts would be then reflected in
productive forces developing within bourgeois society and Ward assumed there had been a “perpetual
society create also the material conditions for and vigorous struggle” among various “social forces” that
a solution of this antagonism. The prehistory shaped civilization.[6][7] Ward was more optimistic than
of human society accordingly closes with this Marx and Gumplowicz and believed that it was possible
social formation. to build on and reform present social structures with the
— Karl Marx A Contribution to the Critique help of sociological analysis.
of Political Economy 1859, [2] Durkheim (1858–1917) saw society as a functioning or-
ganism. Functionalism concerns “the effort to impute, as
rigorously as possible, to each feature, custom, or prac-
Two early conflict theorists were the Polish-Austrian tice, its effect on the functioning of a supposedly sta-
sociologist and political theorist Ludwig Gumplowicz ble, cohesive system,”[8] The chief form of social con-
(1838–1909) and the American sociologist and paleon- flict that Durkheim addressed was crime. Durkheim saw
tologist Lester F. Ward (1841–1913). Although Ward crime as “a factor in public health, an integral part of
and Gumplowicz developed their theories independently all healthy societies.”[9] The collective conscience defines
they had much in common and approached conflict from certain acts as “criminal.” Crime thus plays a role in the
a comprehensive anthropological and evolutionary point- evolution of morality and law: "[it] implies not only that
of-view as opposed to Marx’s rather exclusive focus on the way remains open to necessary changes but that in
economic factors. certain cases it directly prepares these changes.”[10]
Gumplowicz, in Grundriss der Soziologie (Outlines of Weber's (1864–1920) approach to conflict is contrasted
Sociology, 1884), describes how civilization has been with that of Marx. While Marx focused on the way
shaped by conflict between cultures and ethnic groups. individual behaviour is conditioned by social structure,
Gumplowicz theorized that large complex human soci- Weber emphasized the importance of "social action,”
eties evolved from the war and conquest. The winner of a i.e., the ability of individuals to affect their social
war would enslave the losers; eventually a complex caste relationships.[11]
21.3. TYPES 189
21.2 Modern approaches • Human potential (e.g., capacity for creativity) is

suppressed by conditions of exploitation and oppres-
C. Wright Mills has been called the founder of modern sion, which are necessary in any society with an un-
conflict theory.[12] In Mills’s view, social structures are equal division of labour. These and other qualities
created through conflict between people with differing in- do not necessarily have to be stunted due to the re-
terests and resources. Individuals and resources, in turn, quirements of the so-called "civilizing process,” or
are influenced by these structures and by the “unequal "functional necessity": creativity is actually an en-
distribution of power and resources in the society.”[12] gine for economic development and change.
The power elite of American society, (i.e., the military– • The role of theory is in realizing human potential
industrial complex) had “emerged from the fusion of the and transforming society, rather than maintaining
corporate elite, the Pentagon, and the executive branch the power structure. The opposite aim of theory
of government.” Mills argued that the interests of this would be the objectivity and detachment associated
elite were opposed to those of the people. He theorized with positivism, where theory is a neutral, explana-
that the policies of the power elite would result in “in- tory tool.
creased escalation of conflict, production of weapons of
mass destruction, and possibly the annihilation of the hu- • Consensus is a euphemism for ideology. Genuine
man race.”[12] consensus is not achieved, rather the more powerful
in societies are able to impose their conceptions on
Gene Sharp (born 21 January 1928) is a Professor Emeri- others and have them accept their discourses. Con-
tus of political science at the University of Massachusetts sensus does not preserve social order, it entrenches
Dartmouth.[13] He is known for his extensive writings stratification, a tool of the current social order.
on nonviolent struggle, which have influenced numer-
ous anti-government resistance movements around the • The State serves the particular interests of the most
world. In 1983 he founded the Albert Einstein Insti- powerful while claiming to represent the interests of
tution, a non-profit organization devoted to studies and all. Representation of disadvantaged groups in State
promotion of the use of nonviolent action in conflicts processes may cultivate the notion of full participa-
worldwide.[14] Sharp’s key theme is that power is not tion, but this is an illusion/ideology.
monolithic; that is, it does not derive from some intrinsic
• Inequality on a global level is characterized by the
quality of those who are in power. For Sharp, political
purposeful underdevelopment of Third World coun-
power, the power of any state—regardless of its partic-
tries, both during colonization and after national in-
ular structural organization—ultimately derives from the
dependence. The global system (i.e., development
subjects of the state. His fundamental belief is that any
agencies such as World Bank and International Mon-
power structure relies upon the subjects’ obedience to the
etary Fund) benefits the most powerful countries and
orders of the ruler(s). If subjects do not obey, leaders
multi-national corporations, rather than the subjects
have no power. Sharp has been called both the “Machi-
of development, through economic, political, and
avelli of nonviolence” and the “Clausewitz of nonviolent
military actions.
warfare.”[15] Sharp’s scholarship has influenced resistance
organizations around the world. Most recently the protest Although Sears associates the conflict theory approach
movement that toppled President Mubarak of Egypt drew with Marxism, he argues that it is the foundation for
extensively on his ideas, as well as the youth movement much "feminist, post-modernist, anti-racist, and lesbian-
in Tunisia and the earlier ones in the Eastern European gay liberationist theories.”[18]
colour revolutions that had previously been inspired by
Sharp’s work.[16]
A recent articulation of conflict theory is found in Alan 21.3 Types
Sears’ (Canadian sociologist) book A Good Book, in The-
ory: A Guide to Theoretical Thinking (2008):[17]
Conflict theory is most commonly associated with
Marxism, but as a reaction to functionalism and the
• Societies are defined by inequality that produces
positivist method may also be associated with number of
conflict, rather than which produces order and con-
other perspectives, including:
sensus. This conflict based on inequality can only be
overcome through a fundamental transformation of
• Critical theory
the existing relations in the society, and is produc-
tive of new social relations. • Feminist theory: An approach that recognizes
women’s political, social, and economic equality to
• The disadvantaged have structural interests that run
men.
counter to the status quo, which, once they are as-
sumed, will lead to social change. Thus, they are • Postmodern theory: An approach that is critical of
viewed as agents of change rather than objects one modernism, with a mistrust of grand theories and
should feel sympathy for. ideologies.[19]
190 CHAPTER 21. CONFLICT THEORIES
• Post-structural theory [12] Knapp, P. (1994). One World – Many Worlds: Contem-
porary Sociological Theory (2nd Ed.). Harpercollins Col-
• Postcolonial theory lege Div, pp. 228–246. Online summary ISBN 978-0-06-
501218-7
• Queer theory: A growing body of research find-
ings that challenges the heterosexual bias in Western [13] “Gene Sharp: Author of the nonviolent revolution rule-
society.[19] book”. BBC News. 21 February 2011.
• World systems theory [14] Gene Sharp biography at Albert Einstein Institution web
site. Archived 12 January 2010 at the Wayback Machine.
• Race-Conflict Approach: A point of view that fo-
cuses on inequality and conflict between people of [15] Weber, Thomas. Gandhi as Disciple and Mentor. Cam-
different racial and ethnic categories.[19] bridge University Press, Cambridge 2004
[16] “Shy U.S. Intellectual Created Playbook Used in a Revo-

lution”. The New York Times. 16 February 2011.
21.4 See also
[17] Sears, Alan. (2008) A Good Book, In Theory: A Guide
to Theoretical Thinking. North York: Higher Education
• Conflict management University of Toronto Press, pg. 34-6, ISBN 1-55111-
536-0.
• Game theory
[18] Sears, pg. 36.
• Pure sociology
[19] Macionis, J., and Gerber, L. (2010). Sociology, 7th edi-
• Social defeat tion
• Sociology of peace, war, and social conflict
• Socionics 21.6 References
• Stark, Rodney (2007). Sociology (10th ed.). thomas
21.5 Notes wadsworth. ISBN 0-495-09344-0.
[1] Marx and Engels, The Communist Manifesto, introduction • Lenski, Gerhard E. (1966). Power and Privilege: A
by Martin Malia (New York: Penguin group, 1998), pg. Theory of Social Stratificaion. McGraw-Hill. ISBN
35 ISBN 0-451-52710-0 0-07-037165-2.
[2] Marx A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, • Collins, Randall (1994). Four Sociological Tradi-
http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1859/ tions: Selected Readings. Oxford University Press.
critique-pol-economy/preface.htm
ISBN 0-19-508702-X.
[3] Fifty Key Sociologists: the Formative Theorists, John
Scott Irving, 2007, pg 59
• Thio, Alex (2008). Sociology: A Brief Introduction
(7th ed.). Pearson. ISBN 0-205-40785-4.
[4] “Communicating Ideas: The Politics of Scholarly Publish-
ing”, Irving Louis Horowitz, 1986, pg 281
[5] “Outlines of Sociology”, pg 196
[6] “Transforming Leadership”, James MacGregor Burns,

2004, pg 189
[7] “German Realpolitik and American Sociology: an Inquiry

Into the Sources and Political Significance of the Sociol-
ogy of Conflict”, James Alfred Aho, 1975, ch. 6 'Lester
F. Ward’s Sociology of Conflict'
[8] Bourricaud, F. 'The Sociology of Talcott Parsons’ Chicago

University Press. ISBN 0-226-06756-4. p. 94
[9] Durkheim, E. (1938). The Rules of Sociological Method.

Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. p. 67.
[10] Durkheim, (1938), pp. 70–81.
[11] Livesay, C. Social Inequality: Theories: Weber. Soci-

ology Central. A-Level Sociology Teaching Notes. Re-
trieved on: 2010-06-20.
Chapter 22
Structure and agency
In the social sciences there is a standing debate over the of holism—the notion that “the whole is greater than the
primacy of structure or agency in shaping human be- sum of its parts”.
havior. Structure is the recurrent patterned arrange-
On the other hand, other theorists stress the capacity
ments which influence or limit the choices and opportuni- of individual “agents” to construct and reconstruct their
ties available.[1] Agency is the capacity of individuals to
worlds. Theoretical systems aligned with this view in-
act independently and to make their own free choices.[1] clude:
The structure versus agency debate may be understood as
an issue of socialization against autonomy in determining
• methodological individualism
whether an individual acts as a free agent or in a manner
dictated by social structure. • social phenomenology
• interactionism
22.1 Structure, socialization and • ethnomethodology
autonomy
Lastly, a third option, taken by many modern social the-
orists (Bourdieu, 1977, 1990; Hurrelmann, 1988, 2009),
The debate over the primacy of structure or of agency
attempts to find a point of balance between the two previ-
relates to an issue at the heart of both classical and con-
ous positions. They see structure and agency as comple-
temporary sociological theory: the question of social on-
mentary forces - structure influences human behaviour,
tology: “What is the social world made of?" “What is a
and humans are capable of changing the social structures
cause of the social world, and what is an effect?" “Do so-
they inhabit. Structuration is one prominent example of
cial structures determine an individual’s behavior or does
this view.
human agency?"
The first approach (emphasizing the importance of soci-
Structural functionalists such as Émile Durkheim see
etal structure) dominated in classical sociology. Theorists
structure and hierarchy as essential in establishing the
saw unique aspects of the social world that could not be
very existence of society. Theorists such as Karl Marx,
explained simply by the sum of the individuals present.
by contrast, emphasize that the social structure can act to
Émile Durkheim strongly believed that the collective had
the detriment of the majority of individuals in a society.
emergent properties of its own and saw the need for a
In both these instances “structure” may refer to something
science which would deal with this emergence. The sec-
both material (or "economic") and cultural (i.e. related to
ond approach (methodological individualism, etc.), how-
norms, customs, traditions and ideologies).
ever, also has a well-established position in social science.
Some theorists put forward that what we know as our Many theorists still follow this course (economists, for ex-
social existence is largely determined by the overall ample, tend to disregard any kind of holism).
structure of society. The perceived agency of individu-
The central debate, therefore, pits theorists committed to
als can also mostly be explained by the operation of this
the notions of methodological holism against those com-
structure. Theoretical systems aligned with this view in-
mitted to methodological individualism. The first no-
clude:
tion, methodological holism, is the idea that actors are
socialised and embedded into social structures and insti-
• structuralism tutions that constrain, or enable, and generally shape the
• some forms of functionalism individuals’ dispositions towards, and capacities for, ac-
tion, and that this social structure should be taken as pri-
• Marxism mary and most significant. The second notion, method-
ological individualism, is the idea that actors are the cen-
All of these schools in this context can be seen as forms tral theoretical and ontological elements in social systems,
191
192 CHAPTER 22. STRUCTURE AND AGENCY
and social structure is an epiphenomenon, a result and position in the field, the agent internalises relationships
consequence of the actions and activities of interacting and expectations for operating in that domain. These in-
individuals. ternalised relationships and habitual expectations and re-
lationships form, over time, the habitus.
Bourdieu’s work attempts to reconcile structure and
22.2 Major theorists agency, as external structures are internalised into the
habitus while the actions of the agent externalise inter-
22.2.1 Georg Simmel actions between actors into the social relationships in the
field. Bourdieu’s theory, therefore, is a dialectic between
Georg Simmel (March 1, 1858 – September 28, 1918, “externalising the internal”, and “internalising the exter-
Berlin, Germany) was one of the first generation of Ger- nal.”
man nonpositivist sociologists. His studies pioneered the
concepts of social structure and agency. His most famous
works today include The Metropolis and Mental Life and
The Philosophy of Money.
22.2.5 Berger and Luckmann
Peter L. Berger and Thomas Luckmann in their Social

22.2.2 Norbert Elias Construction of Reality (1966) saw the relationship be-
tween structure and agency as dialectical. Society forms
Norbert Elias (June 22, 1897 — August 1, 1990) was a the individuals who create society - forming a continuous
German sociologist whose work focused on the relation- loop.[2]
ship between power, behavior, emotion, and knowledge
over time. He significantly shaped what is called “process
sociology” or "figurational sociology.”
22.2.6 James Coleman
22.2.3 Talcott Parsons The sociologist James Samuel Coleman famously dia-
gramed the link between macrosociological phenomena
Talcott Parsons (December 13, 1902 – May 8, 1979) was and individual behavior in what is commonly referred to
an American sociologist and the main theorist of action as Coleman’s Boat.[3] A macro-level phenomenon is de-
theory (misleadingly called “structural functionalism”) in scribed as instigating particular actions by individuals,
sociology from the 1930s in the United States. His works which results in a subsequent macro-level phenomenon.
analyze social structure but in terms of voluntary action In this way, individual action is taken in reference to a
and through patterns of normative institutionalisation by macro-sociological structure, and that action (by many in-
codifying its theoretical gestalt into a system-theoretical dividuals) results in change to that macro-structure.
framework based on the idea of living systems and
cybernetic hierarchy. For Parsons there is no “structure"-
“agency” problem. It is a pseudo-problem.
22.2.7 Anthony Giddens
22.2.4 Pierre Bourdieu Contemporary sociology has generally aimed toward
a reconciliation of structure and agency as concepts.
Pierre Bourdieu (1 August 1930 – 23 January 2002) was Anthony Giddens has developed “Structuration Theory”
a French theorist who presented his theory of practice on in such works as The Constitution of Society (1984). He
the dichotomical understanding of the relation between presents a developed attempt to move beyond the dualism
agency and structure in a great number of publications, of structure and agency and argues for the “duality of
beginning with An Outline of the Theory of Practice in structure” - where social structure is both the medium
1972, where he presented the concept of habitus. His and the outcome of social action, and agents and struc-
book Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of tures as mutually constitutive entities with “equal ontolog-
Taste (1979), was named as one of the 20th century’s 10 ical status”.[2] For Giddens, an agent’s common interac-
most important works of sociology by the International tion with structure, as a system of norms, is described as
Sociological Association. "structuration". The term "reflexivity" is used to refer to
The key concepts in Bourdieu’s work are habitus, field, the ability of an agent to consciously alter his or her place
and capital. The agent is socialized in a “field”, an evolv- in the social structure; thus globalization and the emer-
ing set of roles and relationships in a social domain, where gence of the 'post-traditional' society might be said to al-
various forms of “capital” such as prestige or financial re- low for “greater social reflexivity”. Social and political
sources are at stake. As the agent accommodates to his sciences are therefore important because social knowl-
or her roles and relationships in the context of his or her edge, as self-knowledge, is potentially emancipatory.[4]
22.4. A EUROPEAN PROBLEM? 193
22.2.8 Klaus Hurrelmann With Critical Psychology as a framework, the Danish psy-
chologist Ole Dreier proposes in his book Psychotherapy
His access to research on structure and agency is char- in Everyday Life that we may best conceptualize persons
acterized by socialization theory. Central to the theory as participants in social practices (that constitute social
is the life-long interaction between the individual and structures) who can either reproduce or change these so-
his/her longing for freedom and autonomy, and society cial practices. This indicates that neither participants, nor
with its pressure of order and structure. As he states in his social practices can be understood when looked at in iso-
“Model of Productive Processing of Reality (PPR)", per- lation (in fact, this undermines the very idea of trying to
sonality “does not form independently from society any do so), since practice and structure is co-created by par-
of its functions or dimensions but is continuously being ticipants and since the participants can only be called so,
shaped, in a concrete, historically conveyed life world, if they participate in a social practice.[12]
throughout the entire space of the life span”.[5] The PPR The structure/agency debate continues to evolve, with
model places the human subject in a social and ecological contributions such as Nicos Mouzelis's Sociological The-
context that must be absorbed and processed subjectively. ory: What Went Wrong? and Margaret Archer’s Real-
The human being as an autonomous subject has the life- ist Social Theory: The Morphogenetic Approach continu-
long task to harmonize the processes of social integration ing to push the ongoing development of structure/agency
and personal individualization. This task is mastered in theory. Work in information systems by Mutch (2010)
specific steps that are typical for the respective age and the has emphasized Archer’s Realist Social Theory.[13] In en-
achieved developmental stage (“developmental tasks”).[6] trepreneurship a discussion between Sarason et al. and
Mole and Mole (2010) used Archer’s theory to critique
structuration by arguing that starting a new business or-
22.2.9 Roberto Unger ganization needs to be understood in the context of so-
cial structure and agency. However, this depends upon
Social theorist and legal philosopher Roberto Mangabeira one’s view of structure, which differs between Giddens
Unger developed the thesis of negative capability to ad- and Archer. Hence if strata in social reality have differ-
dress this problem of agency in relation to structure. In ent ontologies, then they must be viewed as a dualism.
his work on false necessity — or anti-necessitarian so- Moreover, agents have causal power, and ultimate con-
cial theory — Unger recognizes the constraints of struc- cerns which they try to fallibly put into practice. Mole
ture and its molding influence upon the individual, but at and Mole propose entrepreneurship as the study of the in-
the same time finds the individual able to resist, deny, terplay between the structures of a society and the agents
and transcend their context. The varieties of this re- within it.[14]
sistance are negative capability. Unlike other theories
of structure and agency, negative capability does not re-
duce the individual to a simple actor possessing only the
dual capacity of compliance or rebellion, but rather sees
22.4 A European problem?
him as able to partake in a variety of activities of self
empowerment.[7][8] While the structure/agency debate has been a central is-
sue in social theory, and recent theoretical reconcilia-
tion attempts have been made, structure/agency theory
has tended to develop more in European countries by Eu-
22.3 Recent developments ropean theorists, while social theorists from the United
States have tended to focus instead on the issue of inte-
A recent development in the debate is the critical realist gration between macrosociological and microsociological
structure/agency perspective embodied in Roy Bhaskar’s perspectives. George Ritzer examines these issues (and
Transformational Model of Social Action (TMSA)[9] surveys the structure agency debate) in greater detail in
which he later expanded into his concept of Four-Planar his book Modern Sociological Theory (2000).
Social Being.[10] A major difference between Giddens’
Structuration Theory and the TMSA is that the TMSA
includes a temporal element (time). The TMSA has 22.5 See also
been further advocated and applied in other social science
fields by additional authors, for example in economics
• Social structure
by Tony Lawson and in sociology by Margaret Archer.
In 2005, the Journal of Management Studies debated the • Social relation
merits of critical realism.[11]
• Socialization
Kenneth Wilkinson in the Community in Rural America
took an interactional/field theoretical perspective focus- • Agency (sociology)
ing on the role of community agency in contributing to
the emergence of community. • Structural-functionalism
194 CHAPTER 22. STRUCTURE AND AGENCY
• Theory of structuration [13] Mutch, A., 2010. “Technology, organization, and struc-
ture - a morphogenetic approach.” Organisation Science
• Action theory (sociology) 21(2): 1-14
• Base and superstructure [14] Mole K.F. and Mole M.C (2010) “Entrepreneurship as the
structuration of individual and opportunity: A response
• Nature and nurture using a critical realist perspective.” Journal of Business
Venturing, 25(2): 230-237.
• Actor-Network Theory
• Principal–agent problem
22.7 References
• Negative capability
• Archer, M. (1995), Realist Social Theory: The Mor-
phogenetic Approach, Cambridge University Press:
22.6 Notes Cambridge.
• Archer, M. (2003), Structure, Agency and the In-

[1] Barker, Chris. 2005. Cultural Studies: Theory and Prac- ternal Conversation, Cambridge University Press:
tice. London: Sage. ISBN 0-7619-4156-8 p448 Cambridge.
[2] Jary & Jary, Collins Dictionary of Sociology, p664.
• Berger, P. L.; T. Luckmann (1966), The Social Con-
[3] Stoltz, Dustin (January 25, 2014). “Diagrams of Theory: struction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociology of
Coleman’s Boat”. DustinStoltz.com. Knowledge, Anchor Books: Garden City, NY.
[4] David Gauntlett, Media Gender and Identity, Routledge, • Bhaskar, R. (1979/1998), The Possibility of Natu-
2002. ISBN 0-415-18960-8. About Giddens’ work on ralism (3rd edition) Harvester Wheatsheaf: Hemel
modernity and self-identity. Google Print Hampstead.
[5] Hurrelmann, Klaus (1988, 2009). Social Structure and • Bhaskar, R. (1989), Reclaiming Reality, Verso: Lon-
Personality Development. New York: Cambridge Univer- don.
sity Press, p. 42.
• Bourdieu, P. (1977), Outline of a Theory of Practice,
[6] Hurrelmann, Klaus (1988, 2009). Social Structure and Cambridge University Press: London.
Personality Development. New York: Cambridge Univer-
sity Press. • Bourdieu, P. (1990), The Logic of Practice, Polity
Press: Cambridge.
[7] Unger, Roberto (2004). False Necessity: Anti-
Necessitarian Social Theory in the Service of Radical • Bourdieu, P. and L. J. D. Wacquant (1992), An Invi-
Democracy, Revised Edition. London: Verso. p. 282. tation to Reflexive Sociology, University of Chicago
ISBN 978-1-85984-331-4. Press: Chicago.
[8] Robin W. Lovin and Michael J. Perry, eds., Critique and • Elias, N. (1978), What is Sociology?, Hutchinson:
Construction : A Symposium on Roberto Unger’s Politics
London.
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
• Giddens, A. (1976), New Rules of Sociological
[9] Bhaskar, R. (2014). The Possibility of Naturalism: A
Philosophical Critique of the Contemporary Human Sci-
Method.
ences. London: Routledge.
• Giddens, A. (1984), The Constitution of Society,
[10] Bhaskar, R. (2008). Dialectic: The Pulse of Freedom. Polity Press: Cambridge.
London: Routledge.
• Jary, David; Julia Jary (1991). Collins Dictionary of
[11] Contu, A. and Willmott, H. (2005) “You spin me round: Sociology. Glasgow: Harper Collins. p. 774. ISBN
the realist turn in organization and management studies”, 0-00-470804-0.
Journal of Management Studies, 42(8): 1645-1662 Reed,
M. (2005a) “The realist turn in organization and man- • Hurrelmann, K. (1988, 2009), Social Structure and
agement studies”, Journal of Management Studies, 42(8): Personality Development. Cambridge University
1600-1644 Reed, M. (2005b) “Doing the loco-motion: Press: New York.
Response to Contu and Willmott’s commentary on ‘The
realist turn in organization and management studies’", • Lawson, T. (1997), Economics and Reality, Rout-
Journal of Management Studies, 42(8): 1663-1673 ledge: London and New York.
[12] Dreier, Ole., 2008. Chapter 2. In: Psychotherapy in Ev- • Mouzelis, N. (1995), Sociological Theory: What
eryday Life. Cambridge University Press. Went Wrong?, Routledge: London and New York.
• Ritzer, G. (2000), Modern Sociological Theory (5th

ed.), McGraw-Hill.
• Ritzer, G.; P. Gindoff (1992) “Methodological re-
lationism: lessons for and from social psychology”,
Social Psychology Quarterly, 55(2), pp. 128–140.
• Turner, J. H. (1991), The Structure of Sociological

Theory (5th edn.), Wadsworth Publishing Company:
Belmont CA.
• Unger, Roberto (1987), False Necessity: Anti-
Necessitarian Social Theory in the Service of Radi-
cal Democracy. Cambridge University Press: Cam-
bridge
• Unger, Roberto (1987), Social Theory: Its situation

and its task. Cambridge University Press: Cam-
bridge
• Wilkinson, K. (1991)., The Community in Rural
America. Greenwood Press: New York, NY
Chapter 23
Philosophy
For other uses, see Philosophy (disambiguation). writers. However, many of those who study philosophy
in undergraduate or graduate programs contribute in the
Philosophy (from Greek φιλοσοφία, philosophia, lit- fields of law, journalism, politics, religion, science, busi-
[1][2][3][4] ness and various art and entertainment activities.[26]
erally “love of wisdom” ) is the study of gen-
eral and fundamental problems concerning matters
such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind,
and language.[5][6] The term was probably coined by 23.1 Introduction
Pythagoras (c. 570–495 BCE). Philosophical methods
include questioning, critical discussion, rational argument
and systematic presentation.[7][8] Classic philosophical 23.1.1 Knowledge
questions include: Is it possible to know anything and to
prove it?[9][10][11] What is most real? However, philoso- Traditionally, the term “philosophy” referred to any body
[14][27]
phers might also pose more practical and concrete ques- of knowledge. In this sense, philosophy is closely
tions such as: Is there a best way to live? Is it better to be related to religion, mathematics, natural science, educa-
[12]
just or unjust (if one can get away with it)? Do humans tion and politics. Newton’s 1687 "Mathematical Prin-
have free will? [13] ciples of Natural Philosophy" is classified in the 2000s
as a book of physics; he used the term "natural phi-
Historically, “philosophy” encompassed any body of losophy" because it used to encompass disciplines that
knowledge.[14] From the time of Ancient Greek philoso- later became associated with sciences such as astronomy,
pher Aristotle to the 19th century, "natural philoso- medicine and physics.[15]
phy" encompassed astronomy, medicine and physics.[15]
For example, Newton's 1687 Mathematical Principles of In Classical antiquity, Philosophy was traditionally di-
Natural Philosophy later became classified as a book vided into three major branches:
of physics. In the 19th century, the growth of mod-
ern research universities led academic philosophy and • Natural philosophy ("physics”) was the study of the
other disciplines to professionalize and specialize.[16][17] physical world (physis, lit: nature);
In the modern era, some investigations that were tradi-
tionally part of philosophy became separate academic • Moral philosophy ("ethics”) was the study of good-
disciplines, including psychology, sociology, linguistics ness, right and wrong, beauty, justice and virtue
and economics. (ethos, lit: custom);
Other investigations closely related to art, science, poli-
• Metaphysical philosophy (“logos”) was the study of
tics, or other pursuits remained part of philosophy. For
existence, causation, God, logic, forms and other ab-
example, is beauty objective or subjective?[18][19] Are
stract objects ("meta-physika” lit: “what comes after
there many scientific methods or just one?[20] Is political
physics”).[28]
utopia a hopeful dream or hopeless fantasy?[21][22][23]
Major sub-fields of academic philosophy include
metaphysics (“concerned with the fundamental nature This division is not obsolete but has changed. Natural
of reality and being”),[24] epistemology (about the philosophy has split into the various natural sciences, es-
“nature and grounds of knowledge [and]...its limits and pecially astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology and cos-
validity” [25] ), ethics, aesthetics, political philosophy, mology. Moral philosophy has birthed the social sci-
logic, philosophy of science and the history of Western ences, but still includes value theory (including aesthetics,
philosophy. ethics, political philosophy, etc.). Metaphysical philoso-
Since the 20th century, professional philosophers con- phy has birthed formal sciences such as logic, mathemat-
tribute to society primarily as professors, researchers and ics and philosophy of science, but still includes episte-
mology, cosmology and others.
196
23.2. HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 197
23.1.2 Philosophical progress (philosophia)[33] and were also termed physiologoi (stu-
dents of physis, or nature). Socrates was a very influen-
Many philosophical debates that began in ancient times tial philosopher, who insisted that he possessed no wis-
are still debated today. Colin McGinn and others dom but was a pursuer of wisdom.[34] Western philosophy
claim that no philosophical progress has occurred dur- can be divided into three eras: Ancient (Greco-Roman),
ing that interval.[29] Chalmers and others, by contrast, see Medieval philosophy (Christian European), and Modern
progress in philosophy similar to that in science,[30] while philosophy.
Talbot Brewer argued that “progress” is the wrong stan-
The Ancient era was dominated by Greek philosoph-
dard by which to judge philosophical activity.[31]
ical schools which arose out of the various pupils
of Socrates, such as Plato who founded the Platonic
Academy, and was one of the most influential Greek
23.2 Historical overview thinkers for the whole of Western thought.[35] Plato’s stu-
dent Aristotle was also extremely influential, founding the
In one general sense, philosophy is associated with wis- Peripatetic school. Other traditions include Cynicism,
dom, intellectual culture and a search for knowledge. In Stoicism, Greek Skepticism and Epicureanism. Impor-
that sense, all cultures and literate societies ask philosoph- tant topics covered by the Greeks included metaphysics
ical questions such as “how are we to live” and “what is (with competing theories such as atomism and monism),
the nature of reality”. A broad and impartial concep- cosmology, the nature of the well-lived life (eudaimonia),
tion of philosophy then, finds a reasoned inquiry into the possibility of knowledge and the nature of reason
such matters as reality, morality and life in all world (logos). With the rise of the Roman empire, Greek
civilizations.[32] philosophy was also increasingly discussed in Latin by
Romans such as Cicero and Seneca.
Medieval philosophy (5th – 16th century) is the period
23.2.1 Western philosophy
following the fall of the western Roman empire and was
Main article: Western philosophy dominated by the rise of Christianity and hence reflects
Western philosophy is the philosophical tradition of Judeo-Christian theological concerns as well as retaining
a continuity with Greco-Roman thought. Problems such
as the existence and nature of God, the nature of faith and
reason, metaphysics, the problem of evil were discussed
in this period. Some key Medieval thinkers include
St. Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, Boethius, Anselm and
Roger Bacon. Philosophy for these thinkers was viewed
as an aid to Theology (ancilla theologiae) and hence they
sought to align their philosophy with their interpreta-
tion of sacred scripture. This period saw the develop-
ment of Scholasticism, a text critical method developed
in medieval universities based on close reading and dispu-
tation on key texts. The Renaissance (1355–1650) period
saw increasing focus on classic Greco-Roman thought
and on a robust Humanism.
Early modern philosophy in the Western world be-
gins with thinkers such as Thomas Hobbes and René
Descartes (1596–1650).[36] Following the rise of natu-
ral science, Modern philosophy was concerned with de-
veloping a secular and rational foundation for knowl-
edge and moved away from traditional structures of
authority such as religion, scholastic thought and the
Church. Major modern philosophers include Spinoza,
Leibniz, Locke, Berkeley, Hume, and Kant.[37][38][39]
19th-century philosophy is influenced by the wider
movement termed the Enlightenment, and includes fig-
Bust of Socrates in the Vatican Museum ures such as Hegel a key figure in German ideal-
ism, Kierkegaard who developed the foundations for
the Western world and dates to Pre-Socratic thinkers existentialism, Nietzsche a famed anti-Christian, J.S. Mill
who were active in Ancient Greece in the 6th century who promoted Utilitarianism, Karl Marx who devel-
BCE such as Thales (c. 624–546 BCE) and Pythagoras oped the foundations for Communism and the Ameri-
(c. 570–495 BCE) who practiced a “love of wisdom” can William James. The 20th century saw the split be-
198 CHAPTER 23. PHILOSOPHY
Avicenna Portrait on Silver Vase, Iran
Immanuel Kant.
came under strong Western intellectual influences and in-
cludes the works of Moses Mendelssohn who ushered in
tween Analytic philosophy and Continental philosophy, the Haskalah (the Jewish Enlightenment), Jewish existen-
as well as philosophical trends such as Phenomenology, tialism and Reform Judaism.
Existentialism, Logical Positivism, Pragmatism and the
Linguistic turn. Pre-Islamic Iranian philosophy begins with the work of
Zoroaster, one of the first promoters of monotheism and
of the dualism between good and evil. This dualistic
23.2.2 Middle Eastern philosophy cosmogony influenced later Iranian developments such as
Manichaeism, Mazdakism, and Zurvanism.
See also: Islamic philosophy and Middle Eastern philos- After the Muslim conquests, Early Islamic philosophy de-
ophy veloped the Greek philosophical traditions in new inno-
vative directions. This Islamic Golden Age influenced
The regions of the fertile Crescent, Iran and Arabia are European intellectual developments. The two main cur-
home to the earliest known philosophical Wisdom lit- rents of early Islamic thought are Kalam which focuses
erature and is today mostly dominated by Islamic cul- on Islamic theology and Falsafa which was based on
ture. Early wisdom literature from the fertile crescent Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism. The work of Aristo-
was a genre which sought to instruct people on ethi- tle was very influential among the falsafa such as al-Kindi
cal action, practical living and virtue through stories and (9th century), Avicenna (980 – June 1037) and Averroes
proverbs. In Ancient Egypt, these texts were known as (12th century). Others such as Al-Ghazali were highly
sebayt ('teachings’) and they are central to our under- critical of the methods of the Aristotelian falsafa. Islamic
standings of Ancient Egyptian philosophy. Babylonian thinkers also developed a scientific method, experimen-
astronomy also included much philosophical speculations tal medicine, a theory of optics and a legal philosophy.
about cosmology which may have influenced the Ancient Ibn Khaldun was an influential thinker in philosophy of
Greeks. Jewish philosophy and Christian philosophy are history.
religio-philosophical traditions that developed both in the In Iran several schools of Islamic philosophy continued
Middle East and in Europe, which both share certain early to flourish after the Golden Age and include currents
Judaic texts (mainly the Tanakh) and monotheistic be- such as Illuminationist philosophy, Sufi philosophy, and
liefs. Jewish thinkers such as the Geonim of the Talmudic Transcendent theosophy. The 19th and 20th century
Academies in Babylonia and Maimonides engaged with Arab world saw the Nahda (awakening or renaissance)
Greek and Islamic philosophy. Later Jewish philosophy movement which influenced contemporary Islamic phi-
23.2. HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 199
losophy. generally include Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga,

Mīmāṃsā and Vedanta, and the common heterodox
schools are Jain, Buddhist, Ajñana, Ajivika and Cārvāka.
23.2.3 Indian philosophy Some of the earliest surviving philosophical texts are the
Upanishads of the later Vedic period (1000–500 BCE).
Important Indian philosophical concepts include dharma,
karma, samsara, moksha and ahimsa. Indian philoso-
phers developed a system of epistemological reasoning
(pramana) and logic and investigated topics such as meta-
physics, ethics, hermeneutics and soteriology. Indian phi-
losophy also covered topics such as political philosophy
as seen in the Arthashastra c. 4th century BCE and the
philosophy of love as seen in the Kama Sutra.
The commonly named six orthodox schools arose some-
time between the start of the Common Era and the
Gupta Empire.[43] These Hindu schools developed what
has been called the “Hindu synthesis” merging ortho-
dox Brahmanical and unorthodox elements from Bud-
dhism and Jainism as a way to respond to the unortho-
Nalanda university dox challenges.[44] Hindu thought also spread east to the
Indonesian Srivijaya empire and the Cambodian Khmer
Empire.
Later developments include the development of Tantra
and Iranian-Islamic influences. Buddhism mostly disap-
peared from India after the Muslim conquest in the In-
dian subcontinent, surviving in the Himalayan regions and
south India.[45] The early modern period saw the flour-
ishing of Navya-Nyāya (the 'new reason') under philoso-
phers such as Raghunatha Siromani (c.1460–1540) who
founded the tradition, Jayarama Pancanana, Mahadeva
Punatamakara and Yashovijaya (who formulated a Jain
response).[46]
The modern era saw the rise of Hindu nationalism, Hindu
reform movements and Neo-Vedanta (or Hindu mod-
ernism) whose major proponents included Vivekananda,
Mahatma Gandhi and Aurobindo and who for the first
time promoted the idea of a unified "Hinduism". Due to
the influence of British colonialism, much modern Indian
philosophical work was in English and includes thinkers
such as Radhakrishnan, Krishna Chandra Bhattacharya,
Bimal Krishna Matilal and M. Hiriyanna.[47]
23.2.4 Buddhist philosophy

Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, philosopher and second president of
India, 1962 to 1967. Main articles: Buddhist philosophy and Buddhist ethics
See also: Eastern philosophy Buddhist philosophy begins with the thought of Gautama
Main article: Indian philosophy Buddha (fl. between sixth and fourth centuries BCE) and
is preserved in the early Buddhist texts. Buddhist thought
Indian philosophy (Sanskrit: darśana; 'world views’, is trans-regional and trans-cultural. It originated in India
'teachings’)[40] are philosophical traditions originating in and later spread to East Asia, Tibet, Central Asia, and
the Indian subcontinent. Traditions of Indian philosophy Southeast Asia, developing new and syncretic traditions
are generally classified as either orthodox or heterodox – in these different regions. The various Buddhist schools
āstika or nāstika – depending on whether they accept the of thought are the dominant philosophical tradition in
authority of the Vedas and whether they accept the theo- Tibet and Southeast Asian countries like Sri Lanka and
ries of Brahman and Atman.[41][42] The orthodox schools Burma. Because ignorance to the true nature of things is
considered one of the roots of suffering (dukkha), Bud-

dhist philosophy is concerned with epistemology, meta-
physics, ethics and psychology. The ending of dukkha
also encompasses meditative practices. Key innovative
concepts include the Four Noble Truths, Anatta (not-self)
a critique of a fixed personal identity, the transience of all
things (Anicca), and a certain skepticism about metaphys-
ical questions.
Later Buddhist philosophical traditions developed
complex phenomenological psychologies termed
'Abhidharma'. Mahayana philosophers such as
Nagarjuna and Vasubandhu developed the theories
of Shunyata (emptiness of all phenomena) and Vijnapti-
matra (appearance only), a form of phenomenology or
transcendental idealism. The Dignāga school of Pramāṇa
promoted a complex form of epistemology and Buddhist
logic. After the disappearance of Buddhism from India,
these philosophical traditions continued to develop in the
Tibetan Buddhist, East Asian Buddhist and Theravada
Buddhist traditions. The modern period saw the rise of
Buddhist modernism and Humanistic Buddhism under
Western influences and the development of a Western
Buddhism with influences from modern psychology and
Western philosophy.
Kitarō Nishida, professor of philosophy at Kyoto University and

23.2.5 East Asian philosophy founder of the Kyoto School.
Main articles: Chinese philosophy, Korean philosophy,

and Japanese philosophy
East Asian philosophical thought began in Ancient which, along with Chinese Buddhism, directly influenced
Korean philosophy, Vietnamese philosophy and Japanese
philosophy (which also includes the native Shinto tra-
dition). Buddhism began arriving in China during the
Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), through a gradual Silk
road transmission and through native influences devel-
oped distinct Chinese forms (such as Chan/Zen) which
spread throughout the East Asian cultural sphere. Dur-
ing later Chinese dynasties like the Ming Dynasty (1368–
1644) as well as in the Korean Joseon dynasty (1392–
1897) a resurgent Neo-Confucianism led by thinkers such
as Wang Yangming (1472–1529) became the dominant
school of thought, and was promoted by the imperial
state.
In the Modern era, Chinese thinkers incorporated ideas
from Western philosophy. Chinese Marxist philosophy
The Analects of Confucius (fl. 551–479 BCE) developed under the influence of Mao Zedong, while
a Chinese pragmatism under Hu Shih and New Con-
China, and Chinese philosophy begins during the fucianism's rise was influenced by Xiong Shili. Mod-
Western Zhou Dynasty and the following periods after its ern Japanese thought meanwhile developed under strong
fall when the "Hundred Schools of Thought" flourished Western influences such as the study of Western Sciences
(6th century to 221 BCE).[48][49] This period was char- (Rangaku) and the modernist Meirokusha intellectual so-
acterized by significant intellectual and cultural develop- ciety which drew from European enlightenment thought.
ments and saw the rise of the major philosophical schools The 20th century saw the rise of State Shinto and also
of China, Confucianism, Legalism, and Daoism as well Japanese nationalism. The Kyoto School, an influen-
as numerous other less influential schools. These philo- tial and unique Japanese philosophical school developed
sophical traditions developed metaphysical, political and from Western phenomenology and Medieval Japanese
ethical theories such Tao, Yin and yang, Ren and Li Buddhist philosophy such as that of Dogen.
23.3. CATEGORIES 201
23.2.6 African philosophy practices to access these transcendental experiences are

termed Shamanism. Another feature of the indigenous
Main article: African philosophy American worldviews was their extension of ethics to
non-human animals and plants.[51][52]
African philosophy is philosophy produced by African In Mesoamerica, Aztec philosophy was an intellec-
people, philosophy that presents African worldviews, tual tradition developed by individuals called Tlamatini
ideas and themes, or philosophy that uses distinct African ('those who know something') [53] and its ideas are pre-
philosophical methods. Modern African thought has served in various Aztec codices. The Aztec worldview
been occupied with Ethnophilosophy, with defining the posited the concept of an ultimate universal energy or
very meaning of African philosophy and its unique char- force called Ometeotl which can be translated as “Dual
acteristics and what it means to be African.[50] During Cosmic Energy” and sought a way to live in balance
the 17th century, Ethiopian philosophy developed a ro- with a constantly changing, “slippery” world. The theory
bust literary tradition as exemplified by Zera Yacob. An- of Teotl can be seen as a form of Pantheism.[54] Aztec
other early African philosopher was Anton Wilhelm Amo philosophers developed theories of metaphysics, episte-
(c. 1703–1759) who became a respected philosopher mology, values, and aesthetics. Aztec ethics was focused
in Germany. Distinct African philosophical ideas in- on seeking tlamatiliztli (knowledge, wisdom) which was
clude Ujamaa, the Bantu idea of 'Force', Négritude, Pan- based on moderation and balance in all actions as in the
Africanism and Ubuntu. Contemporary African thought Nahua proverb “the middle good is necessary”.[54]
has also seen the development of Professional philoso-
The Inca civilization also had an elite class of
phy and of Africana philosophy, the philosophical litera-
philosopher-scholars termed the Amawtakuna who
ture of the African diaspora which includes currents such
were important in the Inca education system as teachers
as black existentialism by African-Americans. Mod-
of religion, tradition, history and ethics. Key concepts
ern African thinkers have been influenced by Marxism,
of Andean thought are Yanantin and Masintin which
African-American literature, Critical theory, Critical
involve a theory of “complementary opposites” that
race theory, Postcolonialism and Feminism.
sees polarities (such as male/female, dark/light) as
interdependent parts of a harmonious whole.[55]
23.2.7 Indigenous American philosophy
Main article: Indigenous American philosophy 23.3 Categories
Indigenous American philosophy is the philosophy of the
Philosophical questions can be grouped into categories.
These groupings allow philosophers to focus on a set of
similar topics and interact with other thinkers who are in-
terested in the same questions. The groupings also make
philosophy easier for students to approach. Students can
learn the basic principles involved in one aspect of the
field without being overwhelmed with the entire set of
philosophical theories.
Various sources present different categorical schemes.
The categories adopted in this article aim for breadth and
simplicity.
These five major branches can be separated into sub-
branches and each sub-branch contains many specific
fields of study.[56]
The Aztec Sun Stone, also known as the Aztec Calendar Stone, at
National Museum of Anthropology, Mexico City.
• Metaphysics and epistemology
Indigenous people of the Americas. There is a wide vari- • Value theory
ety of beliefs and traditions among these different Amer-
ican cultures. Among some of the Native Americans in • Science, logic and mathematics
the United States there is a belief in a metaphysical prin- • History of Western philosophy[57]
ciple called the “Great Mystery” (Siouan: Wakan Tanka,
Algonquian: Gitche Manitou). Another widely shared • Philosophical traditions
concept was that of Orenda or “spiritual power”. Ac-
cording to Peter M. Whiteley, for the Native Americans, These divisions are neither exhaustive, nor mutually ex-
“Mind is critically informed by transcendental experience clusive. (A philosopher might specialize in Kantian epis-
(dreams, visions and so on) as well as by reason.”[51] The temology, or Platonic aesthetics, or modern political
philosophy.) Furthermore, these philosophical inquiries

sometimes overlap with each other and with other in-
quiries such as science, religion or mathematics.[58]
23.3.1 Metaphysics
Main article: Metaphysics
Metaphysics is the study of the most general features

of reality, such as existence, time, objects and their
properties, wholes and their parts, events, processes and
causation and the relationship between mind and body.
Metaphysics includes cosmology, the study of the world
in its entirety and ontology, the study of being.
A major point of debate is between realism, which holds
that there are entities that exist independently of their
mental perception and idealism, which holds that reality
is mentally constructed or otherwise immaterial. Meta-
physics deals with the topic of identity. Essence is the set
of attributes that make an object what it fundamentally
is and without which it loses its identity while accident is
a property that the object has, without which the object
can still retain its identity. Particulars are objects that are
Dignaga founded Buddhist epistemology (pramana)
said to exist in space and time, as opposed to abstract ob-
jects, such as numbers, and universals, which are prop-
erties held by multiple particulars, such as redness or a logical deduction. Empiricism is the emphasis on obser-
gender. The type of existence, if any, of universals and vational evidence via sensory experience as the source of
abstract objects is an issue of debate. knowledge.
Among the numerous topics within metaphysics and epis-
temology, broadly construed are:
23.3.2 Epistemology
Main article: Epistemology • Philosophy of language explores the nature, the ori-
Epistemology is the study of knowledge (Greek gins and the use of language.
episteme).[59] Epistemologists study the putative sources • Philosophy of mind explores the nature of the mind
of knowledge, including intuition, a priori reason, mem- and its relationship to the body. It is typified by dis-
ory, perceptual knowledge, self-knowledge and testi- putes between dualism and materialism. In recent
mony. They also ask: What is truth? Is knowledge years this branch has become related to cognitive
justified true belief? Are any beliefs justified? Puta- science.
tive knowledge includes propositional knowledge (knowl-
edge that something is the case), know-how (knowledge • Philosophy of religion explores questions that arise
of how to do something) and acquaintance (familiarity in connection with religions, including the soul, the
with someone or something). Epistemologists examine afterlife, God, religious experience, analysis of re-
these and ask whether knowledge is really possible. ligious vocabulary and texts and the relationship of
religion and science.
Skepticism is the position which doubts claims to knowl-
edge. The regress argument, a fundamental problem in • Philosophy of human nature analyzes the unique
epistemology, occurs when, in order to completely prove characteristics of human beings, such as rationality,
any statement, its justification itself needs to be supported politics and culture.
by another justification. This chain can go on forever,
called infinitism, it can eventually rely on basic beliefs • Metaphilosophy explores the aims of philosophy, its
that are left unproven, called foundationalism, or it can boundaries and its methods.
go in a circle so that a statement is included in its own
chain of justification, called coherentism.
23.3.3 Value theory
Rationalism is the emphasis on reasoning as a source
of knowledge. It is associated with a priori knowledge, Value theory (or axiology) is the major branch of philos-
which is independent of experience, such as math and ophy that addresses topics such as goodness, beauty and
23.3. CATEGORIES 203
justice. Value theory includes ethics, aesthetics, political Political philosophy

philosophy, feminist philosophy, philosophy of law and
more. Main article: Political philosophy
Political philosophy is the study of government and the
Ethics
Main article: Ethics
The Beijing imperial college was an intellectual center for Con-

fucian ethics and classics during the Yuan, Ming and Qing dy-
nasties.
Thomas Hobbes
Ethics, or “moral philosophy”, studies and considers what
is good and bad conduct, right and wrong values, and relationship of individuals (or families and clans) to com-
good and evil. Its primary investigations include how munities including the state. It includes questions about
to live a good life and identifying standards of morality. justice, law, property and the rights and obligations of the
It also includes meta-investigations about whether a best citizen. Politics and ethics are traditionally linked sub-
way to live or related standards exists. The main branches jects, as both discuss the question of how people should
of ethics are normative ethics, meta-ethics and applied live together.
ethics.
Other branches of value theory:
A major area of debate involves consequentialism, in
which actions are judged by the potential results of the • Philosophy of law (often called jurisprudence) ex-
act, such as to maximize happiness, called utilitarianism, plores the varying theories explaining the nature and
and deontology, in which actions are judged by how they interpretation of laws.
adhere to principles, irrespective of negative ends.
• Philosophy of education analyzes the definition and
content of education, as well as the goals and chal-
Aesthetics lenges of educators.
Main article: Aesthetics • Feminist philosophy explores questions surround-
ing gender, sexuality and the body including the na-
ture of feminism itself as a social and philosophical
Aesthetics is the “critical reflection on art, culture and
movement.
nature.”[60][61] It addresses the nature of art, beauty
and taste, enjoyment, emotional values, perception and • Philosophy of sport analyzes sports, games and other
with the creation and appreciation of beauty.[62][63] It forms of play as sociological and uniquely human
is more precisely defined as the study of sensory or activities.
sensori-emotional values, sometimes called judgments of
sentiment and taste.[64] Its major divisions are art theory,
literary theory, film theory and music theory. An exam- 23.3.4 Logic, science and mathematics
ple from art theory is to discern the set of principles un-
derlying the work of a particular artist or artistic move- Many academic disciplines generated philosophical in-
ment such as the Cubist aesthetic.[65] The philosophy of quiry. The relationship between “X” and the “philosophy
film analyzes films and filmmakers for their philosophi- of X” is debated. Richard Feynman argued that the phi-
cal content and explores film (images, cinema, etc.) as a losophy of a topic is irrelevant to its primary study, say-
medium for philosophical reflection and expression. ing that "philosophy of science is as useful to scientists
as ornithology is to birds.” Curtis White, by contrast, ar-

gued that philosophical tools are essential to humanities,
sciences and social sciences.[66]
The topics of philosophy of science are numbers, symbols
and the formal methods of reasoning as employed in the
social sciences and natural sciences.
Logic
Main article: Logic
Logic is the study of reasoning and argument. An argu-

ment is "a connected series of statements intended to es-
tablish a proposition.” The connected series of statements
are "premises" and the proposition is the conclusion. For
example:
1. All humans are mortal. (premise)
2. Socrates is a human. (premise)

The ideas of Ibn al-Haytham were instrumental in the develop-
3. Therefore, Socrates is mortal. (conclusion)
ment of the modern Scientific method.
Deductive reasoning is when, given certain premises, con-

clusions are unavoidably implied. Rules of inference are Some philosophers specialize in one or more historical
used to infer conclusions such as, modus ponens, where periods. The history of philosophy (study of a specific
given “A” and “If A then B”, then “B” must be concluded. period, individual or school) is related to but not the same
as the philosophy of history (the theoretical aspect of his-
Because sound reasoning is an essential element of
tory, which deals with questions such as the nature of his-
all sciences,[67] social sciences and humanities disci-
torical evidence and the possibility of objectivity).
plines, logic became a formal science. Sub-fields in-
clude mathematical logic, philosophical logic, Modal Hegel’s Lectures on the Philosophy of History influenced
logic, computational logic and non-classical logics. A many philosophers to interpret truth in light of history, a
major question in the philosophy of mathematics is view called historicism.
whether mathematical entities are objective and discov-
ered, called mathematical realism, or invented, called
mathematical antirealism. 23.3.6 Philosophical schools
Some philosophers specialize in one or more of the ma-

Philosophy of science jor philosophical schools, such as Continental philoso-
phy, Analytical philosophy, Thomism, Asian philosophy
Main article: Philosophy of science or African philosophy.
This branch explores the foundations, methods, history,
implications and purpose of science. Many of its sub-
divisions correspond to a specific branch of science. For
example, philosophy of biology deals specifically with
23.4 Other approaches
the metaphysical, epistemological and ethical issues in
the biomedical and life sciences. The philosophy of A variety of other academic and non-academic ap-
mathematics studies the philosophical assumptions, foun- proaches have been explored.
dations and implications of mathematics.
23.4.1 Applied philosophy

23.3.5 History of philosophy
The ideas conceived by a society have profound reper-
See also: History of ethics cussions on what actions the society performs. Weaver
Further information: Philosophical progress and List of argued that ideas have consequences. Philosophy yields
years in philosophy applications such as those in ethics – applied ethics in par-
ticular – and political philosophy. The political and eco-
23.5. SOCIETY 205
deeper understanding of the theoretical or conceptual

underpinnings of their fields.
23.5 Society
Some of those who study philosophy become profes-
sional philosophers, typically by working as professors
who teach, research and write in academic institutions.[68]
However, most students of academic philosophy later
contribute to law, journalism, religion, sciences, poli-
tics, business, or various arts.[26][69] For example, public
figures who have degrees in philosophy include comedi-
ans Steve Martin and Ricky Gervais, filmmaker Terrence
Malick, Pope John Paul II, Wikipedia co-founder Larry
Sanger, Supreme Court Justice Stephen Bryer and vice
presidential candidate Carly Fiorina.[70][71]
Recent efforts to avail the general public to the work
and relevance of philosophers include the million-dollar
Berggruen Prize, first awarded to Charles Taylor in
2016.[72]
Martin Luther King Jr
23.6 Professional
nomic philosophies of Confucius, Sun Tzu, Chanakya,
Ibn Khaldun, Ibn Rushd, Ibn Taymiyyah, Machiavelli,
Leibniz, Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, Adam Smith, John Germany was the first country to professionalize philos-
Stuart Mill, Marx, Tolstoy, Gandhi and Martin Luther ophy. At the end of 1817, Hegel was the first philoso-
King, Jr. have been used to shape and justify govern- pher to be appointed Professor by the State, namely
ments and their actions. Progressive education as cham- by the Prussian Minister of Education, as an effect of
pioned by Dewey had a profound impact on 20th cen- Napoleonic reform in Prussia. In the United States, the
tury US educational practices. Descendants of this move- professionalisation grew out of reforms to the Ameri-
ment include efforts in philosophy for children, which can higher-education system largely based on the German
are part of philosophy education. Clausewitz's political model.
philosophy of war has had a profound effect on statecraft, Within the last century, philosophy has increasingly be-
international politics and military strategy in the 20th cen- come a professional discipline practiced within universi-
tury, especially around World War II. Logic is impor- ties, like other academic disciplines. Accordingly, it has
tant in mathematics, linguistics, psychology, computer become less general and more specialized. In the view of
science and computer engineering. one prominent recent historian: “Philosophy has become
Other important applications can be found in a highly organized discipline, done by specialists primar-
epistemology, which aid in understanding the req- ily for other specialists. The number of philosophers has
uisites for knowledge, sound evidence and justified belief exploded, the volume of publication has swelled, and the
(important in law, economics, decision theory and a subfields of serious philosophical investigation have mul-
number of other disciplines). The philosophy of science tiplied. Not only is the broad field of philosophy today
discusses the underpinnings of the scientific method far too vast to be embraced by one mind, something sim-
and has affected the nature of scientific investigation ilar is true even of many highly specialized subfields.”[73]
and argumentation. Philosophy thus has fundamental Some philosophers argue that this professionalization has
implications for science as a whole. For example, negatively affected the discipline.[74]
the strictly empirical approach of B. F. Skinner's The end result of professionalization for philosophy has
behaviorism affected for decades the approach of the meant that work being done in the field is now almost
American psychological establishment. Deep ecology exclusively done by university professors holding a doc-
and animal rights examine the moral situation of humans torate in the field publishing in highly technical, peer-
as occupants of a world that has non-human occupants reviewed journals. While it remains common among the
to consider also. Aesthetics can help to interpret dis- population at large for a person to have a set of religious,
cussions of music, literature, the plastic arts and the political or philosophical views that they consider their
whole artistic dimension of life. In general, the various “philosophy”, these views are rarely informed by or con-
philosophies strive to provide practical activities with a nected to the work being done in professional philoso-
peared in non-academic, non-peer-reviewed journals, or

in books, and the bibliography reflects this fact."[15]
Also working from outside the profession were philoso-
phers such as Gerd B. Achenbach (Die reine und die
praktische Philosophie. Drei Vorträge zur philosophis-
chen Praxis, 1983) and Michel Weber (see his Épreuve
de la philosophie, 2008) who have proposed since the
1980s various forms of philosophical counseling claim-
ing to bring Socratic dialogues back to life in a quasi-
psychotherapeutic framework.
Pierre Hadot is famous for his analysis on the concep-
tion of philosophy during Greco-Roman antiquity. Hadot
identified and analyzed the “spiritual exercises” used in
ancient philosophy (influencing Michel Foucault’s inter-
est in such practices in the second and third volumes of
his History of Sexuality). By “spiritual exercises” Hadot
means “practices ... intended to effect a modification and
a transformation in the subjects who practice them.[6]
The philosophy teacher’s discourse could be presented in
such a way that the disciple, as auditor, reader, or inter-
locutor, could make spiritual progress and transform him-
self within."[7] Hadot shows that the key to understand-
ing the original philosophical impulse is to be found in
Socrates. What characterizes Socratic therapy above all
is the importance given to living contact between human
beings. Hadot’s recurring theme is that philosophy in an-
Bertrand Russell tiquity was characterized by a series of spiritual exercises
intended to transform the perception, and therefore the
being, of those who practice it; that philosophy is best
phy today. Furthermore, unlike many of the sciences for pursued in real conversation and not through written texts
which there has come to be a healthy industry of books, and lectures; and that philosophy, as it is taught in univer-
magazines, and television shows meant to popularize sci- sities today, is for the most part a distortion of its original,
ence and communicate the technical results of a scien- therapeutic impulse. He brings these concerns together in
tific field to the general populace, works by professional What Is Ancient Philosophy?,[7] which has been critically
philosophers directed at an audience outside the profes- reviewed.[8]
sion remain rare. Philosopher Michael Sandel's book Jus-
tice: What’s the Right Thing to Do? and Harry Frank-
furt's On Bullshit are examples of works that hold the
uncommon distinction of having been written by profes- 23.8 Role of women
sional philosophers but directed at and ultimately popu-
lar among a broader audience of non-philosophers. Both
works became 'New York Times best sellers. Main article: Women in philosophy
Although men have generally dominated philosophical
discourse, women have engaged in philosophy through-
out history. Women philosophers have contributed since
23.7 Non-professional ancient times–notably Hipparchia of Maroneia (active ca.
325 BCE) and Arete of Cyrene (active 5th–4th century
Many inquiries outside of academia are philosophical in BCE). More were accepted during the ancient, medieval
the broad sense. Novelists, playwrights, filmmakers, and and modern eras, but no women philosophers became
musicians, as well as scientists and others engage in rec- part the Western canon until the 20th and 21st century,
ognizably philosophical activity. when some sources indicate that Susanne Langer, Hannah
[75][76]
Ayn Rand is the foremost example of an intellectual Arendt and Simone de Beauvoir entered the canon.
working contemporaneously with contemporary philos- In the early 1800s, some colleges and universities in
ophy but whose contributions were not made within the the UK and US began admitting women, producing
professional discipline of “philosophy": “For all her [Ayn more female academics. Nevertheless, U.S. Depart-
Rand’s] popularity, however, only a few professional ment of Education reports from the 1990s indicate that
philosophers have taken her work seriously. As a result, few women ended up in philosophy, and that philos-
most of the serious philosophical work on Rand has ap- ophy is one of the least gender-proportionate fields in
23.9. POPULAR CULTURE 207
23.9 Popular culture

In 2000, the Open Court Publishing Company began pub-
lishing a series of books on philosophy and popular cul-
ture. Each book consists of essays written by philoso-
phers for general readers. The books “explore the
meanings, concepts and puzzles within television shows,
movies, music and other icons of popular culture”[84] ana-
lyzing topics such as the TV shows Seinfeld and The Simp-
sons, The Matrix and Star Wars movies and related media
and new technological developments such as the iPod and
Facebook. Their most recent publication (as of 2016) is
titled Louis C.K. and Philosophy; its subject is the come-
dian Louis C.K..
The Matrix makes numerous references to philosophy
including Buddhism, Vedanta, Advaita Hinduism,
Christianity, Messianism, Judaism, Gnosticism,
existentialism and nihilism. The film’s premise re-
sembles Plato's Allegory of the cave, Descartes’s evil
demon, Kant's reflections on the Phenomenon versus
the Ding an sich, Zhuangzi's "Zhuangzi dreamed he
was a butterfly", Marxist social theory and the brain
in a vat thought experiment. Many references to
Baudrillard's Simulacra and Simulation appear in the
film, although Baudrillard himself considered this a
misrepresentation.[85]
American philosopher of mind and philosopher of art Susanne 23.10 See also
Langer (1895–1985).
Main article: Outline of philosophy
• Wikipedia:Getting to Philosophy
• List of important publications in philosophy
• List of years in philosophy
the humanities.[77] In 2014, Inside Higher Education de-
• List of philosophy journals
scribed the philosophy "...discipline’s own long history of
misogyny and sexual harassment" of women students and • List of unsolved problems in philosophy
professors.[78] University of Sheffield philosophy profes-
sor Jennifer Saul stated in 2015 that women are "...leaving • Lists of philosophers
philosophy after being harassed, assaulted, or retaliated • Social theory
against.” [79]
In the early 1990s, the Canadian Philosophical Associ-
ation noted a gender imbalance and gender bias in the 23.11 References
academic field of philosophy.[80] In June 2013, a US so-
ciology professor stated that “out of all recent citations [1] “Strong’s Greek Dictionary 5385”.
in four prestigious philosophy journals, female authors
[2] “Home : Oxford English Dictionary”. oed.com.
comprise just 3.6 percent of the total.”[81] Susan Price ar-
gues that the philosophical "...canon remains dominated [3] “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Etymonline.com. Re-
by white males – the discipline that...still hews to the trieved 22 August 2010.
myth that genius is tied to gender.”[82] According to Saul, [4] The definition of philosophy is: “1. orig., love of, or
"[p]hilosophy, the oldest of the humanities, is also the the search for, wisdom or knowledge 2. theory or logi-
malest (and the whitest). While other areas of the human- cal analysis of the principles underlying conduct, thought,
ities are at or near gender parity, philosophy is actually knowledge, and the nature of the universe”. Webster’s
more overwhelmingly male than even mathematics.”[83] New World Dictionary (Second College ed.).
[5] Jenny Teichmann and Katherine C. Evans, Philosophy: [16] Shapin, Steven (1 January 1998). The Scientific Revolution
A Beginner’s Guide (Blackwell Publishing, 1999), p. 1: (1st ed.). University Of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-
“Philosophy is a study of problems which are ultimate, 75021-7.
abstract and very general. These problems are concerned
with the nature of existence, knowledge, morality, reason [17] Briggle, Robert Frodeman and Adam. “When Philosophy
and human purpose.” Lost Its Way”. Opinionator. Retrieved 25 April 2016.
[6] A.C. Grayling, Philosophy 1: A Guide through the Sub- [18] Sartwell, Crispin (1 January 2014). Zalta, Edward N., ed.
ject (Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 1: “The aim Beauty (Spring 2014 ed.).
of philosophical inquiry is to gain insight into questions
[19] “Plato, Hippias Major | Loeb Classical Library”. Loeb
about knowledge, truth, reason, reality, meaning, mind,
Classical Library. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
and value.”
[20] Feyerabend, Paul; Hacking, Ian (11 May 2010). Against
[7] Adler, Mortimer J. (28 March 2000). How to Think About Method (4th ed.). Verso. ISBN 978-1-84467-442-8.
the Great Ideas: From the Great Books of Western Civiliza-
tion. Chicago, Ill.: Open Court. ISBN 978-0-8126-9412- [21] “Nozick, Robert: Political Philosophy | Internet Encyclo-
3. pedia of Philosophy”. www.iep.utm.edu. Retrieved 25
April 2016.
[8] Quinton, Anthony, The ethics of philosophical practice, p.
666, Philosophy is rationally critical thinking, of a more [22] “Rawls, John | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy”.
or less systematic kind about the general nature of the www.iep.utm.edu. Retrieved 25 April 2016.
world (metaphysics or theory of existence), the justifica-
tion of belief (epistemology or theory of knowledge), and [23] More, Thomas (8 May 2015). Utopia. Courier Corpora-
the conduct of life (ethics or theory of value). Each of the tion. ISBN 978-0-486-11070-7.
three elements in this list has a non-philosophical coun-
[24] “Merriam-Webster Dictionary”. www.merriam-webster.
terpart, from which it is distinguished by its explicitly ra-
com. Retrieved 14 May 2016.
tional and critical way of proceeding and by its systematic
nature. Everyone has some general conception of the na- [25] “Merriam-Webster Dictionary”. www.merriam-webster.
ture of the world in which they live and of their place in com. Retrieved 14 May 2016.
it. Metaphysics replaces the unargued assumptions em-
bodied in such a conception with a rational and organized [26] “Why Study Philosophy? An Unofficial “Daily Nous” Af-
body of beliefs about the world as a whole. Everyone has filiate”. www.whystudyphilosophy.com. Retrieved 2016-
occasion to doubt and question beliefs, their own or those 05-02.
of others, with more or less success and without any theory
of what they are doing. Epistemology seeks by argument [27] “Online Etymology Dictionary”. etymonline.com.
to make explicit the rules of correct belief formation. Ev-
eryone governs their conduct by directing it to desired or [28] Kant, Immanuel (2012-05-21). Kant: Groundwork of the
valued ends. Ethics, or moral philosophy, in its most in- Metaphysics of Morals (2nd ed.). Cambridge University
clusive sense, seeks to articulate, in rationally systematic Press. ISBN 9781107401068. Ancient Greek philosophy
form, the rules or principles involved. in Honderich 1995. was divided into three branches of knowledge: natural sci-
ence, ethics, and logic.
[9] Greco, John, ed. (1 October 2011). The Oxford Hand-
book of Skepticism (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. [29] McGinn, Colin (8 December 1993). Problems in Philos-
ISBN 978-0-19-983680-2. ophy: The Limits of Inquiry (1st ed.). Wiley-Blackwell.
ISBN 978-1-55786-475-8.
[10] Glymour, Clark (10 April 2015). “Chapters 1–6”.
[30] “Video & Audio: Why isn't there more progress in phi-
Thinking Things Through: An Introduction to Philosoph-
losophy? – Metadata”. www.sms.cam.ac.uk. Retrieved
ical Issues and Achievements (2nd ed.). A Bradford Book.
25 April 2016.
ISBN 978-0-262-52720-0.
[31] Brewer, Talbot (11 June 2011). The Retrieval of Ethics
[11] “Contemporary Skepticism | Internet Encyclopedia of (1st ed.). Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press.
Philosophy”. www.iep.utm.edu. Retrieved 25 April 2016. ISBN 978-0-19-969222-4.
[12] “The Internet Classics Archive | The Republic by Plato”. [32] Garfield (Editor), Edelglass (Editor); The Oxford Hand-
classics.mit.edu. Retrieved 25 April 2016. book of World Philosophy, Introduction.
[13] “Free Will | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy”. www. [33] Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich; Brown, Robert F. (1
iep.utm.edu. Retrieved 25 April 2016. January 2006). Lectures on the History of Philosophy:
Greek philosophy. Clarendon Press. p. 33. ISBN 978-
[14] “Philosophy”. www.etymonline.com. Online Etymologi- 0-19-927906-7.
cal Dictionary. Retrieved 19 March 2016. The English
word “philosophy” is first attested to c. 1300, meaning [34] “Plato’s “Symposium"". www.perseus.tufts.edu. p. 201d
“knowledge, body of knowledge.” and following. Retrieved 22 April 2016.
[15] Lindberg 2007, p. 3. [35] Process and Reality p. 39

[36] Diane Collinson. Fifty Major Philosophers, A Reference [48] Garfield (Editor), Edelglass (Editor); The Oxford Hand-
Guide. p. 125. book of World Philosophy, Chinese philosophy.
[37] Rutherford, The Cambridge Companion to Early Mod- [49] Ebrey, Patricia (2010). The Cambridge Illustrated History
ern Philosophy, p. 1: “Most often this [period] has of China. Cambridge University Press. p. 42.
been associated with the achievements of a handful of
great thinkers: the so-called 'rationalists’ (Descartes, [50] Bruce B. Janz, Philosophy in an African Place (2009), pp.
Spinoza, Leibniz) and 'empiricists’ (Locke, Berkeley, 74–79, Plymouth, UK: Lexington Books, https://books.
Hume), whose inquiries culminate in Kant’s 'Critical phi- google.com/books?isbn=0739136682
losophy.' These canonical figures have been celebrated for
the depth and rigor of their treatments of perennial philo- [51] Whiteley; Native American philosophy, https://www.rep.
sophical questions...” routledge.com/articles/native-american-philosophy/v-1
[38] Nadler, A Companion to Early Modern Philosophy, p. 2: [52] Pierotti, Raymond; Communities as both Ecological and
“The study of early modern philosophy demands that we Social entities in Native American thought, http://www.
pay attention to a wide variety of questions and an expan- se.edu/nas/files/2013/03/5thNAScommunities.pdf
sive pantheon of thinkers: the traditional canonical fig-
ures (Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz, Locke, Berkeley, and [53] “Use of “Tlamatini” in Aztec Thought and Culture: A
Hume), to be sure, but also a large 'supporting cast'...” Study of the Ancient Nahuatl Mind – Miguel León Portilla".
Google Books. Retrieved December 12, 2014.
[39] Bruce Kuklick, “Seven Thinkers and How They Grew:
Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz; Locke, Berkeley, Hume; [54] IEP, Aztec Philosophy, http://www.iep.utm.edu/aztec/
Kant” in Rorty, Schneewind, and Skinner (eds.), Philos-
ophy in History (Cambridge University Press, 1984), p. [55] Webb, Hillary S.; Yanantin and Masintin in the Andean
125: “Literary, philosophical, and historical studies often World: Complementary Dualism in Modern Peru Hard-
rely on a notion of what is canonical. In American philos- cover – March 15, 2012
ophy scholars go from Jonathan Edwards to John Dewey;
[56] “A Taxonomy of Philosophy”.
in American literature from James Fenimore Cooper to F.
Scott Fitzgerald; in political theory from Plato to Hobbes [57] Kenny 2012.
and Locke […] The texts or authors who fill in the blanks
from A to Z in these, and other intellectual traditions, con- [58] Plantinga, Alvin (2014-01-01). Zalta, Edward N., ed.
stitute the canon, and there is an accompanying narrative Religion and Science (Spring 2014 ed.).
that links text to text or author to author, a 'history of'
American literature, economic thought, and so on. The [59] G & C. Merriam Co. (1913). Noah Porter, eds. Webster’s
most conventional of such histories are embodied in uni- Revised Unabridged Dictionary (1913 ed.). G & C. Mer-
versity courses and the textbooks that accompany them. riam Co. p. 501. Archived from the original on 15 Oc-
This essay examines one such course, the History of Mod- tober 2013. Retrieved 13 May 2012. E*pis`te*mol"o*gy
ern Philosophy, and the texts that helped to create it. If a (?), n. [Gr. knowledge + -logy.] The theory or science of
philosopher in the United States were asked why the seven the method or grounds of knowledge.
people in my title comprise Modern Philosophy, the ini-
tial response would be: they were the best, and there are [60] Kelly (1998) p. ix
historical and philosophical connections among them.” [61] Review by Tom Riedel (Regis University)
[40] Soken Sanskrit, darzana
[62] “Merriam-Webster.com”. Retrieved 21 August 2012.
[41] John Bowker, Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, p.
259 [63] Definition 1 of aesthetics from the Merriam-Webster Dic-
tionary Online.
[42] Wendy Doniger (2014). On Hinduism. Oxford University
Press. p. 46. ISBN 978-0-19-936008-6. [64] Zangwill, Nick. "Aesthetic Judgment", Stanford Encyclo-
pedia of Philosophy, 02-28-2003/10-22-2007. Retrieved
[43] Students’ Britannica India (2000), Volume 4, Encyclopæ- 24 July 2008.
dia Britannica, ISBN 978-0852297605, p. 316
[65] “aesthetic – definition of aesthetic in English from the Ox-
[44] Hiltebeitel, Alf (2007), Hinduism. In: Joseph Kitagawa,
ford dictionary”. oxforddictionaries.com.
“The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and
Culture”, Routledge [66] White, Curtis (2014-08-05). The Science Delusion: Ask-
[45] Randall Collins (2009). he Sociology of Philosophies. ing the Big Questions in a Culture of Easy Answers. Brook-
Harvard University Press. pp. 184–85. ISBN 978-0-674- lyn, N.Y.: Melville House. ISBN 9781612193908.
02977-4.
[67] Carnap, Rudolf (1953). ""Inductive Logic and Sci-
[46] Ganeri, Jonardon; The Lost Age of Reason Philosophy In ence”.". Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts
Early ModernIndia 1450–1700, Oxford U. press. and Sciences. 80 (3): 189–97. JSTOR 20023651.
doi:10.2307/20023651.
[47] Garfield (Editor), Edelglass (Editor); The Oxford Hand-
book of World Philosophy, Anglophone philosophy in [68] “Where Can Philosophy Take Me? | Philosophy”. philos-
Colonial India. ophy.as.uky.edu. Retrieved 2016-05-02.
[69] Cropper, Carol Marie (1997-12-26). “Philosophers Find 23.12 Further reading
the Degree Pays Off in Life And in Work”. The New York
Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2016-05-02. Sources
[70] Marketing, Mansfield University Department of.
“Famous Philosophy Majors | Mansfield University”. • Edwards, Paul, ed. (1967). The Encyclopedia of
www.mansfield.edu. Retrieved 2016-05-02. Philosophy. Macmillan & Free Press.
[71] W, Justin (2014-12-08). “Famous Philosophy Majors • Kant, Immanuel (1881). Critique of Pure Reason.
Poster (updated with new link)". Daily Nous. Retrieved Macmillan.
2016-05-02.
• Bowker, John (1999). The Oxford Dictionary of
[72] Schuessler, Jennifer (October 4, 2016). “Canadian World Religions. Oxford University Press, Incorpo-
Philosopher Wins $1 Million Prize”. The New York rated. ISBN 978-0-19-866242-6.
Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved October 4, 2016.
• Baldwin, Thomas, ed. (27 November 2003). The
[73] Scott Soames, Philosophical Analysis in the Twentieth
Cambridge History of Philosophy 1870–1945. Cam-
Century, vol. 2, p. 463.
bridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59104-1.
[74] “Socrates Tenured – Rowman & Littlefield International”.
www.rowmaninternational.com. Retrieved 2016-04-25. • Copenhaver, Brian P.; Schmitt, Charles B. (24
September 1992). Renaissance philosophy. Oxford
[75] Duran, Jane. Eight women philosophers: theory, politics, University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-219203-5.
and feminism. University of Illinois Press, 2005.
• Nadler, Steven (15 April 2008). A Companion to
[76] “Why I Left Academia: Philosophy’s Homogeneity Needs Early Modern Philosophy. John Wiley & Sons.
Rethinking – Hippo Reads”. Archived from the original ISBN 978-0-470-99883-0.
on 9 June 2017.
• Rutherford, Donald (12 October 2006). The Cam-
[77] “Salary, Promotion, and Tenure Status of Minority
bridge Companion to Early Modern Philosophy.
and Women Faculty in U.S. Colleges and Universi-
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-
ties."National Center for Education Statistics, Statistical
Analysis Report, March 2000; U.S. Department of Edu- 82242-8.
cation, Office of Education Research and Improvement, • Schmitt, C. B.; Skinner, Quentin, eds. (1988).
Report # NCES 2000–173;1993 National Study of Post-
The Cambridge History of Renaissance Philosophy.
secondary Faculty (NSOPF:93). See also “Characteris-
tics and Attitudes of Instructional Faculty and Staff in the
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-
Humanities.” National Center For Education Statistics, 39748-3.
E.D. Tabs, July 1997. U.S. Department of Education,
• Kenny, Anthony (16 August 2012). A New History
Office of Education Research and Improvement, Report
of Western Philosophy. Oxford University Press.
# NCES 97-973;1993 National Study of Postsecondary
Faculty (NSOPF-93). ISBN 978-0-19-958988-3.
[78] “Unofficial Internet campaign outs professor for alleged • Honderich, T., ed. (1995). The Oxford Companion
sexual harassment, attempted assault”. to Philosophy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-
0-19-866132-0.
[79] Ratcliffe, Rebecca; Shaw, Claire (5 January 2015).
“Philosophy is for posh, white boys with trust funds’ – why • Bunnin, Nicholas; Tsui-James, Eric, eds. (15 April
are there so few women?". 2008). The Blackwell Companion to Philosophy.
John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-99787-1.
[80] “Women in Philosophy: Problems with the Discrimina-
tion Hypothesis - National Association of Scholars”. • Copleston, Frederick Charles (1953). A history of
philosophy: volume III: Ockham to Suárez. Paulist
[81] Sesardic, Neven; De Clercq, Rafael (2014). “Women in
Press. ISBN 978-0-8091-0067-5.
Philosophy: Problems with the Discrimination Hypothe-
sis” (PDF). Academic Questions. New York: Springer Sci- • Leaman, Oliver; Morewedge, Parviz (2000). “Is-
ence+Business Media. doi:10.1007/s12129-014-9464-x. lamic philosophy modern”. In Craig, Edward.
[82] Price, Susan. “Reviving the Female Canon”. Concise Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Psy-
chology Press. ISBN 0-415-22364-4.
[83] Saul, Jennifer M. “Philosophy has a sexual harassment
problem”. Retrieved 16 December 2016. • Buccellati, Giorgio (1981-01-01). “Wisdom and
Not: The Case of Mesopotamia”. Journal of
[84] “Popular Culture and Philosophy”. www.opencourtbooks. the American Oriental Society. 101 (1): 35–47.
com. Retrieved 2016-05-02. doi:10.2307/602163.
[85] “IJBS”. Web.archive.org. 2010-10-21. Archived from
the original on 21 October 2010. Retrieved 2012-07-11. General introductions
• Blumenau, Ralph. Philosophy and Living. ISBN • Smart, Ninian. World Philosophies. ISBN 978-0-
978-0-907845-33-1 415-22852-7
• Craig, Edward. Philosophy: A Very Short Introduc- • Copleston, Frederick. Philosophy in Russia: From
tion. ISBN 978-0-19-285421-6 Herzen to Lenin and Berdyaev. ISBN 978-0-268-
01569-5
• Harrison-Barbet, Anthony, Mastering Philosophy.
ISBN 978-0-333-69343-8 African
• Russell, Bertrand. The Problems of Philosophy.
• Imbo, Samuel Oluoch. '3'An Introduction to
ISBN 978-0-19-511552-9
African Philosophy. ISBN 978-0-8476-8841-8
• Sinclair, Alistair J. What is Philosophy? An Intro-
duction, 2008, ISBN 978-1-903765-94-4 Islamic
• Sober, Elliott. (2001). Core Questions in Philoso- • Medieval Islamic Philosophical Writings edited by
phy: A Text with Readings. Upper Saddle River, Muhammad Ali Khalidi
Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-189869-1
• Leaman, Oliver. A Brief Introduction to Islamic Phi-
• Solomon, Robert C. Big Questions: A Short Intro- losophy. ISBN 978-0-7456-1960-6.
duction to Philosophy. ISBN 978-0-534-16708-0
• Corbin, Henry (23 June 2014) [1993]. History Of
• Warburton, Nigel. Philosophy: The Basics. ISBN Islamic Philosophy. Translated by Sherrard,, Li-
978-0-415-14694-4 adain; Sherrard, Philip. Taylor & Francis. ISBN
978-1-135-19888-6.
• Nagel, Thomas. What Does It All Mean? A Very
Short Introduction to Philosophy. ISBN 978-0-19- • Aminrazavi, Mehdi Amin Razavi; Nasr, Seyyed
505292-3 Hossein; Nasr, PH.D., Seyyed Hossein (16 Decem-
ber 2013). The Islamic Intellectual Tradition in Per-
• Classics of Philosophy (Vols. 1, 2, & 3) by Louis P. sia. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-78105-6.
Pojman
Historical introductions
• The English Philosophers from Bacon to Mill by Ed-
win Arthur • Oizerman, Teodor (1988). The Main Trends
• European Philosophers from Descartes to Nietzsche in Philosophy. A Theoretical Analysis of the
by Monroe Beardsley History of Philosophy (PDF). translated by H.
Campbell Creighton, M.A., Oxon (2nd ed.).
• Cottingham, John. Western Philosophy: An An- Moscow: Progress Publishers. ISBN 5-01-000506-
thology. 2nd ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub., 9. Archived from the original (DjVu, etc.) on 2012-
2008. Print. Blackwell Philosophy Anthologies. 03-06. Retrieved 20 January 2011 First published in
Russian as «Главные философские направления»
• Tarnas, Richard. The Passion of the Western Mind:
Understanding the Ideas That Have Shaped Our • Higgins, Kathleen M. and Solomon, Robert C.
World View. ISBN 978-0-345-36809-6 A Short History of Philosophy. ISBN 978-0-19-
510196-6
Topical introductions • Durant, Will, Story of Philosophy: The Lives
and Opinions of the World’s Greatest Philosophers,
Eastern Pocket, 1991, ISBN 978-0-671-73916-4
• Oizerman, Teodor (1973). Problems of the History
• A Source Book in Indian Philosophy by Sarvepalli of Philosophy. translated from Russian by Robert
Radhakrishnan, Charles A. Moore Daglish (1st ed.). Moscow: Progress Publishers.
Archived from the original on 6 July 2011. Re-
• Hamilton, Sue. Indian Philosophy: a Very Short In- trieved 20 January 2011 First published in Russian
troduction. ISBN 978-0-19-285374-5 as «Проблемы историко-философской науки»
• Kupperman, Joel J. Classic Asian Philosophy: A
Guide to the Essential Texts. ISBN 978-0-19- Ancient
513335-6
• Knight, Kelvin. Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and
• Lee, Joe and Powell, Jim. Eastern Philosophy For Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre. ISBN 978-0-
Beginners. ISBN 978-0-86316-282-4 7456-1977-4
Medieval • The Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy (10 vols.)

edited by Edward Craig, Luciano Floridi (available
• The Phenomenology Reader by Dermot Moran, online by subscription); or
Timothy Mooney
• The Concise Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• Kim, J. and Ernest Sosa, Ed. (1999). Metaphysics: edited by Edward Craig (an abridgement)
An Anthology. Blackwell Philosophy Anthologies.
• Edwards, Paul, ed. (1967). The Encyclopedia of
Oxford, Blackwell Publishers Ltd.
Philosophy. Macmillan & Free Press.; in 1996, a
• Husserl, Edmund; Welton, Donn (1999). The Es- ninth supplemental volume appeared that updated
sential Husserl: Basic Writings in Transcendental the classic 1967 encyclopedia.
Phenomenology. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-
• International Directory of Philosophy and Philoso-
253-21273-1.
phers. Charlottesville, Philosophy Documentation
Center.
Modern
• Directory of American Philosophers. Char-
• Existentialism: Basic Writings (Second Edition) by lottesville, Philosophy Documentation Center.
Charles Guignon, Derk Pereboom • Routledge History of Philosophy (10 vols.) edited by
• Curley, Edwin, A Spinoza Reader, Princeton, 1994, John Marenbon
ISBN 978-0-691-00067-1 • History of Philosophy (9 vols.) by Frederick Cople-
• Bullock, Alan, R. B. Woodings, and John Cumming, ston
eds. The Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thinkers, • A History of Western Philosophy (5 vols.) by W. T.
in series, Fontana Original[s]. Hammersmith, Eng.: Jones
Fontana Press, 1992, cop. 1983. xxv, 867 p. ISBN
978-0-00-636965-3 • History of Italian Philosophy (2 vols.) by Eugenio
Garin. Translated from Italian and Edited by Gior-
• Scruton, Roger. A Short History of Modern Philos-
gio Pinton. Introduction by Leon Pompa.
ophy. ISBN 978-0-415-26763-2
• Encyclopaedia of Indian Philosophies (8 vols.),
Contemporary edited by Karl H. Potter et al. (first 6 volumes out
of print)
• Contemporary Analytic Philosophy: Core Readings • Indian Philosophy (2 vols.) by Sarvepalli Radhakr-
by James Baillie ishnan
• Appiah, Kwame Anthony. Thinking it Through – • A History of Indian Philosophy (5 vols.) by Suren-
An Introduction to Contemporary Philosophy, 2003, dranath Dasgupta
ISBN 978-0-19-513458-2
• History of Chinese Philosophy (2 vols.) by Fung Yu-
• Critchley, Simon. Continental Philosophy: A Very lan, Derk Bodde
Short Introduction. ISBN 978-0-19-285359-2
• Instructions for Practical Living and Other Neo-
Reference works Confucian Writings by Wang Yang-ming by Chan,
Wing-tsit
• Chan, Wing-tsit (1963). A Source Book in Chinese • Encyclopedia of Chinese Philosophy edited by Anto-
Philosophy. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0- nio S. Cua
691-01964-9.
• Encyclopedia of Eastern Philosophy and Religion by
• Huang, Siu-chi (1999). Essentials of Neo- Ingrid Fischer-Schreiber, Franz-Karl Ehrhard, Kurt
Confucianism: Eight Major Philosophers of the Song Friedrichs
and Ming Periods. Greenwood Publishing Group.
ISBN 0-313-26449-X. • Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy by
Brian Carr, Indira Mahalingam
• Honderich, T., ed. (1995). The Oxford Companion
to Philosophy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978- • A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit
0-19-866132-0. Terms Defined in English by John A. Grimes
• The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy by Robert • History of Islamic Philosophy edited by Seyyed Hos-
Audi sein Nasr, Oliver Leaman
• History of Jewish Philosophy edited by Daniel H. • Philosophy Magazines and Journals

Frank, Oliver Leaman
• Philosophy at DMOZ
• A History of Russian Philosophy: From the Tenth to
the Twentieth Centuries by Valerii Aleksandrovich • Philosophy (review)
Kuvakin • Philosophy Documentation Center
• Ayer, A.J. et al., Ed. (1994) A Dictionary of Philo- • Popular Philosophy
sophical Quotations. Blackwell Reference Oxford.
Oxford, Basil Blackwell Ltd.
• Blackburn, S., Ed. (1996)The Oxford Dictionary of

Philosophy. Oxford, Oxford University Press.
• Mauter, T., Ed. The Penguin Dictionary of Philoso-

phy. London, Penguin Books.
• Runes, D., Ed. (1942). The Dictionary of Philoso-

phy. New York, The Philosophical Library, Inc.
• Angeles, P.A., Ed. (1992). The Harper Collins Dic-

tionary of Philosophy. New York, Harper Perennial.
• Bunnin, Nicholas; Tsui-James, Eric, eds. (15 April

2008). The Blackwell Companion to Philosophy.
John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-99787-1.
• Hoffman, Eric, Ed. (1997) Guidebook for Publish-

ing Philosophy. Charlottesville, Philosophy Docu-
mentation Center.
• Popkin, R.H. (1999). The Columbia History of

Western Philosophy. New York, Columbia Univer-
sity Press.
• Bullock, Alan, and Oliver Stallybrass, jt. eds. The

Harper Dictionary of Modern Thought. New York:
Harper & Row, 1977. xix, 684 p. N.B.: “First
published in England under the title, The Fontana
Dictionary of Modern Thought.” ISBN 978-0-06-
010578-5
• Reese, W. L. Dictionary of Philosophy and Religion:

Eastern and Western Thought. Atlantic Highlands,
N.J.: Humanities Press, 1980. iv, 644 p. ISBN 978-
0-391-00688-1
23.13 External links

• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project
• PhilPapers – a comprehensive directory of on-

line philosophical articles and books by academic
philosophers
• Philosophy Timeline
• Map of Western Philosophers

Chapter 24
Inductive reasoning
“Inductive inference” redirects here. For the technique Therefore, if we discover a new biological life
in mathematical proof, see Mathematical induction. form it will probably depend on liquid water to
exist.
Inductive reasoning (as opposed to deductive reasoning
or abductive reasoning) is reasoning in which the premises This argument could have been made every time a new bi-
are viewed as supplying strong evidence for the truth of ological life form was found, and would have been correct
the conclusion. While the conclusion of a deductive ar- every time; however, it is still possible that in the future
gument is certain, the truth of the conclusion of an induc- a biological life form not requiring liquid water could be
tive argument may be probable, based upon the evidence discovered.
given.[1] As a result, the argument may be stated less formally as:
Many dictionaries define inductive reasoning as the
derivation of general principles from specific observa- All biological life forms that we know of de-
tions, though some sources disagree with this usage.[2] pend on liquid water to exist.
The philosophical definition of inductive reasoning All biological life probably depends on liquid
is more nuanced than simple progression from par- water to exist.
ticular/individual instances to broader generalizations.
Rather, the premises of an inductive logical argument in-
dicate some degree of support (inductive probability) for
the conclusion but do not entail it; that is, they suggest 24.2 Inductive vs. deductive rea-
truth but do not ensure it. In this manner, there is the pos- soning
sibility of moving from general statements to individual
instances (for example, statistical syllogisms, discussed
below).
24.1 Description
Inductive reasoning is inherently uncertain. It only deals
in degrees to which, given the premises, the conclusion
is credible according to some theory of evidence. Exam-
ples include a many-valued logic, Dempster–Shafer the-
ory, or probability theory with rules for inference such as
Bayes’ rule. Unlike deductive reasoning, it does not rely Argument terminology
on universals holding over a closed domain of discourse
to draw conclusions, so it can be applicable even in cases Unlike deductive arguments, inductive reasoning allows
of epistemic uncertainty (technical issues with this may for the possibility that the conclusion is false, even if
arise however; for example, the second axiom of proba- all of the premises are true.[4] Instead of being valid or
bility is a closed-world assumption).[3] invalid, inductive arguments are either strong or weak,
which describes how probable it is that the conclusion is
An example of an inductive argument:
true.[5] Another crucial difference is that deductive cer-
tainty is impossible in non-axiomatic systems, such as re-
All biological life forms that we know of de- ality, leaving inductive reasoning as the primary route to
pend on liquid water to exist. (probabilistic) knowledge of such systems.[6]
214
24.3. CRITICISM 215
Given that “if A is true then that would cause B, C, and D assumption. However, the assumption becomes inconsis-
to be true”, an example of deduction would be "A is true tent with the fact that there are white ravens. Therefore,
therefore we can deduce that B, C, and D are true”. An the general rule of “all ravens are black” is inconsistent
example of induction would be "B, C, and D are observed with the existence of the white raven. Hume further ar-
to be true therefore A might be true”. A is a reasonable gued that it is impossible to justify inductive reasoning:
explanation for B, C, and D being true. specifically, that it cannot be justified deductively, so our
For example: only option is to justify it inductively. Since this is circu-
lar he concluded that our use of induction is unjustifiable
with the help of Hume’s Fork.[11]
A large enough asteroid impact would create
a very large crater and cause a severe impact However, Hume then stated that even if induction were
winter that could drive the non-avian dinosaurs proved unreliable, we would still have to rely on it. So in-
to extinction. stead of a position of severe skepticism, Hume advocated
a practical skepticism based on common sense, where the
We observe that there is a very large crater in inevitability of induction is accepted.[12]
the Gulf of Mexico dating to very near the time
of the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs Bertrand Russell illustrated his skepticism in a story about
a turkey, fed every morning without fail, who following
Therefore it is possible that this impact could the laws of induction concludes this will continue, but
explain why the non-avian dinosaurs became then his throat is cut on Thanksgiving Day.[13]
extinct.
Note however that this is not necessarily the case. Other 24.3.1 Biases
events also coincide with the extinction of the non-avian
dinosaurs. For example, the Deccan Traps in India. Inductive reasoning is also known as hypothesis construc-
A classical example of an incorrect inductive argument tion because any conclusions made are based on cur-
was presented by John Vickers: rent knowledge and predictions. As with deductive ar-
guments, biases can distort the proper application of in-
ductive argument, thereby preventing the reasoner from
All of the swans we have seen are white.
forming the most logical conclusion based on the clues.
Therefore, all swans are white. (Or more pre- Examples of these biases include the availability heuris-
cisely, “We expect that all swans are white”) tic, confirmation bias, and the predictable-world bias.
The availability heuristic causes the reasoner to depend
The definition of inductive reasoning described in this ar- primarily upon information that is readily available to
ticle excludes mathematical induction, which is a form of him/her. People have a tendency to rely on information
deductive reasoning that is used to strictly prove proper- that is easily accessible in the world around them. For ex-
ties of recursively defined sets.[7] ample, in surveys, when people are asked to estimate the
percentage of people who died from various causes, most
respondents would choose the causes that have been most
24.3 Criticism prevalent in the media such as terrorism, and murders,
and airplane accidents rather than causes such as disease
and traffic accidents, which have been technically “less
Main article: Problem of induction accessible” to the individual since they are not empha-
sized as heavily in the world around him/her.
Inductive reasoning has been criticized by thinkers as di- The confirmation bias is based on the natural tendency
verse as Sextus Empiricus[8] and Karl Popper.[9] to confirm rather than to deny a current hypothesis. Re-
The classic philosophical treatment of the problem of search has demonstrated that people are inclined to seek
induction was given by the Scottish philosopher David solutions to problems that are more consistent with known
Hume.[10] hypotheses rather than attempt to refute those hypothe-
Although the use of inductive reasoning demonstrates ses. Often, in experiments, subjects will ask questions
considerable success, its application has been question- that seek answers that fit established hypotheses, thus
able. Recognizing this, Hume highlighted the fact that confirming these hypotheses. For example, if it is hy-
our mind draws uncertain conclusions from relatively lim- pothesized that Sally is a sociable individual, subjects will
ited experiences. In deduction, the truth value of the con- naturally seek to confirm the premise by asking questions
clusion is based on the truth of the premise. In induction, that would produce answers confirming that Sally is in fact
however, the dependence on the premise is always uncer- a sociable individual.
tain. As an example, let’s assume “all ravens are black.” The predictable-world bias revolves around the inclina-
The fact that there are numerous black ravens supports the tion to perceive order where it has not been proved to
216 CHAPTER 24. INDUCTIVE REASONING
exist, either at all or at a particular level of abstraction. The proportion in the first premise would be something
Gambling, for example, is one of the most popular ex- like “3/5ths of”, “all”, “few”, etc. Two dicto simpliciter
amples of predictable-world bias. Gamblers often begin fallacies can occur in statistical syllogisms: "accident" and
to think that they see simple and obvious patterns in the "converse accident".
outcomes and, therefore, believe that they are able to pre-
dict outcomes based upon what they have witnessed. In
reality, however, the outcomes of these games are diffi- 24.4.3 Simple induction
cult to predict and highly complex in nature. However, in
general, people tend to seek some type of simplistic order Simple induction proceeds from a premise about a sample
to explain or justify their beliefs and experiences, and it group to a conclusion about another individual.
is often difficult for them to realise that their perceptions
of order may be entirely different from the truth.[14] Proportion Q of the known instances of popu-
lation P has attribute A.
Individual I is another member of P.
24.4 Types Therefore:
There is a probability corresponding to Q that
24.4.1 Generalization I has A.
A generalization (more accurately, an inductive general- This is a combination of a generalization and a statistical
ization) proceeds from a premise about a sample to a con- syllogism, where the conclusion of the generalization is
clusion about the population. also the first premise of the statistical syllogism.
The proportion Q of the sample has attribute
A. 24.4.4 Argument from analogy
Therefore:
Main article: Argument from analogy
The proportion Q of the population has at-
tribute A.
The process of analogical inference involves noting the
Example shared properties of two or more things, and from this ba-
sis inferring that they also share some further property:[15]
There are 20 balls—either black or white—in an urn. To
estimate their respective numbers, you draw a sample of P and Q are similar in respect to properties a,
four balls and find that three are black and one is white. b, and c.
A good inductive generalization would be that there are
Object P has been observed to have further
15 black and five white balls in the urn.
property x.
How much the premises support the conclusion depends Therefore, Q probably has property x also.
upon (a) the number in the sample group, (b) the number
in the population, and (c) the degree to which the sam-
Analogical reasoning is very frequent in common sense,
ple represents the population (which may be achieved by
science, philosophy and the humanities, but sometimes it
taking a random sample). The hasty generalization and
is accepted only as an auxiliary method. A refined ap-
the biased sample are generalization fallacies.
proach is case-based reasoning.[16]
24.4.2 Statistical syllogism 24.4.5 Causal inference

Main article: Statistical syllogism
A causal inference draws a conclusion about a causal con-
nection based on the conditions of the occurrence of an
A statistical syllogism proceeds from a generalization to effect. Premises about the correlation of two things can
a conclusion about an individual. indicate a causal relationship between them, but addi-
tional factors must be confirmed to establish the exact
A proportion Q of population P has attribute form of the causal relationship.
A.
An individual X is a member of P.
24.4.6 Prediction
Therefore:
There is a probability which corresponds to Q A prediction draws a conclusion about a future individual
that X has A. from a past sample.
Proportion Q of observed members of group G • Inductive inference

have had attribute A.
• Inductive logic programming
Therefore:
There is a probability corresponding to Q that • Inductive probability
other members of group G will have attribute • Inductive programming
A when next observed.
• Inductive reasoning aptitude
• Inquiry
24.5 Bayesian inference
• Kolmogorov complexity
As a logic of induction rather than a theory of belief, • Lateral thinking
Bayesian inference does not determine which beliefs are
a priori rational, but rather determines how we should ra- • Laurence Jonathan Cohen
tionally change the beliefs we have when presented with
evidence. We begin by committing to a prior probability • Logic
for a hypothesis based on logic or previous experience, • Logical positivism
and when faced with evidence, we adjust the strength of
our belief in that hypothesis in a precise manner using • Machine learning
Bayesian logic.
• Mathematical induction
• Mill’s Methods
24.6 Inductive inference
• Minimum description length
Around 1960, Ray Solomonoff founded the theory of uni- • Minimum message length
versal inductive inference, the theory of prediction based
on observations; for example, predicting the next sym- • Open world assumption
bol based upon a given series of symbols. This is a for-
• Raven paradox
mal inductive framework that combines algorithmic in-
formation theory with the Bayesian framework. Univer- • Recursive Bayesian estimation
sal inductive inference is based on solid philosophical
foundations,[17] and can be considered as a mathemati- • Retroduction
cally formalized Occam’s razor. Fundamental ingredi-
• Solomonoff’s theory of inductive inference
ents of the theory are the concepts of algorithmic proba-
bility and Kolmogorov complexity. • Statistical inference
• Stephen Toulmin
24.7 See also • Universal artificial intelligence
• Abductive reasoning
• Algorithmic information theory

24.8 References
• Algorithmic probability [1] Copi, I. M.; Cohen, C.; Flage, D. E. (2007). Essentials
of Logic (Second ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson
• Analogy Education. ISBN 978-0-13-238034-8.
• Bayesian probability [2] “Deductive and Inductive Arguments”, Internet Encyclo-

pedia of Philosophy, Some dictionaries define “deduction”
• Counterinduction as reasoning from the general to specific and “induction”
as reasoning from the specific to the general. While this
• Deductive reasoning usage is still sometimes found even in philosophical and
mathematical contexts, for the most part, it is outdated.
• Explanation
[3] Kosko, Bart (1990). “Fuzziness vs. Probability”. Inter-
• Failure mode and effects analysis national Journal of General Systems. 17 (1): 211–240.
doi:10.1080/03081079008935108.
• Falsifiability
[4] John Vickers. The Problem of Induction. The Stanford
• Grammar induction Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
218 CHAPTER 24. INDUCTIVE REASONING
[5] Herms, D. “Logical Basis of Hypothesis Testing in Scien- • Holyoak, K.; Morrison, R. (2005). The Cam-
tific Research” (pdf). bridge Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning. New
York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-
[6] “Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy : Kant’s account of
reason”. 521-82417-0.
[7] Chowdhry, K.R. (January 2, 2015). Fundamentals of Dis-

crete Mathematical Structures (3rd ed.). PHI Learning Pvt.
Ltd. p. 26. ISBN 9788120350748. Retrieved 1 Decem-
ber 2016.
• “Confirmation and Induction”. Internet Encyclope-
[8] Sextus Empiricus, Outlines Of Pyrrhonism. Trans. dia of Philosophy.
R.G. Bury, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mas-
sachusetts, 1933, p. 283. • “Inductive Logic”. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philos-
[9] Popper, Karl R.; Miller, David W. (1983). “A proof
ophy.
of the impossibility of inductive probability”. Nature. • Inductive reasoning at PhilPapers
302 (5910): 687–688. Bibcode:1983Natur.302..687P.
doi:10.1038/302687a0. • Inductive reasoning at the Indiana Philosophy On-
[10] David Hume (1910) [1748]. An Enquiry concerning Hu- tology Project
man Understanding. P.F. Collier & Son. ISBN 0-19-
• Four Varieties of Inductive Argument from the De-
825060-6.
partment of Philosophy, University of North Car-
[11] Vickers, John. “The Problem of Induction” (Section 2). olina at Greensboro.
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 21 June 2010
• "Properties of Inductive Reasoning" (PDF). (166
[12] Vickers, John. “The Problem of Induction” (Section 2.1). KiB), a psychological review by Evan Heit of the
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 21 June 2010. University of California, Merced.
[13] The story by Russell is found in Alan Chalmers, What is
• The Mind, Limber An article which employs the film
this thing Called Science, Open University Press, Milton
Keynes, 1982, p. 14
The Big Lebowski to explain the value of inductive
reasoning.
[14] Gray, Peter (2011). Psychology (Sixth ed.). New York:
Worth. ISBN 978-1-4292-1947-1. • The Pragmatic Problem of Induction, by Thomas
Bullemore
[15] Baronett, Stan (2008). Logic. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Pearson Prentice Hall. pp. 321–325.
[16] For more information on inferences by analogy, see Juthe,

2005.
[17] Rathmanner, Samuel; Hutter, Marcus (2011). “A Philo-

sophical Treatise of Universal Induction”. Entropy.
13 (6): 1076–1136. Bibcode:2011Entrp..13.1076R.
doi:10.3390/e13061076.

• Cushan, Anna-Marie (1983/2014). Investigation
into Facts and Values: Groundwork for a theory
of moral conflict resolution. [Thesis, Melbourne
University], Ondwelle Publications (online): Mel-
bourne.
• Herms, D. “Logical Basis of Hypothesis Testing in
Scientific Research” (PDF).
• Kemerling, G. (27 October 2001). “Causal Reason-
ing”.
• Holland, J. H.; Holyoak, K. J.; Nisbett, R. E.; Tha-
gard, P. R. (1989). Induction: Processes of Infer-
ence, Learning, and Discovery. Cambridge, MA:
MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-58096-9.
Chapter 25
Deductive reasoning
Deductive reasoning, also deductive logic, logical 25.2 Law of detachment

deduction is the process of reasoning from one or
more statements (premises) to reach a logically certain Main article: Modus ponens
conclusion.[1] It differs from inductive reasoning and
abductive reasoning.
The law of detachment (also known as “affirming the an-
Deductive reasoning links premises with conclusions. If tecedent” and “modus ponens”) is the first form of deduc-
all premises are true, the terms are clear, and the rules of tive reasoning. A single conditional statement is made,
deductive logic are followed, then the conclusion reached and a hypothesis (P) is stated. The conclusion (Q) is then
is necessarily true. deduced from the statement and the hypothesis. The most
Deductive reasoning (top-down logic) contrasts with in- basic form is listed below:
ductive reasoning (bottom-up logic) in the following
way: In deductive reasoning, a conclusion is reached 1. P → Q (conditional statement)
reductively by applying general rules that hold over the
2. P (hypothesis stated)
entirety of a closed domain of discourse, narrowing the
range under consideration until only the conclusion(s) is 3. Q (conclusion deduced)
left. In inductive reasoning, the conclusion is reached by
generalizing or extrapolating from specific cases to gen- In deductive reasoning, we can conclude Q from P by us-
eral rules, i.e., there is epistemic uncertainty. However, ing the law of detachment.[2] However, if the conclusion
the inductive reasoning mentioned here is not the same (Q) is given instead of the hypothesis (P) then there is no
as induction used in mathematical proofs – mathematical definitive conclusion.
induction is actually a form of deductive reasoning.
The following is an example of an argument using the law
of detachment in the form of an if-then statement:
1. If an angle satisfies 90° < A < 180°, then A is an

25.1 Simple example obtuse angle.
2. A = 120°.
An example of a deductive argument:
3. A is an obtuse angle.
1. All men are mortal. Since the measurement of angle A is greater than 90° and
less than 180°, we can deduce that A is an obtuse angle. If
however, we are given the conclusion that A is an obtuse
2. Socrates is a man. angle we cannot deduce the premise that 90° < A < 180°.
It might be true that other angles outside this range are
also obtuse.
3. Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
The first premise states that all objects classified as “men” 25.3 Law of syllogism
have the attribute “mortal”. The second premise states
that “Socrates” is classified as a “man” – a member of The law of syllogism takes two conditional statements and
the set “men”. The conclusion then states that “Socrates” forms a conclusion by combining the hypothesis of one
must be “mortal” because he inherits this attribute from statement with the conclusion of another. Here is the gen-
his classification as a “man”. eral form:
219
220 CHAPTER 25. DEDUCTIVE REASONING
1. P → Q
2. Q → R
3. Therefore, P → R.
The following is an example:
1. If Larry is sick, then he will be absent.
2. If Larry is absent, then he will miss his classwork.

Argument terminology
3. Therefore, if Larry is sick, then he will miss his
classwork.
conclusion must be true if the premises are true. An ar-

We deduced the final statement by combining the hypoth-
gument can be “valid” even if one or more of its premises
esis of the first statement with the conclusion of the sec-
are false.
ond statement. We also allow that this could be a false
statement. This is an example of the transitive property An argument is “sound” if it is valid and the premises are
in mathematics. The transitive property is sometimes true.
phrased in this form: It is possible to have a deductive argument that is logically
valid but is not sound. Fallacious arguments often take
1. A = B. that form.
2. B = C. The following is an example of an argument that is
“valid”, but not “sound”:
3. Therefore, A = C.
1. Everyone who eats carrots is a quarterback.

25.4 Law of contrapositive
2. John eats carrots.
Main article: Modus tollens
The law of contrapositive states that, in a conditional, if 3. Therefore, John is a quarterback.

the conclusion is false, then the hypothesis must be false
also. The general form is the following:
The example’s first premise is false – there are people
who eat carrots who are not quarterbacks – but the con-
1. P → Q. clusion would necessarily be true, if the premises were
2. ~Q. true. In other words, it is impossible for the premises to
be true and the conclusion false. Therefore, the argument
3. Therefore, we can conclude ~P. is “valid”, but not “sound”. False generalizations – such
as “Everyone who eats carrots is a quarterback” – are of-
The following are examples: ten used to make unsound arguments. The fact that there
are some people who eat carrots but are not quarterbacks
proves the flaw of the argument.
1. If it is raining, then there are clouds in the sky.
In this example, the first statement uses categorical rea-
2. There are no clouds in the sky. soning, saying that all carrot-eaters are definitely quarter-
backs. This theory of deductive reasoning – also known
3. Thus, it is not raining.
as term logic – was developed by Aristotle, but was su-
perseded by propositional (sentential) logic and predicate
logic.
25.5 Validity and soundness
Deductive reasoning can be contrasted with inductive rea-
soning, in regards to validity and soundness. In cases of
Deductive arguments are evaluated in terms of their inductive reasoning, even though the premises are true
validity and soundness. and the argument is “valid”, it is possible for the conclu-
An argument is “valid” if it is impossible for its premises sion to be false (determined to be false with a counterex-
to be true while its conclusion is false. In other words, the ample or other means).
25.6 History 25.9 Further reading

Aristotle started documenting deductive reasoning in the • Vincent F. Hendricks, Thought 2 Talk: A Crash
4th century BC.[3] Course in Reflection and Expression, New York: Au-
tomatic Press / VIP, 2005, ISBN 87-991013-7-8
• Philip Johnson-Laird, Ruth M. J. Byrne, Deduction,

25.7 See also Psychology Press 1991, ISBN 978-0-86377-149-1
• Analogical reasoning • Zarefsky, David, Argumentation: The Study of Ef-

fective Reasoning Parts I and II, The Teaching Com-
• Argument (logic) pany 2002
• Correspondence theory of truth • Bullemore, Thomas, * The Pragmatic Problem of
Induction.
• Decision making
• Decision theory
• Defeasible reasoning
• Fallacy • Deductive reasoning at PhilPapers
• Fault Tree Analysis • Deductive reasoning at the Indiana Philosophy On-

tology Project
• Geometry
• “Deductive reasoning”. Internet Encyclopedia of
• Hypothetico-deductive method Philosophy.
• Inference
• Inquiry
• Logic and rationality
• Logical consequence
• Mathematical logic
• Natural deduction
• Peirce’s theory of deductive reasoning
• Propositional calculus
• Retroductive reasoning
• Scientific method
• Theory of justification
25.8 References
[1] Sternberg, R. J. (2009). Cognitive Psychology. Belmont,
CA: Wadsworth. p. 578. ISBN 978-0-495-50629-4.
[2] Guide to Logic
[3] Evans, Jonathan St. B. T.; Newstead, Stephen E.; Byrne,

Ruth M. J., eds. (1993). Human Reasoning: The Psy-
chology of Deduction (Reprint ed.). Psychology Press. p.
4. ISBN 9780863773136. Retrieved 2015-01-26. In one
sense [...] one can see the psychology of deductive reason-
ing as being as old as the study of logic, which originated
in the writings of Aristotle.
Chapter 26
Research
This article is about the search for knowledge. For other 26.2 Definitions
uses, see Research (disambiguation).
“Researcher” redirects here. For other uses, see Research has been defined in a number of different ways.
Researcher (disambiguation).
“Original research” redirects here. For Wikipedia’s pol- A broad definition of research is given by Godwin Col-
icy against directly including in articles the results of ibao: “In the broadest sense of the word, the definition of
editor-conducted research, see Wikipedia:No original re- research includes any gathering of data, information, and
search. facts for the advancement of knowledge.”[4]
Research comprises “creative work undertaken on Another definition of research is given by John W.
a systematic basis to increase the stock of knowledge, Creswell, who states that "[r]esearch is a process of steps
including knowledge of humans, culture and society, used to collect and analyze information to increase our
and the use of this stock of knowledge to devise new understanding of a topic or issue”. It consists of three
applications.”[1] It is used to establish or confirm facts, steps: pose a question, collect data to answer the ques-
reaffirm the results of previous work, solve new or exist- tion, and present an answer to the question.[5]
ing problems, support theorems, or develop new theories.
The Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary defines re-
A research project may also be an expansion on past work
search in more detail as “a studious inquiry or examina-
in the field. Research projects can be used to develop
tion; especially investigation or experimentation aimed at
further knowledge on a topic, or in the example of a
the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of ac-
school research project, they can be used to further a stu-
cepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practi-
dent’s research prowess to prepare them for future jobs
cal application of such new or revised theories or laws”.[3]
or reports. To test the validity of instruments, proce-
dures, or experiments, research may replicate elements
of prior projects or the project as a whole. The primary
purposes of basic research (as opposed to applied re- 26.3 Forms of research
search) are documentation, discovery, interpretation, or
the research and development (R&D) of methods and Original research is research that is not exclusively
systems for the advancement of human knowledge. Ap- based on a summary, review or synthesis of earlier pub-
proaches to research depend on epistemologies, which lications on the subject of research. This material is of
vary considerably both within and between humanities a primary source character. The purpose of the origi-
and sciences. There are several forms of research: nal research is to produce new knowledge, rather than to
scientific, humanities, artistic, economic, social, business, present the existing knowledge in a new form (e.g., sum-
marketing, practitioner research, life, technological, etc. marized or classified).[6][7]
Original research can take a number of forms, depending
on the discipline it pertains to. In experimental work, it
typically involves direct or indirect observation of the re-
searched subject(s), e.g., in the laboratory or in the field,
26.1 Etymology documents the methodology, results, and conclusions of
an experiment or set of experiments, or offers a novel in-
terpretation of previous results. In analytical work, there
The word research is derived from the Middle French are typically some new (for example) mathematical re-
"recherche", which means “to go about seeking”, the sults produced, or a new way of approaching an existing
term itself being derived from the Old French term "re- problem. In some subjects which do not typically carry
cerchier" a compound word from “re-" + “cerchier”, or out experimentation or analysis of this kind, the origi-
“sercher”, meaning 'search'.[3] The earliest recorded use nality is in the particular way existing understanding is
of the term was in 1577.[3] changed or re-interpreted based on the outcome of the
222
26.3. FORMS OF RESEARCH 223
Aristotle, (384–322 BC), one of the early figures in the develop-

ment of the scientific method.[2]
lic authorities, by charitable organizations and by private

groups, including many companies. Scientific research
can be subdivided into different classifications according
to their academic and application disciplines. Scientific
research is a widely used criterion for judging the stand-
ing of an academic institution, but some argue that such
is an inaccurate assessment of the institution, because the
quality of research does not tell about the quality of teach-
ing (these do not necessarily correlate).[11]
Research in the humanities involves different methods
such as for example hermeneutics and semiotics. Human-
ities scholars usually do not search for the ultimate cor-
Basrelief sculpture “Research holding the torch of knowledge” rect answer to a question, but instead, explore the issues
(1896) by Olin Levi Warner. Library of Congress, Thomas Jef- and details that surround it. Context is always important,
ferson Building, Washington, D.C. and context can be social, historical, political, cultural, or
ethnic. An example of research in the humanities is his-
torical research, which is embodied in historical method.
Historians use primary sources and other evidence to sys-
work of the researcher.[8] tematically investigate a topic, and then to write histories
The degree of originality of the research is among main the form of accounts of the past. Other studies aim
jor criteria for articles to be published in academic jour- to merely examine the occurrence of behaviours in soci-
nals and usually established by means of peer review.[9] eties and communities, without particularly looking for
Graduate students are commonly required to perform reasons or motivations to explain these. These studies
original research as part of a dissertation.[10] may be qualitative or quantitative, and can use a variety
Scientific research is a systematic way of gathering data of approaches, such as queer theory or feminist theory.[12]
and harnessing curiosity. This research provides scientific Artistic research, also seen as 'practice-based research',
information and theories for the explanation of the nature can take form when creative works are considered both
and the properties of the world. It makes practical appli- the research and the object of research itself. It is the
cations possible. Scientific research is funded by pub- debatable body of thought which offers an alternative
224 CHAPTER 26. RESEARCH
to purely scientific methods in research in its search for The subject area should not be randomly chosen
knowledge and truth. since it requires reading a vast amount of literature
on the topic to determine the gap in the literature
the researcher intends to narrow. A keen interest in
26.4 Scientific research the chosen subject area is advisable. The research
will have to be justified by linking its importance to
already existing knowledge about the topic.
Main article: Scientific method
Generally, research is understood to follow a certain 2. Hypothesis: A testable prediction which designates
the relationship between two or more variables.
3. Conceptual definition: Description of a concept by

relating it to other concepts.
4. Operational definition: Details in regards to defin-

ing the variables and how they will be mea-
sured/assessed in the study.
5. Gathering of data: Consists of identifying a popu-

lation and selecting samples, gathering information
from and/or about these samples by using specific
research instruments. The instruments used for data
collection must be valid and reliable.
Primary scientific research being carried out at the Microscopy
Laboratory of the Idaho National Laboratory.
6. Analysis of data: Involves breaking down the indi-
vidual pieces of data to draw conclusions about it.
7. Data Interpretation: This can be represented

through tables, figures, and pictures, and then de-
scribed in words.
8. Test, revising of hypothesis
9. Conclusion, reiteration if necessary
A common misconception is that a hypothesis will be

proven (see, rather, null hypothesis). Generally, a hy-
pothesis is used to make predictions that can be tested by
observing the outcome of an experiment. If the outcome
is inconsistent with the hypothesis, then the hypothesis
is rejected (see falsifiability). However, if the outcome
is consistent with the hypothesis, the experiment is said
to support the hypothesis. This careful language is used
because researchers recognize that alternative hypothe-
ses may also be consistent with the observations. In this
sense, a hypothesis can never be proven, but rather only
supported by surviving rounds of scientific testing and,
eventually, becoming widely thought of as true.
Scientific research equipment at MIT.
A useful hypothesis allows prediction and within the ac-
curacy of observation of the time, the prediction will be
structural process. Though step order may vary depend- verified. As the accuracy of observation improves with
ing on the subject matter and researcher, the following time, the hypothesis may no longer provide an accurate
steps are usually part of most formal research, both basic prediction. In this case, a new hypothesis will arise to
and applied: challenge the old, and to the extent that the new hypothe-
sis makes more accurate predictions than the old, the new
1. Observations and formation of the topic: Consists will supplant it. Researchers can also use a null hypoth-
of the subject area of one’s interest and following esis, which states no relationship or difference between
that subject area to conduct subject related research. the independent or dependent variables.
26.7. STEPS IN CONDUCTING RESEARCH 225
26.5 Historical research being accepted as the primary mode of enquiry in art as
in the case of other disciplines.[14] One of the character-
Main article: Historical method istics of artistic research is that it must accept subjectivity
The historical method comprises the techniques and as opposed to the classical scientific methods. As such,
it is similar to the social sciences in using qualitative re-
search and intersubjectivity as tools to apply measurement
and critical analysis.[15]
Artistic research has been defined by the University of
Dance and Circus (Dans och Cirkushögskolan, DOCH),
Stockholm in the following manner - “Artistic research is
to investigate and test with the purpose of gaining knowl-
edge within and for our artistic disciplines. It is based on
artistic practices, methods, and criticality. Through pre-
sented documentation, the insights gained shall be placed
in a context.”[16] Artistic research aims to enhance knowl-
edge and understanding with presentation of the arts.[17]
For a survey of the central problematics of today’s Artis-
tic Research, see Giaco Schiesser.[18]
According to artist Hakan Topal, in artistic research,
“perhaps more so than other disciplines, intuition is
utilized as a method to identify a wide range of new
and unexpected productive modalities”.[19] Most writers,
whether of fiction or non-fiction books, also have to do
research to support their creative work. This may be fac-
tual, historical, or background research. Background re-
search could include, for example, geographical or pro-
cedural research.[20]
The Society for Artistic Research (SAR) publishes the
triannual Journal for Artistic Research (JAR),[21][22]
German historian Leopold von Ranke (1795–1886), considered an international, online, open access, and peer-
to be one of the founders of modern source-based history. reviewed journal for the identification, publication, and
dissemination of artistic research and its methodolo-
guidelines by which historians use historical sources and gies, from all arts disciplines and it runs the Research
other evidence to research and then to write history. Catalogue (RC),[23][24][25] a searchable, documentary
There are various history guidelines that are commonly database of artistic research, to which anyone can
used by historians in their work, under the headings of contribute.
external criticism, internal criticism, and synthesis. This
includes lower criticism and sensual criticism. Though Patricia Leavy addresses eight arts-based research (ABR)
items may vary depending on the subject matter and re- genres: narrative inquiry, fiction-based research, poetry,
searcher, the following concepts are part of most formal music, dance, theatre, film, and visual art.[26]
historical research:[13] In 2016 ELIA (European League of the Institutes of the
Arts) launched The Florence Principles’ on the Doctor-
• Identification of origin date ate in the Arts.[27] The Florence Principles relating to the
Salzburg Principles and the Salzburg Recommendations
• Evidence of localization of EUA (European University Association) name seven
• Recognition of authorship points of attention to specify the Doctorate / PhD in the
Arts compared to a scientific doctorate / PhD The Flo-
• Analysis of data rence Principles have been endorsed and are supported
• Identification of integrity also by AEC, CILECT, CUMULUS and SAR.
• Attribution of credibility
26.7 Steps in conducting research
26.6 Artistic research Research is often conducted using the hourglass model
structure of research.[28] The hourglass model starts with
The controversial trend of artistic teaching becoming a broad spectrum for research, focusing in on the required
more academics-oriented is leading to artistic research information through the method of the project (like the
neck of the hourglass), then expands the research in the Plato in Meno talks about an inherent difficulty, if not a
form of discussion and results. The major steps in con- paradox, of doing research that can be paraphrased in the
ducting research are:[29] following way, “If you know what you're searching for,
why do you search for it?! [i.e., you have already found
• Identification of research problem it] If you don't know what you're searching for, what are
you searching for?!"[34]
• Literature review
• Specifying the purpose of research
26.8 Research methods
• Determining specific research questions
• Specification of a conceptual framework, usually a
set of hypotheses[30]
• Choice of a methodology (for data collection)
• Data collection
• Verifying data
• Analyzing and interpreting the data
• Reporting and evaluating research The research room at the New York Public Library, an example
of secondary research in progress.
• Communicating the research findings and, possibly,
recommendations
The steps generally represent the overall process; how-

ever, they should be viewed as an ever-changing itera-
tive process rather than a fixed set of steps.[31] Most re-
search begins with a general statement of the problem,
or rather, the purpose for engaging in the study.[32] The
literature review identifies flaws or holes in previous re-
search which provides justification for the study. Often, a
literature review is conducted in a given subject area be-
fore a research question is identified. A gap in the current
literature, as identified by a researcher, then engenders a
research question. The research question may be parallel
to the hypothesis. The hypothesis is the supposition to be
tested. The researcher(s) collects data to test the hypoth-
esis. The researcher(s) then analyzes and interprets the
data via a variety of statistical methods, engaging in what
is known as empirical research. The results of the data
analysis in rejecting or failing to reject the null hypoth-
esis are then reported and evaluated. At the end, the re-
searcher may discuss avenues for further research. How-
ever, some researchers advocate for the reverse approach:
starting with articulating findings and discussion of them,
moving “up” to identification of a research problem that
emerges in the findings and literature review. The re-
verse approach is justified by the transactional nature of
the research endeavor where research inquiry, research
questions, research method, relevant research literature,
and so on are not fully known until the findings have fully Maurice Hilleman is credited with saving more lives than any
emerged and been interpreted. other scientist of the 20th century.[35]
Rudolph Rummel says, "... no researcher should accept
any one or two tests as definitive. It is only when a The goal of the research process is to produce new knowl-
range of tests are consistent over many kinds of data, re- edge or deepen understanding of a topic or issue. This
searchers, and methods can one have confidence in the process takes three main forms (although, as previously
results.”[33] discussed, the boundaries between them may be obscure):
26.9. RESEARCH ETHICS 227
• Exploratory research, which helps to identify and to statistically control for their influence on the depen-
define a problem or question. dent, or outcome, variable. If the intent is to general-
ize from the research participants to a larger population,
• Constructive research, which tests theories and pro- the researcher will employ probability sampling to select
poses solutions to a problem or question. participants.[37]
• Empirical research, which tests the feasibility of a In either qualitative or quantitative research, the re-
solution using empirical evidence. searcher(s) may collect primary or secondary data. Pri-
mary data is data collected specifically for the research,
There are two major types of empirical research de- such as through interviews or questionnaires. Secondary
sign: qualitative research and quantitative research. Re- data is data that already exists, such as census data, which
searchers choose qualitative or quantitative methods ac- can be re-used for the research. It is good ethical research
cording to the nature of the research topic they want to practice to use secondary data wherever possible.[38]
investigate and the research questions they aim to answer: Mixed-method research, i.e. research that includes qual-
itative and quantitative elements, using both primary and
Qualitative research This involves understanding hu- secondary data, is becoming more common.[39]
man behavior and the reasons that govern such be-
Big data has brought big impacts on research methods
havior, by asking a broad question, collecting data
so that now many researchers do not put much effort
in the form of words, images, video etc that is ana-
into data collection; furthermore, methods to analyze
lyzed, and searching for themes. This type of re-
easily available huge amounts of data have also been
search aims to investigate a question without at-
developed.[40]
tempting to quantifiably measure variables or look
to potential relationships between variables. It is
viewed as more restrictive in testing hypotheses be- Non-empirical research
cause it can be expensive and time-consuming and
typically limited to a single set of research subjects. Non-empirical (theoretical) research is an approach that
Qualitative research is often used as a method of involves the development of theory as opposed to us-
exploratory research as a basis for later quantita- ing observation and experimentation. As such, non-
tive research hypotheses. Qualitative research is empirical research seeks solutions to problems using ex-
linked with the philosophical and theoretical stance isting knowledge as its source. This, however, does not
of social constructionism. mean that new ideas and innovations cannot be found
within the pool of existing and established knowledge.
Quantitative research This involves systematic empir- Non-empirical research is not an absolute alternative to
ical investigation of quantitative properties and phe- empirical research because they may be used together
nomena and their relationships, by asking a narrow to strengthen a research approach. Neither one is less
question and collecting numerical data to analyze effective than the other since they have their particular
it utilizing statistical methods. The quantitative re- purpose in science. Typically empirical research pro-
search designs are experimental, correlational, and duces observations that need to be explained; then theo-
survey (or descriptive).[36] Statistics derived from retical research tries to explain them, and in so doing gen-
quantitative research can be used to establish the erates empirically testable hypotheses; these hypotheses
existence of associative or causal relationships be- are then tested empirically, giving more observations that
tween variables. Quantitative research is linked may need further explanation; and so on. See Scientific
with the philosophical and theoretical stance of method.
positivism. A simple example of a non-empirical task is the proto-
typing of a new drug using a differentiated application
The quantitative data collection methods rely on random of existing knowledge; another is the development of a
sampling and structured data collection instruments that business process in the form of a flow chart and texts
fit diverse experiences into predetermined response cate- where all the ingredients are from established knowl-
gories. These methods produce results that are easy to edge. Much of cosmological research is theoretical in
summarize, compare, and generalize. Quantitative re- nature. Mathematics research does not rely on externally
search is concerned with testing hypotheses derived from available data; rather, it seeks to prove theorems about
theory and/or being able to estimate the size of a phe- mathematical objects.
nomenon of interest.
If the research question is about people, participants may
be randomly assigned to different treatments (this is the 26.9 Research ethics
only way that a quantitative study can be considered a true
experiment). If this is not feasible, the researcher may Research ethics involves the application of fundamen-
collect data on participant and situational characteristics tal ethical principles to a variety of topics involving re-
search, including scientific research. These include the same field who are consulted by editors to give a review
design and implementation of research involving human of the scholarly works produced by a colleague of theirs
experimentation, animal experimentation, various as- from an unbiased and impartial point of view, and this
pects of academic scandal, including scientific miscon- is usually done free of charge. The tradition of peer
duct (such as fraud, fabrication of data and plagiarism), reviews being done for free has however brought many
whistleblowing; regulation of research, etc. Research pitfalls which are also indicative of why most peer re-
ethics is most developed as a concept in medical reviewers decline many invitations to review.[47] It was ob-
search. The key agreement here is the 1964 Declaration served that publications from periphery countries rarely
of Helsinki. The Nuremberg Code is a former agree- rise to the same elite status as those of North Amer-
ment, but with many still important notes. Research in ica and Europe, because limitations on the availability
the social sciences presents a different set of issues than of resources including high-quality paper and sophisti-
those in medical research[41] and can involve issues of re-cated image-rendering software and printing tools render
searcher and participant safety, empowerment and access these publications less able to satisfy standards currently
to justice.[42] carrying formal or informal authority in the publishing
industry.[46] These limitations in turn result in the under-
representation of scholars from periphery nations among
26.10 Problems in research the set of publications holding prestige status relative to
the quantity and quality of those scholars’ research ef-
forts, and this under-representation in turn results in dis-
26.10.1 Methods of research proportionately reduced acceptance of the results of their
efforts as contributions to the body of knowledge avail-
In many disciplines, Western methods of conducting re- able worldwide.
search are predominant.[43] Researchers are overwhelm-
ingly taught Western methods of data collection and
study. The increasing participation of indigenous peo- 26.10.4 Influence of the open-access move-
ples as researchers has brought increased attention to the ment
lacuna in culturally-sensitive methods of data collection.
Non-Western methods of data collection may not be the The open access movement assumes that all information
most accurate or relevant for research on non-Western so- generally deemed useful should be free and belongs to a
cieties. For example, "Hua Oranga" was created as a cri- “public domain”, that of “humanity”.[48] This idea gained
terion for psychological evaluation in Māori populations, prevalence as a result of Western colonial history and ig-
and is based on dimensions of mental health important nores alternative conceptions of knowledge circulation.
to the Māori people – “taha wairua (the spiritual dimen- For instance, most indigenous communities consider that
sion), taha hinengaro (the mental dimension), taha tinana access to certain information proper to the group should
(the physical dimension), and taha whanau (the family be determined by relationships.[48]
dimension)".[44]
There is alleged to be a double standard in the Western
knowledge system. On the one hand, “digital right man-
26.10.2 Linguicism agement” used to restrict access to personal information
on social networking platforms is celebrated as a protec-
Periphery scholars face the challenges of exclusion and tion of privacy, while simultaneously when similar func-
linguicism in research and academic publication. As tions are utilised by cultural groups (i.e. indigenous com-
the great majority of mainstream academic journals are munities) this is denounced [48]
as “access control” and rep-
written in English, multilingual periphery scholars often rehended as censorship.
must translate their work to be accepted to elite Western-
dominated journals.[45] Multilingual scholars’ influences
26.10.5 Future perspectives
from their native communicative styles can be assumed
to be incompetence instead of difference.[46]
Even though Western dominance seems to be prominent
in research, some scholars, such as Simon Marginson, ar-
gue for “the need [for] a plural university world”.[49] Mar-
26.10.3 Publication Peer Review
ginson argues that the East Asian Confucian model could
Peer Review is a form of self-regulation by qualified take over the Western model.
members of a profession within the relevant field. Peer This could be due to changes in funding for research
review methods are employed to maintain standards of both in the East and the West. Focussed on emphasiz-
quality, improve performance, and provide credibility. ing educational achievement, East Asian cultures, mainly
In academia, scholarly peer review is often used to de- in China and South Korea, have encouraged the increase
termine an academic paper’s suitability for publication. of funding for research expansion.[49] In contrast, in the
Usually, the peer review process involves experts in the Western academic world, notably in the United Kingdom
26.13. RESEARCH FUNDING 229
as well as in some state governments in the United States,

funding cuts for university research have occurred, which
some say may lead to the future decline of Western dom-
inance in research.
26.11 Professionalisation
See also: Academic ranks, Academics, and Scientists
In several national and private academic systems, the

professionalisation of research has resulted in formal job
titles.
26.11.1 In Russia
In present-day Russia, the former Soviet Union and in
some post-Soviet states the term researcher (Russian: На-
учный сотрудник, nauchny sotrudnik) is both a generic
term for a person who carried out scientific research, as
well as a job position within the frameworks of the USSR
Academy of Sciences, Soviet universities, and in other
research-oriented establishments. The term is also some-
times translated as research fellow, research associate,
etc.
Cover of the first issue of Nature, 4 November 1869.
The following ranks are known:
• Junior Researcher (Junior Research Associate) kinds of publications that are accepted as contributions of
knowledge or research vary greatly between fields, from
• Researcher (Research Associate) the print to the electronic format. A study suggests that
researchers should not give great consideration to find-
• Senior Researcher (Senior Research Associate) ings that are not replicated frequently.[51] It has also been
suggested that all published studies should be subjected
• Leading Researcher (Leading Research
to some measure for assessing the validity or reliabil-
Associate)[50]
ity of its procedures to prevent the publication of un-
• Chief Researcher (Chief Research Associate) proven findings.[52] Business models are different in the
electronic environment. Since about the early 1990s, li-
censing of electronic resources, particularly journals, has
been very common. Presently, a major trend, particu-
26.12 Publishing larly with respect to scholarly journals, is open access.[53]
There are two main forms of open access: open access
Academic publishing is a system that is necessary for aca- publishing, in which the articles or the whole journal is
demic scholars to peer review the work and make it avail- freely available from the time of publication, and self-
able for a wider audience. The system varies widely by archiving, where the author makes a copy of their own
field and is also always changing, if often slowly. Most work freely available on the web.
academic work is published in journal article or book
form. There is also a large body of research that exists
in either a thesis or dissertation form. These forms of re-
search can be found in databases explicitly for theses and 26.13 Research funding
dissertations. In publishing, STM publishing is an abbre-
viation for academic publications in science, technology, Main article: Funding of science
and medicine.
Most established academic fields have their own scientific Most funding for scientific research comes from three
journals and other outlets for publication, though many major sources: corporate research and development de-
academic journals are somewhat interdisciplinary, and partments; private foundations, for example, the Bill
publish work from several distinct fields or subfields. The and Melinda Gates Foundation; and government research
councils such as the National Institutes of Health in the [4] Shuttleworth, Martyn (2008). “Definition of Research”.
USA[54] and the Medical Research Council in the UK. Explorable. Explorable.com. Retrieved 14 August 2011.
These are managed primarily through universities and
[5] Creswell, J. W. (2008). Educational Research: Planning,
in some cases through military contractors. Many se- conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative re-
nior researchers (such as group leaders) spend a signifi- search (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River: Pearson.
cant amount of their time applying for grants for research
funds. These grants are necessary not only for researchers [6] “What is Original Research? Original research is consid-
to carry out their research but also as a source of merit. ered a primary source.”. Thomas G. Carpenter Library,
University of North Florida. Archived from the original
The Social Psychology Network provides a comprehen- on 9 July 2011. Retrieved 9 August 2014.
sive list of U.S. Government and private foundation fund-
ing sources. [7] Schaum’s Quick Guide to Writing Great Research Papers
– Laurie Rozakis
[8] Singh, Michael; Li, Bingyi (6 October 2009). “Early ca-

26.14 See also reer researcher originality: Engaging Richard Florida’s in-
ternational competition for creative workers” (PDF). Cen-
• European Charter for Researchers tre for Educational Research, University of Western Syd-
ney. p. 2. Archived from the original on 11 January 2012.
• Undergraduate research
[9] Callaham, Michael; Wears, Robert; Weber, Ellen
• Internet research L. (2002). “Journal Prestige, Publication Bias, and
Other Characteristics Associated With Citation of Pub-
• List of countries by research and development lished Studies in Peer-Reviewed Journals”. JAMA.
spending doi:10.1001/jama.287.21.2847.
• Advertising research [10] Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2006–2007 edition –

The United States Department of Labor
• Market research
[11] J. Scott Armstrong & Tad Sperry (1994). “Business
• Marketing research School Prestige: Research versus Teaching” (PDF). En-
ergy & Environment. 18 (2): 13–43.
• Open research
[12] Roffee, James A; Waling, Andrea (18 August 2016).
• Operations research “Resolving ethical challenges when researching with mi-
nority and vulnerable populations: LGBTIQ victims of vi-
• Participatory action research olence, harassment and bullying”. Research Ethics. 13 (1):
• Primary research 4–22. doi:10.1177/1747016116658693.
[13] Garraghan, Gilbert J. (1946). A Guide to Historical

• Psychological research methods
Method. New York: Fordham University Press. p. 168.
• Research-intensive cluster ISBN 0-8371-7132-6.
• Scholarly research [14] Lesage, Dieter (Spring 2009). “Who’s Afraid of Artistic
Research? On measuring artistic research output” (PDF).
• Secondary research Art&Research – A Journal of Ideas, Contexts and Methods.
2 (2). ISSN 1752-6388. Retrieved 14 August 2011.
• Society for Artistic Research
[15] Eisner, E. W. (1981). “On the Differences between
• Social research Scientific and Artistic Approaches to Qualitative Re-
search”. Educational Researcher. 10 (4): 5–9.
• Timeline of the history of scientific method doi:10.2307/1175121.
[16] Unattributed. “Artistic research at DOCH”. Dans och

Cirkushögskolan (website). Retrieved 14 August 2011.
26.15 References
[17] Schwab, M. (2009). Draft Proposal. Journal for Artistic
[1] OECD (2002) Frascati Manual: proposed standard prac- Research. Bern University of the Arts.
tice for surveys on research and experimental develop-
ment, 6th edition. Retrieved 27 May 2012 from www. [18] Schiesser, G. (2015). What is at stake – Qu'est ce que
oecd.org/sti/frascatimanual. l'enjeu? Paradoxes – Problematics – Perspectives in Artis-
tic Research Today, in: Arts, Research, Innovation and
[2] "The Origins of Science". Scientific American Frontiers. Society. Eds. Gerald Bast, Elias G. Carayannis [= ARIS,
Vol. 1]. Wien/New York: Springer 2015, pp. 197–210.
[3] Unattributed. ""Research” in 'Dictionary' tab”. Merriam
Webster (m-w.com). Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved [19] Topal, H. (2014) Whose Terms? A Glossary for Social
13 August 2011. Practice: RESEARCH
[20] Hoffman A (2003) Research for Writers, pp 4–5. London: [38] Kara H (2012) Research and Evaluation for Busy Practi-
A&C Black Publishers Limited. tioners: A Time-Saving Guide, p.102. Bristol: The Policy
Press.
[21] Swiss Science and Technology Research Council (2011),
Research Funding in the Arts [accessed 3 Feb 2014] [39] Kara H (2012) Research and Evaluation for Busy Practi-
tioners: A Time-Saving Guide, p.114. Bristol: The Policy
[22] Borgdorff, Henk (2012), The Conflict of the Faculties. Press.
Perspectives on Artistic Research and Academia (Chapter
11: The Case of the Journal for Artistic Research), Lei- [40] Liu, Alex (1 January 2015). Structural Equation Modeling
den: Leiden University Press. and Latent Variable Approaches. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
ISBN 9781118900772.
[23] Schwab, Michael, and Borgdorff, Henk, eds. (2014),
The Exposition of Artistic Research: Publishing Art in [41] Introduction to the Responsible Conduct of Research | On
Academia, Leiden: Leiden University Press. Being a Scientist: A Guide to Responsible Conduct in Re-
search (Third ed.). The National Academies Press. 2009.
[24] Wilson, Nick and van Ruiten, Schelte / ELIA, eds.
(2013), SHARE Handbook for Artistic Research Educa- [42] Roffee, James A; Waling, Andrea (18 August 2016).
tion, Amsterdam: Valand Academy, p. 249. “Resolving ethical challenges when researching with mi-
[25] Hughes, Rolf: “Leap into Another Kind: International nority and vulnerable populations: LGBTIQ victims of vi-
Developments in Artistic Research,” in Swedish Re- olence, harassment and bullying”. Research Ethics. 13 (1):
search Council, ed. (2013), Artistic Research Then and 4–22. doi:10.1177/1747016116658693.
Now: 2004–2013, Yearbook of AR&D 2013, Stockholm: [43] Reverby, Susan M. (1 April 2012). “Zachary M. Schrag.
Swedish Research Council. Ethical Imperialism: Institutional Review Boards and the
[26] Leavy, Patricia (2015). Methods Meets Art (2nd ed.). New Social Sciences, 1965–2009. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins
York: Guilford. ISBN 9781462519446. University Press. 2010. Pp. xii, 245. $45.00”. The
American Historical Review. 117 (2): 484–485. ISSN
[27] http://www.elia-artschools. 0002-8762. doi:10.1086/ahr.117.2.484-a.
org/userfiles/File/customfiles/
1-the-florence-principles20161124105336_ [44] Stewart, Lisa. “Commentary on Cultural Diversity Across
20161202112511.pdf [accessed 12 Dec 2016] the Pacific: The Dominance of Western Theories, Models,
Research and Practice in Psychology”. Journal of Pacific
[28] Trochim, W.M.K, (2006). Research Methods Knowledge Rim Psychology. 6 (01): 27–31. doi:10.1017/prp.2012.1.
Base.
[45] Canagarajah, A. Suresh (1 January 1996). “From Crit-
[29] Creswell, J.W. (2008). Educational research: Planning, ical Research Practice to Critical Research Reporting”.
conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative re- TESOL Quarterly. 30 (2): 321–331. JSTOR 3588146.
search (3rd). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. doi:10.2307/3588146.
2008 ISBN 0-13-613550-1 (pages 8–9)
[46] Canagarajah, Suresh (October 1996). ""Nondiscursive”
[30] Shields, Patricia and Rangarjan, N. 2013. A Playbook for Requirements in Academic Publishing, Material Re-
Research Methods: Integrating Conceptual Frameworks sources of Periphery Scholars, and the Politics of Knowl-
and Project Management. . Stillwater, OK: New Forums edge Production”. Written Communication. 13 (4) – via
Press. SagePub.
[31] Gauch, Jr., H.G. (2003). Scientific method in practice. [47] “Peer Review of Scholarly Journal”. www.PeerViewer.
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 2003 ISBN com. June 2017.
0-521-81689-0 (page 3)
[48] Christen, Kimberly (2012). “Does Information Really
[32] Rocco, T.S., Hatcher, T., & Creswell, J.W. (2011). The Want to be Free? Indigenous Knowledge Systems and the
handbook of scholarly writing and publishing. San Fran- Question of Openness”. International Journal of Commu-
cisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons. 2011 ISBN 978-0-470- nication. 6.
39335-2
[49] “Sun sets on Western dominance as East Asian Confucian
[33] Questions About Freedom, Democide, And War
model takes lead”. 24 February 2011. Retrieved 2016-
[34] Plato, & Bluck, R. S. (1962). Meno. Cambridge, UK: 08-29.
University Press.
[50] Job qualifications for Leading Researcher (in Russian)
[35] Sullivan P (13 April 2005). “Maurice R. Hilleman dies;
created vaccines”. Washington Post. [51] Heiner Evanschitzky, Carsten Baumgarth, Raymond
Hubbard and J. Scott Armstrong (2006). “Replication Re-
[36] Creswell, J. W. (2008). Educational Research: Planning, search in Marketing Revisited: A Note on a Disturbing
Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Trend” (PDF).
Research. Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson Education,
Inc. [52] J. Scott Armstrong & Peer Soelberg (1968). “On the In-
terpretation of Factor Analysis” (PDF). Psychological Bul-
[37] Data Collection Methods letin. 70: 361–364. doi:10.1037/h0026434.
[53] J. Scott Armstrong & Robert Fildes (2006). “Monetary

Incentives in Mail Surveys” (PDF). International Journal
of Forecasting.
[54] “NIH Reporter”.

• Cohen, N.; Arieli, T. (2011). “Field research in con-
flict environments: Methodological challenges and
snowball sampling”. Journal of Peace Research. 48
(4): 423–436. doi:10.1177/0022343311405698.
• Soeters, Joseph; Shields, Patricia and Rietjens, Se-

bastiaan. 2014. Handbook of Research Methods in
Military Studies New York: Routledge.

• The dictionary definition of research at Wiktionary
• Quotations related to Research at Wikiquote

Chapter 27
Field research
This article is about the scientific method. For the mili- Although the cultures do not have to be different, this
tary term, see Fortification. has often been the case in the past with the study of so-
“Fieldwork” and “Field Work” redirect here. For the called primitive cultures, and even in sociology the cul-
novel, see Fieldwork (novel). For the book of poetry, see tural differences have been ones of class. The work is
Field Work (poetry). done... in "'Fields’ that is, circumscribed areas of study
Field research or fieldwork is the collection of in- which have been the subject of social research”.[1] Fields
could be education, industrial settings, or Amazonian rain
forests. Field research may be conducted by zoologists
such as Jane Goodall. Radcliff-Brown [1910] and Ma-
linowski [1922] were early cultural anthropologists who
set the models for future work.[2]
Business use of Field research is an applied form of an-
thropology and is as likely to be advised by sociologists
or statisticians in the case of surveys.
Consumer marketing field research is the primary mar-
keting technique used by businesses to research their tar-
get market.
Biologists collecting information in the field 27.2 Conducting field research

formation outside a laboratory, library or workplace set-
The quality of results obtained from field research de-
ting. The approaches and methods used in field research
pends on the data gathered in the field. The data in turn,
vary across disciplines. For example, biologists who con-
depend upon the field worker, his or her level of involve-
duct field research may simply observe animals inter-
ment, and ability to see and visualize things that other in-
acting with their environments, whereas social scientists
dividuals visiting the area of study may fail to notice. The
conducting field research may interview or observe peo-
more open researchers are to new ideas, concepts, and
ple in their natural environments to learn their languages,
things which they may not have seen in their own culture,
folklore, and social structures.
the better will be the absorption of those ideas. Better
Field research involves a range of well-defined, although grasping of such material means better understanding of
variable, methods: informal interviews, direct observa- the forces of culture operating in the area and the ways
tion, participation in the life of the group, collective they modify the lives of the people under study. Social
discussions, analyses of personal documents produced scientists (i.e. anthropologists, social psychologists, etc.)
within the group, self-analysis, results from activities un- have always been taught to be free from ethnocentrism
dertaken off- or on-line, and life-histories. Although the (i.e. the belief in the superiority of one’s own ethnic
method generally is characterized as qualitative research, group), when conducting any type of field research.
it may (and often does) include quantitative dimensions.
When humans themselves are the subject of study, pro-
tocols must be devised to reduce the risk of observer bias
and the acquisition of too theoretical or idealized expla-
27.1 History nations of the workings of a culture. Participant observa-
tion, data collection, and survey research are examples of
Field research has a long history. Cultural anthropolo- field research methods, in contrast to what is often called
gists have long used field research to study other cultures. experimental or lab research.
233
234 CHAPTER 27. FIELD RESEARCH
27.3 Field notes thoughts, impressions and explanations on the part of the
researcher. In assessing the quality of field notes, the ac-
Main article: Fieldnotes curacy of the description and the level of detail are of
utmost importance.[4]
When conducting field research, keeping an ethnographic

record is essential to the process. Field notes are a key
27.4.3 Methodological notes
part of the ethnographic record. The process of field
notes begin as the researcher participates in local scenes
These notes can contain new ideas that the researcher has
and experiences in order to make observations that will
on how to carry out the research project. Also included
later be written up. The field researcher tries first to take
can be which methods are chosen, on what basis they were
mental notes of certain details in order that they be writ-
chosen, how they were carried out and the outcome of
ten down later.
such methods. Methodological notes can be kept with
field notes or they can filed separately. These also serve
the researcher when later writing up the methods section
27.4 Kinds of field notes of a report or paper.[4]
Field Note Chart

27.4.4 Journals and diaries
27.4.1 Jot notes Journals and diaries are written notes that record the
ethnographer’s personal reactions, frustrations, and as-
The first writing that is done typically consists of jotted or sessments of life and work in the field. When constructed
condensed notes. Thus, key words or phrases are written chronologically these journals provide a guide to the in-
down while the researcher is in or very close to the field. formation in field notes and records.[5] One of the most
Some researchers jot field notes openly in the presence well known diaries is that of Bronislaw Malinowski re-
of those being studied. Adopting this practice early on garding his research among the Trobriand Islanders.[6]
enables some researchers to find that they can establish During her Pacific fieldwork Margaret Mead kept a di-
a 'note-taker' role that will be accepted or at least toler- ary and also wrote long letters to people at home which
ated by those being studied. However, some researchers contained self-reflection that might be included in a diary.
find that people develop expectations of what should be
recorded and what should not, which can intrude upon
the work being done. Other ethnographers try to avoid
taking notes in the middle of scenes and experiences and
27.5 Interviewing
instead try to place themselves on the margins of scenes
and events. Others strictly avoid writing anything in the Another method of data collection is interviewing,
presence of those being studied. They feel that such writ- specifically interviewing in the qualitative paradigm. In-
ing can overtly remind the participants that the researcher terviewing can be done in different formats, this all de-
has different commitments and priorities. Such writing pends on individual researcher preferences, research pur-
can also distract the researcher from what is happening pose, and the research question asked.
in the immediate scene in which he or she is participat-
ing. Thus, many researchers choose to make jotted notes
outside the presence of those being studied. Some there- 27.6 Analyzing data
fore retreat to bathrooms or stairwells in order to record
field notes.[3]
In qualitative research, there are many ways of analyz-
ing data gathered in the field. One of the two most com-
27.4.2 Field notes proper mon methods of data analysis are thematic analysis and
narrative analysis. As mentioned before, the type of anal-
There are three main points regarding field notes proper. ysis a researcher decides to use depends on the research
First, converting jot notes into field notes should take question asked, the researcher’s field, and the researcher’s
place as soon as possible after the events take place. Sec- personal method of choice.
ondly, field notes should be very detailed. Thus, included
in field notes should be a description of the physical con-
text and the people involved, including their behavior and 27.7 Field research across different
nonverbal communication. Field notes should also use
words that are as close as possible to the words used disciplines
by the participants. Thirdly, field notes should include
27.7. FIELD RESEARCH ACROSS DIFFERENT DISCIPLINES 235
27.7.1 Anthropology part of biological science.

Animal migration tracking (including bird ring-
In anthropology, field research is organized so as to pro- ing/banding) is a frequently-used field technique,
duce a kind of writing called ethnography. Ethnog- allowing field scientists to track migration patterns and
raphy can refer to both a methodology and a product routes, and animal longevity in the wild. Knowledge
of research, namely a monograph or book. Ethnogra- about animal migrations is essential to accurately
phy is a grounded, inductive method that heavily relies determining the size and location of protected areas.
on participant-observation. Participant observation is a
structured type of research strategy. It is a widely used
methodology in many disciplines, particularly, cultural
27.7.4 Earth and atmospheric sciences
anthropology, but also sociology, communication stud-
ies, and social psychology. Its aim is to gain a close
In the Earth and atmospheric sciences, field research
and intimate familiarity with a given group of individuals
refers to field experiments (such as the VORTEX
(such as a religious, occupational, or sub cultural group,
projects) utilizing in situ instruments. Permanent obser-
or a particular community) and their practices through an
vation networks are also maintained for other uses but are
intensive involvement with people in their natural envi-
not necessarily considered field research, nor are perma-
ronment, usually over an extended period of time. The
nent remote sensing installations.
method originated in field work of social anthropolo-
gists, especially the students of Franz Boas in the United
States, and in the urban research of the Chicago School
of sociology.[7] 27.7.5 Economics
Traditional participant observation is usually undertaken The objective of field research in economics is to get be-
over an extended period of time, ranging from several neath the surface, to contrast observed behaviour with
months to many years, and even generations. An ex- the prevailing understanding of a process, and to relate
tended research time period means that the researcher language and description to behavior (e.g. Deirdre Mc-
is able to obtain more detailed and accurate information Closkey, 1985).
about the individuals, community, and/or population un-
der study. Observable details (like daily time allotment) The 2009 Nobel Prize Winners in Economics, namely,
and more hidden details (like taboo behavior) are more Elinor Ostrom and Oliver Williamson, have advocated
easily observed and interpreted over a longer period of mixed methods and complex approaches in economics
time. A strength of observation and interaction over ex- and hinted implicitly to the relevance of field research
tended periods of time is that researchers can discover approaches in economics.[8] In a recent interview Oliver
discrepancies between what participants say—and often Williamson and Elinor Ostrom discuss the importance of
believe—should happen (the formal system) and what ac- examining institutional contexts when performing eco-
tually does happen, or between different aspects of the nomic analyses.[9] Both Ostrom and Williamson agree
formal system; in contrast, a one-time survey of people’s that “top-down” panaceas or “cookie cutter” approaches
answers to a set of questions might be quite consistent, but to policy problems don’t work. They believe that poli-
is less likely to show conflicts between different aspects cymakers need to give local people a chance to shape
of the social system or between conscious representations the systems used to allocate resources and resolve dis-
and behavior. putes. Sometimes, Ostrom points out, local solutions can
be the most efficient and effective options. This is a point
of view that fits very well with anthropological research,
27.7.2 Archaeology which has for some time shown us the logic of local sys-
tems of knowledge — and the damage that can be done
Field research lies at the heart of archaeological research. when “solutions” to problems are imposed from outside
It may include the undertaking of broad area surveys (in- or above without adequate consultation. Elinor Ostrom,
cluding aerial surveys); of more localised site surveys (infor example, combines field case studies and experimen-
cluding photographic, drawn, and geophysical surveys, tal lab work in her research. Using this combination, she
and exercises such as fieldwalking); and of excavation. contested longstanding assumptions about the possibility
that groups of people could cooperate to solve common
pool problems (as opposed to being regulated by the state
27.7.3 Biology or governed by the market.[10]
Recently Swann (2008, pp. 3–5) argued that ‘’The only
In biology, field research typically involves studying way we can know something is by hearing what can be
of free-living wild animals in which the subjects are said about it by persons of every variety of opinion, and
observed in their natural habitat, without changing, harm- studying all modes in which it can be looked at by every
ing, or materially altering the setting or behavior of the character of mind’. If economist had followed Mill’s wise
animals under study. Field research is an indispensable advice, we would by now be making use of an extraor-
dinary repertoire of research methods in applied eco- sues several times, for short periods of time; he or she is
nomics, including the vernacular methods described in far from the traditional image of the individual who deals
this book’’.[11] with one problem at a time, in a calm and orderly fashion.
Edward J. Nell (1998) argued that there are two types Fourth, the manager acts as a focal point, an interface, or
of field research in economics. One kind can give us a an intersection between several series of actors in the or-
carefully drawn picture of institutions and practices, gen- ganization: external and internal environments, collabo-
eral in that it applies to all activities of a certain kind of rators, partners, superiors, subordinates, colleagues, and
particular society or social setting, but still specialized to so forth. He or she must constantly ensure, achieve, or fa-
cilitate interactions between all these categories of actors
that society or setting. Although institutions and practices
are intangibles, such a picture will be objective, a matter to allow the firm to function smoothly.’’
of fact, independent of the state of mind of the particu-
lar agents reported on. Approaching the economy from 27.7.8 Sociology
a different angle, another kind of fieldwork can give us a
picture of the state of mind of economic agents (their true Pierre Bourdieu played a crucial role in the popularization
motivations, their beliefs, state knowledge, expectations, of fieldwork in sociology. During the Algerian War in
their preferences and values).[12] 1958-1962, Bourdieu undertook ethnographic research
into the clash through a study of the Kabyle peoples, of
the Berbers laying the groundwork for his anthropolog-
27.7.6 Public health ical reputation. The result was his first book, Sociolo-
gie de L'Algerie (The Algerians), which was an immedi-
In public health the use of the term field research refers to
ate success in France and published in America in 1962.
epidemiology or the study of epidemics through the gath-
The book (‘’Algeria 1960: The Disenchantment of the
ering of data about the epidemic (such as the pathogen
World: The Sense of Honour: The Kabyle House or the
and vector(s) as well as social or sexual contacts, depend-
World Reversed: Essays’’), published in English in 1979
ing upon the situation).
by Cambridge University Press, established him as a ma-
jor figure in the field of ethnology and a pioneer advo-
cate scholar for more intensive fieldwork in social sci-
27.7.7 Management
ences. The book was based on his decade of work as
Mintzberg played a crucial role in the popularization of a participant-observer with the Algerian society. One
field research in management. The tremendous amount of the outstanding qualities of his work has been his in-
of work that Mintzberg put into the findings earned him novative combination of different methods and research
the title of leader of a new school of management, the strategies as well as his analytical skills in interpreting the
descriptive school, as opposed to the prescriptive and obtained data.
normative schools that preceded his work. The schools Throughout his career, Bourdieu sought to connect his
of thought derive from Taylor, Henri Fayol, Lyndall Ur- theoretical ideas with empirical research, grounded in ev-
wick, Herbert A. Simon, and others endeavored to pre- eryday life. His work can be seen as sociology of culture.
scribe and expound norms to show what managers must Bourdieu labeled it a “Theory of Practice”. His contri-
or should do. With the arrival of Mintzberg, the ques- butions to sociology were both empirical and theoreti-
tion was no longer what must or should be done, but what cal. His conceptual apparatus is based on three key terms,
a manager actually does during the day. More recently, namely, habitus, capital and field. Furthermore, Bourdieu
in his 2004 book Managers Not MBAs, Mintzberg ex- fiercely opposed Rational Choice Theory as grounded in a
amined what he believes to be wrong with management misunderstanding of how social agents operate. Bourdieu
education today. argued that social agents do not continuously calculate ac-
Aktouf (2006, p. 198) summed-up Mintzberg observa- cording to explicit rational and economic criteria. Ac-
tions about what takes place in the field:‘’First, the man- cording to Bourdieu, social agents operate according to
ager’s job is not ordered, continuous, and sequential, nor an implicit practical logic—a practical sense—and bod-
is it uniform or homogeneous. On the contrary, it is ily dispositions. Social agents act according to their “feel
fragmented, irregular, choppy, extremely changeable and for the game” (the “feel” being, roughly, habitus, and the
variable. This work is also marked by brevity: no sooner “game” being the field).
has a manager finished one activity than he or she is called Bourdieu’s anthropological work was focused on the anal-
up to jump to another, and this pattern continues nonstop. ysis of the mechanisms of reproduction of social hierar-
Second, the manager’s daily work is a not a series of self- chies. Bourdieu criticized the primacy given to the eco-
initiated, willful actions transformed into decisions, after nomic factors, and stressed that the capacity of social ac-
examining the circumstances. Rather, it is an unbroken tors to actively impose and engage their cultural produc-
series of reactions to all sorts of request that come from all tions and symbolic systems plays an essential role in the
around the manager, from both the internal and external reproduction of social structures of domination. Bour-
environments. Third, the manager deals with the same is- dieu’s empirical work played a crucial role in the popular-
27.9. BOOKS 237
ization of correspondence analysis and particularly ‘’Mul- 27.8.3 In management

tiple Correspondence Analysis.’’ Bourdieu held that these
geometric techniques of data analysis are, like his sociol- • Henry Mintzberg
ogy, inherently relational. In the preface to his book ‘’The
Craft of Sociology’’ Bourdieu argued that: “I use Corre-
spondence Analysis very much, because I think that it is 27.8.4 In economics
essentially a relational procedure whose philosophy fully
expresses what in my view constitutes social reality. It is • Truman Bewley
a procedure that 'thinks’ in relations, as I try to do it with
the concept of field.” • Alan Blinder
One of the classic ethnographies in Sociology is the book • Trygve Haavelmo

Ain't No Makin' It: Aspirations & Attainment in a Low-
Income Neighborhood by Jay MacLeod. The study ad- • John Johnston
dresses the reproduction of social inequality among low-
income, male teenagers. The researcher spent time study- • Lawrence Klein
ing two groups of teenagers in a housing project in a
• Wassily Leontief
Northeastern city of the United States. The study con-
cludes that three different levels of analysis play their part • Edward J. Nell
in the reproduction of social inequality: the individual,
the cultural, and the structural.[13] • Robert M. Townsend
27.8 Famous field-workers 27.8.5 In music

• Alan Lomax
27.8.1 In anthropology
• John Peel (with his Peel Sessions)
• Georg Forster - ethnographer (1772–1775) to Cap-
tain James Cook • Vincent Moon (with his Take-Away Shows)
• Napoleon Chagnon - ethnographer of the

Yanomamö people of the Amazon
27.9 Books
• Renato Rosaldo
• Victor Turner • Abu‐Lughod, Lila (1988). “Fieldwork of a dutiful

daughter.” In S. Altorki & C. Fawzi El-Solh (Eds.),
• Margaret Mead Arab Women in the Field: Studying Your Own So-
ciety. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.
• Colin Turnbull
• Akbar S. Ahmed (1984), “Al-Beruni: The First An-
• Clifford Geertz thropologist”, RAIN 60: 9-10
• Bronislaw Malinowski
• Akerlof, G. A and Shiller, R. J. (2009) Animal Spir-
• Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown its: How Human Psychology Drives the Economy,
and Why it Matters for Global Capitalism. Prince-
• W.H.R. Rivers ton University Press.
• Alfred Cort Haddon • Aktouf, O. (2006) Le Management entre tradition
et renouvellement. Montréal : Gaétan Morin
• Claude Lévi-Strauss
• Andrews, P.W.S (1949). Manufacturing Business.
London: Macmillan.
27.8.2 In sociology
• Bewley, T. (1999) Why Wages Don’t Fall during a
• William Foote Whyte Recession? Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University
• Erving Goffman Press.
• Pierre Bourdieu • Blinder, A. (1998) Asking About Prices: A New

Approach to Understanding Price Stickiness. Rus-
• Harriet Martineau sell Sage Foundation
• Bourdieu, P. (1979) Algeria 1960: The Disenchant- • Evans-Pritchard, E. E. (1940) The Nuer, a descrip-
ment of the World: The Sense of Honour: The tion of the modes livelihood and political institutions
Kabyle House or the World Reversed: Essays. Cam- of a Nilotic people. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
bridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Douglas, J.D. (1976). Investigative Social Research.
• Bourdieu, P. (1979) The Inheritors: French Stu- Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.
dents and Their Relations to Culture, University of
Chicago Press. • Glaser, Barney G., and Anselm L. Strauss (1967)
The Discovery of Grounded Theory: strategies for
• Bourdieu, P. (1977). Outline of a Theory of Prac- qualitative research. Chicago: Aldine.
tice, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Haavelmo, T. (1958)"The Role of the Econome-
• Bourdieu, P (1984) Distinction: a Social Critique of trician in the Advancement of Economic Theory.”
the Judgment of Taste. Harvard University Press. Econometrica 26,351-35.
• Bourdieu, P. (1990). Homo Academicus, Polity, • Helper, S. (2000) ‘’ Economics and Field Research:
You can Observe a Lot Just by Watching.’’ American
• Bourdieu, P. and Passeron, J. C (1990) Reproduc- Economic Review Papers and Proceedings 90, 228-
tion in Education, Society and Culture (Theory, 32.
Culture and Society Series), Sage.
• Ho, K. (2009) on “Liquidated: An Ethnography of
• Bourdieu, P. (1991) Language and Symbolic Power, Wall Street. Durham and London: Duke University
Harvard University Press 1991. Press.
• Bourdieu, P. (1991) The Political Ontology of Mar- • Jarvie, I. C. (1967) On Theories of Fieldwork and
tin Heidegger, Polity. the Scientific Character of Social Anthropology,
Philosophy of Science, Vol. 34, No. 3 (Sep., 1967),
• Bourdieu, P. (1991) The Love of Art: European pp. 223-242.
Art Museums and Their Public, Stanford University
Press. • Kaminski, M. M ( 2004). Games Prisoners Play.
Princeton University Press. I
• Bourdieu, P. (1991) Language & Symbolic Power,
Harvard University Press, • Klein, L. R. (1982) “Economic Theoretic Restric-
tions in Econometrics.” In Evaluation the Reliability
• Bourdieu, P. and Wacquant, L. (1992) An Invitation of Macroeconomic Models. Edited by G.C. Chow
to Reflexive Sociology University of Chicago Press. and P. Corsi. New York: Willey.
• Bourdieu, P. and Monique De Saint Martin, M., • Malinowski, Bronisław (1929) The sexual life of
Jean-Claude Passeron, J.C. (1996) Academic Dis- savages in north-western Melanesia: an ethno-
course: Linguistic Misunderstanding and Professo- graphic account of courtship, marriage and fam-
rial Power, Polity. ily life among the natives of the Trobriand Islands,
British New Guinea. New York: Halcyon House.
• Bourdieu, P (1998) Practical Reason: On the The-
ory of Action, Stanford University Press. • Mead, M. (1928) Coming of age in Samoa: a
psychological study of primitive youth for Western
• Bourdieu, P (1998) State nobility: Elite Schools in civilisation. New York: William Morrow & Co.
the Field of Power, Polity.
• Mintzberg, H. (1973) The Nature of Managerial
• Bourdieu, P (1999) Weight of the World: Social Work.Harpercollins College Div
Suffering in Contemporary Society, Polity.
• Mintzberg, H. (2004) Managers Not MBAs: A Hard
• Bourdieu, P (1999) Acts of Resistance: Against the Look at the Soft Practice of Managing and Manage-
Tyranny of the Market, New Press. ment Development. Berrett-Koehler Publishers.
• Bourdieu, P (2000) Pascalian Meditations, Polity. • Mintzberg, H. (2011)Managing. Berrett-Koehler
Publishers.
• Bourdieu, P. (2005)The Social Structures of the
Economy. Polity. • Nell, E. J. (1988) Prosperity and Public Spending:
Transformational Growth and the Role of the State,
• Cohen, Nissim & Arieli, Tamar (2011) "Field re- London, UK: Unwin and Hyman.
search in conflict environments: Methodological
challenges and the snowball sampling" Journal of • Nell, E. J. (1992) Transformational Growth and Ef-
Peace Research 48 (4): 423-436. fective Demand, London, UK: Macmillan.
• Nell, E. J. (1996) Making Sense of a Changing [2] Burgress, Robert, ibid. at 12-13.
Economy. London and New York: Routledge.
[3] Emerson, R. M., Fretz, R. I., & Shaw, L. L. (2001). “Par-
• Nell, E. J. (1998) The General Theory of Transfor- ticipant Observation and Fieldnotes.” In Paul Atkinson,
mational Growth. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Uni- Amanda Coffey, Sara Delamont, John Lofland, & Lyn
versity Press. Lofland (Eds.), Handbook of Ethnography. pp: 356-357.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
• Nell, E. J. (1998) Transformational Growth and the
[4] DeWalt, K. M., DeWalt, B. R. (2011). Participant Obser-
Business Cycle, London, UK: Routledge. vation. pp: 165-168. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.
• Nell, E.J and Errouaki, K. (2008) ‘’Conceptual [5] Sanjek, Roger. (1990). “A Vocabulary for Fieldnotes.” In
Analysis, Fieldwork and Model Specification: Lay- Roger Sanjek (Ed.), Fieldnotes: The Makings of Anthro-
ing Down the Blueprints for a Klein-Nell Model,’’ pology. pp: 108. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
MS. The New School, NY.
[6] Malinowski, Bronislaw (1967). A Diary in the Strict Sense
• Nell, E. J. and Errouaki, K. (2012) Rational Econo- of the Term. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World.
metric Man: Transforming Structural Economet-
[7] A variant of participant observation is observing partici-
rics, Cheltenham, UK and Northampton, USA: E.
pation, described by Kaminski, who explored prison sub-
Elgar. culture as a political prisoner in communist Poland in
1985.
• Nell, E. J. and Errouaki, K. (2012) Hard Drugs and
Easy Money. Forthcoming [8] see http://newlegalrealism.wordpress.com/tag/
fieldwork/. Posted on October 31, 2011.
• Renato, R. (1986) “From the door of his tent: the
fieldworker and the inquisitor,” in Writing culture: [9] There is a nice exchange toward the end about how much
the poetics and politics of ethnography. Edited by J. economists will miss if they ignore the knowledge offered
Clifford and G. E. Marcus. Berkeley, CA: Univer- by scholars in other fields. http://www.nobelprize.org/
sity of California Press. mediaplayer/index.php?id=1223&view=1.
• Rice, T et al. (2004), ‘Future fields: introduction ‘. [10] See her Nobel Prize presentation at: http:
//www.nobelprize.org/mediaplayer/index.php?id=
Anthropology Matters Journal, Vol 6 (2).
1223&view=1.
• Swann, P.G.M (2008) Putting Econometrics in its [11] For further details see Nell and Errouaki (2012, Ch. 10).
Place, Cheltenham, UK, E. Elgar.
[12] For further details see Nell (1998, Part II).
• Townsend, Sakunthasathien, and Jordan, (2013)
Chronicles from the Field: The Townsend Thai [13] MacLeod, Jay. (1995). Ain't No Makin' It: Aspirations
Project, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. & Attainment in a Low-Income Neighborhood. pp: 253.
Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
• Udry, Ch. (2003), ‘Fieldwork, Economic Theory
and Research on Institutions in Developing Coun-
tries’, UM, Department of Economics, Yale Univer-
sity, New Haven, CT.
• Whyte, W. F. (1955) Street Corner Society.

Chicago: Chicago University Press.
27.10 See also

• Participant observation
• Public Health Advisor
• Wildlife observation
27.11 References
[1] Burgess, Robert G., In the Field: An Introduction to Field
Research (Hemel Hempstead, U.K.: George Allen & Un-
win, 1984) at 1.
Chapter 28
Inference
Inferences are steps in reasoning, moving from premises 28.2.1 Example for definition #1
to conclusions. Charles Sanders Peirce divided inference
into three kinds: deduction, induction, and abduction. Ancient Greek philosophers defined a number of
Deduction is inference deriving logical conclusions from syllogisms, correct three part inferences, that can be used
premises known or assumed to be true,[1] with the laws of as building blocks for more complex reasoning. We begin
valid inference being studied in logic. Induction is infer- with a famous example:
ence from particular premises to a universal conclusion.
Abduction is inference to the best explanation. 1. All humans are mortal.
Human inference (i.e. how humans draw conclusions) is
traditionally studied within the field of cognitive psychol- 2. All Greeks are humans.
ogy; artificial intelligence researchers develop automated 3. All Greeks are mortal.
inference systems to emulate human inference.
Statistical inference uses mathematics to draw conclu- The reader can check that the premises and conclusion
sions in the presence of uncertainty. This generalizes de- are true, but logic is concerned with inference: does the
terministic reasoning, with the absence of uncertainty as truth of the conclusion follow from that of the premises?
a special case. Statistical inference uses quantitative or
qualitative (categorical) data which may be subject to ran- The validity of an inference depends on the form of the
dom variations. inference. That is, the word “valid” does not refer to the
truth of the premises or the conclusion, but rather to the
form of the inference. An inference can be valid even if
the parts are false, and can be invalid even if some parts
28.1 Definition are true. But a valid form with true premises will always
have a true conclusion.
The process by which a conclusion is inferred from mul- For example, consider the form of the following
tiple observations is called inductive reasoning. The con- symbological track:
clusion may be correct or incorrect, or correct to within
a certain degree of accuracy, or correct in certain situ- 1. All meat comes from animals.
ations. Conclusions inferred from multiple observations
may be tested by additional observations. 2. All beef is meat.
This definition is disputable (due to its lack of clarity. 3. Therefore, all beef comes from animals.
Ref: Oxford English dictionary: “induction ... 3. Logic
the inference of a general law from particular instances.”
) The definition given thus applies only when the “con- If the premises are true, then the conclusion is necessarily
clusion” is general. true, too.
Two possible definitions of “inference” are: Now we turn to an invalid form.
1. A conclusion reached on the basis of evidence and

reasoning. 1. All A are B.
2. The process of reaching such a conclusion. 2. All C are B.
3. Therefore, all C are A.
28.2 Examples To show that this form is invalid, we demonstrate how it

can lead from true premises to a false conclusion.
240
28.3. INCORRECT INFERENCE 241
1. All apples are fruit. (True) 28.3 Incorrect inference

2. All bananas are fruit. (True)
An incorrect inference is known as a fallacy. Philoso-
3. Therefore, all bananas are apples. (False) phers who study informal logic have compiled large lists
of them, and cognitive psychologists have documented
A valid argument with a false premise may lead to a false many biases in human reasoning that favor incorrect rea-
conclusion, (this and the following examples do not follow soning.
the Greek syllogism):
1. All tall people are French. (False)

2. John Lennon was tall. (True)
28.4 Applications
3. Therefore, John Lennon was French. (False)
28.4.1 Inference engines
When a valid argument is used to derive a false conclu-
sion from a false premise, the inference is valid because Main articles: Reasoning system, Inference engine,
it follows the form of a correct inference. expert system, and business rule engine
A valid argument can also be used to derive a true con-

clusion from a false premise: AI systems first provided automated logical inference and
these were once extremely popular research topics, lead-
1. All tall people are musicians. (Valid, False) ing to industrial applications under the form of expert sys-
tems and later business rule engines. More recent work
2. John Lennon was tall. (Valid, True) on automated theorem proving has had a stronger basis in
3. Therefore, John Lennon was a musician. (Valid, formal logic.
True) An inference system’s job is to extend a knowledge base
automatically. The knowledge base (KB) is a set of
In this case we have one false premise and one true propositions that represent what the system knows about
premise where a true conclusion has been inferred. the world. Several techniques can be used by that system
to extend KB by means of valid inferences. An additional
requirement is that the conclusions the system arrives at
28.2.2 Example for definition #2
are relevant to its task.
Evidence: It is the early 1950s and you are an American
stationed in the Soviet Union. You read in the Moscow
Prolog engine
newspaper that a soccer team from a small city in Siberia
starts winning game after game. The team even defeats
Prolog (for “Programming in Logic”) is a programming
the Moscow team. Inference: The small city in Siberia
language based on a subset of predicate calculus. Its main
is not a small city anymore. The Soviets are working on
job is to check whether a certain proposition can be in-
their own nuclear or high-value secret weapons program.
ferred from a KB (knowledge base) using an algorithm
Knowns: The Soviet Union is a command economy: peo- called backward chaining.
ple and material are told where to go and what to do. The
Let us return to our Socrates syllogism. We enter into our
small city was remote and historically had never distin-
Knowledge Base the following piece of code:
guished itself; its soccer season was typically short be-
cause of the weather. mortal(X) :- man(X). man(socrates).
Explanation: In a command economy, people and ma- ( Here :- can be read as “if”. Generally, if P Q (if P then
terial are moved where they are needed. Large cities Q) then in Prolog we would code Q:-P (Q if P).)
might field good teams due to the greater availability of This states that all men are mortal and that Socrates is a
high quality players; and teams that can practice longer man. Now we can ask the Prolog system about Socrates:
(weather, facilities) can reasonably be expected to be bet- ?- mortal(socrates).
ter. In addition, you put your best and brightest in places
where they can do the most good—such as on high-value (where ?- signifies a query: Can mortal(socrates). be
weapons programs. It is an anomaly for a small city to deduced from the KB using the rules) gives the answer
field such a good team. The anomaly (i.e. the soccer “Yes”.
scores and great soccer team) indirectly described a con- On the other hand, asking the Prolog system the follow-
dition by which the observer inferred a new meaningful ing:
pattern—that the small city was no longer small. Why
would you put a large city of your best and brightest in ?- mortal(plato).
the middle of nowhere? To hide them, of course. gives the answer “No”.
242 CHAPTER 28. INFERENCE
This is because Prolog does not know anything about tive inference is monotonic: if a conclusion is reached on
Plato, and hence defaults to any property about Plato be- the basis of a certain set of premises, then that conclusion
ing false (the so-called closed world assumption). Finally still holds if more premises are added.
?- mortal(X) (Is anything mortal) would result in “Yes” By contrast, everyday reasoning is mostly non-monotonic
(and in some implementations: “Yes": X=socrates) because it involves risk: we jump to conclusions from
Prolog can be used for vastly more complicated inference deductively insufficient premises. We know when it is
tasks. See the corresponding article for further examples.
worth or even necessary (e.g. in medical diagnosis) to
take the risk. Yet we are also aware that such inference
is defeasible—that new information may undermine old
28.4.2 Semantic web
conclusions. Various kinds of defeasible but remarkably
Recently automatic reasoners found in semantic web a successful inference have traditionally captured the atten-
new field of application. Being based upon description tion of philosophers (theories of induction, Peirce’s the-
logic, knowledge expressed using one variant of OWL ory of abduction, inference to the best explanation, etc.).
can be logically processed, i.e., inferences can be made More recently logicians have begun to approach the phe-
upon it. nomenon from a formal point of view. The result is a large
body of theories at the interface of philosophy, logic and
artificial intelligence.
28.4.3 Bayesian statistics and probability
logic
28.5 See also
Main article: Bayesian inference
• Reasoning
Philosophers and scientists who follow the Bayesian
framework for inference use the mathematical rules of • Abductive reasoning
probability to find this best explanation. The Bayesian • Deductive reasoning
view has a number of desirable features—one of them is
that it embeds deductive (certain) logic as a subset (this • Inductive reasoning
prompts some writers to call Bayesian probability “prob-
ability logic”, following E. T. Jaynes). • Entailment
Bayesian’s identify probabilities with degrees of beliefs, • Epilogism
with certainly true propositions having probability 1, and
certainly false propositions having probability 0. To say • Analogy
that “it’s going to rain tomorrow” has a 0.9 probability is
to say that you consider the possibility of rain tomorrow • Axiom system
as extremely likely.
• Axiom
Through the rules of probability, the probability of a con-
clusion and of alternatives can be calculated. The best ex-
• Immediate inference
planation is most often identified with the most probable
(see Bayesian decision theory). A central rule of Bayesian • Inferential programming
inference is Bayes’ theorem.
• Inquiry
28.4.4 Fuzzy logic • Logic
Main article: Fuzzy logic • Logic of information
• Logical assertion
28.4.5 Non-monotonic logic • Logical graph
Main article: Non-monotonic logic • Rule of inference
[2] • List of rules of inference
A relation of inference is monotonic if the addition of • Theorem

premises does not undermine previously reached conclu-
sions; otherwise the relation is non-monotonic. Deduc- • Transduction (machine learning)
28.6 References Abductive inference:
[1] http://www.thefreedictionary.com/inference • O'Rourke, P.; Josephson, J., eds. (1997). Auto-

[2] Fuhrmann, André. Nonmonotonic Logic (PDF). Archived
mated abduction: Inference to the best explanation.
from the original (PDF) on 9 December 2003. AAAI Press.
• Psillos, Stathis (2009). Gabbay, Dov M.; Hartmann,

Stephan; Woods, John, eds. An Explorer upon Un-
28.7 Further reading trodden Ground: Peirce on Abduction (PDF). Hand-
book of the History of Logic. 10. Elsevier. pp.
• Hacking, Ian (2011). An Introduction to Probability 117–152.
and Inductive Logic. Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 0-521-77501-9. • Ray, Oliver (Dec 2005). Hybrid Abductive Inductive
Learning (Ph.D.). University of London, Imperial
• Jaynes, Edwin Thompson (2003). Probability The- College. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.66.1877 .
ory: The Logic of Science. Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 0-521-59271-2.
Psychological investigations about human reasoning:
• McKay, David J.C. (2003). Information Theory, In-
ference, and Learning Algorithms. Cambridge Uni- • deductive:
• Johnson-Laird, Philip Nicholas; Byrne, Ruth
• Russell, Stuart J.; Norvig, Peter (2003), Artificial M. J. (1992). Deduction. Erlbaum.
Intelligence: A Modern Approach (2nd ed.), Upper
• Byrne, Ruth M. J.; Johnson-Laird, P.
Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-
N. (2009). ""If” and the Problems of
13-790395-2
Conditional Reasoning” (PDF). Trends
• Tijms, Henk (2004). Understanding Probability. in Cognitive Science. 13 (7): 282–287.
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-70172-4. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2009.04.003.
• Knauff, Markus; Fangmeier, Thomas;
Inductive inference: Ruff, Christian C.; Johnson-Laird, P. N.
(2003). “Reasoning, Models, and Im-
• Carnap, Rudolf; Jeffrey, Richard C., eds. (1971). ages: Behavioral Measures and Cortical
Studies in Inductive Logic and Probability. 1. The Activity” (PDF). Journal of Cognitive Neuro-
University of California Press. science. 15 (4): 559–573. PMID 12803967.
doi:10.1162/089892903321662949.
• Jeffrey, Richard C., ed. (1979). Studies in Inductive • Johnson-Laird, Philip N. (1995). Gazzaniga,
Logic and Probability. 2. The University of Califor- M. S., ed. Mental Models, Deductive Reason-
nia Press. ing, and the Brain (PDF). MIT Press. pp.
• Angluin, Dana (1976). An Application of the Theory 999–1008.
of Computational Complexity to the Study of Induc- • Khemlani, Sangeet; Johnson-Laird, P. N.
tive Inference (Ph.D.). University of California at (2008). “Illusory Inferences about Embedded
Berkeley. Disjunctions”. Proceedings of the 30th An-
nual Conference of the Cognitive Science Soci-
• Angluin, Dana (1980). “Inductive Inference ety. Washington/DC (PDF). pp. 2128–2133.
of Formal Languages from Positive Data”
(PDF). Information and Control. 45: 117–135. • statistical:
doi:10.1016/s0019-9958(80)90285-5.
• McCloy, Rachel; Byrne, Ruth M. J.; Johnson-
• Angluin, Dana; Smith, Carl H. (Sep 1983). Laird, Philip N. (2009). “Understanding Cu-
“Inductive Inference: Theory and Methods” mulative Risk” (PDF). The Quarterly Jour-
(PDF). Computing Surveys. 15 (3): 237–269. nal of Experimental Psychology. 63: 18.
doi:10.1145/356914.356918. doi:10.1080/17470210903024784.
• Gabbay, Dov M.; Hartmann, Stephan; Woods, John, • Johnson-Laird, Philip N. (1994). “Mental
eds. (2009). Inductive Logic. Handbook of the His- Models and Probabilistic Thinking” (PDF).
tory of Logic. 10. Elsevier. Cognition. 50: 189–209. doi:10.1016/0010-
0277(94)90028-0.,
• Goodman, Nelson (1973). Fact, Fiction, and Fore-
cast. Bobbs-Merrill Co. Inc. • analogical:
244 CHAPTER 28. INFERENCE
• Burns, B. D. (1996). “Meta-Analogical Trans-

fer: Transfer Between Episodes of Analog-
ical Reasoning”. Journal of Experimental
Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cogni-
tion. 22 (4): 1032–1048. doi:10.1037/0278-
7393.22.4.1032.
• spatial:
• Jahn, Georg; Knauff, Markus; Johnson-Laird,

P. N. (2007). “Preferred mental models
in reasoning about spatial relations” (PDF).
Memory & Cognition. 35 (8): 2075–2087.
doi:10.3758/bf03192939.
• Knauff, Markus; Johnson-Laird, P. N.
(2002). “Visual imagery can impede reason-
ing” (PDF). Memory & Cognition. 30 (3):
363–371. doi:10.3758/bf03194937.
• Waltz, James A.; Knowlton, Barbara J.;
Holyoak, Keith J.; Boone, Kyle B.; Mishkin,
Fred S.; de Menezes Santos, Marcia; Thomas,
Carmen R.; Miller, Bruce L. (Mar 1999). “A
System for Relational Reasoning in Human
Prefrontal Cortex” (PDF). Psychological Sci-
ence. 10 (2): 119–125. doi:10.1111/1467-
9280.00118.
• moral:
• Bucciarelli, Monica; Khemlani, Sangeet;
Johnson-Laird, P. N. (Feb 2008). “The Psy-
chology of Moral Reasoning” (PDF). Judg-
ment and Decision Making. 3 (2): 121–139.
28.8 External links

• Inference at PhilPapers
• Infenrece example and definition
• Inference at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology

Project
Chapter 29
Statement (logic)
In logic, a statement is either (a) a meaningful declarative The first two examples are not declarative sentences and
sentence that is either true or false, or (b) that which a true therefore are not (or do not make) statements. The third
or false declarative sentence asserts. In the latter case, a and fourth are declarative sentences but, lacking mean-
statement is distinct from a sentence in that a sentence is ing, are neither true nor false and therefore are not (or do
only one formulation of a statement, whereas there may not make) statements. The fifth and sixth examples are
be many other formulations expressing the same state- meaningful declarative sentences, but are not statements
ment. but rather matters of opinion or taste. Whether or not the
sentence “Pegasus exists.” is a statement is a subject of
debate among philosophers. Bertrand Russell held that it
29.1 Overview is a (false) statement. Strawson held it is not a statement
at all.
Philosopher of language, Peter Strawson advocated the

use of the term “statement” in sense (b) in preference
to proposition. Strawson used the term “Statement” to 29.2 As an abstract entity
make the point that two declarative sentences can make
the same statement if they say the same thing in different In some treatments “statement” is introduced in order to
ways. Thus in the usage advocated by Strawson, “All men distinguish a sentence from its informational content. A
are mortal.” and “Every man is mortal.” are two different statement is regarded as the information content of an
sentences that make the same statement. information-bearing sentence. Thus, a sentence is related
In either case a statement is viewed as a truth bearer. to the statement it bears like a numeral to the number it
refers to. Statements are abstract logical entities, while
Examples of sentences that are (or make) statements:
sentences are grammatical entities.[1][2]
• “Socrates is a man.”
• “A triangle has three sides.” 29.3 See also

• “Madrid is the capital of Spain.”
• Claim (logic)
Examples of sentences that are not (or do not make) state- • Sentence (mathematical logic)
ments:
• Belief
• “Who are you?"
• Concept
• “Run!"
• Truthbearer - Statements
• “Greenness perambulates.”
• “I had one grunch but the eggplant over there.”

29.4 Notes
• “The King of France is wise.”
• “Broccoli tastes good.” [1] Rouse
• “Pegasus exists.” [2] Ruzsa 2000, p. 16
245
246 CHAPTER 29. STATEMENT (LOGIC)
29.5 References
• A. G. Hamilton, Logic for Mathematicians, Cam-
bridge University Press, 1980, ISBN 0-521-29291-
3.
• Rouse, David L., “Sentences, Statements and Ar-

guments”, A Practical Introduction to Formal Logic.
(PDF)
• Ruzsa, Imre (2000), Bevezetés a modern logikába,

Osiris tankönyvek, Budapest: Osiris, ISBN 963-
379-978-3
• Xenakis, Jason (1956). “Sentence and Statement:
Prof. Quine on Mr. Strawson”. Analysis. 16
(4): 91–4. ISSN 1467-8284. JSTOR 3326478.
doi:10.2307/3326478 – via JSTOR. (Registration
required (help)).
• Peter Millican, “Statements and Modal-

ity: Strawson, Quine and Wolfram”,
http://philpapers.org/rec/MILSAM-2/
• P. F. Strawson, “On Referring” in Mind,
Vol 59 No 235 (Jul 1950) P. F. Strawson
(http://www.sol.lu.se/common/courses/LINC04/
VT2010/Strawson1950.pdf/)
29.6. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 247
29.6 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

29.6.1 Text
• Theory Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory?oldid=799599559 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Mav, The Anome, Tbackstr, Slruben-
stein, Ed Poor, XJaM, Fubar Obfusco, SimonP, Ark~enwiki, Youandme, Edward, Lorenzarius, Boud, Michael Hardy, Fuzzie, Cyde,
Yann, Stib, Alfio, Ellywa, Ams80, ThirdParty, Snoyes, Angela, Den fjättrade ankan~enwiki, Glenn, Tim Retout, Andres, Med, Pizza Puz-
zle, Ideyal, Disdero, Ec5618, Reddi, Deselms, Lord Kenneth, Haukurth, Markhurd, Marshman, Freechild, Furrykef, Fairandbalanced,
Bevo, Rbellin, Cncs wikipedia, Twang, Cosmicstargoat, Robbot, Bkalafut, Romanm, Modulatum, Academic Challenger, Pcr, Jimduck,
Pengo, Morimom, Ancheta Wis, Decumanus, Giftlite, DocWatson42, Gtrmp, 0x0077BE, Wolfkeeper, Nunh-huh, Tom harrison, Fast-
fission, Everyking, FeloniousMonk, Bensaccount, Robert Weemeyer, FrYGuY, Slyguy, Eequor, Gadfium, SoWhy, Alexf, Gdm, Quadell,
Antandrus, Loremaster, Piotrus, Vina, Karol Langner, CSTAR, Salvadors, Neutrality, Joyous!, Robin klein, Klemen Kocjancic, Demiurge,
Esperant, Brianjd, Rfl, DanielCD, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Vsmith, Smyth, Dave souza, Prateep, Dbachmann, SpookyMulder,
Goplat, Brian0918, El C, Rgdboer, PhilHibbs, RoyBoy, Peter M Gerdes, Kaveh, Bobo192, JonGwynne, Cmdrjameson, 9SGjOSfyH-
JaQVsEmy9NS, La goutte de pluie, Pschemp, Pharos, Espoo, Jumbuck, Alansohn, Truth seeker, Davorj, Stack, Sobolewski, DonQuixote,
Tm1000, April Arcus, Saxifrage, Einst3, Oleg Alexandrov, Mindmatrix, Munificent, Ruud Koot, MGTom, MONGO, Jwanders, Table-
top, JRHorse, Waldir, Stefanomione, Furukama, Marudubshinki, Dysepsion, Graham87, Magister Mathematicae, Ilya, BD2412, Rjwilmsi,
Captain Disdain, Salix alba, The wub, Matt Deres, Sango123, FlaBot, Kristjan Wager, Mathbot, Jagginess, M7bot, Chobot, Phantym, Jared
Preston, DVdm, Gwernol, UkPaolo, YurikBot, Hairy Dude, RussBot, Groogle, Stephenb, Rsrikanth05, KSchutte, Colin B, Friday, Wiki alf,
Robertvan1, Jaxl, Trovatore, Janarius, Equilibrial, Irishguy, Ragesoss, Anetode, DAJF, Jpbowen, Emersoni, Dbfirs, Jerome Kelly, Maunus,
Enormousdude, Andrew Lancaster, RG2, Evolver, DVD R W, SmackBot, Mholden, Ramdrake, Bomac, Chairman S., Gilliam, CKA3KA,
Dlohcierekim’s sock, DHN-bot~enwiki, Colonies Chris, Nicknitro71, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, TheGerm, Zazpot, Spencerhopper,
Makemi, IrisKawling, Akriasas, LoveMonkey, Weregerbil, Jon Awbrey, DMacks, Thorsen, Jugbo, Vina-iwbot~enwiki, Ck lostsword, Will
Beback, Byelf2007, Warrior2, SashatoBot, SS2005, Linnell, This user has left wikipedia, JorisvS, Jim.belk, Tangerinechomsky, Lexiken,
Dr Greg, Robertmagdaleno, MTSbot~enwiki, Peyre, Levineps, B7T, K, Sander Säde, V111P, CapitalR, Cheeesemonger, George100,
Dan1679, Harold f, Sabina F, CRGreathouse, Heinous~enwiki, SerenadeOp24, Makeemlighter, McVities, Rowellcf, Fordmadoxfraud,
Oo7565, Gregbard, Nauticashades, Cydebot, Peterdjones, Gogo Dodo, Joanna Bryson, Sp, Rocket000, Letranova, Thijs!bot, Epbr123,
Orchard-garden, Martin Hogbin, Mojo Hand, Marek69, John254, Azymuthca, Monkeykiss, Escarbot, AntiVandalBot, Gdo01, Joebb,
SkoreKeep, Phil153, MikeLynch, JAnDbot, MER-C, 100110100, Greensburger, TAnthony, PhilKnight, Roidroid, Reswik, Magioladi-
tis, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, JamesBWatson, CTF83!, Ajphctp46, Aka042, Snowded, Master5086, Adrian J. Hunter, Grunton, Roci-
nante9x, DerHexer, Edward321, Docwiki~enwiki, Xtifr, NatureA16, The Gonz, Byronsharp, MartinBot, Theron110, Katiehope, R'n'B,
KTo288, Mausy5043, AlphaEta, J.delanoy, Filll, R. Baley, Missricketts, Maurice Carbonaro, Nigholith, Cpiral, Dispenser, Amali1999,
Mikael Häggström, Gurchzilla, Carl 2k6, SJP, Juliancolton, Burzmali, Merzul, Bonadea, Useight, Idioma-bot, Funandtrvl, Landrumkelly,
Wikieditor06, Thedjatclubrock, Keikoh, Philip Trueman, Oshwah, Ldonna, Jacob Lundberg, Kidnotkidding, Corvus cornix, Abdullais4u,
Noformation, Spintendo, BotKung, Natg 19, Anarchangel, JoeTorres, Wolfrock, Synthebot, Df747jet, Lova Falk, Laurinaaaaa, Dmcq,
AlleborgoBot, Logan, EmxBot, Bobbyknight, SieBot, Hiponie2, Caltas, Pastaturbo, RJaguar3, Bamkin, LeadSongDog, Nmviw, Zbvhs,
Happysailor, Newepoch, Ken Wildman, Oxymoron83, Edwardwittenstein, Lightmouse, Techman224, Sanya3, RyanParis, Sunrise, Mattm-
nelson, Scottyoak2, Anchor Link Bot, Superjova, Mx. Granger, Laburke, Amotoki~enwiki, Elassint, ClueBot, Bobvq, T.Neo, Yiannis vet,
Mess with the best fall like the rest, Heckeler, Polyamorph, Hellounable, Boing! said Zebedee, AikBkj, Cphighkid, CohesionBot, Jusdafax,
Madsalty, Tamaratrouts, Ludwigs2, Jerry Zhang, BirgerH, Atomic49er, Hans Adler, Razorflame, Hazzzzzz12, Calrosfing, Mikaey, Rogue-
leader080, Environnement2100, La Pianista, Thingg, Aitias, Biothoughts, Versus22, Alousybum, Riversider2008, Editor2020, Vanished
User 1004, Ps07swt, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, Saeed.Veradi, WikHead, NellieBly, Dnvrfantj, Zoosnake, Dtolo, Tayste, Tyrftg, Addbot,
Thisisyourwayout, Draco 2k, EjsBot, Tanhabot, Ronhjones, Leszek Jańczuk, Buster7, Glane23, Margaret9mary, Favonian, Stiaand, Guffy-
drawers, CuteHappyBrute, Numbo3-bot, Tide rolls, BUstudent, Zorrobot, ScienceApe, Adam441997, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Fraggle81, II
MusLiM HyBRiD II, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Beeswaxcandle, Soiregistered, Gunnar Hendrich, Tempodivalse, Synchronism, Back-
slash Forwardslash, Thesublime514, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, IRP, Ulric1313, Materialscientist, Azxdtheprof, Another Stickler, Maxis ftw,
Xqbot, Capricorn42, Nasnema, MrsHudson, Theendofgravity, Srich32977, RadiX, Samir134, ChristopherKingChemist, Miesianiacal,
StealthCopyEditor, Omnipaedista, Under22Entreprenuer, Waleswatcher, Cynko, Abuk SABUK, Erik9, FrescoBot, VS6507, Xttina.Garnet,
Chemandkaty, Redrose64, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Vicenarian, HRoestBot, 10metreh, Yahia.barie, Jaguar, Henry P-F, Reconsider
the static, TobeBot, Collectimatic, Dinamik-bot, LilyKitty, Duoduoduo, L8r1234, Jeffrd10, Brambleclawx, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Obsidian
Soul, TjBot, TheArguer, Munir bazzi, Salvio giuliano, Tazwillson, EmausBot, Sophie, DIDARUL HASAN, Faolin42, IncognitoErgoSum,
Sammyh430, Wikipelli, Solomonfromfinland, Kp grewal, ZéroBot, Jargoness, John Cline, Daonguyen95, StinkyCheddar, Kioko10, Je-
sanj, Brandmeister, L Kensington, Regiorgio, ChuispastonBot, RockMagnetist, ClueBot NG, Jack Greenmaven, Serranopoint, Wcherowi,
Frietjes, WikiPuppies, Joe812rocks, WNYY98, BG19bot, Wiki13, Thumani Mabwe, Davidiad, Marcocapelle, Praefulgidus, Morning Sun-
shine, Gibbja, Lvithn, Ema--or, Mirchuuuu, Anzjoy, ~riley, Pratyya Ghosh, Anonymous014, Mmn12083998, Jared147911, Cyberbot II,
Uday.gautam6, Mawgg, EuroCarGT, JYBot, Davidlwinkler, SirContributor, Frosty, Kaelab3, Jmikkila, Epicgenius, Spencer.mccormick,
Wolfboy6789, Wuzh, DavidLeighEllis, Throughme, Itc editor2, Ugog Nizdast, Jwratner1, TGUSAGI, Jeanette.elley, Dodi 8238, Patient
Zero, Augustine 2014, Bobbiosle, Awesometacodude, Geebee0000000000, KH-1, Loraof, Sarr Cat, Eaqq, KonstantinoAndria, 2442tom,
XxLegit Hackerxx, CAPTAIN RAJU, OsloSays, Lovestudy819, LJn(avgn), Harlodforlyfe, Minji0416, Elalol1994, GreenC bot, Vivek
ketha, Nanasimone04, Here2help, Calderon Rey, Kharr085 and Anonymous: 736
• Hypothesis Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothesis?oldid=799276896 Contributors: Mav, Ed Poor, Youssefsan, William Avery,

DavidLevinson, Heron, Boud, Michael Hardy, Karada, Ahoerstemeier, Cyp, Ronz, Glenn, Andres, Evercat, Disdero, Charles Matthews,
Bemoeial, Dandrake, VeryVerily, Samsara, Nnh, Banno, Cncs wikipedia, Owen, Jason Potter, Mayooranathan, Caknuck, Andrew Levine,
Ancheta Wis, Giftlite, Christopher Parham, The Cave Troll, Everyking, Yekrats, Matthead, Jackol, Alexf, Mendel, Antandrus, Over-
lordQ, Scott MacLean, Piotrus, Karol Langner, Cynical, Ukexpat, Mike Rosoft, Discospinster, TedPavlic, KillerChihuahua, Simonk-
ing, Vsmith, Bender235, Neko-chan, Brian0918, El C, Mescad, Kwamikagami, Edward Z. Yang, Triona, Drhex, Bobo192, Viriditas,
9SGjOSfyHJaQVsEmy9NS, Thialfi, Haham hanuka, Mdd, Jumbuck, Alansohn, EsonLinji, Bart133, Danthemankhan, W7KyzmJt, Heida
Maria, Yurivict, Camw, LOL, Yansa, Kokoriko, WadeSimMiser, Zelse81, MGTom, Hurricane Angel, MONGO, InitHello, Wayward,
Stefanomione, Dysepsion, Mandarax, FreplySpang, Ketiltrout, Sjö, Seidenstud, Nightscream, Bruce1ee, Nneonneo, TheIncredibleEdi-
bleOompaLoompa, FlavrSavr, Watcharakorn, Margosbot~enwiki, Twipley, Srleffler, Imnotminkus, King of Hearts, Scoops, DVdm, Cac-
tus.man, Gwernol, Roboto de Ajvol, RobotE, Sceptre, Petiatil, The Literate Engineer, Anonymous editor, SpuriousQ, Stephenb, Rus-
soc4, Mithridates, Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, Rsrikanth05, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf, Aeusoes1, Grafen, Prickus, RUL3R,
Yano, Zwobot, Mistercow, FF2010, NorsemanII, Closedmouth, Josh3580, Moomoomoo, DVD R W, Finell, That Guy, From That Show!,
SmackBot, Unschool, David.Mestel, C.Fred, Yuyudevil, Jtneill, Samivel, Kjaergaard, BiT, HalfShadow, Dgilman, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie,
Skizzik, Bluebot, MalafayaBot, Samohyl, Colonies Chris, Darth Panda, Brinerustle, Gyrobo, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Onorem, Snow-
manradio, Rrburke, Cybercobra, Richard001, BullRangifer, Jon Awbrey, Mwtoews, Bobprobst, J.smith, Lambiam, Gobonobo, Amenzix,
IronGargoyle, SpyMagician, Dfass, Ckatz, Slakr, Twalls, Ryulong, Liberty4u, Caiaffa, Daveyboy87, Iridescent, K, Wsbhopkin, Igoldste,
Areldyb, Trialsanderrors, Nkayesmith, Pathosbot, Tawkerbot2, George100, Chris55, Luigi7, Kylu, AshLin, OMGsplosion, ShelfSkewed,
Neelix, Tex, Gregbard, Gogo Dodo, AtTheAbyss, Corpx, Ttiotsw, Gproud, Roberta F., Lindsay658, Ventifact, Gimmetrow, Mattisse,
Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Kumiankka, Marek69, Peter K., Nick Number, Dawnseeker2000, Escarbot, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Wide-
fox, Flattail, LinaMishima, ClassicSC, JAnDbot, NBeale, MER-C, The Transhumanist, Bigar, Hut 8.5, Okiefromokla (old), Kerotan,
LittleOldMe, Acroterion, Fergdoug, Gsaup, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Anþony, KConWiki, David Eppstein, Hveziris, Cpl Syx, JaGa,
ZachCrichfield, MartinBot, Poeloq, Anaxial, Dark wizzie1, Mschel, PStrait, Lilac Soul, Grazia11, J.delanoy, Trusilver, All Is One, SU
Linguist, Joewski, It Is Me Here, Bailo26, Monoideist, LCecere, STBotD, LordCo Centre, Bonadea, B33p, Useight, Chris Brown’s
boo, Fainites, Lights, X!, VolkovBot, Peterhaslehurst, AlnoktaBOT, VasilievVV, Philip Trueman, DoorsAjar, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Zi-
donuke, The Original Wildbear, A4bot, Lechatjaune, Qxz, Anna Lincoln, Seraphim, Martin451, Leafyplant, LeaveSleaves, DoktorDec,
Mwilso24, Andrewaskew, Lerdthenerd, Synthebot, Falcon8765, Enviroboy, Burntsauce, Insanity Incarnate, Sue Rangell, Wavehunter,
W4chris, FlyingLeopard2014, EmxBot, Born2x, Martylove, Newbyguesses, SieBot, KatieandHandy, Graham Beards, Caltas, RJaguar3,
Yintan, Aristolaos, Gravitan, SiegeLord, Keilana, Flyer22 Reborn, The Evil Spartan, Berserkerus, Oxymoron83, Antonio Lopez, Avnjay,
MiNombreDeGuerra, Tombomp, Hobartimus, Sunrise, Capitalismojo, Melcombe, Wahrmund, Denisarona, Lloydpick, Myrvin, Church,
Martarius, ClueBot, Justin W Smith, The Thing That Should Not Be, Helenabella, DionysosProteus, Wysprgr2005, Drmies, Blanchardb,
LizardJr8, Excirial, Jusdafax, Tamaratrouts, Gwguffey, Zaharous, Lartoven, Achu.urs, Technobadger, Cenarium, LonerXL, Calrosfing,
SchreiberBike, Kakofonous, Shinobi0888, Thingg, Acabashi, SoxBot III, Editor2020, Vanished user uih38riiw4hjlsd, Ps07swt, Crazy
Boris with a red beard, XLinkBot, Jovianeye, Sakura Cartelet, Anturiaethwr, WikHead, ZooFari, ElMeBot, HaightClayton, Addbot,
Xp54321, Some jerk on the Internet, Tcncv, Captain-tucker, Miskaton, Binary TSO, Youre dreaming eh?, TutterMouse, Moosehadley,
MrOllie, Mjr162006, Glane23, AndersBot, AnnaFrance, Favonian, CuteHappyBrute, Ehrenkater, Issyl0, Tide rolls, Teles, Zorrobot,
Jarble, Megaman en m, Rradulak, Gguidelas, Cote d'Azur, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Moosetraxx, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Wildhorsepg, Ptbot-
gourou, Fraggle81, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Mmonne, Denispir, Washburnmav, Brougham96, Timmorra, AnomieBOT, Andrewrp, A
More Perfect Onion, Mauro Lanari, Jim1138, IRP, Piano non troppo, Merube 89, Materialscientist, RobertEves92, Wortafad, Itsbriii-
iix3, ARAGONESE35, Xqbot, Doezxcty, Busvbtydj, Tasudrty, Apothecia, Eccl.1.2, Gigemag76, Millahnna, DSisyphBot, RadiX, Call
me Bubba, Omnipaedista, Shman644, Mathonius, A.amitkumar, BoomerAB, Vishnu2011, Cannolis, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, An-
Toni, RedBot, Serols, Wikiain, Lilcmw95, Retired user 0001, Mallika nawal, Duffmanusa007, Lotje, Vrenator, Weedwhacker128, Rāmā,
Tbhotch, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, AXRL, Onel5969, Smartiger, Venustas 12, Muddog2013, DASHBot, Bp2010 Exga, EmausBot, Orphan
Wiki, Acather96, Stryn, RenamedUser01302013, Seren-dipper, Tommy2010, Wikipelli, K6ka, ZéroBot, BurtAlert, Daonguyen95, Kash
959, Fæ, Acategory, Alpha Quadrant, Paytonp17, Suslindisambiguator, D.Lazard, Gz33, Wayne Slam, OnePt618, Demiurge1000, L Kens-
ington, Donner60, 9Questions, Teapeat, Scorch1104, ClueBot NG, Psy1235, LogX, Satellizer, AshiieeSixx, JacanoMeez, Widr, Vibhijain,
Fltyingpig, Oddbodz, Helpful Pixie Bot, Editormax3, BG19bot, Mikesgirl0312, Thumani Mabwe, Davidiad, Marcocapelle, Tine Ren,
Jeeefreee123, Snow Blizzard, YVSREDDY, Chip123456, HumanNaturOriginal, Proxyma, Kieran Lowry, Youzenrin, JYBot, Indy9070,
Webclient101, 331dot, Lugia2453, CaSJer, SFK2, Graphium, Cadillac000, Faizan, Tentinator, EvergreenFir, NYBrook098, Ugog Nizdast,
Mrm7171, Charleyrattue, AddWittyNameHere, Oirad16, Typhoon2013, Babygirl23456789, FrB.TG, TheEpTic, Antrocent, Whathell123,
Bob123345435577998578645636546486757566587667, KasparBot, JJMC89, Roe.ese, Renamed user jC6jAXNBCg, Boomer Vial,
KGirlTrucker81, Gluons12, Leborfmaster, Magic links bot, Shashahan and Anonymous: 775
• Positivism Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivism?oldid=799254614 Contributors: Awaterl, Xaonon, William Avery, Paul Bar-
low, Ihcoyc, Markhurd, Buridan, Huangdi, Robbot, Paranoid, Rursus, Blainster, Nagelfar, Lcgarcia, Grant65, Elmindreda, ChicXulub,
David Lefevre, Piotrus, Nerdfiles, RayBirks, Yossarian, Kmweber, MakeRocketGoNow, Esperant, Xezbeth, Bender235, Sfahey, Lycurgus,
Art LaPella, RoyBoy, Herzliyya, Walkiped, 9SGjOSfyHJaQVsEmy9NS, Mixcoatl, Zachlipton, Gcbirzan, Gary, Logologist, Olaf Simons,
Bart133, Gsandi, Garrisonroo, Omphaloscope, Kusma, Kazvorpal, Natalya, Velho, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Woohookitty, Zzyzx11,
Macbraughton, BD2412, Qwertyus, Rjwilmsi, Kevmitch, Eubot, Gurch, Alexjohnc3, BMF81, Chobot, Wavelength, Pip2andahalf, Mad-
coverboy, Leutha, Rjensen, Caladein, Ragesoss, Elipatwood, Aaron Schulz, M3taphysical, Jpeob, Ninly, Brz7, Katieh5584, Canadianism,
TJF588, Tom Morris, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Lestrade, Rtc, Longsun, NantucketNoon, Wegesrand, Jagged 85, Thunderboltz, Ces-
sator, Nethency, Srnec, Jprg1966, MalafayaBot, Emfish1212, CSWarren, Hongooi, Darth Panda, Dgdino, Smtology, Cybercobra, Plust-
garten, Lgearhart, Bohunk, LoveMonkey, Clean Copy, Wossi, Byelf2007, FallingRain123, Lapaz, Tazmaniacs, Santa Sangre, Pejman47, K,
Laplace’s Demon, Peter1c, Wolfdog, CmdrObot, Penbat, Gregbard, Spewin, Cydebot, Mike Christie, Ryan Lanham, Ksbrown, Thijs!bot,
Peter morrell, 271828182, Andyjsmith, Headbomb, Pamino, Michaelminn, Noclevername, JenLouise, Frodeman, Leolaursen, MastCell,
Arno Matthias, McBeardo, KConWiki, Theroadislong, IkonicDeath, LookingGlass, Cpl Syx, SlamDiego, Johnbrownsbody, Daniel212,
Ikaszpcj, Ugajin, Anarchia, J.delanoy, W2bh, Maurice Carbonaro, Katalaveno, DarwinPeacock, DadaNeem, KD Tries Again, LCecere,
Rflacco, DASonnenfeld, VolkovBot, Philip Trueman, Begeun, TXiKiBoT, VivekVish, Dpac007, Tomsega, NPrice, Koalaitis, Supertask,
Room429, Floepiejane, Bearian, Wingedsubmariner, Nightcomeson, SieBot, ShiftFn, Nihil novi, Gerakibot, Wing gundam, Strife911,
Sunrise, AtomikWeasel, Thatotherdude, Henry Merrivale, ClueBot, SummerWithMorons, SalineBrain, Binksternet, Jaroma~enwiki, The-
OldJacobite, P. S. Burton, Robert Skyhawk, Excirial, Bennymo17, BirgerH, Rhododendrites, Dj manton, SchreiberBike, Calor, Rubybrian,
Editor2020, Humanengr, Ps07swt, XLinkBot, Addbot, Jojhutton, Damiens.rf, CarsracBot, Redheylin, ChenzwBot, SpBot, Tassedethe,
84user, Timeu, Tide rolls, Lightbot, OlEnglish, Zorrobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Denispir, Brougham96, AnomieBOT, Materi-
alscientist, Citation bot, W.stanovsky, Bob Burkhardt, John Bessa, Obersachsebot, MauritsBot, Xqbot, Wronguy, Capricorn42, Br77rino,
Edprfspec, Omnipaedista, GliderMaven, Nicolas Perrault III, ChikeJ, Techauthor, Machine Elf 1735, Jnthn0898, Citation bot 1, Win-
terst, I dream of horses, Kiefer.Wolfowitz, SkyMachine, Cnwilliams, Pollinosisss, Douglasbell, Jonkerz, Lotje, RjwilmsiBot, Rogscivid,
Onancastrovejano, Tesseract2, Anonymous6059, , Rayman60, EmausBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, Pseudosection, Mikey-
Mouse10, Eugenio Hansen, OFS, ZéroBot, Moonlight8888, Coyotoli, A930913, Edunoramus, Y-barton, ClueBot NG, Joefromrandb,
Arch Mute Brave, Hazhk, CaroleHenson, Antiqueight, RoseAnne1987, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Neptune’s Trident, Dbaronov, Ph-
nomPencil, Graham11, Gabriel Yuji, Harizotoh9, Centralservices, Meclee, Wannabemodel, Eman2293, Linyent2, Bhayeesh, Ashleymo-
hammed93, Sajuachu, Eayliffe, SimmyJassal, Nmarzouk, Manreet.sandhu, Saaranga, Wonder118, Katyyeung, Vnieznalski, Karenh19,
Namjan, Eb7473, Starlight4352, Mogism, Frosty, Emaregretable, Me, Myself, and I are Here, David Labreure, CsDix, Lemnaminor,
BreakfastJr, DavidLeighEllis, LithiumEnergy, Ginsuloft, Roddyst, Wikilburn, Junipandit, Vinícius94, Jeremy’s iron, Ggdhhvg, Imagika-
trix, Loraof, SimonKu, Samf4u, Isambard Kingdom, Nøkkenbuer, KasparBot, GrahamJClark, Gimosrny, Joshg1994, Andy028, Man-
ishkrisna108, Emmastothart, Magic links bot, JayCeez620 and Anonymous: 277
• Social science Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science?oldid=797232944 Contributors: WojPob, The Anome, Ed Poor, Larry
Sanger, Grouse, Rgamble, William Avery, SimonP, Ryguasu, Earth, Lexor, Ixfd64, TakuyaMurata, Kingturtle, Nikai, Andres, Rob Hooft,
BRG, Charles Matthews, Reddi, Pedant17, Tpbradbury, Hyacinth, Studymore, J D, Shizhao, Rbellin, Flockmeal, Gakmo, JorgeGG, Puz-
zletChung, Bearcat, Robbot, Tomchiukc, Tobias, Jxg, Nilmerg, Gidonb, Sunray, Hadal, Quadalpha, Cyrius, Filemon, Alan Liefting, Stirling
Newberry, Ancheta Wis, Aphaia, Everyking, Yekrats, Elmindreda, Wildt~enwiki, Stevietheman, Andycjp, Jdevine, Beland, Piotrus, Gsoci-
ology, Secfan, Kevin B12, Pethan, Scott Burley, Karl-Henner, Tharenthel~enwiki, Asbestos, Mike Rosoft, D6, CALR, Discospinster, Rich
Farmbrough, UniAce, Florian Blaschke, Bender235, Andrejj, El C, Mwanner, Marcok, Art LaPella, Bookofjude, Jlin, Bobo192, Bren-
dansa, Viriditas, Tmh, Maurreen, Nlight, Jojit fb, MPerel, Nsaa, Mdd, Jumbuck, Alansohn, Gary, Rodw, Logologist, Wikidea, Neilmckil-
lop, Velella, Grenavitar, VoluntarySlave, TriNotch, Y0u, Megan1967, Velho, Woohookitty, RHaworth, Rattus, Kzollman, Mcphee~enwiki,
Jeff3000, Tabletop, Wikiklrsc, Smmurphy, BrenDJ, Iniobong, Joe Roe, Graham87, KaisaL, FreplySpang, Island, Icey, Rjwilmsi, Mayu-
mashu, Erebus555, Dpark, Helvetius, Eyu100, XLerate, Ground Zero, Margosbot~enwiki, GünniX, Jameshfisher, TheSpook, RexNL,
Gurch, YashaBK, Chobot, DVdm, Roboto de Ajvol, The Rambling Man, RussBot, ROYGBIV, Fabartus, Barfoos, Bhny, Mark Ironie,
Anomalocaris, Frybread, Jgrantduff, Rjensen, Jpbowen, Dolsson5, Moe Epsilon, RL0919, Dbfirs, Aaron Schulz, M3taphysical, Action
potential, Maunus, Dv82matt, Mamawrites, CQ, Zzuuzz, Pb30, KGasso, Josh3580, Sean Whitton, Feedmymind, JoanneB, Katieh5584,
NeilN, DVD R W, Gbalaji82, Luk, SmackBot, RedHouse18, Ma8thew, Ariedartin, Bomac, Jagged 85, Jfgrcar, NickShaforostoff, Bi-
narypower, Hardyplants, Gaff, Yamaguchi , Gilliam, Hmains, Skizzik, Ppntori, Andy M. Wang, Frédérick Lacasse, The monkeyhate,
Chris the speller, Koryakov Yuri, Te24409nsp, Jprg1966, Thumperward, Fplay, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Jerome Charles
Potts, CSWarren, J. Spencer, Go for it!, Baronnet, DHN-bot~enwiki, Colonies Chris, Arges, Darth Panda, Battlecry, Aldaron, Cyberco-
bra, EPM, Hoof Hearted, Cordless Larry, RandomP, Nexus Seven, Salt Yeung, Ice tres, Starghost, Clicketyclack, Cast, Z-d, Arnoutf,
OcarinaOfTime, J 1982, Ishmaelblues, Perfectblue97, JorisvS, Commons@tiac.net, Astuishin, Vir, RichardF, Hu12, BranStark, Irides-
cent, K, Bogle, LeyteWolfer, Tophtucker, JHP, Igoldste, Fsotrain09, Shoreranger, Marysunshine, Tawkerbot2, CmdrObot, Dycedarg,
Makeemlighter, Page Up, DaveDixon, Yarnalgo, NickW557, Thomasmeeks, ButterApple, Neelix, Sanspeur, Penbat, Peripitus, Uncle-
Bubba, Gogo Dodo, Wiknik, Garik, Omicronpersei8, Mattisse, Barticus88, Nhelm83, TheFearow, JustAGal, PolarisSLBM, Escarbot,
Mentifisto, Cyclonenim, Hires an editor, AntiVandalBot, Guy Macon, Seaphoto, Little Rachael, Edokter, Osubuckeyeguy, Mack2, Dan-
ger, Gökhan, Crissidancer88, Husond, Hijklmno, MER-C, The Transhumanist, Kevinharbin, Douglas R. White, Yahel Guhan, MaxPont,
Reswik, Magioladitis, Gsaup, VoABot II, Dekimasu, (Didie), Lkpotts, Catgut, WhatamIdoing, Davies69, Cooper-42, Vssun, Foregone
conclusion, Gwern, S3000, MartinBot, Kostisl, R'n'B, Laleena, Thirdright, Shellwood, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Adavidb, Un-
cle Dick, AThousandYoung, Nigholith, Arcette, NerdyNSK, Jkaplan, Mannschaftskapitän, Smeira, DarwinPeacock, JayJasper, Sunidesus,
Loohcsnuf, The Transhumanist (AWB), NewEnglandYankee, SJP, Treisijs, The Fat Guy, DASonnenfeld, M. Frederick, Izno, Funandtrvl,
VolkovBot, Profdrmendoza, Dom Kaos, WOSlinker, TXiKiBoT, Cosmic Latte, Jacob Lundberg, Tomsega, Miranda, Guillaume2303,
Gerrish, Gen. Quon, Nickipedia 008, Stuttgart1950, Justinfr, George Sagi, Mikehoffman, Synthebot, Kiliwa, Asamind, Sesshomaru,
Insanity Incarnate, Pjoef, Logan, Moax18, SieBot, StuartGaia, France3470, Keilana, Bentogoa, Happysailor, Flyer22 Reborn, Qst, High-
buryVanguard, Yerpo, Oxymoron83, Lightmouse, Fratrep, Svick, Catrope, Segregold, Szalagloria, Miss loves, Wetwarexpert, Mr. Stradi-
varius, Superbeecat, Denisarona, Escape Orbit, Jaipurite, ClueBot, SummerWithMorons, GorillaWarfare, RisingSunWiki, Gorillasapiens,
EastCoast1111, Fioravante Patrone en, The Thing That Should Not Be, ImperfectlyInformed, Yiannis vet, Mild Bill Hiccup, Niemeyer-
stein en, BlondGirll, CharlieRCD, Masterpiece2000, DragonBot, Awickert, Excirial, Alexbot, Jusdafax, Hezarfenn, Rkh10, Tnxman307,
Redthoreau, Doktor Mephisto, Bilbaosr, Aleksd, Taranet, Pularoid, Patricusrex, MelonBot, DumZiBoT, 3pointswish, Yodaki, Little Moun-
tain 5, WikHead, SilvonenBot, Zaloom, Quinntaylor, Addbot, Fgnievinski, Riadismet, Mootros, SpellingBot, Leszek Jańczuk, Mattgizzy14,
Cst17, Chamal N, CarsracBot, Glane23, Favonian, Blaylockjam10, Numbo3-bot, Tide rolls, Zorrobot, Simon J Kissane, Elm, Mega-
man en m, Jessika Folkerts, Legobot, Kurtis, Luckas-bot, Yobot, TaBOT-zerem, Abasass, Carnoy, Andresswift, Moptan2007, Sumail,
AnomieBOT, Rjanag, Pgm8693, Galoubet, JackieBot, Ularevalo98, Ulric1313, Materialscientist, E2eamon, Eumolpo, SeventhHell, Lil-
Helpa, Obersachsebot, Xqbot, JJ cool D, Jesse627, Phil hutchinson, Anna Frodesiak, Miguel in Portugal, Inferno, Lord of Penguins, Susan
Chan, J04n, GrouchoBot, Omnipaedista, GhalyBot, Verbum Veritas, Fleetfist, BignBad, Joaquin008, Qarana, Zojiji, FrescoBot, FalconL,
Zeyi, Zero Thrust, HamburgerRadio, Citation bot 1, Killian441, Redrose64, Midiom, Boxplot, Otto S. Knottnerus, Pinethicket, HRoest-
Bot, Ibn khaldun78, DTMGO, Jonesey95, MastiBot, LanecoC, Doktore, Nafile, Gamewizard71, FoxBot, TobeBot, Darigan, Vrenator,
LilyKitty, Duoduoduo, Arjunjaidka, Onel5969, Mean as custard, TjBot, Ripchip Bot, Floydman66, DASHBot, AtTheNecropolis, Emaus-
Bot, John of Reading, Josephcunningham, Hirsutism, Ajraddatz, K6ka, Acategory, Milindkrishna1, Efierros, Oswaldoalvizarb, H3llBot,
Gz33, Wayne Slam, Swentworth25, Erianna, MercWithMouth, Phronetic, Michtan12, LS C HIST, RockMagnetist, ClamDip, Vox Plu-
via, ResidentAnthropologist, Jackofhats, ClueBot NG, Chen969, CocuBot, This lousy T-shirt, Frietjes, Yahudikiwi, Vrangbaek, Widr,
Paterfranz, Mouramoor, Saxoamacad, Heakins, GuyHimGuy, Helpful Pixie Bot, Gob Lofa, BG19bot, Tengwang777, Aloharumi, Drjmh,
Graham11, MagicCinemas, Frze, Davidiad, Mark Arsten, Robert Dal, DCMaynard, Altaïr, Harizotoh9, Pendulum Dowsing, Dayshade,
Princess843, Amalo98, Timbrooker, Purnava1827, Taief.shahed, Kleinbaum, Cyberbot II, Ushau97, GoShow, Littlesoup, Faryalnasir22,
Codeh, Loupiotte, EagerToddler39, Dexbot, Hmainsbot1, Webclient101, Makecat-bot, UseTheCommandLine, Wecoexist, Lugia2453,
Frosty, Jamesx12345, RotlinkBot, GabeIglesia, AsthreeID, Abhijeet Sinha Sinha, C5st4wr6ch, SocSciPhD, CsDix, CGBoas, Tentinator,
EvergreenFir, Backendgaming, New worl, CouvGeek, Finnusertop, Wolfgang.molnar, Bryanf222, Vinny Lam, Averruncus, Joan Ricart-
Huguet, Param Mudgal, Linuxrox, Plunkersiniapes, Keshab Ray, JaconaFrere, Crossswords, Kingxdahz, Proudcommunist111111, Mutluri
Abraham, KeanonRitchie, RC711, Mxschumacher, KH-1, Zabshk, IahBessy, Squiver, Supdiop, Groenewilde, Johnlgreen, BU Rob13, Se-
mak mwu, CAPTAIN RAJU, Manname, InternetArchiveBot, Santoshone, Wpmantra, GreenC bot, Dr.KOLLMANN J. György, Jossavan-
leeuwen, Bear-rings, Marshy maburner, Cherrypicker5454, Empiricism667, Magic links bot, Prinsipe Ybarro, Pranjal jain and Anonymous:
690
• Historical sociology Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_sociology?oldid=785614527 Contributors: Piotrus, Jrtayloriv, Russ-
Bot, Vina-iwbot~enwiki, Vanished user sojweiorj34i4f, Cydebot, Mike Christie, Epbr123, Andyjsmith, Oddeivind, Athkalani~enwiki, Al-
bany NY, DASonnenfeld, Broadbot, Robjlucas, Addbot, Xp54321, Marco.natalino, Алый Король, Zorrobot, Swarm, Eduen, Lolinder,
FrescoBot, Bgpaulus, Geostein, GoingBatty, Perozdero22, GermanJoe, Sunflower19, BG19bot, Dbaronov, Marcocapelle, Meclee, Игорь
Воронин, Hoyerdan, SimonKu, Ever Jobim, Chtmaps, KasparBot, Magic links bot and Anonymous: 19
• International relations Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_relations?oldid=797880232 Contributors: Mav, Roadrun-
ner, SimonP, Yves Junqueira, Jboy~enwiki, Edward, Marvinfreeman, Vzbs34, Ruhrjung, Ghewgill, Charles Matthews, WhisperToMe,
Timwhit, DJ Clayworth, Topbanana, Fvw, Wetman, Altenmann, Mintchocicecream, Lowellian, Academic Challenger, Doidimais Brasil,
JesseW, Inter, Zigger, Marcika, Mboverload, Gracefool, Iceberg3k, Golbez, Utcursch, BozMo, Piotrus, Xtreambar, Drant, Karl-Henner,
Mike Rosoft, Sdrawkcab, Pyrop, C12H22O11, Martpol, Bender235, ESkog, MBisanz, El C, Kwamikagami, Cafzal, KrJnX, Obs~enwiki,
Ruszewski, Hintha, JesseHogan, Perceval, Gary, 7e7, Fadookie, Kessler, VentrueCapital, Sextus~enwiki, SHIMONSHA, Roncero, Swift,
Hubriscantilever, Snowolf, Ebz123, Velella, Grenavitar, Pethr, Pawley, AlenWatters, Mhazard9, Weyes, Philthecow, GaelicWizard,
Mindmatrix, Ddye, Alcarinquë, Tabletop, Graham87, BD2412, MC MasterChef, Mendaliv, Porcher, Electionworld, Tlroche, Rjwilmsi,
ErikHaugen, Durin, SNIyer12, Jakob mark~enwiki, PubLife, Valermos, Btmccarthy17, Theshibboleth, Rdover, Niku, Bgwhite, Diplo-
mat~enwiki, YurikBot, Wavelength, Borgx, Jlittlet, Hoddy, RussBot, Arado, Genova~enwiki, Nobs01, Anders.Warga, Gaius Cornelius,
Dialectric, Joel7687, Clam0p, GreatGodOm, Rjensen, Equilibrial, InvaderJim42, RL0919, Dbfirs, Deckiller, Sjjb, Doncram, Jpeob,
Maunus, Craigclarke, Wknight94, Igiffin, E-Dogg, Lt-wiki-bot, RDF, Closedmouth, GraemeL, Markheslop, Chrishmt0423, A Doon,
Wisgary, Anclation~enwiki, Kungfuadam, Appleseed, Kingboyk, GrinBot~enwiki, NickelShoe, Sardanaphalus, Attilios, Chicocvenancio,
Hvitlys, SmackBot, F, NaiPiak, C.Fred, Big Adamsky, Alsandro, Srnec, Gilliam, Portillo, Hmains, Gaily Ezer, Scaife, Jamie C, Thom2002,
Ksenon, Jcagregory, Jerome Charles Potts, Hadros@yahoo.com, Colonies Chris, Милан Јелисавчић, Jajhill, Jemiller124, Filipowicz, LM-
CinHK, Jsl83, Blake-, Jon Awbrey, Mystborne, DMacks, Tethros, Kukini, Clicketyclack, Oenus, Lauriepearcey, Trojan traveler, John, J
1982, ThiagoBorges, DIEGO RICARDO PEREIRA, RomanSpa, Lady of the dead, Pietro S.~enwiki, Nicknz, Beetstra, SAISer, Cxk271,
Cristina28 15, KirrVlad, Sijo Ripa, Isozvaillancourt, Dr.K., Nicolasdz, Hu12, Levineps, Lottamiata, Shoeofdeath, Fsotrain09, Civil Engi-
neer III, ScierGuy, Tawkerbot2, Nobleeagle, Dan1679, Gsh~enwiki, Soohyun, ClEeFy, Eastlaw, Sewdonim, Slaciner, JForget, Fox5454,
CmdrObot, Bobfrombrockley, Vanished user sojweiorj34i4f, Van helsing, AshLin, Tom Hillstrom, Neelix, Gregbard, ORZ, ElectricEye,
Taleinfo, Trimp, Mike2000~enwiki, Studerby, Bwmcmaste, NMilbery, Denismutabazi, JamesAM, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Lord Hawk, Tafuri,
Hermespasa, Ejav 99, Id447, Marek69, RSammy, Mattimeus, TXiKi, Kaaveh Ahangar~enwiki, Oddeivind, Nick Number, Heroeswith-
metaphors, AntiVandalBot, 2bornot2b, North Shoreman, Tearfree, Gökhan, Atlas Mugged, JAnDbot, Eadlam, Nwe, Acroterion, Daniel
Cordoba-Bahle, Tr and pbv, JNW, Swpb, A10brown, Sodabottle, Paynek02, KBtoys09, Hbent, NMaia, MartinBot, EyeSerene, Macnepdx,
Rrebeccac, 5618, Sm8900, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, OStewart, EdBever, Shellwood, Kimse, Adavidb, Joaten, Maurice Carbonaro, Athae-
nara, Cspan64, Aram33~enwiki, DadaNeem, Doug4, KylieTastic, Mamin27, Kenneth M Burke, Evb-wiki, Lazyhana0508, Lmbstl, Treisijs,
Jcmargeson, DASonnenfeld, Reallyreallybored, TreasuryTag, Indubitably, Andrewthornton, Aesopos, Tatroland~enwiki, Oshwah, Cosmic
Latte, PDFbot, Billinghurst, Yk Yk Yk, Jbrown-gmfus, Sapphic, Km67719, Rahulkepapa, Slippy71, Mam1220, Smsarmad, Watabak,
Flyer22 Reborn, Gilesick, Nuttycoconut, Fmark, Correogsk, StaticGull, Hup, Sneaklemming, Talanmartin666, Deavenger, Sfan00 IMG,
ClueBot, Valentino k, The Thing That Should Not Be, Voltaire777, Lucretius99, Thaskeen, Nagika, Arjayay, Nabukhadnezar, Kako-
fonous, JpTiger, JDPhD, BurgererSF~enwiki, Editorofthewiki, XLinkBot, Tarl N., Timschocker, Dthomsen8, Tt45235, Badgernet, Ad-
dbot, Amiens984~enwiki, Luissmes, Mootros, Gizziiusa, Peerschouten, Lihaas, Tassedethe, Алиса Селезньова, Jarble, Wweert, Legobot,
Luckas-bot, Minderbinder-de, Yobot, DisillusionedBitterAndKnackered, Nirvana888, SwisterTwister, Eric-Wester, AnomieBOT, Views-
dakla, Jim1138, Galoubet, Bofod, JackieBot, Lockin, AdjustShift, NickK, Csigabi, Materialscientist, BasilSorbie, Pipeafcr, Pavame49,
Anna Frodesiak, Susan Chan, Turkishpolicyinstitute, Kennith Smitherman, Benny 919, GorgeCustersSabre, Brandon5485, Jkcnejdnj3d3d,
Aashaa, Operdyne7, SD5, FrescoBot, Skylark2008, Dogposter, Haeinous, Bambuway, OgreBot, Ian R Gates, SpacemanSpiff, I dream of
horses, Geogene, Sophiepotter, Estradafeio, Jandalhandler, SpringSloth, Tim1357, Excelsior1984, FoxBot, Dasha14, Msheflin, LilyKitty,
Ogaryjr, Ashley Rootberski, Diannaa, Prmwp, PleaseStand, Tbhotch, Mean as custard, Ripchip Bot, PPdd, Axelssj99, Sergejus, Mebusan,
EmausBot, John of Reading, NapsterX, WikitanvirBot, Artisticidea, DBG Heuser, Zap Rowsdower, Red Card For You, BigCoolGuyy,
Mysoomro86, Phronetic, Puffin, ChuispastonBot, Rachydee, Wakebrdkid, Sonicyouth86, Screamypotter, ClueBot NG, Appenzeller, Mel-
bourneStar, Nabob Nagusa, Tabletrack, Frietjes, Polskivinnik, Masssly, MerlIwBot, BG19bot, ChristopherCD, AngBent, HIDECCHI001,
Phd8511, Tatchell, Therussiandiplomat, Yelyzaveta R, Polmandc, Wannabemodel, BattyBot, Instawisdom, Rhlozier, Dexbot, FoCuSan-
dLeArN, Frosty, Freshfroot, Akafd76, Sciguy125, GabeIglesia, Moagim, Sɛvɪnti faɪv, BreakfastJr, Seastma, Sam Huckleberry, Shrinkzxo,
Ashleyleia, AaronBZ2, Sbowry, Ypiment01, Finnusertop, Ginsuloft, Fitzcarmalan, Whizz40, Vinny Lam, Biafra84, Mr Imicplatetarium,
Lowe D. C. Clog, Maan Tujay Salam, Schwindy, En rie se de, Phleg1, Monkbot, Filedelinkerbot, Shakakhankhan, Geopol2013, Outfora-
duck, Trackteur, JBlenk, Narky Blert, 65HCA7, Ahmed hallow, Hamza Malik IR, New.pangaea, Quantres, Srednuas Lenoroc, Svorkti,
Df420bs, Maxaxax, Consbuonomo, Gironamenamora, Irenomics, Aab921, Baking Soda, ATerribleMistake, Journalistdavidoff, Bender the
Bot, I2padams, Oxf0, Mariaginger, Sharif Mustajib, TheFreeWorld, Magic links bot, Al Legorhythm, Poet Victor, Fourfox and Anony-
mous: 605
• Historicism Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historicism?oldid=794694647 Contributors: Leandrod, Paul Barlow, EvanProdromou,
Cyde, Ihcoyc, Ellywa, William M. Connolley, Pedant17, Tpbradbury, Dogface, Banno, JorgeGG, Lumos3, Bearcat, Goethean, Rholton,
Wayland, Snobot, Stirling Newberry, Nikodemos, Christofurio, Grant65, Antandrus, Piotrus, Jokestress, Sam Hocevar, Kate, Lucidish,
Freakofnurture, JimR, Forbsey, Bender235, Lycurgus, Cretog8, ADM, Gintautasm, Hohum, Max rspct, CWH, Crackerbelly, Benbest,
Graham87, Rjwilmsi, Hanshans23, FlaBot, Echeneida, Jmorgan, Korg, Wavelength, Mark Ironie, Ansell, NawlinWiki, Romanc19s, Pray-
formojo, Jurriaan, WAS 4.250, Josh3580, Sardanaphalus, Intangible, SmackBot, Slarre, Mangoe, Lestrade, Eskimbot, Ohnoitsjamie, Chris
the speller, JonHarder, Zazpot, Memming, Salt Yeung, Andrew c, Wybot, Salamurai, Dubiousj, Bjankuloski06en~enwiki, Meco, Ned-
dyseagoon, MTSbot~enwiki, RekishiEJ, Peter1c, Grapeman, Gregbard, Vectro, Cydebot, BBBDBV, Sirmylesnagopaleentheda, Kozuch,
Anon166, Mojo Hand, Mr pand, JustAGal, Colin MacLaurin, JAnDbot, JenLouise, Knayil, CommonsDelinker, Yonidebot, RH Swearengin,
Madhava 1947, VolkovBot, Jeff G., Station1, Danp100888, Viator slovenicus, AlleborgoBot, StAnselm, Simplifier, Tiddly Tom, Arpose,
MaynardClark, Austin Wellbelove, Bombastus, Prof saxx, SummerWithMorons, Saddhiyama, Iddr, Niceguyedc, Brewcrewer, DragonBot,
Hardyf, BirgerH, Unclebanglin, DumZiBoT, Surfergl, Shiroise, Good Olfactory, Albambot, Addbot, SpBot, Emkaer, Pink!Teen, Kjaer,
Kittyhawk2, Mballen, AnomieBOT, Wandering Courier, Vialatt, Srich32977, Omnipaedista, Aquillagorilla, Beast.scholar, FrescoBot, Oot-
toO, Kusurija, RedBot, Jandalhandler, Horst-schlaemma, Grammatico, LilyKitty, 777sms, Van de muur, Esoglou, WikitanvirBot, Artiqui-
ties, Kmlipp, Truelight234, Theadorerex, Kikichugirl, Rezabot, JohnChrysostom, AvocatoBot, Lovepool1220, Rothbardanswer, Hmains-
bot1, TwoTwoHello, Jabarash, Hippocamp, Telfordbuck, Chris troutman, Nøkkenbuer, KasparBot, ZK17, InternetArchiveBot, Pwos89,
Motivação, Magic links bot and Anonymous: 97
• Karl Popper Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Popper?oldid=799022599 Contributors: Kpjas, Lee Daniel Crocker, Brion VIB-
BER, Eloquence, Mav, Bryan Derksen, MarXidad, The Anome, Tarquin, Slrubenstein, Ed Poor, RK, LA2, Darius Bacon, William Avery,
Graft, ChrisSteinbach, Leandrod, Michael Hardy, BoNoMoJo (old), MartinHarper, Gabbe, Damnedkingdom, IZAK, NuclearWinner,
168..., Ellywa, Ams80, William M. Connolley, Qfwfq, Sir Paul, Cadr, Big iron, Andres, Sethmahoney, Eirik (usurped), Schneelocke,
Adam Conover, Charles Matthews, Radgeek, Rednblu, Markhurd, Nv8200pa, Buridan, Thue, AaronSw, Masssiveego, Cheran~enwiki,
Johnleemk, Banno, Frazzydee, Lumos3, Dimadick, Fredrik, Goethean, Meelar, Blainster, Timrollpickering, Tea2min, Stirling Newberry,
Ancheta Wis, Giftlite, Leonig Mig, Rudolf 1922, Folks at 137, Wilfried Derksen, Acampbell70, Supergee, Lussmu~enwiki, Gamaliel,
Dmb000006, Duncharris, Clossius, Mboverload, SanderSpek~enwiki, RadioYeti, Wildt~enwiki, Joaotg~enwiki, Calm, GeneralPatton, Ice
Czar, Gauss, Karl-Henner, Creidieki, Marcus2, Demiurge, Esperant, Lucidish, D6, Simonides, Wikkrockiana, EricBright, Herzen, Rich
Farmbrough, FranksValli, John FitzGerald, Vsmith, Dave souza, Maksym Ye., Bender235, ESkog, S.K., Neko-chan, CanisRufus, Car-
lon, Bluap, Aude, Sietse Snel, Keno, Bobo192, Whosyourjudas, Mike Schwartz, .:Ajvol:., AKGhetto, Dungodung, Tresoldi, Bart van
der Pligt~enwiki, MPerel, Crust, Mdd, Knucmo2, Alansohn, Ben davison, Mr Adequate, Craigy144, SlimVirgin, Andrew Norman, Ver-
sageek, Kazvorpal, KTC, Paulcoyne, Angelo, RyanGerbil10, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, Camw, Kzoll-
man, Pol098, Ruud Koot, Apokrif, Wikiklrsc, SDC, Wdanwatts, G.W., Marudubshinki, RichardWeiss, Ashmoo, Graham87, Marskell,
BD2412, FreplySpang, Rjwilmsi, Nightscream, Ishiakkum, KYPark, Gryffindor, Collard, HandyAndy, XLerate, Crazynas, Ems57fcva,
Olessi, FlaBot, Chris Pressey, SchuminWeb, CalJW, Nihiltres, GünniX, Themanwithoutapast, Gurch, OpenToppedBus, No Swan So Fine,
Alassius, Nsteinberg, Chobot, GangofOne, DVdm, Volunteer Marek, Bgwhite, Gwernol, YurikBot, Noclador, Wavelength, Personman,
Jamesmorrison, PWhittle, Jtkiefer, Bhny, Hydrargyrum, Brec, KSchutte, CarlHewitt, Dietwald, Howcheng, Davfoster88, Ragesoss, Prolog-
Fan, Brian Crawford, RUL3R, Hv, Tony1, Zythe, M3taphysical, Wangi, Bota47, Maunus, Jurriaan, Mholland, Pawyilee, DieWeisseRose,
2over0, Newty82, Msuzen, Nikkimaria, Arthur Rubin, Me vs gutenberg, JoanneB, Chriswaterguy, CWenger, Fram, Palthrow, Shawn-
Swaner, JLaTondre, Mais oui!, Canadianism, GrinBot~enwiki, TJF588, Bestlyriccollection, Johnmarkh, Jackturner3, Sardanaphalus, Intan-
gible, Locke Cole, YoungSpinoza~enwiki, SmackBot, Britannicus, Lestrade, Rtc, Postbagboy, InverseHypercube, Unyoyega, Vald, Wawat,
Rouenpucelle, Motorneuron, Harald88, GraemeMcRae, Srnec, Xaosflux, Portillo, Thegn, NCurse, Thumperward, Fluri, DHN-bot~enwiki,
Draq~enwiki, Colonies Chris, Newport, H-J-Niemann, EvelinaB, Rrburke, Lobner, Threeafterthree, Stevenmitchell, Wen D House, Big-
turtle, TedE, Badgerpatrol, Stilgar1898, Lacatosias, John.Conway, DMacks, Runcorn, Politis, Just plain Bill, Sammy1339, Thorsen, Em-
misa, TenPoundHammer, Ohconfucius, Byelf2007, Mchavez, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Gloriamarie, John, MobyDikc, Aaronchall, Tktktk,
Bucksburg, Hannes H. Gissurarson~enwiki, Goodnightmush, Peterlewis, Ckatz, Defyn, Noah Salzman, Dicklyon, Meco, Waggers, NJA,
Novangelis, Hu12, Cforbes, Joseph Solis in Australia, Asghar2, Scarlet Lioness, MonkeeSage, CRGreathouse, JasArdis, Mc4932, Michael-
barreto, Thomasmeeks, Shizane, Lanma726, Sdorrance, Chicheley, Gregbard, FilipeS, Logicus, Shanoman, Cydebot, Kanags, Sa.vakilian,
Teratornis, Ivanslade, Universitytruth, Lindsay658, Landroo, 271828182, Mime, Calamus~enwiki, Zickzack, Fluxbot, Helgus, Norwe-
gianBlue, Ideogram, Spidergareth, Oreo Priest, Popper123, Chubbles, Sobaka, DekuDekuplex, SmokeyTheCat, Vistor, JAnDbot, Turgid-
son, Skomorokh, Dsp13, Rothorpe, Alastair Haines, Caveat, Magioladitis, SHCarter, Ling.Nut, Johnbibby, Dirac66, $yD!, Exiledone,
Pagewriter, Grunge6910, Gwern, Eachilles, PaulLev, Zip123, Arjun01, Tvoz, Suessmayr~enwiki, CommonsDelinker, AgarwalSumeet,
Filll, SuperGirl, Maurice Carbonaro, Jouvenel, Thejosephboys, Dispenser, TomyDuby, Lupussy, Notreallydavid, R613vlu, Oceanflynn,
JayJasper, DjScrawl, 83d40m, Ontarioboy, Heyitspeter, Madhava 1947, Doug4, Inwind, Ntrval, Idioma-bot, Hugo999, Littleolive oil,
Raime, VolkovBot, TreasuryTag, Indubitably, Somejan, Maghnus, Adobar, TXiKiBoT, Ldonna, Myles325a, Agricola44, Tonyberge, The
Tetrast, Duncan.Hull, ACEOREVIVED, Npaskin, Korte40, Danleyw, BobTheTomato, Pijuvwy, AHMartin, SieBot, Darrell Wheeler, Ger-
akibot, Revent, 9ofzeven, Hedgehogfox, LeadSongDog, Hxhbot, Astro Calisi, ViennaUK, Poindexter Propellerhead, Mayalld, Vojvodaen,
Hhbruun, Dabomb87, Alexemanuel, Martijn Hesselink, Sheavsey33, Myrvin, JustinBlank, SallyForth123, ClueBot, SummerWithMorons,
Mgott8, Mc2000, Binksternet, WurmWoode, All Hallow’s Wraith, IceUnshattered, Ignatiusisgood, T-810, Tyurp, J8079s, Joao Xavier,
Hschlarb, Solar-Wind, Christian Skeptic, Excirial, Imalbornoz, Canis Lupus, Lmnopsic, Joylifeen, Martinkugler, Piersturner, Gciriani,
Redthoreau, Rdphair, MilesAgain, Aprock, Wcp07, XLinkBot, Redound, Terry0051, Mccaskey, Benwechsler, Suaheli~enwiki, Alex-
ius08, Feministo, Good Olfactory, Lookall, Addbot, DOI bot, GargoyleBot, Download, Protonk, Proxima Centauri, AndersBot, Favonian,
LinkFA-Bot, Jossejonathan, Squandermania, Tassedethe, Lightbot, HaraldStelzer, Arbitrarily0, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Nallimbot,
Kgeza7, Armchair info guy, Mnation2, AnomieBOT, Digyucca, Cmsreview, AaRH, JoopRemme, ChristopheS, Dave94703, Materialsci-
entist, Cyan22, Wandering Courier, Citation bot, B. Fairbairn, Cliftonian, Xqbot, TheAMmollusc, Eranu89, J JMesserly, BrianWren,
Srich32977, Omnipaedista, Cuauti, Mark Schierbecker, RibotBOT, Aquillagorilla, Kacir, FreeKnowledgeCreator, RichSmith1976, Fres-
coBot, Daggui, Mdheath, Thorwald C. Franke, DoostdarWKP, Haeinous, T@Di, Citation bot 1, SixPurpleFish, Jonesey95, Psychol-
ogistofChildren, ‫אצטרובל‬, RedBot, MastiBot, VenomousConcept, The Poetaster, Jandalhandler, Beao, Iamiggie, Jauhienij, Wotnow,
Lb.at.wiki, Lotje, Derektamim, Miracle Pen, Aoidh, Schwede66, Mohayeji~enwiki, WillNess, Hanswall, EmausBot, ImprovingWiki,
John of Reading, Oldrydalian, Lyckankommer, Ericbe, MURIEL43, Berislav, Lithistman, Kkm010, PBS-AWB, Ida Shaw, Fæ, Josve05a,
Horoen, McYel, Negyek, Bernard Dupriez CAFE, AndrewOne, Bushmillsmccallan, George Gaden, Teo Orlando, Benniczek, Donner60,
Evinmc, Polisher of Cobwebs, Chewings72, ChuispastonBot, Ihardlythinkso, Mcc1789, Logicalgregory, Xanchester, ClueBot NG, Ihak-
eycakeyabreak, Wizone, GioGziro95, Sonnenwind~enwiki, ScepticFritz, Benjamin9832, Niriop, Asalrifai, Helpful Pixie Bot, Furor Teu-
tonicus, AlterBerg, Bibcode Bot, BG19bot, Vagobot, Zealotries, Trumpkinius, Graham11, RecoveringAddict, Public awareness, Lxndr,
Lucianosilvajp, Polmandc, Millennium bug, Barney the barney barney, Anthrophilos, Hghyux, Rhlozier, Archer47, Dexbot, Rezonansowy,
Irondome, Profpjm, Inayity, Periglio, Hippocamp, NewBridge11, Combating Ignorance, TheFrog001, Waddlesplash, Martinsnm, Tren-
turrs, Chris troutman, AS48, Hubertl, Who, what, when, why??, Steeletrap, AviH2426, Aubreybardo, Elindsey25, Oscar666kta420swag,
JaconaFrere, ZinedineZidane98, TBR-qed, Öawpr, Phoenix 123 abc, Migas207, Anonimeco, Liberare, Guixacantijoch, Tourorist, Kas-
parBot, JJMC89, Ismailzad, Geodon93, Muoussar, Opensocietyanditsenemies, InternetArchiveBot, Salibanr, Marianna251, GreenC bot,
Howkafkaesque, Podoguru, ErichFromm29, Holy Goo, Bender the Bot, PrimeBOT, Costhee, BlueDog13, Common Yarrow, PaleoNeonate,
Prinsipe Ybarro, Sein und Zeit, Canpisiren, Academy of Philosophy and Anonymous: 444
• Methodology Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology?oldid=797796084 Contributors: Szopen, SimonP, Heron, Michael
Hardy, Paul A, Александър, Glenn, Dpbsmith, JorgeGG, Sunray, Wayland, Khalid hassani, Andycjp, Piotrus, Grm wnr, Discospinster,
Florian Blaschke, Sn0wflake, Mani1, Bender235, Kbh3rd, Brian0918, Diomidis Spinellis, Jpgordon, Bobo192, Nectarflowed, John Van-
denberg, Enric Naval, Ency, Acjelen, Pharos, Nsaa, Mdd, Alansohn, Jhertel, Arthena, John Quiggin, Lectonar, Uncle G, JonH, John Hill,
Rjwilmsi, ErikHaugen, SMC, Sango123, FlaBot, Srleffler, DVdm, YurikBot, Wavelength, Markus Schmaus, Stephenb, Manop, Cryp-
tic, Chick Bowen, Ctobola, Tomisti, Gergyl, K.Nevelsteen, Jasón, Teryx, XpXiXpY, SmackBot, Hydrogen Iodide, Jagged 85, Gilliam,
Frédérick Lacasse, Marsoult, RedHillian, Sebo.PL, Jon Awbrey, Wizardman, SashatoBot, Esrever, Kuru, Shilonite, Ex nihil, MTS-
bot~enwiki, Kvng, Courcelles, Frank Lofaro Jr., Csaracho, Thomasmeeks, Neelix, Penbat, Wingman358, Torrg, Tawkerbot4, Ambitus,
Lindsay658, Ayzmo, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Wikid77, Pstanton, Rolando.Montano, Escarbot, Calaka, Serenity id, Dylan Lake, JAnDbot,
MER-C, The Transhumanist, Gsaup, VoABot II, JamesBWatson, Sarahj2107, Cpl Syx, JaGa, A.J.1.5.2., Gaidheal1, J.delanoy, Mau-
rice Carbonaro, Nigholith, Hair Commodore, Brian Pearson, DH85868993, Samboner, Planeprint, Dapado, Satyr9, Philip Trueman,
TXiKiBoT, Zidonuke, The Tetrast, Martin451, Wiae, Enviroboy, Sapphic, Nihil novi, Happysailor, Stutek, Jojalozzo, ElysianImpe-
tus, Tesi1700, Sphilbrick, Martarius, ClueBot, Rjd0060, Drmies, Polyamorph, MrKIA11, LeoFrank, Isvogor, Doprendek, 7, Ps07swt,
XLinkBot, Rror, WikHead, The Rationalist, Addbot, Roystonea, Adrian 1001, Cevalsi, RTG, Glane23, Tide rolls, Mjquinn id, Arbitrarily0,
Luckas-bot, Yobot, TaBOT-zerem, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Nallimbot, KamikazeBot, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, Empro2, Kel-
logg257~enwiki, Frankenpuppy, ArthurBot, Obersachsebot, Hanno, Bruno Santeramo, Jezhotwells, Shadowjams, Willdw79, T.fennewald,
SD5, MarkkuP, Mark Renier, Recognizance, GreenStork, Cannolis, Boxplot, SpacemanSpiff, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, 10metreh,
Jonesey95, BRUTE, FoxBot, Jonkerz, LilyKitty, Suffusion of Yellow, AlrasAsperger, RjwilmsiBot, TjBot, Danielhenri, Ccrazymann,
EmausBot, Solarra, KilloMon, Niraventp, Staszek Lem, Jesanj, Lorem Ip, Mr man1951, Donner60, Pastore Italy, 28bot, Petrb, ClueBot
NG, Hamard Evitiatini, Tracesea, Wdchk, Farhanfish, O.Koslowski, Rezabot, Widr, Fltyingpig, Oddbodz, BG19bot, Ooker, Minsbot,
~riley, Zhaofeng Li, Mrt3366, Uday.gautam6, Melenc, Frangky silitonga, Jonathan.Angus, Ostadt, Kiwifrankie, Lugia2453, Jatinbadal,
Altered Walter, Maura Driscoll, Rodeyo, Pamelagpehrson, Melcous, BrightonC, Randomuser0122, Inorout, KasparBot, Deepakkumar y,
Nathanandrew23, Sonal Maheshwari, KolbertBot and Anonymous: 317
• Military sociology Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_sociology?oldid=780848151 Contributors: Edward, Bearcat, Alan
Liefting, Piotrus, Wikiacc, Bender235, Cedders, TomStar81, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Ground Zero, GünniX, Wavelength, Rjensen, SmackBot,
David Fuchs, Chris the speller, Trekphiler, RekishiEJ, CmdrObot, Olaf Davis, Woody, CosineKitty, YK Times, Faizhaider, Buckshot06,
JaGa, Ssolbergj, J.delanoy, Mrg3105, Funandtrvl, Tomsega, DruidODurham, ClueBot, Gaia Octavia Agrippa, JGC1010, Alexbot, Melon-
Bot, Kotorian1, Editor2020, Ps07swt, DumZiBoT, MystBot, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Jarble, Tartarus, Smonocco, Yobot, JoAnnSnow, Jee19,
Alf68, Dam59, John2120, Plasticbot, JackieBot, J04n, Omnipaedista, LucienBOT, GiW, Nevilledidit, Trappist the monk, RA0808, Re-
namedUser01302013, NearTheZoo, Perozdero22, ClueBot NG, Telemachus.forward, Bennydigital, Helpful Pixie Bot, Wbm1058, Mjc106,
BML0309, Sooker2011, Meclee, Jhunyadi, Fraulein451, JasonMacker, Me, Myself, and I are Here, Cpaparone, Liz, Liciamamba, Hay-
man30, Wikiuser00012 and Anonymous: 26
• Organizational theory Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_theory?oldid=787439173 Contributors: Lexor, Ronz,
Charles Matthews, Auric, Fenice, Mdd, Goodoldpolonius, Rjwilmsi, RobertG, Bgwhite, Wasted Time R, Wavelength, Bhny, Thnidu, Chris
the speller, Sadads, RekishiEJ, Iss246, Khommel, Magioladitis, DarwinPeacock, Funandtrvl, Jean-Louis Swiners, Bentogoa, Arjayay, Eu-
stress, SchreiberBike, Glane23, Yobot, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz, Jim1138, Ruby2010, Omnipaedista, Tom.Reding, Lothar.Bading,
BG19bot, Nikhil abraham, Compfreak7, Khazar2, Cctss88, Dexbot, Tdotolson, Me, Myself, and I are Here, Zmgoldstein, Bkregel, Mr-
funkygerbil, Awunderlich90, Mmartin01, Eferreira3020, Preetiraj kauraw, Mrm7171, Psyc12, Monkbot, Maria10123, Mkburton, Dr-
paulie, Krishaangelique, WP khodaie, Randzeo, Caj919, TRM001, Conyre, Magic links bot and Anonymous: 40
• Political science Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_science?oldid=793627050 Contributors: The Epopt, The Cunctator, Wo-
jPob, Mav, The Anome, RobLa, Alex.tan, StefanRybo~enwiki, A.J.Armitage, Axon, Yves Junqueira, Quintessent, Michael Hardy, Lexor,
Vera Cruz, Tannin, TakuyaMurata, Skysmith, Paul A, Minesweeper, Alfio, Ahoerstemeier, Angela, Glenn, Kvintadena, Cyan, LouI, Vzbs34,
Jiang, Smaffy, Rob Hooft, GRAHAMUK, Pizza Puzzle, Emperorbma, Bemoeial, Pizzo~enwiki, Ike9898, Jogloran, Hao2lian, Buridan,
Shizhao, Topbanana, JonathanDP81, Joy, Sandman~enwiki, Jecar, UninvitedCompany, Francs2000, JorgeGG, Lumos3, Huangdi, Ro-
manm, Sam Spade, Lowellian, Polonius, Academic Challenger, Ghormax, Michael Snow, HaeB, Tea2min, Alan Liefting, Ancheta Wis, Rd-
kamp, Nikodemos, Greyengine5, Netoholic, Wilfried Derksen, Mark.murphy, Everyking, Bkonrad, WHEELER, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Tom-
, Iota, Deus Ex, JRR Trollkien, Stevietheman, Fishal, Andycjp, Mike R, R. fiend, Formeruser-81, Pcarbonn, Proberts2003, J3ff, Robert
Brockway, Piotrus, Oneiros, Gsociology, H Padleckas, Bodnotbod, Trc, Xeroc, Grunt, Lacrimosus, Bluemask, Lucidish, D6, N328KF,
CALR, Discospinster, Martpol, Rannpháirtí anaithnid (old), Stbalbach, Bender235, El C, Lycurgus, Linkoman, RoyBoy, Gjbrandsma,
Bobo192, Altonmiller, Mytildebang, Giraffedata, Scott Ritchie, Joshlmay, Nk, JesseHogan, Mdd, Passw0rd, Jumbuck, Grutness, Alan-
sohn, Arthena, Atlant, Ronline, Iothiania, MarkGallagher, Cjnm, EKMichigan, Omphaloscope, Amorymeltzer, Lerdsuwa, Mikerussell,
VoluntarySlave, Blaxthos, Aliceinlampyland, Soltak, Nuno Tavares, Bloodsorr0w, Mel Etitis, Woohookitty, Timo Laine, Hurricane An-
gel, Jeff3000, Tabletop, Lapsed Pacifist, Hard Raspy Sci, Staatenloser~enwiki, Joe Roe, Mandarax, JBurnham, Cuchullain, BD2412,
Zachjones4, Sjö, Rjwilmsi, Mayumashu, Koavf, Nkrosse, Hgkamath, JHMM13, MZMcBride, FlaBot, Cacafuego95, Ian Pitchford, Gurch,
RobyWayne, Jrtayloriv, Wingsandsword, Chobot, Loco830, YurikBot, Wavelength, RussBot, Chaos, Shreshth91, Aeusoes1, Rjensen,
NYScholar, Irishguy, Jpbowen, InvaderJim42, The Filmaker, Farmanesh, M3taphysical, Black Falcon, Ms2ger, Avraham, Zzuuzz, An-
drew Lancaster, Italian boy, Feedmymind, LeonardoRob0t, MrMurph101, Kumarhk, Quirky, Allens, Katieh5584, GrinBot~enwiki, As-
cendedAnathema, C mon, Intangible, Robfenix, SmackBot, MattieTK, Unyoyega, Poldavo, Alex Ex, Yuyudevil, Jagged 85, Christom,
Hardyplants, Alsandro, Commander Keane bot, Yamaguchi , Gilliam, Hmains, Andy M. Wang, Vincent Vecera, TimBentley, Jprg1966,
Lusanders, BrendelSignature, Kaya~enwiki, DHN-bot~enwiki, Darth Panda, Gregoe86, D-Rock, Neo139, Onorem, Parent5446, Addshore,
Cataphract 40, Cordless Larry, Gokmop, Dacxjo, Kensor, ContagiousTruth, BrianH123, Byelf2007, Yohan euan o4, Rory096, J 1982,
Adam7davies, IronGargoyle, Ckatz, Still A Student, Nicknz, Denis Diderot II, RichardF, Hu12, K, Midnighttonight, Capitan Obvio,
Astharoth1, Shoeofdeath, Igoldste, Octane, CapitalR, Civil Engineer III, Linkspamremover, Billy Hathorn, Nobleeagle, Devourer09, JFor-
get, CRGreathouse, Pmyteh, DanielRigal, Neelix, Shanoman, Cydebot, ChrisKennedy, Xemoi, 01011000, Corpx, Wikipediarules2221,
Tawkerbot4, Lee, Nedtrifle, Heidijane, Gimmetrow, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Ultimus, Pepperbeast, Marek69, Kathovo, Mnemeson, Philippe,
Oddeivind, Big Bird, Dawnseeker2000, Mmortal03, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Seaphoto, Prolog, Prof.Thamm, Superzohar, LibLord,
Rafajs77, JAnDbot, MER-C, Brajaee, The Transhumanist, Db099221, 100110100, Smith Jones, Douglas R. White, Penubag, Casmith
789, Gsaup, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Tedickey, Aka042, Chivista~enwiki, Martynas Patasius, Edward321, Mabrintnall, MartinBot, Bet-
Bot~enwiki, 5618, Rettetast, Anaxial, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Snozzer, Vietminh, EdBever, Erkan Yilmaz, J.delanoy, Ali, Adavidb,
Psycho Kirby, Maurice Carbonaro, Cspan64, Miltonkeynes, The Transhumanist (AWB), Lmbstl, Bonadea, Sgeureka, BauerJ24, VolkovBot,
TreasuryTag, Johnfos, ABF, Davidwr, LeilaniLad, TXiKiBoT, Tomsega, Anonymous Dissident, P.dunleavy, Qxz, Someguy1221, Rich Ja-
nis, Leaf of Silver, Cerebellum, ^demonBot2, Mikehoffman, Mj92, Mahudson, Ben deWit, Ccorton, Jmping, Zarek, Youdumbismart,
Fanatix, Craigallin, SieBot, Coffee, Bentogoa, Flyer22 Reborn, Georgearison, Fratrep, Sunrise, KStreeter, Sphilbrick, Fishnet37222,
Denisarona, Webridge, RS1900, Martarius, Funkmetalhead16, ClueBot, GorillaWarfare, RisingSunWiki, The Thing That Should Not
Be, Nnemo, Gregcaletta, Der Golem, Niemeyerstein en, Boing! said Zebedee, Smartone000, Blanchardb, Auntof6, Masterpiece2000,
Excirial, Alexbot, Jusdafax, Bchaosf, Sun Creator, NuclearWarfare, Isabelbrinck, Cenarium, Zomno, Agor153, Exander2009, La Pi-
anista, Friedlibend und tapfer, Thingg, Footballfan190, JDPhD, Versus22, LinoPop, Apparition11, Editorofthewiki, Skunkboy74, AlanM1,
Poli08, Xxhallelujahxx1989, FernoKlump, SilvonenBot, Frood, Sunat76, Carefree Highway, Franz weber, MatthewVanitas, Addbot,
Maideneer, Fgnievinski, Ronhjones, Jncraton, Fieldday-sunday, FareedMcLure, Kapaleev, Tedmund, Ecpralias, Cst17, Skyezx, Down-
load, Glane23, Sorba, Tide rolls, Gail, Wit-o-pedia, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, MikeStuff, Mmxx, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?,
Beatboxxx, MacTire02, N1RK4UDSK714, Orion11M87, AnomieBOT, AdjustShift, BrightSpringMorning, MaybeJesusMaybeNot, Hist-
girl, Materialscientist, , Xqbot, Pavame49, Tasudrty, Capricorn42, 4twenty42o, HawaD, NFD9001, Benny 919, Omnipaedista,
Thosjleep, Phonieseverywhere, GhalyBot, SOS48, Shadowjams, ShadyPolitics, Madalieninvader, Thejadefalcon, Csa.certified, Prari, Fres-
coBot, Mistakefinder, Delmar86, M2545, Ladwiki, ΙωάννηςΚαραμήτρος, Louperibot, FinSoccer, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Jone-
sey95, Vasilcho, Fat&Happy, RedBot, Wcccdps101, Just a guy from the KP, Fawadlauhany, Reconsider the static, TobeBot, Jvandus1,
Dinamik-bot, Plscmajor, Weedwhacker128, PH4LC0N, Bearcute08, TjBot, Polly Ticker, DASHBot, EmausBot, John of Reading, Wik-
itanvirBot, Josephcunningham, Mjkhanwazir, Al Nava, Cristian.nadler, Erpert, Josve05a, MorbidEntree, AlexWolfx, Dffgd, Aavindraa,
Aeonx, EWikist, Mh512, Tolly4bolly, Talyor Will, Donner60, Phronetic, Mentibot, Subrata Roy, ChuispastonBot, JanetteDoe, Wakebrd-
kid, Terra Novus, TYelliot, ClueBot NG, FourLights, MelbourneStar, Argie Mabag, Nabob Nagusa, Sup3rman36, Millermk, Snotbot,
Zdravko111, Frietjes, TheUncleRyRy, O.Koslowski, Eantonsson, Sachinladia, Uci427, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Andrew Gwilliam, Gob
Lofa, Kinaro, Hairdress, BG19bot, Island Monkey, Sgelbman, FarmerJules, Aloharumi, Iselilja, FWest2, Ceradon, AngBent, Graham11,
ElphiBot, MusikAnimal, Therussiandiplomat, Anmolsazawal, Dancereader, CitationCleanerBot, Bobbiboy, MisterMorton, Loriendrew,
Rhinopias, Acadēmica Orientālis, Mmunmun108, Cyberbot II, Bozzibop, Jimmzbragg, Dexbot, Rothbardanswer, SteenthIWbot, Yup-
pie15, Sourov0000, Rotlink, Liz617, GabeIglesia, Unorknewyique, Epicgenius, CsDix, Howicus, AmericanLemming, Vincentmiro, Cheru-
binirules, John de Norrona, DavidLeighEllis, Minu Babu, Pspoonam144, Bhalu30, Npsapj84, Alinemaile, Poohbearlovesyah, TDJankins,
Bigpoliticsfan, Finnusertop, Sawulermoo, Zedtex, Gratefulguy, Mickung, Sawdust Restaurant, Marky.Mark95, E339polsq, CamelCase,
Prof121, Mssdept, RT196, Dewmhoig, Navibio, KasparBot, Shaoun Ahamed, Virajbhau, Guitarguy84, Nityananda Naskar, Pogita111,
Rushwaist1890-, Kurousagi, Shahen books, Redzemp, MediaKill13, Charlotte135, Ashraful Munna Saddam, Simplexity22, Baking Soda,
Ramòn DeLa Porta, Mehman97, Ecateo, GreenC bot, Saira Randhawa, Bestdissertationwriting, Montocharleewonder, Millysiyer, Nis-
hant1111, NewByzantine, The Civilizationist, Ozuruigbo, PrimeBOT, RememberToForget, Zayko99, Trevoryaacob99, Naveed Musthafa,
EJBMAGNACUMLAUDE and Anonymous: 669

• Positive statement Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_statement?oldid=794601993 Contributors: Altenmann, RJHall, TheP-
roject, John Quiggin, Tlroche, Catamorphism, Amalthea, SmackBot, Quaque, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Xyzzyplugh, Soumyasch,
Gregbard, Gltimmons, Jarry1250, Briholt, 7&6=thirteen, Kbseah, PatrickFlaherty, Jarble, Helpful Pixie Bot, Electriccatfish2, BG19bot,
Marcocapelle, Tatchell, Mengyuan.Zhao, Bizmaveric, IWillBuildTheRoads and Anonymous: 17
• Sociology Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology?oldid=797949912 Contributors: Derek Ross, Sodium, Lee Daniel Crocker,
Brion VIBBER, Mav, Zundark, The Anome, Taw, Slrubenstein, Ed Poor, Andre Engels, Fredbauder, Fubar Obfusco, SimonP, Fonzy,
KF, Olivier, Ram-Man, DennisDaniels, Edward, Patrick, D, Tillwe, Michael Hardy, Fred Bauder, Kroose, Gdarin, Vera Cruz, Martin-
Harper, Tannin, Ixfd64, Tomos, TakuyaMurata, Delirium, Docu, Snoyes, Zouhair, Duckie, Den fjättrade ankan~enwiki, Александър,
Glenn, Nikai, Llull, Andres, Clausen, Mxn, Conti, Mydogategodshat, Hashar, Crusadeonilliteracy, Alex S, Vanished user 5zariu3jisj0j4irj,
RickK, Brusk, Dysprosia, Colipon, Tpbradbury, Dunning, Darwindecks, Studymore, Traroth, Sandman~enwiki, Jecar, HarryHenryGebel,
Wiwaxia, Raul654, Wetman, Lunchboxhero, Secretlondon, Jerzy, Jusjih, JorgeGG, Owen, Jni, Twang, Robbot, Sander123, Pigsonthewing,
Rainville~enwiki, RedWolf, Romanm, Modulatum, Kokiri, Chris Roy, Nilmerg, Texture, Sunray, Hadal, Nerval, Borislav, Michael Snow,
Guy Peters, Alan Liefting, Ancheta Wis, Lunkwill, Buyaguru~enwiki, Wolfkeeper, Kenny sh, Netoholic, Everyking, Niteowlneils, Angry
candy, LarryGilbert, Sietse, Khalid hassani, Matt Crypto, Elmindreda, Jackol, Bobblewik, Pheel, Ni~enwiki, Andycjp, Alexf, Antan-
drus, Beland, Piotrus, Ot, APH, Gsociology, Defenestrate, Pgreenfinch, MarkNeville, Jafro, Elpenmaster, Khefri, Mike Rosoft, Lucidish,
RTCearly, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, KillerChihuahua, Guanabot, Erolos, Mani1, SpookyMulder, Bender235, ESkog, Kbh3rd,
LordGulliverofGalben, Fenice, Dgorsline, MBisanz, El C, Kelly Ramsey, Lycurgus, Bobo192, Cretog8, Dralwik, Smalljim, Flxmghvgvk,
Quarryman, 9SGjOSfyHJaQVsEmy9NS, Giraffedata, NoahK, WikiLeon, Jcdavis, HasharBot~enwiki, Passw0rd, Danski14, Alansohn,
Kessler, Theaterfreak64, Rodw, Dowcet, Wikidea, Mlessard, Ynhockey, Cedric Dwarf, Velella, MarioGuima, Clubmarx, Evil Monkey,
RainbowOfLight, Birdmessenger, Sciurinæ, Davidgauntlett, SteinbDJ, Ceyockey, Mahanga, Bobrayner, Velho, Woohookitty, LOL, Poc-
cilScript, Jpers36, GlaucusAtlanticus, Kzollman, TheoClarke, Jmaass, Jeff3000, MONGO, Hbdragon88, Wikiklrsc, Hughcharlesparker,
Jonnabuz, Dysepsion, Mandarax, Magister Mathematicae, BD2412, FreplySpang, Sjö, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Mayumashu, Koavf, Ere-
bus555, Carl Logan, Quiddity, Bhadani, Dar-Ape, FlaBot, VKokielov, Moskvax, Musical Linguist, Latka, Airumel, Diderobot~enwiki,
Nivix, RexNL, Otets, Nicolay, FLCL, Chobot, Svencb, QuirkyAndSuch, DVdm, Gdrbot, Bgwhite, Gwernol, YurikBot, Wavelength,
RobotE, RussBot, Mark Ironie, Shell Kinney, Gaius Cornelius, Rsrikanth05, Wimt, Anomalocaris, NawlinWiki, Ytcracker, Boneheadmx,
Madcoverboy, Dialectric, The Ogre, Grafen, Rjensen, Darker Dreams, Dureo, Thiseye, Irishguy, Retired username, Jpbowen, Mwey-
mar, Raven4x4x, DYLAN LENNON~enwiki, NpaK13, BOT-Superzerocool, Bota47, PanchoS, Stefeyboy, Phgao, Zzuuzz, Lt-wiki-bot,
Chrismartin76, Igglybuff, Theda, Donald Albury, Davril2020, Reyk, Esprit15d, Feedmymind, GraemeL, Black Kat, Allens, Maxamega-
lon2000, GrinBot~enwiki, Jade Knight, Luk, Veinor, SmackBot, RedHouse18, Prodego, Longsun, Hydrogen Iodide, DCDuring, Ryan
Higgitt, Jagged 85, Scubbo, YokaiKnight, Kopaka649, AnOddName, Ck4829, Sectryan, Sebesta, Yamaguchi , PeterSymonds, Gilliam,
Gizmoguy, Ohnoitsjamie, Skizzik, Evilandi, Chris the speller, €pa~enwiki, Darkfelinanova, Xx236, Neo-Jay, Jeff5102, Ikiroid, Sparkleiya,
Colonies Chris, A. B., D-Rock, Siwangmu, OrphanBot, Tim Pierce, Nixeagle, Yidisheryid, Ww2censor, Terryeo, Ddon, SundarBot,
Vault~enwiki, Jumping cheese, Greenlight01, Nakon, Jiddisch~enwiki, “alyosha”, Amit56, DMacks, Sadi Carnot, Vina-iwbot~enwiki,
Chris 1127, Masterpjz9, Byelf2007, Cast, Ginar, AThing, Wtwilson3, Shlomke, Mgiganteus1, Melody Concerto, Ojuice5001, Jonty303,
Lonniepoet, Beetstra, MrArt, Vir, Irn, RichardF, Citicat, Dl2000, KJS77, Hu12, Levineps, Daedalus71, Hetar, BranStark, AndriusKu-
likauskas, Iridescent, JMK, Shoeofdeath, J Di, Civil Engineer III, Maikstrik, Tawkerbot2, George100, TarrVetus, Robinhw, JForget,
Wolfdog, HD-POE, CRGreathouse, Edward saint-ivan, Postmodern Beatnik, Ale jrb, Bobfrombrockley, The Missing Piece, Van helsing,
Nunquam Dormio, IntrigueBlue, WeggeBot, Downcastrelic, Barreto, Penbat, Jim182, LCP, AndrewHowse, Shanoman, Cydebot, Gunder-
iffic, Reywas92, Paulshanks, MC10, Hebrides, Llort, Froes~enwiki, Sa.vakilian, SeniorScribbler, He Who Is, Martin Jensen, Tawkerbot4,
Molerner, Chrislk02, JodyB, Woland37, Andrew250, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Barticus88, Rupe1014, HappyInGeneral, Bendroz, Mojo Hand,
Pepperbeast, Marek69, Newe1344, Tapir Terrific, A3RO, Chickensoda, Gavinshields, JustAGal, CharlotteWebb, Edhubbard, Sabikun, Na-
talie Erin, Escarbot, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Seaphoto, Cbankst, AaronY, Canadiangurl, Modernist, Edusoc, Ok!, Jaymar520, Insvik,
Phanerozoic, Qwerty Binary, Golgofrinchian, ClassicSC, Bhikkhu Santi, JAnDbot, Narssarssuaq, Davewho2, Kaobear, JenLouise, MER-
C, The Transhumanist, Bigar, Instinct, Douglas R. White, Kerotan, LittleOldMe, Geniac, Reswik, Gsaup, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Deki-
masu, Ninabeck~enwiki, Mspandana, X-factor, KConWiki, Cathalwoods, Nposs, POKETNRJSH, Allstarecho, Cpl Syx, Vssun, DerHexer,
JaGa, Rickard Vogelberg, Chickensofdoom, MartinBot, Mermaid from the Baltic Sea, Skyler13, Muff Potter, Anaxial, CommonsDelinker,
AlexiusHoratius, Mike Restivo, Ash, Pomte, Mausy5043, Thirdright, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Altes, Adavidb, Numbo3, Jerry,
Bot-Schafter, Britsoc, McSly, DarwinPeacock, NaomiRG, Pyrospirit, AntiSpamBot, M-le-mot-dit, Joshafina, The Transhumanist (AWB),
NewEnglandYankee, DadaNeem, SJP, Cobi, Flatterworld, Cometstyles, Chinasociology, Natl1, Samlyn.josfyn, DASonnenfeld, Bejideane-
likesmuff, Sailor1889, Arunbalagopalan, Remi0o, Malik Shabazz, Deor, VolkovBot, Infoman99, Haiti01, Simmonsjd02, Indubitably, Al-
noktaBOT, Huzzah101, ShereKhan8~enwiki, Davidwr, WOSlinker, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Tommaso.vitale, Philaweb, Cos-
mic Latte, Vindalf, Jacob Lundberg, Hammard, Tomsega, Jazzwick, Amanda.haynes, Guillaume2303, ElinorD, GcSwRhIc, Lordvolton,
JayC, Leafyplant, AllGloryToTheHypnotoad, LeaveSleaves, Wwwwzzzz, Noformation, GDudek, GhanaDa, Watchdealer, Madhero88,
Roland Kaufmann, A Geographer, Dirkbb, Socgeek, Falcon8765, Cnilep, Chenzw, Sue Rangell, Logan, Jantaro, EmxBot, Rudra 18, Back-
home5, Ganemcometudo, SieBot, Chimin 07, Sonicology, Tcww20, Matthew Yeager, RJaguar3, Yintan, Vanished user 82345ijgeke4tg,
Xelgen, Barent, Joaosampaio, Bentogoa, Oda Mari, Nua eire, Jojalozzo, Serenity forest, Neptune99, Hobartimus, Technite, Halcionne,
Pjscience, DancingPhilosopher, SiefkinDR, Proper tea is theft, Cyfal, Briannajchan, Wini9000, Dabomb87, Pikamander2, Denisarona,
Jadesina, Fashionologist, WordyGirl90, Dlrohrer2003, WikipedianMarlith, Datta-ray, Loren.wilton, MBK004, Deep1979, ClueBot, Sum-
merWithMorons, DarkFireYoshi, Avenged Eightfold, The Thing That Should Not Be, Theseven7, Plastikspork, Horton Pebes, Super-
touch, Arakunem, Der Golem, Talastra, DavidPickett, Mild Bill Hiccup, SuperHamster, Mwsinclair, Jf325403, Blanchardb, Juliapreston,
Ngeemalpo, Masterpiece2000, Excirial, CohesionBot, Verticalsearch, Resoru, Featherfiend, Hezarfenn, 1Arethusa, GreenGourd, Scot-
tielad, Cenarium, Arjayay, Sbfw, 3nacbc, Morel, Mikaey, Banime, SchreiberBike, Ottawa4ever, Kakofonous, Grrrlriot, Thingg, SoxBot
III, Editor2020, BarretB, Against the current, XLinkBot, Hotcrocodile, Dark Mage, Saeed.Veradi, Nepenthes, Little Mountain 5, WikHead,
NellieBly, Milbo, Ken Jubber, WikiDao, ZenmasterFlash, Thatguyflint, Kikoromba, HexaChord, Addbot, Proofreader77, Ss87922p, Fg-
nievinski, Globalsolidarity, Mootros, Ronhjones, TutterMouse, SmartM&M, Br1z, Leszek Jańczuk, Damiens.rf, FPWSN, Twinkie eater91,
Cst17, CarsracBot, Debresser, Favonian, Emmawors, LinkFA-Bot, West.andrew.g, Tassedethe, AvantVenger, Numbo3-bot, Tide rolls,
Miss Brittney Anne, Lightbot, Luckas Blade, Jarble, CountryBot, LuK3, Cloooe x, Lambaldwin, Ben Ben, Luckas-bot, TheSuave, Dillardjj,
Yobot, Kartano, Keith Tee, Abasass, Coalpatch, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Wikitita, KamikazeBot, Ucimatty, Synchronism, Trevinci,
MihalOrela, Orion11M87, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Tonysdg14, Jim1138, IRP, AdjustShift, Ulric1313, Afgreif, Materialscientist, Danno
uk, Citation bot, Carlsotr, Raven1977, ArthurBot, Charliehesk, Xqbot, S h i v a (Visnu), Sionus, Cureden, Capricorn42, Seanbrowning,
Andreadb, Nasnema, Hanberke, Sociologist4life, Tyrol5, Petropoxy (Lithoderm Proxy), J04n, GrouchoBot, Omnipaedista, Miriska, Ri-
botBOT, JerryIsThePosterChild, Peter Robinson Scott, Canto2009, Doulos Christos, Trafford09, Fixentries, Willdw79, A.amitkumar,
Guerorocks, Sushiflinger, Verpar, Qbert789, FrescoBot, Taishan88, Tobby72, Pepper, Ronald bolender, Ricky1984, D'ohBot, Ladril,
Citation bot 1, Cdickerson01, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Adasinol, Ibn khaldun78, Jonesey95, Nurefsan, Coekon, Calmer Waters,
A8UDI, Hesham4488, Serols, Vanderdecken12, MichaelExe, Nafile, Nimh00, Reconsider the static, FadulJA, Orenburg1, Gamewizard71,
FoxBot, TobeBot, Trappist the monk, Wotnow, Douglasbell, Darigan, CathySc, Lotje, Dinamik-bot, Junglefever2009, Capt. James T. Kirk,
Reaper Eternal, Suffusion of Yellow, Tbhotch, Reach Out to the Truth, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Obsidian Soul, Threewords,eightletters...,
RjwilmsiBot, Msin10, Andreas Philopater, KiLLaCRuSHs, Aircorn, DASHBot, DoRD, Whywhenwhohow, EmausBot, John of Read-
ing, Orphan Wiki, Soccybrarian, WikitanvirBot, Josephcunningham, Max139, Aaloklamsal1, Super48paul, Dewritech, Northernsouth-
erner, GoingBatty, RA0808, PHMegacorp, Slightsmile, Wikipelli, Dcirovic, K6ka, We hope, Nick.patrick55, Nj301409, ZéroBot, Life
in General, Josve05a, Knight1993, Universalbuilder, Allforrous, Caromkidd, Jonpatterns, Dffgd, Gary cunningham, Netknowle, Veshhis-
tory, AManWithNoPlan, Δ, Donner60, Regiorgio, GermanJoe, RockMagnetist, NTox, Sdkb, Arunconcern, GrayFullbuster, DASHBotAV,
Littlefish597, ClueBot NG, E to pi i is minus one, Cwmhiraeth, Raghith, KIeio, NestleNW911, Robiminer, Hermes the Wise, Thegod-
father115, Hazhk, O.Koslowski, Duke Pepelu Tivrusky, Widr, Jorgenev, Cinkapp, Helpful Pixie Bot, ProtoFire, Gob Lofa, WNYY98,
Plantdrew, BG19bot, Prudentist, Krenair, Marcuswikipedian, Nikilearner, Graham11, Gabriel Yuji, Frze, Marcocapelle, WaspByte, Mark
Arsten, Rm1271, Skaulan Jgen, Mutiheer, Batman1907, Stimulieconomy, Meclee, JobHorber, Thebeard88, Dianaruttman1, MBWhitney,
Dwt123, Bradyculous, Xsjadow, Suneja786, Pratyya Ghosh, Vincentflames28, Omohoa, Cyberbot II, Editor123789, Samar.nasir, Lad-
umdum, Skohli1, Sajuachu, Sociology111, Adebayo577, Tosinojo, Adammohamed1993, Nmarzouk, Mawgg, Zay5307, Sarahstudiessoci,
Littlesoup, Shaanmir93, Bubbleman123, Khazar2, Pterosaurus Rex, Dexbot, FoCuSandLeArN, Johnny3001, Hishampgm, The Vintage
Feminist, Wishingwell11, Lugia2453, Frosty, Hair, Asdimd, Tapas burdwan, Lourine, Eagleash, Epicgenius, LViau, DASL51984, Cana-
dianpoptart, CsDix, StephanieThoma, JamesMoose, Tentinator, Sdaeun, EvergreenFir, Backendgaming, John de Norrona, SamX, Davi-
dLeighEllis, Lewismacdonaldcock, Deborah Lupton, Ugog Nizdast, Delija Do Groba, Puthoni, Melody Lavender, Ginsuloft, George8211,
Jackmcbarn, Kind Tennis Fan, Vinny Lam, Icensnow42, GrassHopHer, JaconaFrere, Calmbit, Mirogeorgiev1997, Idanoyes, Monkbot,
Hanif Al Husaini, Biscuitbrendan, Verylegitman, Scarlettail, Taaadaaa, ProvingAndrewRight, HERSHY2013, Polemicista, Ari.korhonen,
Sanskari, Bridenh, KBH96, Thebucketmanfromhades, Kvantikos afros, KH-1, Mrpotatoman, Edmonston789, Jlewis144, Gladamas, Social
Theory, Kcornelison93, Mwecau, IahBessy, GeneralizationsAreBad, Edwinkipchirchir, Rwang26, Nehoy menoy867, KasparBot, Gohoya,
Abubakar Daura, Banterlad123, Orvic csuf, Linguist111, Aab921, Juanchi3345, TheOrgTheoryGuyFromValhellaa, InternetArchiveBot,
Tariq ahmad ali, Maryam Santamaria, Entranced98, Knb398, Lord bayoo1996, GreenC bot, Lucasmelo, Gulumeemee, Bear-rings, Mo-
tivação, Piramide100?, Acopyeditor, IngridGunn36, PrimeBOT, Travsoc, Ashfaqur Rahman AAkash, Ethanorcutt, TaylorC1022, Home
Lander, Magic links bot, Dr. Rajshree Shastri, Gtravel, Astatzcyn, Greenisnotacreativecolor and Anonymous: 1335
• Epistemology Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology?oldid=799513536 Contributors: Lee Daniel Crocker, Wesley, The

Anome, Ed Poor, RK, Larry Sanger, Youssefsan, SimonP, Camembert, Netesq, Yaginuma, Youandme, R Lowry, Stevertigo, Edward, The
hanged man, Michael Hardy, Fred Bauder, Owl, BoNoMoJo (old), Liftarn, Zeno Gantner, Karada, CesarB, Ahoerstemeier, Ronz, Dgaubin,
Snoyes, Glenn, Poor Yorick, Andres, Cema, Evercat, Sethmahoney, Hectorthebat, Jod, Hieronymous, Ehn, Adam Conover, Lit-sci, Timwi,
Wikiborg, Sbwoodside, Gutza, Selket, Markhurd, Pedant17, Tpbradbury, Bevo, Wetman, Banno, Phil Boswell, Robbot, Falcone~enwiki,
Fredrik, Kizor, Zandperl, Tomchiukc, Goethean, Altenmann, Yelyos, Nurg, Tim Ivorson, Henrygb, AceMyth, 75th Trombone, Hadal,
Chris-gore, Michael Snow, Mushroom, MilkMiruku, Nagelfar, Alan Liefting, Lysy, Snobot, Giftlite, Andries, Kim Bruning, Wolfkeeper,
AmishThrasher, Zigger, Obli, Everyking, Brona, Curps, Wikiwikifast, Yekrats, Gracefool, Christofurio, Wronkiew, Slindner, Alvestrand,
SonicAD, Wmahan, OldakQuill, Mporch, Andycjp, Antandrus, Neilm, Piotrus, Cioxx, Hans castorp81~enwiki, Mukerjee, Karol Langner,
Rdsmith4, Sam Hocevar, Arcturus, Marcos, Neutrality, Caton~enwiki, Fintor, Robin klein, Trevor MacInnis, Armeck, Flex, Marginalboy,
Lucidish, Brianjd, Haiduc, Nathan Ladd, DanielCD, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Rhobite, FranksValli, Mrevan, Slipstream, Maksym
Ye., Paul August, Bender235, STGM, Jaberwocky6669, Kaisershatner, Jambalaya~enwiki, Eric Forste, El C, Pjrich, Kwamikagami, Mwan-
ner, Laurascudder, Sietse Snel, Aaronbrick, Causa sui, Bobo192, Robotje, Smalljim, Evolauxia, BrokenSegue, Malafaya, Giraffedata,
Aquillion, Nk, Alexalderman, Mtreinik, Mdd, Roel.deLeeuw, Red Winged Duck, Alansohn, Ungtss, Rxc, Keenan Pepper, Wohz, Splat,
WhiteC, Batmanand, Olaf Simons, Mysdaao, Hu, Malo, Caesura, Wtmitchell, BaronLarf, Ish ishwar, Knowledge Seeker, Omphaloscope,
RJII, Lerdsuwa, Elduderino, Versageek, Brookie, Alex.g, MickWest, Mindmatrix, Consequencefree, David Haslam, Gruepig, Kokoriko,
Miketwo, Kzollman, JeremyA, Modestos~enwiki, Kelisi, CharlesC, Jonathan48, Karbinski, Marudubshinki, Graham87, Marskell, Alienus,
Magister Mathematicae, BD2412, Chun-hian, NubKnacker, Josh Parris, Drbogdan, Rjwilmsi, Jake Wartenberg, Kurtber, MarSch, Dennis
Estenson II, Rschen7754, ElKevbo, Cynoclast, Afterwriting, Reinis, Chronographos, Rangek, Ecelan, Ravenswood, Awotter, Mishuletz,
Airumel, StephanCom, AAMiller, GünniX, AJR, Andy85719, ReSearcher, Alexjohnc3, Smtrembl~enwiki, M7bot, Backflash001, Emiao,
BradBeattie, Mark Yen, Spencerk, WouterBot, Cooldudep, Chobot, Krishnavedala, Bgwhite, The Rambling Man, Wavelength, Deep-
trivia, Phantomsteve, Jtkiefer, SpuriousQ, Rodasmith, RadioFan, Gaius Cornelius, KSchutte, Wimt, Anomalocaris, DJ Bungi, Welsh, Syl-
vain1972, JTBurman, Drsayis2, Dputig07, Cruise, Iancarter, Denihilonihil, M3taphysical, Zephyrjs, Googl, Boivie, 2over0, Zzuuzz, Dast,
Ninly, Closedmouth, Ketsuekigata, Јованвб, Josh3580, Loffy, Ratagonia, DotSix, Kevin, PurplePlatypus, Sethie, Infinity0, Samuel Blan-
ning, Finell, Tom Morris, Matt Heard, Luk, Johnmarkh, Sardanaphalus, Brizimm, MartinGugino, SmackBot, Source~enwiki, Haymaker,
Diggers2004, Rtc, ElectricRay, Honza Záruba, InverseHypercube, McGeddon, Pokipsy76, ViewFromNowhere, AlecMcEachran, Delldot,
Hardyplants, Monty Cantsin, Josephprymak, Iph, Michaël, The Rhymesmith, Vassyana, Gilliam, KBAegis, JAn Dudík, David Ludwig, Ty-
ciol, Jaymay, Keegan, Jprg1966, Thumperward, MartinPoulter, Alexwagner, Silly rabbit, Stevage, Go for it!, WikiPedant, Ig0774, Ganja-
Manja, Bgautrea, November05, Rrburke, Roguenine2000, Breadandroses, Yonkey, Cubbi, John wesley, Richard001, Spartanfan10, Love-
Monkey, Clean Copy, Andrew c, Lacatosias, Kalexander, Drphilharmonic, Sethwoodworth, Jon Awbrey, Leaflord, SpiderJon, DMacks,
RichAromas, John Bentley, Ck lostsword, Ace ETP, Will Beback, Bn, Nick Green, Sina2, Dbtfz, Kuru, The idiot, Troelspedersen, Disavian,
A-moll9, IronGargoyle, FrostyBytes, JHunterJ, Alatius, Bendzh, Epiphyllumlover, Ryulong, Theswampman, RichardF, Nabeth, Isokrates,
MyOwnLittlWorld, DabMachine, PeterCScott, K, Dreftymac, Pegasus1138, Paul Knight, Arto B, Areldyb, Courcelles, Tawkerbot2,
Ioannes Pragensis, Coriolise, CalebNoble, JForget, DonkeyKong64, Bobo Fernandez, Wolfdog, CmdrObot, Porterjoh, Fumblebruschi,
Galo1969X, 3814, Kylu, MarsRover, Neelix, Caracas1830, Richard Keatinge, Keithh, MrFish, Antalas, Gregbard, Zoniedude, Cydebot,
Mblumber, A876, Mungo Park, MC10, Danman3459, Travelbird, Countchoc, Chrislk02, DBaba, Protious, Daven200520, Lindsay658,
Landroo, Jeblad, Lectert, Lid, Dave0016, 271828182, Mystar, Klaas1978, Headbomb, Ca$$e, Kemm@ig.com.br, Escarbot, Sydneytroz,
Mentifisto, Hmrox, Epistemologist, LogicMan, AntiVandalBot, Seaphoto, Kamerau, Drino, Antique Rose, Darklilac, Axxaer, Ivan Godard,
Empyrius, TheRepairMan, Sluzzelin, Atlas Mugged, JAnDbot, Deflective, Stephanhartmannde, Lafrance150, Skomorokh, CosineKitty,
The Transhumanist, Johnmlee, Albany NY, Michael Keats, Felix116, Typochimp, Hroðulf, Kennethamy, Wikidudeman, JamesBWatson,
Jackbirdsong, Ling.Nut, Chrisdel, J.B., Prokaryote, Snowded, Catgut, Johnbibby, Nposs, Eldumpo, Cpl Syx, Paulbowman, Autobot Ninja,
Vssun, Philosophy Junkie, JaGa, Nowletsgo, Steevven1, Rickard Vogelberg, Otvaltak, MartinBot, BetBot~enwiki, Anarchia, Louiseal-
lana, Tsinoyboi, Efio, Bissinger, Wild Pansy, Sosei, Creol, Passanger, MacAuslan, Gedayc, Potion, C.R.Selvakumar, J.delanoy, UBeR,
Nbauman, Maurice Carbonaro, Joewski, Katalaveno, Zanarh, Icheesehead, Mikael Häggström, Lbeaumont, Tparameter, The Transhuman-
ist (AWB), Jeremydyoung, Aphilosopher, EnglishGoethe, Kansas Bear, LeighvsOptimvsMaximvs, Heyitspeter, Bhepburn, Nincubus99x,
Dhaluza, JoshReeves2, Treisijs, Inwind, Squids and Chips, Glossologist, Barnham, TreasuryTag, Macedonian, Joe conflo, Gepstein, TXiK-
iBoT, Max Werner, Steve Newport, Bruce I. Kodish, Abdullais4u, Actipolak, Cuddlyable3, MaveenOlam, Davwillev, JonathanDLehman,
Syncrofish, Moe h43, Enigmaman, Yk Yk Yk, Lamro, Cantiorix, Xeno8, Pammalamma, Synthebot, Banrisul, Enviroboy, Rurik3, Pico-
jeff, Cnilep, Juulferg, Symane, Editator, Newbyguesses, SieBot, Ivan Štambuk, Smobri, Tiddly Tom, Malcolmxl5, Winchelsea, Arpose,
Viskonsas, Jrk500, Approaching, Android Mouse, Nigel E. Harris, Unthak, Javierfv1212, Lightmouse, SH84, StaticGull, Tsamraj, Fe-
lizdenovo, Lloydpick, Clepock, R00m c, Explicit, JustinBlank, Granite07, EPadmirateur, Martarius, Peterlum, ClueBot, Thedosmann,
SummerWithMorons, Snigbrook, Darobian, Monicakeena, Arakunem, Rmallott1, Shivaram ac, Jean-marc.bottazzi, Arbeit Sockenpuppe,
Pointillist, Mdebellis, Darkmasterjoey, PaulKincaidSmith, Estirabot, Yorkshirian, Brews ohare, NuclearWarfare, Arjayay, Bracton, Hans
Adler, M.O.X, QASIMARA, SchreiberBike, MickCallaghan, Sumflowerboy, Aitias, JDPhD, Adriansrfr, T71024, Darwin’sSon, LinoPop,
BigK HeX, YouRang?, Buggia, AlphaCentauri6, Tegiap, Saeed.Veradi, Piratejosh85, SilvonenBot, Khunglongcon, Addbot, Dando Dan-
gerslice~enwiki, DOI bot, Melab-1, Wickey-nl, Betterusername, Phlegm Rooster, Fgnievinski, Wdhparker, MrOllie, Glane23, Favonian,
LinkFA-Bot, Jaydec, Tassedethe, Numbo3-bot, Bungalowbill430, Sarason, Zorrobot, Jarble, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, PaulWalter,
TaBOT-zerem, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, KirkCliff2, Untrue Believer, Austin.McKnight, RigdzinPhurba, AnomieBOT, Demon-
hunter698, Galoubet, Bluerasberry, Materialscientist, Knop92, Citation bot, Groundling, Quebec99, Xqbot, Tasudrty, GaroGarabedyan,
Zr6374, Spotfixer, Srich32977, Yiba, Omnipaedista, F W Nietzsche, Aaron Kauppi, Walter.sena, QFlux, BoomerAB, Chjoaygame, Huge-
tim, Nagualdesign, Robynthehode, FrescoBot, Sebastic21, Paine Ellsworth, Djrb1979, TruthIIPower, Tkbh374, Jamesooders, Yehoshua2,
Rhalah, Citation bot 1, Infinity Ryan, Pinethicket, Jmartinsmith, Williambunter, Tanzania, Mahtabshadi, Dwdallam, Pollinosisss, Reflex-
inio, Philocentric, GregKaye, LilyKitty, BrianR2, ZetKIK, Seahorseruler, WillNess, David Forgianni, RjwilmsiBot, TjBot, Phlegat, Wild-
Bot, Slon02, Smd75jr, Wizem, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Whroll, Des Attwell, Solarra, Tommy2010, Auró, Listmeister, Meumeumarj,
PBS-AWB, Fæ, Cybermud, Wikimk, Gary6012, Antimatter31, AndrewOne, Captain Almighty Nutz, Kemper911, Donner60, Wikiloop,
N6n, Te Karere, AndyTheGrump, Gipsonb, ClueBot NG, Globjulia, Wikilogue~enwiki, CocuBot, Hamard Evitiatini, Justlettersandnum-
bers, Twelveoclock, Thaimoon, AXMR, O.Koslowski, MathKeduor7, Dream of Nyx, Girly Brains, SkidRoadKid, Merlob, MerlIwBot,
Helpful Pixie Bot, Jisard, Wbm1058, Jeraphine Gryphon, ChrisEngelsma, BG19bot, Das schmittchen, Beaumont877, Graham11, ElphiBot,
Frze, Smlombardi, Solomon7968, Erik.Bjareholt, Pentagonpie, Lovepool1220, CitationCleanerBot, Nnykaza, MilesRamaphosa, Sdenkasp,
Polmandc, Winston Trechane, Fsopho, Rombomb2005, Wannabemodel, Danielpuddertakhellambam, James Disambiguation-Smith, Prof.
Squirrel, Cyberbot II, JYBot, Platopete, Lawyerrick, Dexbot, Fionalyn, Inayity, Cerabot~enwiki, Proper Stranger, Frosty, Corinne, Me,
Myself, and I are Here, Gabby Merger, Epicgenius, Gladtobeherenow, CsDix, Daysleeping, Yellowjacketninja, EMBViki, Kap 7, Neu-
rodyn, Sdcone, Shrikarsan, Tobrhi, Velvetloveglove, Orangecones, Inanygivenhole, Aubreybardo, Pragmando, Liz, MadreBeatrix, Grue-
pea, Caleb.goedken, Sync101, Amw176, Ingroc, MadScientistX11, Monkbot, Asad Khan Baloch, Mike2085, Adamyakes, Asjdhagjfb-
hajfh, Jamesbondjnr, MartinDuPe, Laferrierejc, Farnsies, Briggsbrady4, Izkala, Absolutepat, Netczar, Joebevo, Oboofyu, Mousenight,
KasparBot, MB298, Equinox, Mryatzy2k15, Fredlvtt, Thierry Dugnolle, Tlendriss, Baking Soda, InternetArchiveBot, Andy028, Anareth,
NScheinerman, IWillBuildTheRoads, Blamebuddha, GreenC bot, Noamaster88, Gulumeemee, Mysticalresearch, Warlo, Kimberly Lojew-
ski, Greaber, Adamman2004, C0gent, Mandy131313, Asskisser3104, Arjunraghavan3104, Magic links bot, Opportunisticrhetoric, Abdul
Rahim Chandio and Anonymous: 856
• List of philosophies Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophies?oldid=794451649 Contributors: Mrwojo, The hanged
man, Michael Hardy, Jahsonic, Ahoerstemeier, Mcfly85, Freechild, Buridan, Banno, Goethean, Cfp, Bennylin, Lunaverse, Maurreen,
Oop, Flammifer, Mbimmler, Ceyockey, Noz92, Woohookitty, RHaworth, Polycarp, Eluchil, BD2412, Dpark, Quiddity, The wub, Elmer
Clark, Bgwhite, YurikBot, RussBot, KSchutte, LaszloWalrus, RDF, Closedmouth, The Way, Infinity0, Snalwibma, Sardanaphalus, Mr
Curly, Meshach, Ignotum per Ignotius, Allixpeeke, Jagged 85, Gilliam, Wasm, €pa~enwiki, Go for it!, Colonies Chris, WikiPedant, Pwjb,
Bora Nesic, Byelf2007, Cast, Hazr0x, Sharnak, BranStark, Sam Clark, Laplace’s Demon, Gango, Iddqd iddqd, EricMagnusBroderick,
JForget, Sdorrance, Gregbard, Md84419, Fllmtlchcb, Sa.vakilian, Doug Weller, Jhenn, Letranova, Thijs!bot, Andyjsmith, Carolmooredc,
Danny lost, Skomorokh, Dsp13, The Transhumanist, Responsible?, Black Samurai, Dkriegls, AstroHurricane001, Paris1127, Kelvin Knight,
Squids and Chips, John Creedy, Dchmelik, Bogdan rusu, Cnilep, Bfpage, Bjgupta, Greaged, MichaelJPierce, StaticGull, Bowei Huang
2, Visarga, Soporaeternus, StephanNaro, Cirt, PixelBot, JonatasM, Jjb999, Thingg, Editor2020, Pfhorrest, Addbot, Neodop, Tpaine89,
Woland1234, JEN9841, Yobot, Rubinbot, J04n, Omnipaedista, IShadowed, A.amitkumar, FrescoBot, Titus.jon, Markalanfoster, Aleister
Wilson, Chua Fook Loon, GregKaye, Farhikht, Theologiae, Leilani hontiveros gaspay, James Brian Ellis, EmausBot, John of Reading,
Wham Bam Rock II, ZéroBot, SporkBot, Staszek Lem, Slamu, ClueBot NG, TyphoidMarty, ScienceDawns, SzMithrandir, Drishtantoism,
Mathematicmajic, Marcocapelle, Leelabratee, Anthrophilos, Pratyya Ghosh, Chlebashořčicí, DPRoberts534, Narky Blert, Atho Phink,
Soulgazer, Ggid, BjörnF, Nivethithan001, Jackedgson, Jacoooob and Anonymous: 128
• Logic Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic?oldid=799601848 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Vicki Rosenzweig, The Anome, Toby
Bartels, Ryguasu, Hirzel, Dwheeler, Stevertigo, Edward, Patrick, Chas zzz brown, Michael Hardy, Lexor, TakuyaMurata, Bagpuss,
Looxix~enwiki, Ahoerstemeier, Notheruser, BigFatBuddha, Александър, Glenn, Marco Krohn, Rossami, Tim Retout, Rotem Dan,
Evercat, EdH, DesertSteve, Caffelice~enwiki, Mxn, Michael Voytinsky, Peter Damian (original account), Rzach, Charles Matthews,
Dcoetzee, Paul Stansifer, Dysprosia, Jitse Niesen, Xiaodai~enwiki, Markhurd, MikeS, Carol Fenijn, SEWilco, Samsara, J D, Shizhao,
Power~enwiki, Olathe, Jusjih, Ldo, Banno, Chuunen Baka, Robbot, Iwpg, Fredrik, R3m0t, Altenmann, MathMartin, Rorro, Rholton,
Saforrest, Borislav, Robertoalencar, Michael Snow, Raeky, Guy Peters, Jooler, Tea2min, Filemon, Ancheta Wis, Exploding Boy, Giftlite,
Recentchanges, Inter, Wolfkeeper, Lee J Haywood, COMPATT, Everyking, Rookkey, Malyctenar, Andris, Bovlb, Jason Quinn, Sundar,
Siroxo, Deus Ex, Rheun, LiDaobing, Roachgod, Quadell, Starbane, Piotrus, Ludimer~enwiki, Karol Langner, CSTAR, Rdsmith4, APH,
JimWae, OwenBlacker, Kntg, Mysidia, Pmanderson, TiMike, Eduardoporcher, Eliazar, Grunt, Guppyfinsoup, Mike Rosoft, Freakofnur-
ture, Ultratomio, Lorenzo Martelli, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, KillerChihuahua, Rhobite, Guanabot, Leibniz, Hippojazz, Vsmith,
Raistlinjones, Slipstream, ChadMiller, Paul August, Bender235, El C, Chalst, Mwanner, Tverbeek, Bobo192, Cretog8, Johnkarp, Shenme,
Amerindianarts, Passw0rd, Knucmo2, Storm Rider, Red Winged Duck, Alansohn, Anthony Appleyard, Shadikka, Rh~enwiki, Chira,
ABCD, Kurt Shaped Box, SlimVirgin, Batmanand, Denniss, Yummifruitbat, Shinjiman, Velella, Sciurinæ, MIT Trekkie, Alai, Cranial-
Nerves, Velho, Mel Etitis, Mindmatrix, Camw, Kokoriko, Kzollman, Ruud Koot, Orz, MONGO, Apokrif, Jok2000, Wikiklrsc, CharlesC,
MarcoTolo, DRHansen, Gerbrant, Tslocum, Graham87, Alienus, BD2412, Porcher, Sjö, Rjwilmsi, Mayumashu, Саша Стефановић,
GOD, Bruce1ee, Salix alba, Crazynas, Ligulem, Baryonic Being, Titoxd, FlaBot, Kwhittingham, Latka, Mathbot, Twipley, Nihiltres,
SportsMaster, RexNL, AndriuZ, Quuxplusone, Celendin, Influence, R Lee E, JegaPRIME, Malhonen, Spencerk, Chobot, DVdm, Bg-
white, EamonnPKeane, Roboto de Ajvol, Wavelength, Deeptrivia, KSmrq, Raquel Baranow, Endgame~enwiki, Polyvios, Cambridge-
BayWeather, KSchutte, NawlinWiki, Rick Norwood, SEWilcoBot, Mipadi, Brimstone~enwiki, LaszloWalrus, AJHalliwell, Trovatore,
Pontifexmaximus, Chunky Rice, Cleared as filed, Nick, Darkfred, Wjwma, Googl, Mendicott, StuRat, Open2universe, ChrisGriswold,
Nikkimaria, OEMCUST, David Biddulph, Nahaj, Extreme Unction, Allens, KNHaw, Sardanaphalus, Johndc, SmackBot, Lestrade, In-
verseHypercube, Pschelden, Jim62sch, Jagged 85, WookieInHeat, Josephprymak, Timotheus Canens, Srnec, LonesomeDrifter, Yam-
aguchi , Collingsworth, Gilliam, Skizzik, RichardClarke, Heliostellar, Chris the speller, Jaymay, Da nuke, Unbreakable MJ, MK8,
Andrew Parodi, Kevin Hanse, MalafayaBot, Clconway, Sciyoshi~enwiki, Go for it!, Mikker, Zsinj, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Mis-
gnomer, Grover cleveland, Fuhghettaboutit, Cybercobra, Nakon, Jiddisch~enwiki, Richard001, MEJ119, Kabain52, Lacatosias, Jon Aw-
brey, DMacks, Henning Makholm, Ged UK, Ceoil, Byelf2007, SashatoBot, Lambiam, Dbtfz, Deaconse, UberCryxic, FrozenMan, Heim-
stern, Shlomke, Shadowlynk, Joshua Scott, F15 sanitizing eagle, Prince153, WithstyleCMC, Hvn0413, Meco, RichardF, Novangelis,
Vagary, Pamplmoose, KJS77, Hu12, Levineps, BananaFiend, K, Lottamiata, Catherineyronwode, Mrdthree, Igoldste, Themanofnines,
Adambiswanger1, Satarnion, Tawkerbot2, Galex, SkyWalker, CRGreathouse, CBM, Editorius, Rubberchix, Gregbard, Kpossin, Cydebot,
Pce3@ij.net, Jasperdoomen, Samuell, Quinnculver, Peterdjones, Asgrim, Travelbird, Pv2b, Drksl, JamesLucas, Julian Mendez, Dancter,
Tawkerbot4, Shirulashem, Doug Weller, DumbBOT, Garik, Progicnet, Mattisse, Letranova, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Kredal, Smee, Marek69,
AgentPeppermint, OrenBochman, Dawnseeker2000, Escarbot, Eleuther, Mentifisto, Vafthrudnir, AntiVandalBot, Peoppenheimer, Ma-
jorly, Gioto, Hidayat ullah, GeePriest, Dougher, Dhrm77, Sluzzelin, JAnDbot, Narssarssuaq, MER-C, The Transhumanist, Avaya1, Zizon,
Frankie816, Savant13, Dr mindbender, LittleOldMe, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, SDas, JNW, Arno Matthias, Appraiser, Gammy, Smi-
hael, Caesarjbsquitti, Midgrid, Bubba hotep, Moopiefoof, GeorgeFThomson, Virtlink, David Eppstein, Epsilon0, DerHexer, Waninge,
Exbuzz, MartinBot, Wylve, CommonsDelinker, EdBever, C.R.Selvakumar, J.delanoy, Trusilver, Jbessie, Fictionpuss, Cpiral, RJMalko,
McSly, Lightest~enwiki, Classicalsubjects, Mrg3105, Daniel5Ko, The Transhumanist (AWB), Policron, MetsFan76, Kenneth M Burke,
Steel1943, Idioma-bot, Spellcast, WraithM, VolkovBot, Cireshoe, Rucha58, Macedonian, Hotfeba, Indubitably, Fundamental metric ten-
sor, Jimmaths, Station1, Djhmoore, Aesopos, Oshwah, Rei-bot, Llamabr, Ontoraul, Philogo, Leafyplant, Sanfranman59, Abdullais4u, Jack-
fork, Cullowheean, Wiae, Maxim, Myscience, LIBLAHLIBLAHTIMMAH, Synthebot, Rurik3, Koolo, Nagy, Symane, PGWG, W4chris,
Prom2008, FlyingLeopard2014, Radagast3, Demmy, JonnyJD, Newbyguesses, Linguist1, SieBot, StAnselm, Maurauth, Paradoctor, Ger-
akibot, RJaguar3, Yintan, Bjrslogii, Soler97, Til Eulenspiegel, Flyer22 Reborn, DanEdmonds, Undead Herle King, Crowstar, Redmarkvi-
olinist, Spinethetic, Thelogicthinker, DancingPhilosopher, Svick, Valeria.depaiva, Adhawk, Sginc, Tognopop, CBM2, Yotex9, 3rdAlcove,
PsyberS, Francvs, Classicalecon, Khirurg, Mx. Granger, Atif.t2, Martarius, ClueBot, Andrew Nutter, Snigbrook, The Thing That Should
Not Be, Taroaldo, Ukabia, Mild Bill Hiccup, TheOldJacobite, Boing! said Zebedee, Niceguyedc, Blanchardb, DragonBot, Jessieslame,
Excirial, Alexbot, Jusdafax, Watchduck, AENAON, NuclearWarfare, Arjayay, SchreiberBike, Thingg, JDPhD, Wirjadisastra, Scalhotrod,
Budelberger, Skunkboy74, Gerhardvalentin, Duncan, Saeed.Veradi, Mcgauley08, NellieBly, Noctibus, Aunt Entropy, Jjfuller123, Spidz,
Addbot, Rdanneskjold, Proofreader77, Atethnekos, Sully111, Logicist, Vitruvius3, Rchard2scout, Glane23, Uber WoMensch!, Chzz, Favo-
nian, LinkFA-Bot, AgadaUrbanit, Numbo3-bot, Ehrenkater, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Macro Shell, Zorrobot, Jarble, JEN9841, Aarsalankhalid,
GorgeUbuasha, Yobot, Arcvirgos 08, Jammie101, Francos22, Azcolvin429, MassimoAr, AnomieBOT, Hairhorn, Jim1138, IRP, Ad-
justShift, Melune, NickK, Materialscientist, Neurolysis, ArthurBot, Gemtpm, LilHelpa, Blueeyedbombshell, Junho7391, Xqbot, RJGray,
Gilo1969, The Land Surveyor, Tyrol5, A157247, Petropoxy (Lithoderm Proxy), Uarrin, GrouchoBot, Peter Damian, Hifcelik, Omni-
paedista, ,‫פריימן‬78.26‫ مهدی جمشیدی‬,, Tales23, GhalyBot, Aaron Kauppi, GliderMaven, FrescoBot, Liridon, D'Artagnol, Tobby72,
D'ohBot, Mewulwe, Itisnotme, Cannolis, Rhalah, Citation bot 1, Chenopodiaceous, AstaBOTh15, Gus the mouse, Pinethicket, Vicenarian,
A8UDI, Ninjasaves, Seryred123, Serols, Wikiain, PlyrStar93, Maokart444, Jandalhandler, Gamewizard71, FoxBot, TobeBot, Burrito-
burritoburrito, Mysticcooperfox, Lotje, GregKaye, Vistascan, Vrenator, Duoduoduo, ‫בן גרשון‬, Merlinsorca, Literateur, Jarpup, Whisky
drinker, Mean as custard, Rlnewma, TjBot, Walkinxyz, EmausBot, Orphan Wiki, Nick Moyes, The Kytan Apprentice, Pologic, Faolin42,
Jedstamas, Wham Bam Rock II, Solarra, ZéroBot, PBS-AWB, Leminh91, Josve05a, Shuipzv3, Mar4d, Wayne Slam, Frigotoni, Staszek
Lem, Rcsprinter123, FrankFlanagan, L Kensington, Danmuz, Eranderson, Donner60, Chewings72, Puffin, GKaczinsky, Chuispaston-
Bot, NTox, Poopnubblet, Xanchester, Rememberway, ClueBot NG, W.Kaleem, Jack Greenmaven, Satellizer, SusikMkr, Quantamflux,
Validlessness, Bastianperrot, Wdchk, Snotbot, Masssly, Widr, Lawsonstu, ESL75, Helpful Pixie Bot, Anav2221, BG19bot, Daniel Zsenits,
Norma Romm, PTJoshua, Northamerica1000, Graham11, Geegeeg, JohnChrysostom, Frze, Chjohnson39, Marcocapelle, Alex.Ramek, CJ-
Macalister, CitationCleanerBot, Jilliandivine, Flosfa, Chrisct1993, Brad7777, Lrq3000, Mewhho18, A.coolmcfly, Compulogger, Cyberbot
II, Roger Smalling, The Illusive Man, NanishaOpaenyak, Rhlozier, EagerToddler39, Dexbot, Marius siuram, Табалдыев Ысламбек, Oman-
chandy007, RideLightning, Jochen Burghardt, Wieldthespade, Hippocamp, Wickid123, Matticusmadness, JMCF125, NIXONDIXON,
CsDix, I am One of Many, Biogeographist, ‫גלעד ניר‬, Tentinator, EvergreenFir, Babitaarora, Ugog Nizdast, Melody Lavender, Just-
Berry, Skansi.sandro, Ginsuloft, Robf00f1235, Calvinator8, The Annoyed Logician, Liz, GreyWinterOwl, ByDash, Jbob13, Henniepenny,
Matthew Derick B Cruz, Filedelinkerbot, Sherlock502, Equilibrium103, Fvdedphill, Norwo037, Karnaoui, IagoQnsi, Claireney, Pat132,
The Expedia, Sbcdave, Muneeb Masoud, A Great Catholic Person, Jacksplay, Asdklf;, Esicam, ChamithN, WillemienH, Ntuser123, Psy-
chopathicAssassin, Cthulhu is love cthulhu is life, Jiten Dhandha, Loraof, Julietdeltalima, Adamrobson28, Josmust222, Rubbish computer,
Layfi, KcBessy, SamiLayfi, Lanzdsey, SoSivr, Human3015, MeshCollider, ZanderEdmunds, Amccann421, KasparBot, Bestusername-ign,
Sparky Macgillicuddy, BjörnF, Mithisharma, MindForgedManacle, Citation requested but not required, Nyetoson, CLCStudent, Saunder-
sLane, TBNRGiazo, Baking Soda, Harmon758, InternetArchiveBot, Isuredid, Entranced98, Anareth, Rachel Benedict, Fluttershy (totally
not SonicFan007FTW), JILOmed, Robot psychiatrist, Gulumeemee, Hanlucky, OZiefOx, Sora 190, Apollo The Logician, Mr EVERY-
THING, What cat?, Kjhajkfa, L8 ManeValidus, WolfGargan, Vhbbbhbhbbbhfcfg, Mai Onee~sama, Sophia emmi, Astatzcyn, NickTheTur-
tle and Anonymous: 833
• Logical positivism Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_positivism?oldid=787180643 Contributors: The Anome, 0, Rgamble,
Camembert, Tzartzam, Olivier, Tillwe, Michael Hardy, BoNoMoJo (old), Tannin, TakuyaMurata, Delirium, Atticus~enwiki, Snoyes, Jdfor-
rester, Mk270, Jod, Peter Damian (original account), Charles Matthews, Mephistopheles, David Shay, Bhuston, Shizhao, Rohan Jayasekera,
Marc Girod~enwiki, JorgeGG, Jhobson1, Pjedicke, Tim Ivorson, P0lyglut, Jxg, Rursus, OneVoice, Vacuum, Stirling Newberry, Matthew
Stannard, Giftlite, Lethe, Dratman, Rick Block, Costyn, Ragib, Wmahan, ClockworkLunch, Piotrus, Phil Sandifer, Histrion, Gary D,
Oknazevad, Kate, Lucidish, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Cagliost, Francis Schonken, Bender235, Jambalaya~enwiki, Pjrich, Cre-
tog8, Nyenyec, Goblim, PWilkinson, Pearle, Knucmo2, Jumbuck, Alansohn, Mduvekot, Guy Harris, Plumbago, Elduderino, GabrielF,
Versageek, DV8 2XL, Alai, Natalya, Bobrayner, Velho, Kzollman, Ruud Koot, Jok2000, Tabletop, Xipheus865, Definition12, Ken-
Bell, Graham87, BD2412, Jacob Finn, Kane5187, Rjwilmsi, Iolaire, Zbxgscqf, KYPark, FlaBot, Margosbot~enwiki, RogerKni, Gwernol,
YurikBot, Hairy Dude, Grbefumo, Rodasmith, Gaius Cornelius, Vincej, Dysmorodrepanis~enwiki, Docrpm, Welsh, Schlafly, JTBurman,
Bota47, Tomisti, Zzuuzz, Canley, Mais oui!, Canadianism, Infinity0, GrinBot~enwiki, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Twerges, Thomas Ash,
Imz, Lestrade, Rtc, InverseHypercube, Iph, Sebesta, PJTraill, Trebor, Apeloverage, Go for it!, Kostmo, Mikker, Sholto Maud, Jefffire,
Justin Stafford, Cybercobra, Freemarket, Clean Copy, Byelf2007, John, A.Z., Loadmaster, Stampit, K, Joseph Solis in Australia, Igoldste,
Ewulp, Trialsanderrors, Murzim, Shirahadasha, Danarothrock, CmdrObot, Ibadibam, Outriggr (2006-2009), Sdorrance, Gregbard, ST47,
Julian Mendez, Thijs!bot, JimFarm, Settembrini~enwiki, Etaweaver, Mmortal03, Basilo, Widefox, D. Webb, Adam Chlipala, Tlabshier,
Danny lost, DarthShrine, JAnDbot, MartinDK, LookingGlass, David Eppstein, Exiledone, D.h, Gisse~enwiki, Rickard Vogelberg, Zip123,
N4nojohn, Maurice Carbonaro, Jreferee, Meredityman, Iolasov, Diderot23, Straw Cat, Sam Blacketer, Nadavvv, TXiKiBoT, Antoni Barau,
JhsBot, Cnilep, Thefellswooper, SieBot, Nihil novi, BotMultichill, Hxhbot, Undead Herle King, Sunrise, Firefly322, WikipedianMarlith,
SummerWithMorons, Wookie501, GorillaWarfare, Drmies, Alexbot, Brews ohare, Bracton, BOTarate, Vegetator, Cantor, Life of Riley,
SilvonenBot, Good Olfactory, Yum7977, Addbot, DOI bot, Non-dropframe, Atethnekos, OttRider, WMdeMuynck, Tassedethe, Cesium-
frog, Jan eissfeldt, Xenobot, Legobot, Drpickem, Yobot, TaBOT-zerem, Legobot II, Librsh, AnomieBOT, Jo3sampl, Materialscientist,
Xqbot, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, Haakenlid, FreeKnowledgeCreator, Hugetim, Vividuppers, Eaglesperm, Endofskull, Machine Elf 1735,
Discer151, Citation bot 1, Shiki2, Dark Charles, LittleWink, Yahia.barie, RedBot, Logical Gentleman, Rollinmoss, ItsZippy, Toaster-
lyreasons, Duoduoduo, EmausBot, Hirsutism, ZéroBot, PBS-AWB, Kusername, The Logical Positivist, Gbsrd, Khaydock, Y-barton, Rafiq
Mohammad, Polisher of Cobwebs, 28bot, Manytexts, ClueBot NG, Willyfreddy, Shrinkrap123, RJFF, MathKeduor7, Helpful Pixie Bot,
Ricardohz, Andre.bittar, Plantdrew, MusikAnimal, Stelpa, Silvrous, Dogfishtoo, Lovepool1220, Chaswoo, CitationCleanerBot, Cyber-
bot II, Rectipaedia, Charles Lowe, Steve9821, PinkAmpersand, Steeletrap, Sol1, GreyWinterOwl, Occurring, Monkbot, SomeLeviathan,
1wicked, KasparBot, Communist-party-van, Arian471, Lexi sioz, Mr. Universe16, PrimeBOT, GregConan, Bmrio425 and Anonymous:
210
• Frankfurt School Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankfurt_School?oldid=799688821 Contributors: Ed Poor, Shii, Kurt Jans-
son, FvdP, R Lowry, Atlan, Earth, Gdarin, 172, Ahoerstemeier, Snoyes, Angela, Jimmer, Darkwind, Poor Yorick, Susurrus, Kaihsu,
Jacquerie27, JASpencer, Greenrd, Pedant17, Jjshapiro, Taxman, Rbellin, Lunchboxhero, Fito, Dimadick, Robbot, Sunray, David Gerard,
Stirling Newberry, Pmerriam, Gtrmp, Abigail-II, Lupin, Ferkelparade, DO'Neil, Pteron, Clossius, Mboverload, Bobblewik, Timmartin,
Bacchiad, Vadmium, Formeruser-81, Piotrus, Hans castorp81~enwiki, Ot, Phil Sandifer, Magadan, Tubedogg, Yossarian, Atemperman,
Herschelkrustofsky, Margr8, Adashiel, Lucidish, Jayjg, Buffyg, Varada, A-giau, RossPatterson, Blanchette, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot,
Pmsyyz, Florian Blaschke, Lulu of the Lotus-Eaters, User2004, Dbachmann, Mani1, Bender235, El C, Aude, Mqduck, Jpgordon, Robotje,
Zarateman, Aquillion, HasharBot~enwiki, Mduvekot, Hipocrite, Dark Shikari, Wtmitchell, Benson85, Huerlisi, Isfisk, Jeffrey O. Gustafson,
Woohookitty, Bkwillwm, BD2412, Qwertyus, Porcher, Georgelazenby, Olessi, Ffaarr, John Maynard Friedman, Chobot, DaGizza, Yurik-
Bot, Peregrine Fisher, Jlittlet, RussBot, Arado, Rakkar, Nobs01, Mark Ironie, Raquel Baranow, Hydrargyrum, Jrideout, M3taphysical,
Bota47, PanchoS, Smaines, Zzuuzz, Nikkimaria, Curpsbot-unicodify, Dean Sayers, Rickkuhn, NeilN, Infinity0, Intangible, Veinor, Smack-
Bot, DuncanBCS, Stephensuleeman, Piccadilly, Jyoshimi, David Ludwig, Jprg1966, MartinPoulter, Apeloverage, Tamfang, PiMaster3,
Millipede, Zdravko mk, NickPenguin, Navidnak, Bejnar, Clicketyclack, Will Beback, SashatoBot, Franklin Dmitryev, Kingfish, JohnI,
Bo99, DGtal, Dontworry, Iridescent, Amalas, Bobfrombrockley, Calibanu, WeggeBot, Gregbard, Yaris678, Cydebot, Stebbins, Future
Perfect at Sunrise, Aristophanes68, Doug Weller, DumbBOT, Thijs!bot, Barticus88, Bot-maru, Marek69, Itsmejudith, RoboServien, Word-
forge, KrakatoaKatie, Emeraldcityserendipity, JAnDbot, Athkalani~enwiki, JenLouise, Avaya1, MelanieN, Bowieno, JamesBWatson, Ea-
gleFan, JaGa, Coffeepusher, Alsee, CommonsDelinker, Nono64, Fconaway, Gaming4JC, Henry Cassini, Dave Dial, Ian.thomson, Tarinth,
KylieTastic, Jeff G., AlnoktaBOT, Oshwah, Tomsega, Steven J. Anderson, JerryRussell, Wiae, Alaric the Goth, The Devil’s Advocate,
SieBot, N-HH, Agbook, LeadSongDog, RatatoskJones, Criticaltheoryforum, Smilo Don, SummerWithMorons, Meffo, Morgan gibson87,
TheOldJacobite, Shaded0, Niceguyedc, Sandyenglish, TonyBallioni, Yorkshirian, Rhododendrites, Hans Adler, 1ForTheMoney, DerBorg,
Mszajewski, Indopug, Jax 0677, Jytdog, Pfhorrest, Loganmac, Piratejosh85, WikHead, Addbot, Grayfell, CarsracBot, Busterbarker2008,
AndersBot, Woland1234, Last Contrarian, Tassedethe, Lightbot, Sindinero, Jarble, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Waterfall581, AnomieBOT, Demo-
craticLuntz, Ump111, DarthChrist, Bartleby08, Joeleisenhower, Xqbot, XZeroBot, Srich32977, J04n, Omnipaedista, Carrite, FreeKnowl-
edgeCreator, FrescoBot, Rymmen, T@Di, CircleAdrian, NorthPark420, Winterst, I dream of horses, RedBot, Piero79, Reconsider the
static, Douglasbell, Jonkerz, Triffidy, Lotje, LSUniverse, Dinamik-bot, Vrenator, TheMesquito, Onel5969, Dzieglersf, Walkinxyz, 15Xin,
Beyond My Ken, Alfons2, Slon02, Ofrahod, EmausBot, ImprovingWiki, Dewritech, RenamedUser01302013, Wikipelli, Dnm, PBS-
AWB, Tulandro, Wucherpfennig, Jacobisq, Ubikwit, Rigley, Phronetic, Mlang.Finn, Borreby, Ad Orientem, Helpsome, ClueBot NG,
Rsupposes, RichLK, Hupaleju, ScottSteiner, Gast2011, Helpful Pixie Bot, Joe Bodacious, Jeraphine Gryphon, Tom-1674, Ymblanter,
ArtifexMayhem, MusikAnimal, OldSquiffyBat, Wodrow, Sanglorian, RGloucester, Shaun, MeanMotherJr, BattyBot, Eb7473, Ekren, Cer-
abot~enwiki, LonelyBoy2012, Me, Myself, and I are Here, Pincrete, CsDix, Christina Gerhardt, EvergreenFir, Master of Time, Flat Out,
UltimateBoss, ApeMixDiversity, Fuzzy mongoose, Aubreybardo, Liz, Urbanfox1, Nizolan, DrVentureWasRight, Zumoarirodoka, Man-
gokeylime, RudiLefkowitz, Славянский патриот, EEEEEE1, Polemicista, 3primetime3, MRD2014, Ryubyss, Conchpotters, Pretendus,
Batmacumba, 09I500, PublicolaMinor, Mirai19, Jobrot, Ever Jobim, Corsairio, Deciduous Maple, CounterCritic, Enlightened editor, Se-
curingAFuture14W, User000name, Supdiop, Nøkkenbuer, KasparBot, Tim.Fosner, MusikBot, Equinox, Plank, Second Dark, Gnisum,
RR420, Sangu1slp, Kurousagi, IBestEditor, Torygreen84, InternetArchiveBot, Connor Machiavelli, Alaudine, 12Dagge, Chas. Caltrop,
Theguy651, Mangtang, Cpaaoi, Vinnylospo, Nlindsey8, KolbertBot and Anonymous: 196
• Critical theory Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_theory?oldid=798407080 Contributors: Mav, 0, Slrubenstein, Larry Sanger,
JeLuF, Heron, Camembert, R Lowry, Quintessent, Patrick, Michael Hardy, Jahsonic, Kku, Zeno Gantner, Docu, Angela, Ijon, Salsa
Shark, Poor Yorick, Sethmahoney, Charles Matthews, Pedant17, Jjshapiro, VeryVerily, AaronSw, Rbellin, Matthewstapleton, Fredrik,
Voyager640, Sunray, AndreasB, Stirling Newberry, Cobra libre, Ds13, Romanpoet, Filceolaire, Pteron, Mboverload, Khalid hassani,
Mporch, Fredcondo, Piotrus, Phil Sandifer, Huntington, Halo, Picapica, Esperant, Stevenmattern, DanielCD, Buffyg, Mercurius~enwiki,
Rich Farmbrough, Pluke, User2004, Dbachmann, FantasMic~enwiki, Bender235, Physicistjedi, Pearle, Burn, Pedro Aguiar, Mhazard9,
Planders, Woohookitty, StradivariusTV, Kzollman, Jeff3000, Bluemoose, Graham87, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Josiah Rowe, Tangotango,
Kevmitch, Weebot, Jfraatz, Hatch68, Bgwhite, Adoniscik, YurikBot, Personman, Manicsleeper, Red Slash, Koffieyahoo, Mark Ironie,
Gaius Cornelius, Alex Bakharev, NawlinWiki, Cognition, StarTrekkie, M3taphysical, Thegreyanomaly, Maunus, Mrtea, Smaines, Igif-
fin, Jbetteridge, Veinor, SmackBot, Gilliam, Battlecry, Tsop, Jwy, Elbelz, Kvcad, Dreadstar, Andrew c, Jon Awbrey, Metamagician3000,
Navidnak, Kukini, Byelf2007, SofieElisBexter, SashatoBot, Lapaz, RichardF, Adambiswanger1, JForget, Peter1c, Amalas, Bobfrombrock-
ley, JohnCD, Neelix, Gregbard, Cydebot, Gogo Dodo, Doug Weller, DumbBOT, Thijs!bot, Nick.ruiz, Headbomb, Ros Power, Pogogunner,
Fayenatic london, Ceiling Cat MASTAR!!!!, Wayiran, Leafman, Darrenhusted, Ioeth, JAnDbot, MegaMind, The Transhumanist, Mauricio
Maluff, Mjs110, Nomorecyber, Hifrommike65, Cgingold, JaGa, CCS81, D.h, Gwern, Macmelvino, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Gregorthe-
bug, RIPSAW1986, The Transhumanist (AWB), Juliancolton, FilmDoctor, Mlangione, VolkovBot, Sanjukooldude, Hersfold, Mercury-
woodrose, Tomsega, Someguy1221, Magmi, LeaveSleaves, Room429, Sothisislife101, Yk Yk Yk, Sydneyej, Demmy, SieBot, StAnselm,
YonaBot, Darrell Wheeler, Criticaltheoryforum, Jojalozzo, Emesee, Liwag, Smilo Don, Sean.hoyland, Afuhz, Mx. Granger, Martar-
ius, ClueBot, SummerWithMorons, Andrewmagliozzi, DionysosProteus, Der Golem, TheOldJacobite, Uncle Milty, BirgerH, Rhododen-
drites, Millionsandbillions, Nobody of Consequence, SchreiberBike, Editor2020, Semitransgenic, XLinkBot, Hotcrocodile, Doraannao,
Jytdog, Poli08, Badinfinity, Stitchill, Rexroad2, Mootros, Grimsson, Nycresearch, Cst17, Gail, JEN9841, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot,
AnomieBOT, Ump111, 1exec1, Rockypedia, Materialscientist, E235, ArthurBot, Avocats, Fungiblesovereign13, Ampialb-uv, Xqbot, Spi-
dern, Commgrad, Aurelius451, Dr Oldekop, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, Kyng, Bellerophon, Tony56roberts, FreeKnowledgeCreator, Fres-
coBot, Parul Vora, Markalanfoster, Illanwall, Ecantu09, Citation bot 1, I dream of horses, A8UDI, RedBot, MondalorBot, Fixer88, Bdcon-
ley, Dunnettreader, FoxBot, Denyiten, Douglasbell, LilyKitty, Usability 3, Tbhotch, Walkinxyz, 15Xin, EmausBot, Lunaibis, Never give
in, McGrudis, TheSoundAndTheFury, Tweak279, PBS-AWB, Moonlight8888, Tulandro, Empty Buffer, Independentvoice98, Semmler,
Annawjacobs, Wayne Slam, Phronetic, Pochsad, Pigeonpost, Tricee, EdoBot, Borreby, Will Beback Auto, ClueBot NG, Tonystewart14,
RJFF, Snotbot, Frietjes, Johnuio, Gast2011, Helpful Pixie Bot, MaxR, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Dr. Coal, Meclee, MeanMoth-
erJr, BattyBot, Haymouse, ChrisGualtieri, Uday.gautam6, Toobahussain, Ekren, Liza Freeman, Ducknish, JYBot, Archer47, Mr. Guye,
Webclient101, Jochen Burghardt, Hippocamp, Me, Myself, and I are Here, Cosainsé, Aubreybardo, PeterTAnteater, Augustine 2014,
Beth.Alex123, A Great Catholic Person, Mics 777, Jobrot, SoSivr, User000name, KasparBot, Binsafir, Aliensyntax, Bitmaster, Jmcgnh,
NoToleranceForIntolerance, Erinnkrau, PrimeBOT, Missmlis, Μπάμπης Κανδής, Magic links bot, Lisabethwasp, Angela Gh and Anony-
mous: 195
• Conflict theories Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_theories?oldid=795113520 Contributors: Marj Tiefert, Lexor, Jahsonic,
TakuyaMurata, Angela, Darkwind, Andres, F0v3a, AaronSw, Jerzy, Owen, Sunray, Lupin, Guanaco, Sesel, Piotrus, APH, Gsociology,
Lucidish, El C, Carlon, Walkiped, Alansohn, Gary, Fritzpoll, Pion, Wtmitchell, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, FlaBot, Ground Zero, YurikBot, Russ-
Bot, Crazytales, NawlinWiki, Boneheadmx, Holycharly, Number 57, DeadEyeArrow, JLaTondre, Allens, Katieh5584, SmackBot, Reedy,
Longsun, Royalguard11, Hydrogen Iodide, Mike McGregor (Can), Gilliam, Bluebot, Autarch, Shalom Yechiel, Benjamin Mako Hill, Sigma
7, Byelf2007, AmiDaniel, Mikem1234, Hu12, AndriusKulikauskas, JoeBot, Tanthalas39, LCpl, Penbat, Gregbard, Cydebot, Peterdjones,
Drhamilton, Marek69, Nick Number, Phanerozoic, Athkalani~enwiki, Davewho2, JenLouise, Skomorokh, JonBernstein, PhilKnight, Ma-
gioladitis, Pmcalara, Allstarecho, MartinBot, J.delanoy, Maurice Carbonaro, JoefromRML, Darth Mike, Ilikeliljon, Squids and Chips,
Pasixxxx, Sanjukooldude, AlnoktaBOT, Oshwah, Cosmic Latte, Tomsega, Botev, Chimin 07, Matt.leeck, Flyer22 Reborn, Oxymoron83,
Kumioko (renamed), ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, 5hin3, Htw3, Basicallyweresweet, Owhenthepawno, Mattplumb2, JenL123,
Velvet Llama, Rhododendrites, Portalthinking, Redthoreau, Mikaey, SchreiberBike, Editor2020, Against the current, Ikzing, Addbot,
Xp54321, Otterathome, TDawnson, Riyuky, Landon1980, Mootros, Debresser, Favonian, Slyfox54, He Br Spring 2008, Tide rolls, Yobot,
Eduen, Mdw0, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, LilHelpa, Duke Wellington14, Capricorn42, Djoseph21, Cocoajazz, Chrcharity, Fotis-
aros, J04n, Omnipaedista, A.amitkumar, MJ94, SpaceFlight89, Foobarnix, Cocanut351, SpringSloth, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, Immunize,
Champtrain8, Ks108306, MikeyMouse10, ZéroBot, Empty Buffer, The Nut, Cobaltcigs, Makecat, Wayne Slam, Phronetic, RockMag-
netist, DASHBotAV, ClueBot NG, Millermk, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Tsett, BG19bot, Graham11, Drmoros, Greenknight dv, Meclee,
Bueno333, Mage1413, Sandra.al92, Linyent2, Jawaidm3, Sam Hana, Maryam816, Manreet.sandhu, 8packabs, Epicgenius, Star767, Dt
Mos Ios, Ekramerpospsych, Cityside189, InternetArchiveBot, Bender the Bot, Magic links bot and Anonymous: 233
• Structure and agency Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structure_and_agency?oldid=790580510 Contributors: Patrick, Nickg, Mil-
losh, Piotrus, Reagle, Rich Farmbrough, Kzzl, Bender235, Pablo X, Cmdrjameson, Hooperbloob, Miranche, Joriki, Paxsimius, Lmatt,
Common Man, Pending deIetion script, The Ogre, Hakeem.gadi, Deville, That Guy, From That Show!, C mon, SmackBot, DCDur-
ing, Chris the speller, Madmedea~enwiki, Avb, Novinha, Cordless Larry, Ergative rlt, JoeBot, LMackinnon, Penbat, Gregbard, Cydebot,
Mattisse, Nick Number, Rlitwin, BenTremblay, JenLouise, Yakushima, Ling.Nut, JaGa, Rickard Vogelberg, Hansvarsil, DarwinPeacock,
Sop01mh, Iowa08, Squids and Chips, Ninjasinadojo, Αναρχία, Tomsega, BwDraco, Newbyguesses, Flyer22 Reborn, Kai-Hendrik, Farras
Octara, Rhododendrites, Versus22, Rahmat M. Samik-Ibrahim, Atethnekos, Mootros, Mac Dreamstate, MrOllie, Lightbot, Ettrig, Denispir,
AnomieBOT, Citation bot, Xtboris, Omnipaedista, Canto2009, Kfade051, A412, DigitalHomunculus, Wikiain, Jandalhandler, Reflexinio,
Skakkle, EmausBot, John of Reading, DaphneMaltas, TheSoundAndTheFury, WeijiBaikeBianji, Phronetic, Teapeat, MooreBrooking,
ClueBot NG, M.Faye, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Archivingcontext, T481, Luckyslugnuts, Meclee, One.tenth, Linyent2, A.behlen, Julie
Nielsen, Jaw70, SnoozeKing, Monkbot, QuartzReload, Sapient gadfly, TheOrgTheoryGuyFromValhellaa, Aheisk, PrimeBOT, Vconstant
and Anonymous: 66
• Philosophy Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy?oldid=799521234 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Tobias Hoevekamp,
Tbc~enwiki, Derek Ross, Lee Daniel Crocker, CYD, Brion VIBBER, Archibald Fitzchesterfield, Mav, The Anome, Stephen Gilbert,
Koyaanis Qatsi, Ap, LarsErikKolden, RK, Larry Sanger, Andre Engels, Redmist, Dachshund, XJaM, Arvindn, Christian List, Vanderesch,
Enchanter, Ortolan88, William Avery, SimonP, DavidLevinson, Ark~enwiki, GrahamN, Camembert, Ryguasu, Isis~enwiki, KidSilver,
Ezubaric, Metz2000, ChrisSteinbach, Olivier, Mkmcconn, Leidolf, Stevertigo, Edward, DOsinga, Quintessent, Infrogmation, D, Chas zzz
brown, JohnOwens, Michael Hardy, Tim Starling, Vecerav, Kwertii, Llywrch, Fred Bauder, Kroose, Sigg3.net, Gdarin, BoNoMoJo (old),
Liftarn, MartinHarper, Tannin, Ixfd64, Chinju, Sannse, Qaz, Seav, TakuyaMurata, GTBacchus, Delirium, Dori, Minesweeper, CesarB,
Ihcoyc, Ahoerstemeier, Dgaubin, Nikki chan, Snoyes, Pweemeeuw, Angela, Kingturtle, Pachomius2000, Salsa Shark, Usedbook, Marco
Krohn, Sir Paul, Bogdangiusca, Poor Yorick, Nikai, Susurrus, Big iron, Rotem Dan, Andres, Dod1, Evercat, TonyClarke, EdH, Caffe-
lice~enwiki, Mxn, Jod, BRG, Raven in Orbit, JASpencer, Michael Voytinsky, Nikola Smolenski, Adam Conover, Peter Damian (original
account), Lit-sci, Alex S, RodC, Charles Matthews, Vanished user 5zariu3jisj0j4irj, WavyDavy, Radgeek, Tejano, Slark, Andrewman327,
WhisperToMe, Dtgm, Timc, Jrb, Tpbradbury, Maximus Rex, Wenteng, Martinphi, VeryVerily, Darwindecks, Wakka, Vinay Varma,
Traroth, Earthsound, Bjarki S, Warofdreams, Bloodshedder, AnonMoos, Alejo~enwiki, Rbellin, Wetman, Secretlondon, Jusjih, Drernie,
Banno, PuzzletChung, Phil Boswell, AlexPlank, Robbot, Dew~enwiki, Fredrik, Wallguy, Alrasheedan, Vespristiano, Goethean, ZimZa-
laBim, Naddy, Modulatum, TimothyPilgrim, Mirv, Postdlf, Ashley Y, Stewartadcock, Hellotoast, Sverdrup, Rfc1394, Academic Chal-
lenger, Flauto Dolce, Meelar, HugeShen, Auric, JB82, Blainster, LGagnon, Gbog, Sunray, Hadal, Borislav, Mushroom, Carlj7, Jaki~enwiki,
Lupo, Wayland, Vacuum, RyanKoppelman, Srtxg, Snobot, Ancheta Wis, Psb777, Fabiform, Centrx, Giftlite, Christopher Parham, Fen-
nec, Sj, Factotum, Ubernetizen, Netoholic, Tom harrison, Meursault2004, Ferkelparade, Ds13, Everyking, No Guru, Maha ts, Henry
Flower, Esap, Patrick-br, Maroux, Wikiwikifast, Guanaco, Gracefool, Siroxo, Gugilymugily, Christofurio, Falcon Kirtaran, Kukkurovaca,
SWAdair, Nlaporte, Wmahan, Neilc, Gadfium, FePe, Antandrus, HorsePunchKid, Jongo, Benw, Piotrus, Mamizou, LudwigVan, Karol
Langner, 1297, JimWae, Loke, Cihan, Kevin B12, Bodnotbod, Daniel11, Cornischong, RupertB, Karl-Henner, Trc, Soman, Soilguy5,
Gary D, Robin Hood~enwiki, Joyous!, StephenFerg, Asimperson, Chmod007, GreedyCapitalist, Dpen2000, Zondor, Trevor MacInnis,
RevRagnarok, Shotwell, Lucidish, Rfl, Simonides, Venu62, Poccil, DanielCD, Ultratomio, EugeneZelenko, Imaglang, Buffyg, Andre
O~enwiki, Discospinster, The PNM, FranksValli, H0riz0n, FT2, Pjacobi, Cnyborg, Rama, Vsmith, Andrewferrier, User2004, Xgenei,
Arthur Holland, Grutter, Paul August, Stereotek, Bender235, ESkog, Moa3333, Kharhaz, MBisanz, El C, Walden, Shanes, Spearhead,
Susvolans, IvaBen, Lunaverse, CDN99, Adambro, Guru48632, Causa sui, Bobo192, DanielNuyu, NetBot, Valve, Flxmghvgvk, Shenme,
Viriditas, Wisdom89, Posiduck, Polocrunch, A.t.bruland, Adrian~enwiki, Maurreen, Oop, Urthogie, Saluyot, Pharos, Pearle, JesseHogan,
Nsaa, Amerindianarts, Kitoba, Passw0rd, Knucmo2, Jumbuck, Danski14, Alansohn, Gary, Anthony Appleyard, Ungtss, Werdnatawoh,
Rd232, Craigy144, Paradiso, Lord Pistachio, Leonardo Alves, Thingfish~enwiki, SlimVirgin, Kevinconroy, Fritzpoll, WhiteC, Walkerma,
Warpsmith, Cdc, Hu, DreamGuy, Wtmitchell, Velella, Agondie, Helixblue, Yuckfoo, Omphaloscope, Sciurinæ, Wiselamb, Zawersh, Vol-
untarySlave, Bsadowski1, W7KyzmJt, Cmprince, Heida Maria, Versageek, Dan100, Garrison Roo, OleMaster, Philthecow, Joriki, Kelly
Martin, Druminor, Mel Etitis, TSP, Woohookitty, Timo Laine, Anacreon, PoccilScript, Brunnock, Gruepig, Uncle G, Bkkbrad, Carcharoth,
Barrylb, Kokoriko, Miketwo, Kzollman, Ruud Koot, Alfakim, Xhin, Makhno, CiTrusD, Aaroamal, Bkwillwm, Tanookiboot, Stancollins,
Damicatz, Mihalis, Isnow, Noetica, Karbinski, Turnstep, Gerbrant, John Hubbard, Mandarax, Graham87, Alienus, Deltabeignet, Magister
Mathematicae, Ilya, BD2412, Qwertyus, MC MasterChef, Island, Porcher, Edison, Josh Parris, Zachjones4, Casey Abell, Search4Lancer,
Iflipti, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Mayumashu, Koavf, Erebus555, Edbrims, Quiddity, Bruce1ee, Captain Disdain, R.O.C, Oblivious, Kazrak,
Ligulem, JillCoffin, Apwith, Bhadani, Reinis, Matt Deres, FlavrSavr, Fantom~enwiki, Johnrpenner, Titoxd, FlaBot, Daderot, Discom-
bobulator, Strangnet, Max Chatsworth, Chingwakabungya, RexNL, Gurch, Jrtayloriv, Dr.Diane Crystal, Chfalcao, Planetneutral, Conf,
TheSun, JM.Beaubourg, Lamrock, Chobot, Elpaw, DVdm, Hermitage, Gdrbot, Bgwhite, Therealdantheman, Gwernol, NoMass, HJKeats,
EamonnPKeane, Roboto de Ajvol, Mcsven, YurikBot, Wavelength, RobotE, Sceptre, Midgley, Phantomsteve, RussBot, AlexGFiedler,
Arado, Warshy, ThomistGuy, Mark Ironie, Chris Capoccia, Gravecat, Ansell, Rodasmith, Stephenb, JohnJSal, Rintrah, Rsrikanth05,
KSchutte, Odysses, Jimphilos, Vaikunda Raja, Shanel, NawlinWiki, Rick Norwood, Atfyfe, Bachrach44, LaszloWalrus, Jaxl, Welsh,
Gary84, Justin Eiler, Howcheng, Nutiketaiel, Thiseye, BirgitteSB, Irishguy, Nick, Davis080, Stijl Council, RUL3R, Misza13, Occono,
Squally, BOT-Superzerocool, Bota47, Albert Kemp, Qrfqr, Pierpontpaul2351, Jpeob, Botteville, Deepak~enwiki, Maunus, User27091,
Wknight94, Ncsaint, Pooryorick~enwiki, Cheung shun sang~enwiki, Jkelly, WAS 4.250, Zargulon, Light current, Enormousdude, 21655,
Zzuuzz, Lt-wiki-bot, Andrew Lancaster, Ninly, Closedmouth, Pb30, KGasso, CharlesHBennett, GraemeL, Barbatus, Janizary, Bentong
Isles, HereToHelp, Tyrenius, ArielGold, Jdv~enwiki, Hbarbet, Willezurmacht, ZacWolf, RG2, The Way, Infinity0, GrinBot~enwiki, Grae-
meaustin, DVD R W, Kf4bdy, Matt Heard, robot, The Arch0wl, C mon, Sardanaphalus, Crystallina, JJL, SmackBot, Dr toonie,
Unschool, Rohitk89, ThreeDee912, Lestrade, Reedy, Herostratus, KnowledgeOfSelf, Royalguard11, Melchoir, McGeddon, Unyoyega,
Johnrcrellin, Jagged 85, Davewild, WookieInHeat, Anastrophe, LeoKing, Antibubbles, Josephprymak, Edgar181, Sheepzilla, Vassyana,
PeterSymonds, Collingsworth, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Wje, M.Imran, Averisk, Squiddy, Cowman109, Chris the speller, Blue-
bot, TimBentley, Rex Germanus, Ian13, Ksenon, Pillforyourills, Jiyonruisu, Master of Puppets, Wicherink, Fplay, MalafayaBot, Deli
nk, Kevin Ryde, Jfsamper, Go for it!, Baronnet, ACupOfCoffee, MerricMaker, D-Rock, Zachorious, JGXenite, John Reaves, Sct72,
WikiPedant, Ig0774, Tsca.bot, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Egsan Bacon, Shalom Yechiel, Mitsuhirato, Proofreader, Chlewbot, Orphan-
Bot, Onorem, DrakeFlammel, Rrburke, TKD, The Fading Light, Addshore, Kcordina, Dungate, Edivorce, SundarBot, Jumping cheese,
Theonlyedge, EPM, MichaelBillington, Cubbi, MisterCharlie, Dreadstar, Someoneisatthedoor, Great magician, LoveMonkey, Lacatosias,
Jon Awbrey, Bora Nesic, Wisco, DMacks, GourangaUK, Metamagician3000, Shushruth, Triforce of Power, Johnor, Bejnar, Pilotguy, Min-
utes, Clicketyclack, Will Beback, Byelf2007, Drewarrowood, SashatoBot, Alexander256, David ekstrand, VictorAu, Ikin40, Ser Amantio
di Nicolao, Rodney Boyd, Dbtfz, MagnaMopus, Sina Kardar, Poa, Nat2, J 1982, Rodsan18, Kipala, Heimstern, Sunil vasisht, Tim bates,
Horgen, Qwerty18, IronGargoyle, Bssc81, Bilby, Ckatz, Fernando S. Aldado~enwiki, 16@r, Ghelae, SQGibbon, Mr Stephen, Bendzh,
KokomoNYC, Tokeefe, Battem, Ryulong, Halaqah, RichardF, Citicat, Jose77, Chgwheeler, Informationplusgood, KJS77, Hu12, DELutz,
Levineps, Alan.ca, Dan Gluck, OnBeyondZebrax, HisSpaceResearch, ILovePlankton, Iridescent, K, Xinyu, Shoeofdeath, Sander Säde,
David Little, ImNotADork, Sam Clark, Jen. B., Igoldste, Shoreranger, Zeusnoos, Adambiswanger1, Courcelles, Mcwatson, Woodshed,
Laplace’s Demon, Tawkerbot2, JGoldman9, Montgoej, Flubeca, Fdssdf, The Haunted Angel, Swordman182, Switchercat, Igni, JForget,
Ratman1, Sigma419, Daniel Johnson, Raysonho, Dragoon91786, KyraVixen, Callum85, DSachan, Agoodperson, NickW557, Thomas-
meeks, SelfStudyBuddy, Sdorrance, Penbat, Chanza, Gregbard, Cydebot, Atomaton, Ketamino, Mike Christie, Steel, Danman3459, Peter-
djones, TicketMan, David Santos, Anthonyhcole, Colin Keigher, Soetermans, Babub, Roberta F., DumbBOT, Chrislk02, ErrantX, Omi-
cronpersei8, Maziotis, Mamalujo, Click23, Runningtherace2024, BetacommandBot, Zanysatsuma, Thijs!bot, Kalossoter, Epbr123, Aey,
Jobber, 271828182, Daniel, Sagaciousuk, Marek69, Jamesnakanda, John254, Bobblehead, Rbgroomes, Joymmart, CharlotteWebb, Escar-
bot, Band geek13, Thomaswgc, Mentifisto, Jippcito, AntiVandalBot, Guy Macon, Voyaging, Quintote, Docmartincohen, RDT2, Jayron32,
Jj137, Geogeogeo, D. Webb, Dylan Lake, Danger, Indian Chronicles, Insvik, LéonTheCleaner, Lfstevens, ClassicSC, Sluzzelin, JAnD-
bot, Narssarssuaq, 24630, Husond, Poga, Kaobear, Kruddler, MER-C, Dionisian Individual, Dsp13, The Transhumanist, Matthew Fennell,
Supertheman, Wendl, Luxana, Leolaursen, Snowolfd4, Gatfish, Clementvidal, Kipholbeck, Kerotan, Boleslaw, Bencherlite, FaerieInGrey,
Magioladitis, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Dekimasu, Wikidudeman, Spindash54, Hammojj0, Mariojames, Cic, Aka042, Lucaas, Azizesin,
Avicennasis, Timothy J Scriven, Snowded, Bubba hotep, KConWiki, Catgut, Indon, Esmatly, Folkmuse, VegKilla, Just H, Allstare-
cho, Hveziris, Carisely, Cpl Syx, Ludvikus, DerHexer, JaGa, CCS81, Anya sm, Crillium, WLU, Nowletsgo, T e r o, Pax:Vobiscum,
Cortezdelobao, Otvaltak, Pvosta, Vampiretrees, Ian Bailey, PhysicsPat, PhantomS, Smallchanges, Conquerist, MartinBot, Giant onehead,
Arjun01, Richmichaels, Mtevfrog, Efio, Niclisp, Nicklink483, Ajsinclair, Rettetast, Pointblankstare, Jack007, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker,
Snozzer, Jpmorris2006, Pomte, LedgendGamer, Thirdright, Tbeck93, J.delanoy, Captain panda, Trusilver, BopBopBernie, Numbo3, Uncle
Dick, Maurice Carbonaro, Dbiel, Kevin aylward, Ashcraft, Athaenara, Extransit, Lightcatcher, G. Campbell, Cpiral, Futeh, Northmetpit,
Someguy565, Bot-Schafter, Katalaveno, Darkspots, McSly, Clerks, Austin512, Icheesehead, Angelarhydderch, Jayden54, Infarom, Anti-
SpamBot, BurtRuvensky, PSBennett, Old Teacher, NewEnglandYankee, Dariushaskell, SmilesALot, KD Tries Again, Chemartist, Mad-
hava 1947, Shoessss, Christophore, Juliancolton, Aun'va, Gwen Gale, Donmike10, Natl1, Pdcook, Andy Marchbanks, Homo logos, In-
wind, Richiar, Blog-of-the-sage, Steel1943, ThePointblank, CardinalDan, Idioma-bot, Funandtrvl, Stealthisaccount, TeamZissou, Vranak,
X!, Deor, Jake Wasdin, Hammersoft, VolkovBot, Somebodyreallycool, Rucha58, Macedonian, Science4sail, JohnBlackburne, Shinju, Do-
minics Fire, Ryan032, Philip Trueman, Dchmelik, TXiKiBoT, Tinsue, Mercurywoodrose, Cosmic Latte, Lynxmb, Tomsega, Joao emil-
iano1978~enwiki, Philosophers cafe, Qxz, Curtisclccurtis, DavidSaff, Caltechdoc, SDali2008, Triplejumper, Anna Lincoln, Lradrama,
Jsimon510, Ontoraul, Seraphim, The Tetrast, Eduluceno~enwiki, Philogo, Slysplace, Ducas, Abdullais4u, LeaveSleaves, Pythagorus8, Soul
Train, Wassermann~enwiki, Psyche825, Quercusalba, E.P.Y. Foundation, Phonytician, Jasz, Ryguyrocks, Eric9876, RadiantRay, Mad-
hero88, Sodicadl, Eubulides, Greswik, SQL, Synthebot, Falcon8765, @pple, FNMF, Enviroboy, Gamahucher, Thanatos666, Insanity In-
carnate, Sandyr123, Brianga, Mfjkd, Laval, Zaf159, AlleborgoBot, Nagy, Heavyarms8888, Stringman5, Semifinalist, Fej264, FlyingLeop-
ard2014, EmxBot, Deconstructhis, Washworth, LOTRrules, Jammin Jenkins, Etmama, GirasoleDE, Newbyguesses, GoonerDP, SieBot,
StAnselm, Aml;529, Tosun, Scarian, David keith2000, BotMultichill, Iamthedeus, Vergil Anti, Dawn Bard, Caltas, KrizzyB, RJaguar3,
Glitzyglamgirl, Revent, YliVakkuri, RSpeed23, Renatops, Jrun, Avextrax, Radon210, Joseph 098, MaynardClark, Oda Mari, Jojalozzo,
Ramibenami, Bpell, Summeree, Oxymoron83, Antonio Lopez, Artoasis, Mankar Camoran, BjörnEF, AngelOfSadness, Javierfv1212,
Lightmouse, Techman224, KathrynLybarger, Hobartimus, RyanParis, Deejaye6, Hithereimdan, Fratrep, Livingphilosophy, Sunrise, Ex-
isting Account, The Houesse, Pacemanscoop, Segregold, Jongleur100, StaticGull, Anchor Link Bot, The Four Deuces, Jacob.jose, Le vin
blanc, Mygerardromance, Tognopop, Samdanzig, Neurophysics, Siasiasia, Pinkadelica, Youngal, Randy Kryn, 3rdAlcove, Myrvin, Troy
07, Explicit, JustinBlank, ImageRemovalBot, Leranedo, Soporaeternus, Martarius, ClueBot, PipepBot, Ve4ernik, Helga sales, Fyyer, The
Thing That Should Not Be, Kit Grier, Herakles01, Gregcaletta, Bangalos, Ukabia, Grantbow, Meekywiki, Mild Bill Hiccup, Tj variax,
Shinpah1, TheOldJacobite, Uncle Milty, Boing! said Zebedee, Misanthropexlife, Ftyui135, Niceguyedc, Epsilon60198, Rmaeder, Sam
Barsoom, Blanchardb, Marselan, MrBosnia, ChandlerMapBot, Wilmesis, Charmz09, Paulcmnt, Grunty Thraveswain, DragonBot, Excirial,
MVZ68, Naerii, -Midorihana-, Alexbot, Jusdafax, Tamaratrouts, NikePelera, Lartoven, Brews ohare, ImBobTheFish, MWrog, Williaq, Ce-
narium, Dmyersturnbull, Okiefromokla, Promethean, Psinu, JamieS93, Baron-willy, 7&6=thirteen, Wesley cool12, Pablitogberdoy, Prince
eagle, M.O.X, Gerocus, Dekisugi, Saebjorn, Thehelpfulone, Truth is relative, understanding is limited, C001b33n5, Thingg, Aitias, Ga-
lor612, Darnell24, Djk3, Mythdon, SoxBot III, Ajbajb, Yun-Yuuzhan (lost password), Freshness691, BarretB, XLinkBot, Apophrenetic,
Doraannao, Spitfire, Ryzashra, Pfhorrest, Rror, Saeed.Veradi, Dsgdfshfdshdsfh, Capitana, Davethelad99, SilvonenBot, Galzigler, Noctibus,
ZooFari, Guandalug, HodgeTechnologies1, Chexmix53, UhOhFeeling, Xp54321, Proofreader77, Za stnz, Willking1979, Some jerk on the
Internet, DOI bot, Renamed user 5, Landon1980, Captain-tucker, Atethnekos, Fgnievinski, PhearOfTheDark, Stentie, Fieldday-sunday,
D0762, MoisesMB, Desmond222222, Dranorter, MrOllie, SoSaysChappy, Chamal N, Ethanlobby, Peter Damian (old), Ld100, Jomunro,
Mpvide65, Navelio, Favonian, Simulatedwarhol, Ahmad.ghamdi.24, LinkFA-Bot, West.andrew.g, Woland1234, Ks 7508, Badabizzle,
Dvakili, Numbo3-bot, Um10ssuperstar, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Llakais, Teles, Hhaarty, MuZemike, BennyQuixote, Jarble, JEN9841, Coun-
tryBot, Heaving Weasels, Ninja shinigami, Dorraj6, Andhrabhoja, Catagraph, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, TaBOT-zerem, Legobot II,
Cclawara, Aznlilone, WikiworldJ, Nirvana888, The Great iShuffle, Raphael26, Turnsholds, KamikazeBot, Wierdox, Snoop God, Backslash
Forwardslash, AnomieBOT, Hairhorn, 1exec1, Migz cel, Galoubet, Jakeandsam, Templatehater, Ashroney, AdjustShift, Panther991, King-
pin13, Ornamentalone, Snorkelman37, Stinkypie, ImperatorExercitus, Rtyq2, Elnidotourism, OllieFury, Didaktron, Pizzico85~enwiki, GB
fan, ChristianH, Kotra777, Drosdaf, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Whiyufghj, Traqwe, Mr. toast man, Necirsad, Timir2, Capricorn42, Urggatys, Bi-
hco, 4twenty42o, Guylians, Rothgo, Chrishatch1973, JordanMessa, Scarymoose16, Gilo1969, Locos epraix, Tomwsulcer, Mikeybabel01,
Gap9551, Srich32977, RadManCF, Sophivorus, Makeswell, Edward Ockham, J04n, Pmlineditor, GrouchoBot, Corruptcopper, Omni-
paedista, Mind my edits, RibotBOT, Pg3765, Saalstin, 11MarkONE, Richard BB, Imyoda69, Ftaisdeal, E0steven, Aaron Kauppi, Ar-
dara, 11cookeaw1, Griffinofwales, Elithejew, Velblod, FreeKnowledgeCreator, FrescoBot, Uglyfatpeople, Nonsense1001, Uygwefgyvqe-
jhvejh, KuroiShiroi, Shikib1998, Parth24, Chutznik, Trust Is All You Need, Weetoddid, Pathwrote, Xenfreak, DivineAlpha, Andrewvirts,
Hykipoika^92, Citation bot 1, Killian441, Caboose The Vehicle Destroyer, Machn, Filosophy, Pinethicket, ChrisJBenson, HRoestBot,
10metreh, Calmer Waters, Skyerise, Codwiki, Philosophyisnotascience, Moonraker, Shingdingding, SapienDeinosRexus, Monkeyman-
man, AustralianMelodrama, Max bruch, RobertHuaXia, FadulJA, December21st2012Freak, Myrtlebondi, 9E2, DianeticsBridgeToKnow-
ingness, FoxBot, TobeBot, Zhernovoi, Pollinosisss, Douglasbell, CircularReason, Mono, CathySc, Catinator, PorkHeart, Callanecc, Ora-
cleofottawa, TBloemink, Brj3937, Deleter of info, Raidon Kane, P-Socrates, Diannaa, Theologiae, Lilleskvat, Nascar1996, Tbhotch, Reach
Out to the Truth, Paul Francois Rieder, Jarpup, Freysauce, Xyhwiba, TjBot, Ripchip Bot, A history of the modern world, Youngblood-
zObamaRalph, VernoWhitney, Devinrhode, Gleaman, Balph Eubank, Shabidoo, Umuth72, DiogenesTCP, Vis4, EmausBot, BM14582,
John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, Josephcunningham, Editor with a background in philosophy, Faolin42, GoingBatty, Episanty, Borovi4ok,
RenamedUser01302013, ZxxZxxZ, Kukimukisurimuri, Slightsmile, Tommy2010, Constance Isienyi, Wikipelli, P. S. F. Freitas, ZanLJack-
son, Zero939, Artisticidea, Cupidsantagonist, Mp390, Jasonanaggie, Thecheesykid, WittyMan1986, D15724C710N, CanonLawJunkie, Ida
Shaw, Josve05a, AlliB90, Oground, Rexodus, Thedropsoffire, Mardy3, Gabithefirst, Johammond, AManWithNoPlan, Gz33, Staszek Lem,
TheHermenute, Andattaca2010, Zuggernaut, Morgankevinj, Jinewaheadbanger, HenryNOLA, Pkomarov, Wikiloop, Polisher of Cobwebs,
Cforrester101, Orange Suede Sofa, KWKallusch, ChuispastonBot, Timbaba, RockMagnetist, Grungehippie, Theismcontrib, Victorian-
Mutant, Pierpietro, Helpsome, ClueBot NG, Philosophy Teacher, Saziwayo, Ambermathews, Brentisgood, KIeio, Peter Damian IV, In-
diGuru, Frietjes, Emmisgood, Cntras, Rezabot, Firowkp, Rurik the Varangian, Danielk994, Lawsonstu, Rajendra Bisessar, Helpful Pixie
Bot, DalekCaan42, Krautphrack, Lolm8, Tholme, Ldownss00, AlterBerg, Wbm1058, BG19bot, Rsg20, Tehblackestman, PhnomPencil,
Mathematicmajic, Kendall-K1, Solomon7968, Edward Gordon Gey, WebHorizon, CitationCleanerBot, Philosopherofscience, Slushy9,
Manoguru, Brad7777, Lachie h, Elixirbouncybounce, Amitrochates, Anthrophilos, StarryGrandma, Ninmacer20, Cyberbot II, Elizah379,
Khazar2, Harpsichord246, SmallTownSkeptic, Archer47, EagerToddler39, Dexbot, Harvard1932, Thomas Emilio Davies, Gahoojin, Mo-
gism, Numbermaniac, Jamesx12345, Jochen Burghardt, SPECIFICO, Gowthamkare, WolfgangAzureus, Rupert loup, DerekWinters,
Aftabbanoori, Plurofuturo, CsDix, Michipedian, Meet.ramendra, Trenturrs, Wild.nt.97, Cherubinirules, Ugog Nizdast, Rocherd, Man-
druss, Finnusertop, Ibrahim Husain Meraj, TilottamaTitlee, Kind Tennis Fan, Jelle Gouw, Monkbot, Justin15w, HiYahhFriend, Cphwb556,
Mostafa123Account, 115ash, Mxschumacher, James343e, Akhi666, Milesper, Rpearlstuart, Sizeofint, जैन, Nøkkenbuer, Boddika, Kas-
parBot, TheMagikBOT, JJMC89, Sro23, BjörnF, Durgan8, H0peiambag, Fabio Maria De Francesco, Void burn, Chreaton, Matteog633,
Doulph88, Harmon758, InternetArchiveBot, JJMC89 bot, Jahelistbro, GreenC bot, Frenditor, HXEG, Tmnh07, Bender the Bot, Prime-
BOT, Nixinova, Wittgenstein123, I Am Chaos, KolbertBot and Anonymous: 1788
• Inductive reasoning Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductive_reasoning?oldid=799531738 Contributors: AxelBoldt, The Cuncta-
tor, The Anome, Ryguasu, DennisDaniels, Michael Hardy, Earth, Owl, Voidvector, BoNoMoJo (old), Jfitzg, Andres, Evercat, EdH, Desert-
Steve, Timwi, Trontonian, Bemoeial, Ike9898, Wolfgang Kufner, Radiojon, Markhurd, Peregrine981, Banno, Nufy8, Stephan Schulz,
Nurg, Romanm, Ojigiri~enwiki, Mikiher, Tea2min, Filemon, Ancheta Wis, Giftlite, Zigger, Peruvianllama, Bovlb, Jason Quinn, Jackol,
Jmeola75, ELApro, Guppyfinsoup, Lucidish, Archer3, Discospinster, Freestylefrappe, Ivan Bajlo, Bender235, Kbh3rd, El C, Aaronbrick,
David Crawshaw, Bobo192, 9SGjOSfyHJaQVsEmy9NS, Flammifer, Espoo, Samohyl Jan, Yuckfoo, Mikeo, Recury, Nightstallion, Vox-
adam, Kazvorpal, Kenyon, Hq3473, Velho, Mindmatrix, Kzollman, Ruud Koot, Alfakim, Andrea.gf, Rjwilmsi, Jweiss11, Strake, Bryan H
Bell, Reinis, Matt Deres, Chris Pressey, Latka, RexNL, Fresheneesz, NotJackhorkheimer, Spencerk, King of Hearts, Chobot, Dresdnhope,
YurikBot, RussBot, Gaius Cornelius, Grafen, Holycharly, SAE1962, 24ip, Pkearney, Roy Brumback, Bota47, Shadro, Tomisti, Sethery,
Fram, Curpsbot-unicodify, Teply, Infinity0, Bo Jacoby, Jer ome, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, RedHouse18, David Kernow, Rtc, McGed-
don, Istvan, Mscuthbert, Eskimbot, Klokie, Yamaguchi , Gilliam, Duke Ganote, Ohnoitsjamie, Betacommand, Bluebot, Anthonzi,
LaggedOnUser, DHN-bot~enwiki, DoctorStrangelove, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Go For It, Avb, Edivorce, Mr.Z-man, Jmnbatista,
Richard001, Kalexander, Jon Awbrey, Neshatian, Andeggs, Vina-iwbot~enwiki, Byelf2007, Jonrgrover, Normalityrelief, RichMorin, An-
tonielly, Aleenf1, Lukemcgrath, Grumpyyoungman01, Domokato, Levineps, Iridescent, K, Wjejskenewr, FleetCommand, CWY2190,
Indigenius, El aprendelenguas, TMN, Gregbard, Slazenger, Peterdjones, Khromatikos, Gogo Dodo, Wikipediarules2221, Miguel de
Servet, Letranova, Gacggt, Ucanlookitup, Second Quantization, Danny Reese, Defeatedfear, Fotomatt, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Min-
htung91, Spencer, Salgueiro~enwiki, JAnDbot, Davewho2, Dmar198, Coffee2theorems, Magioladitis, Bongwarrior, Equinexus, Hasek is
the best, Arno Matthias, Farquaadhnchmn, DAGwyn, Snowded, Moopiefoof, Cathalwoods, MetsBot, LookingGlass, Chrisdone, WLU,
Mommyzbrat, STBot, Dionysiaca, Pomte, TheSeven, OttoMäkelä, LordAnubisBOT, Mahewa, Touisiau, Chiswick Chap, Heyitspeter,
Pianoman55~enwiki, MetsFan76, STBotD, Bonadea, Andy Marchbanks, Straw Cat, Zach425, VolkovBot, Thewolf37, Pasixxxx, Hot-
feba, Shinju, Jimmaths, Tiktuk, Philip Trueman, Deleet, Katoa, Jazzwick, Philogo, Abdullais4u, Jackfork, PDFbot, Anarchangel, Sat-
urn star, Jor344, Shifter95, Cnilep, Harmonicemundi, PhysPhD, Farcaster, Jammycaketin, AlleborgoBot, ASaluk, Newbyguesses, Dwan-
delt, Matthew Yeager, Mark Klamberg, Flyer22 Reborn, Bobklahn, Oxymoron83, Vanished user oij8h435jweih3, MiNombreDeGuerra,
Bagatelle, Sunrise, Linkboyz, Melcombe, Oneforlogic, ClueBot, Farras Octara, Eric Schoettle, Niceguyedc, Vandalometer, Rbakels, Ex-
cirial, Jusdafax, Kikilamb, Estirabot, ChrisKalt, Hazzzzzz12, Lx 121, XLinkBot, Fastily, Gerhardvalentin, Tegiap, Saeed.Veradi, Skarebo,
WikHead, Kwjbot, Kbdankbot, Tayste, Addbot, Tanhabot, Jtradke, Numbo3-bot, Tide rolls, ScienceApe, KUSSOMAK, Legobot, Luckas-
bot, Yobot, Oilstone, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, AnomieBOT, Doingmorestuffonline, Vanakaris, Citation bot, Bob Burkhardt, Lil-
Helpa, Parthian Scribe, Xqbot, Lord Bane, Hanberke, Srich32977, A157247, F-22 Raptored, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, Delbertpeach,
Alialiac, FieldOperative, Paine Ellsworth, SBA1870, Machine Elf 1735, Pinethicket, Kiefer.Wolfowitz, Mavit0, A8UDI, Cleon7177, Neu-
roBells123, Gamewizard71, TobeBot, Jonkerz, Miracle Pen, Dbmikus, Hyperbytev2, Ripchip Bot, Elspru, NerdyScienceDude, George
Richard Leeming, EmausBot, Elanguescence, Grjoni88, T3dkjn89q00vl02Cxp1kqs3x7, Gfoley4, RenamedUser01302013, Mo ainm,
Dcirovic, ZéroBot, PBS-AWB, Leminh91, CanonLawJunkie, Onceinawhile, Wagino 20100516, Erianna, EricWesBrown, Rcsprinter123,
L Kensington, Just granpa, 28bot, ClueBot NG, Gareth Griffith-Jones, MelbourneStar, Ek65, Millermk, Schicagos, Tsunamicharlie, Al-
bertttt, Thepigdog, Masssly, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, HMSSolent, Curb Chain, BG19bot, Wiki13, MusikAnimal, Jander80, Marcocapelle,
Wandwiki, Blue Mist 1, Will.Oliver, Trailspark, RichardMills65, Ctasa221, Fangli997376557, ChrisGualtieri, Lhu720, Hagrid da fifth,
Watchpup32, Neurocitizen, Oligocene, Moonstroller-2, Jochen Burghardt, M strat17, 90b56587, Reid12345, Londomollari42, EMBViki,
Biogeographist, Cauzality, JustBerry, Aubreybardo, Liz, Logicman2, Perseus25, Hoffoholi, Superploro, Temprack5446, Loraof, Heller-
rrr, Isambard Kingdom, Pretty Panther 26, CAPTAIN RAJU, Bazookabangbang123, LIZSMOBILEONE, IDK TooShay, Androsynth,
Sunitashiv, Jbrownyw and Anonymous: 422
• Deductive reasoning Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deductive_reasoning?oldid=797371573 Contributors: The Cunctator, Toby
Bartels, Youandme, Mrwojo, DennisDaniels, Michael Hardy, TakuyaMurata, BenKovitz, EdH, DesertSteve, Charles Matthews, Dtgm, Hy-
acinth, Lumos3, Robbot, R3m0t, Romanm, AceMyth, Blainster, Tea2min, Ancheta Wis, Giftlite, Lethe, Guanaco, Bovlb, Archenzo, Jason
Quinn, Piotrus, Karol Langner, Aequo, Stepp-Wulf, EricBright, TedPavlic, Kevinb, Stbalbach, Chalst, PhilHibbs, Causa sui, Flammifer,
Espoo, Jumbuck, Ryanmcdaniel, CyberSkull, Nasukaren, Garrisonroo, SidP, Kenyon, Tariqabjotu, Stephen, Velho, OwenX, Mindmatrix,
TheNightFly, Ruud Koot, Jon Harald Søby, ZephyrAnycon, Teemu Leisti, BD2412, Nightscream, Koavf, Gmelli, Jweiss11, Tangotango,
YAZASHI, Ggfevans, DirkvdM, FlaBot, Nihiltres, Fresheneesz, Skc0001, Alphachimp, Chobot, YurikBot, Borgx, Erachima, DTRY, Rick
Norwood, Holycharly, TriGen, EEMIV, Bota47, Shadro, Mjhy0926, SMcCandlish, Allens, Infinity0, GrinBot~enwiki, DVD R W, Sar-
danaphalus, SmackBot, Aim Here, KocjoBot~enwiki, Thunderboltz, Stephensuleeman, WookieInHeat, Ieopo, The great kawa, Gilliam,
Q1w2e3, Mhss, Psiphiorg, Bluebot, ViolinGirl, MalafayaBot, George Rodney Maruri Game, Octahedron80, DHN-bot~enwiki, Javalenok,
Chlewbot, Mr.Z-man, ConMan, Cybercobra, Jon Awbrey, RossF18, Byelf2007, The Ungovernable Force, SashatoBot, Nishkid64, Dbtfz,
JoseREMY, IronGargoyle, Extremophile, Penagate, Comicist, Quaeler, Iridescent, K, Zarex, Van helsing, ChristineD, Neelix, Gregbard, Ju-
lian Mendez, Thijs!bot, LactoseTI, Marek69, Kborer, Noaa, AntiVandalBot, MaTT~enwiki, AaronY, IrishPete, Oliver Simon, BenMcLean,
JAnDbot, Skomorokh, The Transhumanist, Agentnj, Hewinsj, GurchBot, Probios, Djradon, Kirrages, Rupes, VoABot II, Arno Matthias,
Snowded, Oxford Dictionary, Illspirit, Vanished user ty12kl89jq10, Cathalwoods, HemRaj Singh, Pbroks13, Pomte, Stjeanp, N4nojohn,
J.delanoy, Trusilver, Shawn in Montreal, OAC, Lbeaumont, Tparameter, Jaxha, CompuChip, Heyitspeter, DorganBot, Bonadea, Vins-
fan368, Lallallal, Jonwilliamsl, Pasixxxx, MARVINWAGNER, Rucha58, Leoremy, TXiKiBoT, Technopat, A4bot, Msviolone, Philogo,
Broadbot, Abdullais4u, Dprust, Andrewaskew, Graymornings, Lova Falk, Kusyadi, MCTales, Cnilep, Farcaster, Sfmammamia, SieBot,
Paradoctor, Meldor, Flyer22 Reborn, Mankar Camoran, Sunrise, Svick, DesolateReality, Mygerardromance, Escape Orbit, Troy 07,
Kenji000, De728631, ClueBot, R000t, Philosophy.dude, Bfeylia, Neverquick, Excirial, Rohit nit, GoldenGoose100, PaulKincaidSmith,
SpikeToronto, Ember of Light, GlasGhost, Thingg, Vanished User 1004, Zenwhat, XLinkBot, BodhisattvaBot, Kwork2, Gerhardvalentin,
Saeed.Veradi, WikHead, Qwertytastic, Ewger, Addbot, CanadianLinuxUser, H92Bot, Glane23, GlobalSequence, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Sci-
enceApe, ‫سعی‬, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, 2D, Azcolvin429, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, PresMan, Flewis, Prbclj25, ArthurBot, Xqbot,
Doezxcty, S h i v a (Visnu), Lord Archer, Capricorn42, Xephras, Hartkiller, Hjurgen, Ordning, Lord Bane, Ruby.red.roses, RowanEvans,
Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, SEASONnmr, FrescoBot, Beclp, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Tom.Reding, Rushbugled13, Mohehab, Jim-
Rech, Jandalhandler, NeuroBells123, Keri, Humble Rat, Difu Wu, Whisky drinker, Mean as custard, Badelmann, Tesseract2, DASHBot,
EmausBot, Hedonistbot4000, Mo ainm, Tommy2010, Winner 42, TheGeomaster, JSquish, PBS-AWB, Fæ, Onceinawhile, MindShifts,
Foreverlove642, Wayne Slam, Donner60, Tziemer991, Jimmynudes2, ClueBot NG, Drdoug5, Kimberleyporter, Fauzan, Jj1236, Tideflat,
Amr.rs, Dictabeard, O.Koslowski, Masssly, Widr, Chillllls, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Nichole773, Hallows AG, Wiki13, Marcocapelle,
Luke13579, Richard84041, Ninjagoat, Sopidex, Miszatomic, Dhruv-NJITWILL, Sgilmore10, Courtneysfoster, ChrisGualtieri, GoShow,
Oligocene, ShangTsung87, Lugia2453, 93, MostlyListening, BreakfastJr, EMBViki, Biogeographist, Strikingstar, VogelsangLorenzo, Gin-
suloft, Mauriziogeri2013, Monkbot, ALongDream, Crocs.Sox, KasparBot, Sweepy, Sorte Slyngel, , Trex363, Marianna251, Robot
psychiatrist, Bear-rings, Sunitashiv, Professor arithmetic, Jbrownyw, Home Lander, Magic links bot and Anonymous: 385
• Research Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research?oldid=799679677 Contributors: Ed Poor, Andre Engels, Youssefsan, Chuq,
Jose Icaza, Fred Bauder, Ixfd64, Ronz, Rl, Mydogategodshat, Timwi, Reddi, Stone, Ike9898, Saltine, Leeirons, Spinster, Robbot, Pigson-
thewing, Fredrik, RedWolf, Altenmann, Nurg, Wjhonson, Mr-Natural-Health, Kagredon, HaeB, Tsavage, Odin.de, Carnildo, Morimom,
David Gerard, Ancheta Wis, Rj, Everyking, Jfdwolff, Djegan, Andycjp, Geni, SarekOfVulcan, Antandrus, Karol Langner, Dragonfly-
Sixtyseven, Sam Hocevar, Sayeth, YuTanaka~enwiki, Shiftchange, Freakofnurture, DanielCD, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, NrDg,
Vsmith, User2004, SocratesJedi, Mani1, Bender235, JoeSmack, MyNameIsNotBob, Haxwell, Triona, CDN99, Bobo192, Smalljim, John
Vandenberg, Ency, Godrickwok, Pearle, Ommnomnomgulp, Alansohn, Gary, Liao, EvanGrim, Arthena, Rd232, Carbon Caryatid, An-
drewpmk, Cdc, Ombudsman, Velella, RJII, Pauli133, Ceyockey, Kvikram, Feezo, Thryduulf, Woohookitty, Katyare, RHaworth, Jonaslud-
vigsson, Eras-mus, CharlesC, Waldir, Ggonnell, Liface, Mandarax, Graham87, BD2412, LanguageMan, Zoz, Porcher, Ketiltrout, Sjakkalle,
Rjwilmsi, Jweiss11, Constantinescu, Panoptical, Jivecat, Karhu, Seraphimblade, Trlovejoy, Vegaswikian, Nneonneo, LjL, Ohanian, FlaBot,
Windchaser, Ian Geoffrey Kennedy, Mark Elliott, Nivix, Gurch, Chobot, Bgwhite, Gwernol, The Rambling Man, YurikBot, Wavelength,
Phantomsteve, RussBot, Arado, Akamad, Gaius Cornelius, Rsrikanth05, NawlinWiki, Rick Norwood, Drgregmartin, Icelight, Irishguy,
Diotti, Daniel Mietchen, Coderzombie, Suzannah, Tony1, Xgu, MaxVeers, Aaron Schulz, Samir, Weppens, DeadEyeArrow, Black Falcon,
Tomisti, Wknight94, Mamawrites, Ageekgal, Closedmouth, Remus Lupin~enwiki, Reyk, BorgQueen, Alasdair, Chriswaterguy, Tinku99,
Hayden120, Mais oui!, Tb4256, Katieh5584, Kungfuadam, Moomoomoo, DVD R W, Kf4bdy, Johnmarkh, Crystallina, Mohsens, Smack-
Bot, Reedy, KnowledgeOfSelf, Jtneill, WookieInHeat, Mscuthbert, Kslays, HalfShadow, Yamaguchi , Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Anachro-
nist, Chris the speller, Methoxyroxy~enwiki, Adam M. Gadomski, DroEsperanto, Oli Filth, SteveD123, SchfiftyThree, Jfsamper, Gruzd,
BigWillWiki, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Chlewbot, Sephiroth BCR, Yidisheryid, Rrburke, Gavin Moodie, Spamwatch, COMPFUNK2,
Cybercobra, Funky Monkey, ScWizard, Kukini, MagnaMopus, ShadowPuppet, J 1982, SilkTork, Hmbr, IronGargoyle, Melody Concerto,
16@r, A. Parrot, Footballplayr69, Rfernand, Freckles.10.6.2005, Geologyguy, Hu12, Levineps, J Di, IvanLanin, Fsotrain09, Lenoxus,
Zahir.kazmi, Tawkerbot2, Mharnar, Dan1679, SkyWalker, JForget, CmdrObot, Mikeliuk, FunPika, Wafulz, Iced Kola, Makeemlighter,
KyraVixen, JohnCD, Alchemist arabia, AshLin, Abort, Creakylol, Gregbard, Abeg92, Mike Christie, Gogo Dodo, Dancter, He Who Is,
Attilitus, DumbBOT, Sivid, Garik, Gimmetrow, Legotech, MastaIroh, Epbr123, Barticus88, Qwyrxian, Chitomcgee, Wikisuz, Andyj-
smith, Marek69, Kostis.gr, Mailseth, Dawnseeker2000, Mentifisto, KrakatoaKatie, AntiVandalBot, Superfish2490, Gioto, Wengero, PhJ,
Lperez2029, Alexziller~enwiki, Altamel, ClassicSC, JAnDbot, Harryzilber, JenLouise, MER-C, Db099221, Jmike80, Starflixx, Andonic,
Xeno, PhilKnight, Geniac, Gert7, Gsaup, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, AuburnPilot, Swpb, Cgingold, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Allstarecho,
Cpl Syx, Vssun, DerHexer, JaGa, TheRanger, MartinBot, R'n'B, Shellwood, Wlodzimierz, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Brastein,
Maurice Carbonaro, Nigholith, Dbiel, Ksempac, Acalamari, Adrodin, Ncmvocalist, McSly, Ronny Gunnarsson, Bailo26, Vpolakunnil,
Mrg3105, Belovedfreak, Ohms law, 2help, Oopsla, Azrak, Bonadea, Ja 62, Inwind, Izno, Idioma-bot, VolkovBot, ABF, Indubitably, Corz
smile, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Technopat, Guillaume2303, Melsaran, Amaher, Noformation, UnitedStatesian, BotKung,
Eubulides, BigDunc, Rjgodoy, Dgw104, Falcon8765, Waiguoren, Wikigiannh, Phinelinda, Cnilep, Insanity Incarnate, Brianga, Palaeovia,
Logan, Legoktm, Finnrind, FlyingLeopard2014, HybridBoy, Botev, SMC89, SieBot, Chimin 07, AS, Washdivad, Nathan, Triwbe, Charn-
wood, Coeur-sang, Purbo T, Bentogoa, Flyer22 Reborn, Oda Mari, Lightmouse, Poindexter Propellerhead, Littlemissashe, Ks0stm, Lone-
lypoop, Aboluay, Sunrise, Dillard421, Efe, Denisarona, Adoggz, God of Slaughter, Counterfact, Granite07, Church, Martarius, ClueBot,
VRCOutreach, GorillaWarfare, Chaveso, The Thing That Should Not Be, Chocoforfriends, Rjd0060, MIDI, Mattspac, Tullis, Ndenison,
Supertouch, Arakunem, Do DueDiligence, Masterpiece2000, Excirial, Director Re, Resoru, Rhododendrites, Tyler, Arjayay, Kklines,
Tnxman307, Nukeless, Xme, Thingg, Versus22, Antediluvian67, Ps07swt, Dingenis, XLinkBot, Gonzonoir, Jytdog, Stickee, Pikeman85,
Jovianeye, DaL33T, Libcub, SilvonenBot, Galzigler, OlenWhitaker, Lonerguy 87, Rrodrigo, Addbot, AVand, Kongr43gpen, Fgnievin-
ski, Geced, SunDragon34, Mootros, Vrajesh1989, Ronhjones, Jncraton, D0762, CanadianLinuxUser, Cst17, MrOllie, Download, Glass-
zone33, Chzz, Aviorbyron, Aitambong, Mdnavman, Norman260, Tide rolls, Jarble, Hartz, Hjl7, CancerHealthInfo, Math Champion, Fe-
lixWriter, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Les boys, Legobot II, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, AnakngAraw, Ricky25, Eric-Wester, Raimundo Pas-
tor, AnomieBOT, Paladin1650, 1exec1, Pjd1557, Galoubet, AdjustShift, Materialscientist, Soopercau, La comadreja, Tango Mike Bravo,
Hve2hold, Perada, Xqbot, Pontificalibus, Sellyme, Stsang, Andiantopatak, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, TonyHagale, Amaury, CHJL, Doulos
Christos, GhalyBot, Shadowjams, WaysToEscape, Jrw7235, JennKR, Dan6hell66, RetiredWikipedian789, Jlgarciag, FrescoBot, Tobby72,
Lothar von Richthofen, Timawesomeness, Dottydog2, BenzolBot, DivineAlpha, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Jonesey95, Calmer Waters,
Ongar the World-Weary, Serols, SpaceFlight89, Merlion444, TobeBot, Newt Winkler, Thecow2, Harukawondergirls, Lotje, Dinamik-
bot, Vrenator, Cowlibob, MegaSloth, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Ladymhiles, Mean as custard, Jason ian33, RjwilmsiBot, Bhawani Gautam,
Peppermint Chills, Skamecrazy123, EmausBot, Cinerama14, Acather96, Super48paul, Racerx11, Solarra, DracoEssentialis, Wikipelli,
Dcirovic, The Blade of the Northern Lights, Mz7, HiW-Bot, Tankur, MithrandirAgain, Bryce Carmony, Dbouillo, Nicho3698, KuduIO,
SerinitiG, GZ-Bot, AndrewOne, GrindtXX, Nudecline, Tolly4bolly, Demiurge1000, TyA, Nijuwireul, Lilchase, Donner60, Phronetic,
Devanthran, Puffin, BioPupil, ChuispastonBot, ScottMellman, Petrb, Helpsome, ClueBot NG, Jack Greenmaven, MelbourneStar, This
lousy T-shirt, Satellizer, Joefromrandb, CloveWiki, Equalrandd, Founderccc, SethAllen623, Frietjes, Dreth, Hazhk, Bear030702, Widr,
Lawsonstu, Helpful Pixie Bot, Calabe1992, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, BigJim707, M0rphzone, Dbaronov, MusikAnimal, Mvs1 77,
CitationCleanerBot, AmaiaICrim, ASanders2011, CrazyCrazyLittleMonster, Skw07, IvaChen, Sriw, Rhaucknc, Vista Beasley, Lgatesfsu,
Instructforge, Hata27tr, Crh23, Tpressley87, Russ Walker FSU, Lubin Wang, Liruliru, Slushy9, Scc04, Rinkis, Sj08e, Shekraut, Zujua,
Elixirbouncybounce, Siddiqui22nadia, Avery.mabojie, Alemarcs, BattyBot, PatheticCopyEditor, David.moreno72, Ffornara, Phdworld,
Namju21, JBYarnell, Sreekumar asian, ChrisGualtieri, Jerseycow12, Casolar7, Kbourgoin, Adityasaxena.corp, MrNiceGuy1113, W101fls,
Pragmocialist, Taylor.thomson, Lugia2453, Bizworldusaanu, SFK2, Doctor Girl, Randykitty, Red-eyed demon, Mishaindiana, Amaryllis-
Gardener, Bob0009, Tentinator, Avatto123, Ashleyleia, AnouK20, WARETeacher, Rskohli, DD4235, Ginsuloft, JWNoctis, Someone
not using his real name, MrLinkinPark333, General534, Salmaodesk, UY Scuti, Param Mudgal, Cheged, JaconaFrere, Dybo50, Osibv,
Monkbot, Teaksmitty, Buggiehuggie, Tennah Berelowo, Obiukwu Jennifer, SantiLak, Trackteur, Qwertyumn, Jon.wright.lbc, Wailord2,
KBH96, Manum khan, Hira faizan, Ravindra.8810, Crystallizedcarbon, 0xF8E8, Loraof, SimonKu, Ali.esmaeel, Isambard Kingdom,
User000name, HelpUsStopSpam, Supdiop, KasparBot, Ceannlann gorm, JJMC89, Badfish25, CAPTAIN RAJU, Ematusov, NonfatOrb,
Derpfart, Arwa alhenti, N2der, Veryfuntoedit, Newton’s pupil, Emilya1030, Buboybreta, Gadams1, Qzd, Boomer Vial, AIzenpila, Aizen-
pila24, Twister829, Boby willam, Dhenmai, Natureium, Wikipediaishorrible, RainFall, KFang, Abhuvesh716, Sahaprodip, BronHiggs,
Wikishovel, Heididoerr061, Adriennepjones, 21 savage in the air, Wmdly, Siddique Urooj, Magic links bot, VapePig, Vaishnavi Agrawal,
Shravani chakraborty and Anonymous: 853
• Field research Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_research?oldid=799205051 Contributors: Ronz, Nv8200pa, Jni, Orangemike,
Evolauxia, Diego Moya, Tabletop, Mandarax, Tintazul, Latka, Bgwhite, Banaticus, Wavelength, RussBot, Maunus, SmackBot, Yopie,
Rmosler2100, PierreAnoid, Danielkueh, Radagast83, Shlomke, Abhishekspeare, Zarex, Dr.Bastedo, Cydebot, Gogo Dodo, Dancter,
Poorleno, AntiVandalBot, Gsaup, Jessicapierce, JaGa, Rlsheehan, Nemo bis, 83d40m, The Wild Falcon, EricSerge, Wiae, Liamo m,
WereSpielChequers, SuzannaQ, Busy Stubber, ClueBot, EoGuy, Arakunem, Niceguyedc, Jytdog, WikHead, Addbot, Schumacher001,
Tassedethe, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, SwisterTwister, DemocraticLuntz, LilHelpa, Eljefeloco, Xqbot, Capricorn42, SassoBot, Wis-
sensDürster, Edward130603, Cannolis, Pinethicket, Editor8888, Animalspirits, Dinamik-bot, NerdyScienceDude, DASHBot, EmausBot,
Aeonx, GrindtXX, ClueBot NG, Desmore13, Karim errouaki, Marcocapelle, Meclee, Shiekhjohnsonferry, Pbadza50, IroncladWriter, I
hate my barney life, Doom Boy Entertainment, AniusDaughter, Khazar2, Savannahamber, Thomasa22, Pemberlydarcy, 93, M.devia.psych.,
Anson1492, LibrarianAnnie, The Herald, YiFeiBot, SandyBourque, Gilded Snail, Petepetey, CV9933, CAPTAIN RAJU, Angela Gh and
Anonymous: 82
• Inference Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inference?oldid=787933691 Contributors: The Anome, Edward, Michael Hardy, Kku,
SebastianHelm, Angela, BAxelrod, EdH, Ww, Dysprosia, Markhurd, Furrykef, Hyacinth, Phil Boswell, Robbot, Shoesfullofdust, HaeB,
Giftlite, 0x6D667061, Snowdog, Michael Devore, Bovlb, Alan Au, Neilc, Andycjp, Gzuckier, Slartoff, Chapplek, Icairns, Discospinster,
Vsmith, Bender235, Chalst, Haxwell, Ntmatter, Sbarthelme, MPerel, Alansohn, Arthena, Bart133, Computerjoe, Camw, Ruud Koot,
Paxsimius, BD2412, Mendaliv, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Authr, Bhadani, Amelio Vázquez, FlaBot, Twipley, Crazycomputers, Ewlyahoocom,
Chobot, Bgwhite, YurikBot, Phantomsteve, Rick Norwood, Ziel, Robert McClenon, Amakuha, Hans Oesterholt, Andrew Lancaster, Fang
Aili, GraemeL, LeonardoRob0t, Infinity0, Zvika, DVD R W, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, KnowledgeOfSelf, NickShaforostoff, Rajah9,
Gilliam, Chris the speller, MalafayaBot, Therandreedgroup, Go For It, Frap, Kjetil1001, DéRahier, KerathFreeman, Stevenmitchell, Cy-
bercobra, StephenReed, Jon Awbrey, SashatoBot, General Ization, Gobonobo, Kransky, 16@r, Hetar, Iridescent, K, Igoldste, Tawkerbot2,
JForget, Wolfdog, Gregbard, Eu.stefan, Julian Mendez, Scolobb, Letranova, Epbr123, Headbomb, Marek69, John254, Odoncaoa, Sean
William, LachlanA, Mentifisto, Gioto, Venar303~enwiki, Albany NY, PhilKnight, VoABot II, Rederiksen, Twsx, Caesarjbsquitti, Whoop
whoop, JaGa, MartinBot, Cotton2, J.delanoy, Trusilver, Bogey97, Ginsengbomb, Cpiral, Chiswick Chap, NewEnglandYankee, Nadiatalent,
Hanacy, Juliancolton, ACSE, VolkovBot, Aesopos, Lradrama, Philogo, Sylvank, C Chiara, Andy Dingley, Graymornings, Lova Falk, Spin-
ningspark, Cnilep, Paracit, RHaden, Seraphita~enwiki, Newbyguesses, SieBot, Tiddly Tom, Storytellershrink, Exert, Oxymoron83, Iain99,
CharlesGillingham, Melcombe, Escape Orbit, Sfan00 IMG, ClueBot, GorillaWarfare, The Thing That Should Not Be, Arakunem, Tomas
e, Mild Bill Hiccup, CounterVandalismBot, Sambitbikaspal, PhySusie, AaronNGray, Versus22, Eroenj, Qwfp, Stickee, Gerhardvalentin,
Badgernet, HexaChord, Addbot, Fgnievinski, Ronhjones, DutchDevil, MrOllie, Jblondin, Tide rolls, BrianKnez, JakobVoss, Legobot,
Yobot, Tamiasciurus, Karnpatel18, IW.HG, Eric-Wester, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, IRP, Darolew, Ulric1313, Materialscientist, E2eamon,
TheAMmollusc, Intelati, Capricorn42, Forring, Grim23, Tuxponocrates, Govindjsk, Omnipaedista, Lancioni, Olexa Riznyk, Intelligent-
sium, Pinethicket, Ashimashi, Nurefsan, Aqueousmatt, TBloemink, Hentzde, Mknomad5, Hriber, MegaSloth, El Mayimbe, DARTH SID-
IOUS 2, Dhburns, Mean as custard, John of Reading, Honestrosewater, Jake, AsceticRose, Scandizzzle, Anir1uph, Fixblor, Lynette2c,
Mr legumoto, Donner60, Peter Karlsen, Xanchester, ClueBot NG, Run54, Satellizer, Bped1985, Kevin Gorman, Masssly, Widr, Helpful
Pixie Bot, Craighawkinson, Rm1271, BattyBot, GoShow, EuroCarGT, Davidlwinkler, Pintoch, Jochen Burghardt, Milesandkilometrestogo,
Lockfox, I am One of Many, Harlem Baker Hughes, DavidLeighEllis, 126 rules, Acschenkel, Sam Sailor, Thennicke, TheGlassman, 7Sidz,
Writers Bond, Monkbot, Jasminemarie647, Bubmuses, DissidentAggressor, Narky Blert, Loraof, LadyLeodia, Isambard Kingdom, Vol-
wen, KasparBot, RefinedThinking, Entranced98, Bear-rings, Blueski~svwiki, Hectorlopez17, RurouniKenshin and Anonymous: 396
• Statement (logic) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statement_(logic)?oldid=789519130 Contributors: Giftlite, Jason Quinn, Dis-
cospinster, Woohookitty, Xover, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, OneWeirdDude, Fresheneesz, Rick Norwood, SmackBot, Delfeye, Neo-Jay, Physis,
Penbat, Gregbard, Al Lemos, R'n'B, Thirdright, Philogo, OKBot, Francvs, C xong, Alejandrocaro35, Hans Adler, 51kwad, Addbot, ‫דניאל‬
‫ב‬., Yobot, GB fan, Omnipaedista, TensaiKashou, Hriber, Akerans, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, Shaun, Elizah379, Khazar2, Saehry,
Yamaha5, Winged Blades of Godric, Yoshi24517, PrimeBOT and Anonymous: 42
29.6.2 Images
• File:A_coloured_voting_box_(no_bg).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/A_coloured_voting_box_
%28no_bg%29.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: A coloured voting box.svg Original artist: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/User:ANGELUS' title='User:ANGELUS'>Angelus</a> <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:ANGELUS' title='User
talk:ANGELUS'>(talk) </a>
• File:AdornoHorkheimerHabermasbyJeremyJShapiro2.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/
AdornoHorkheimerHabermasbyJeremyJShapiro2.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Photograph taken in April 1964 by Jeremy
J. Shapiro Original artist: Jeremy J. Shapiro
• File:Alcator_C-Mod.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/Alcator_C-Mod.jpg License: CC0 Contribu-
tors: Dan Brunner, email Original artist: Dan Brunner
• File:Alhazen,_the_Persian.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Alhazen%2C_the_Persian.gif
License: Public domain Contributors: www.levity.com/alchemy/islam09.html Original artist: Unknown<a href='https:
//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590'
/></a>
• File:Ambox_current_red.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Ambox_current_red.svg License: CC0
Contributors: self-made, inspired by Gnome globe current event.svg, using Information icon3.svg and Earth clip art.svg Original artist:
Vipersnake151, penubag, Tkgd2007 (clock)
• File:Ambox_globe_content.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: Own work, using File:Information icon3.svg and File:Earth clip art.svg Original artist: penubag
• File:Ambox_important.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Own work based on: Ambox scales.svg Original artist: Dsmurat, penubag
• File:Anthony_Giddens_at_the_Progressive_Governance_Converence,_Budapest,_Hungary,_2004_October.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/Anthony_Giddens_at_the_Progressive_Governance_Converence%2C_
Budapest%2C_Hungary%2C_2004_October.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.Wikipedia to Commons.
Original source: “This picture was taken by me”, “the author of the picture is me, Szusi.” Original artist: Szusi
• File:Argument_terminology_used_in_logic.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/Argument_
terminology_used_in_logic.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: PowerPoint slide based on argument terminology Original artist:
Farcaster
• File:Aristoteles_Louvre.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Aristoteles_Louvre.jpg License: CC BY-
SA 2.5 Contributors: Eric Gaba (User:Sting), July 2005. Original artist: After Lysippos
• File:Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: Jastrow (2006) Original artist: After Lysippos
• File:Auguste_Comte2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Auguste_Comte2.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_(Avicenna)_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-_Western_Iran_
(7423560860).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-_Museum_
at_BuAli_Sina_%28Avicenna%29_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-_Western_Iran_%287423560860%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0
Contributors: Avicenna Portrait on Silver Vase - Museum at BuAli Sina (Avicenna) Mausoleum - Hamadan - Western Iran Original artist:
Adam Jones from Kelowna, BC, Canada
• File:BS-12-Begriffsschrift_Quantifier1-svg.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/
BS-12-Begriffsschrift_Quantifier1-svg.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Majo statt Senf
• File:BeijingConfuciusTemple9.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/BeijingConfuciusTemple9.jpg Li-
cense: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: ????/Beijing Kong Miao/???? Original artist: kanegen from Tokyo, Japan
• File:Buste_Auguste_Comte.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Buste_Auguste_Comte.jpg License:
CC BY-SA 1.0 Contributors: Maison d'Auguste Comte Original artist: Photo Alexandre Moatti
• File:Cellarius_Harmonia_Macrocosmica_-_Hypothesis_Ptolemaica.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
a/a6/Cellarius_Harmonia_Macrocosmica_-_Hypothesis_Ptolemaica.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.phys.uu.nl/
~{}vgent/cellarius/cellarius_plates.htm Original artist: Andreas Cellarius
• File:Classical_definition_of_Kno.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Classical_definition_of_Kno.
svg License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Krishnavedala
• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-
nal artist: ?
• File:Dignaga.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Dignaga.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own
work Original artist: Rartat
• File:DrustveneNauke.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/DrustveneNauke.png License: CC-BY-SA-
3.0 Contributors: Transferred from bs.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was Mhare at Bosnian Wikipedia
• File:Edit-clear.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The
Tango! Desktop Project. Original artist:
The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the file, specifically: “Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (although
minimally).”
• File:Emile_Durkheim.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Emile_Durkheim.jpg License:

Public domain Contributors: http://www.marxists.org/glossary/people/d/pics/durkheim.jpg Original artist: Unknown<a
href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050'
data-file-height='590' /></a>
• File:Ferdinand_Toennies_Bueste_Husum-Ausschnitt.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/
Ferdinand_Toennies_Bueste_Husum-Ausschnitt.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: VollwertBIT
• File:Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-by-
sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:French_Spanish_and_Polish_fashion.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/French_
Spanish_and_Polish_fashion.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: www.muzeummodyite.pl Original artist: Un-
known<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https:
• File:G.W.F._Hegel_(by_Sichling,_after_Sebbers).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/G.W.F.
_Hegel_%28by_Sichling%2C_after_Sebbers%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.hegel.net/en/gwh3.htm Original
artist: Julius Ludwig Sebbers
• File:Harrisonwhite.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Harrisonwhite.jpg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: Own work Original artist: Richardfabi
• File:Hilleman-Walter-Reed.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Hilleman-Walter-Reed.jpeg License:
Public domain Contributors: The photo is a cropped version of the original, which is Order Number B014616 in the National Library of
Medicine. The date and author (below) are taken from the NLM’s MARC record. The photograph was published in 1958 by Walter Reed
Army Medical Center. The photo has been cropped, healed to fix minor defects, and converted to JPEG (quality level 88), with the GIMP
2.6.6. Original artist: Walter Reed Army Medical Center
• File:Honourable_Bertrand_Russell.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Honourable_Bertrand_
Russell.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Bertrand Russell (1916). Justice in War-Time. Original artist: Photographer not identified
• File:ISAF_soldier_looking_for_enemy_positions_in_Kunar_Province_of_Afghanistan.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/3/34/ISAF_soldier_looking_for_enemy_positions_in_Kunar_Province_of_Afghanistan.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: flickr Original artist: Sgt. Brandon Aird
• File:Ibn_Khaldoun-Kassus.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Ibn_Khaldoun-Kassus.jpg License:
CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Kassus
• File:Johannesmagistris-square.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Johannesmagistris-square.jpg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Peter Damian
• File:JuergenHabermas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/JuergenHabermas.jpg License: CC BY-SA
3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by ojs. Original artist: photographer: Wolfram Huke at en.wikipedia ,
http://wolframhuke.de
• File:Kant_Portrait.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Friedrich_Heinrich_Jacobi_portrait.jpg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors:
https://ericgerlach.com/2014/06/
Original artist: Unidentified painter
• File:Karl_Marx.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Karl_Marx.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
International Institute of Social History in Amsterdam, Netherlands Original artist: John Jabez Edwin Mayal
• File:Karl_Popper2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/Karl_Popper2.jpg License: No restrictions Con-
tributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/lselibrary/4072388266/ Original artist: Lucinda Douglas-Menzies link
• File:Karl_Popper_(1902-1994),_Nr._104_bust_(bronce)_in_the_Arkadenhof_of_the_University_of_Vienna-2485.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/Karl_Popper_%281902-1994%29%2C_Nr._104_bust_%28bronze%29_in_the_
Arkadenhof_of_the_University_of_Vienna-2485.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Hubertl
• File:Kitaro_Nishidain_in_Feb._1943.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Kitaro_Nishidain_in_Feb.
_1943.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Source :http://www.lcv.ne.jp/~{}kohnoshg/site41/kitaro1.htm Original artist: Obtained
from source and uploded by Namazu-tron
• File:Langer.Susanne.foto_2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/Langer.Susanne.foto_2.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: http://hovedstad.enhedslisten.dk/sites/default/files/Susanne.Langer.foto_.jpg Original artist: hoved-
stad.enhedslisten.dk
• File:Laurentius_de_Voltolina_001.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Laurentius_de_Voltolina_001.
jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202.
Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Laurentius de Voltolina
• File:Leopold_von_Ranke_1868.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Leopold_von_Ranke_1868.jpg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: http://www.deutschlanddokumente.de/hstRanke.htm (OK as of July 22, 2006)
http://www.deutschlanddokumente.de/Ranke.htm (Error 404, Not Found) Original artist: Julius Schrader
• File:Lock-green.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg License: CC0 Contributors: en:File:

Free-to-read_lock_75.svg Original artist: User:Trappist the monk
• File:Logic_portal.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Logic_portal.svg License: CC BY-SA
3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Watchduck.svg' class='image'><img
alt='Watchduck.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Watchduck.svg/40px-Watchduck.svg.png'
width='40' height='46' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Watchduck.svg/60px-Watchduck.svg.png
1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Watchduck.svg/80px-Watchduck.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='703'
data-file-height='806' /></a> Watchduck (a.k.a. Tilman Piesk)
• File:Logo_sociology.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/Logo_sociology.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Tomeq183
• File:Long_view_nalanda.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Long_view_nalanda.JPG License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Neilsatyam
• File:Loudspeaker.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg License: Public domain Contrib-
utors: New version of Image:Loudspeaker.png, by AzaToth and compressed by Hautala Original artist: Nethac DIU, waves corrected by
Zoid
• File:Market-Chichicastenango.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/Market-Chichicastenango.jpg Li-
cense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Martin_Luther_King_Jr_NYWTS.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Martin_Luther_King_Jr_
NYWTS.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from the United States Library of Congress's Prints and Pho-
tographs division under the digital ID cph.3c26559.
This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.
Original artist: Dick DeMarsico, World Telegram staff photographer
• File:Marx_and_Engels.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Marx_and_Engels.jpg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Transferred from Wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was Σ at English Wikipedia
• File:Max_Weber_1894.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/Max_Weber_1894.jpg License: Public do-
main Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Merge-arrows.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Merge-arrows.svg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Microscopy_lab.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/Microscopy_lab.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Con-
tributors: Flickr: Microscopy lab Original artist: Idaho National Laboratory
• File:NYC_Public_Library_Research_Room_Jan_2006-1-_3.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/
NYC_Public_Library_Research_Room_Jan_2006-1-_3.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: photograph by Diliff, edited by Vassil Orig-
inal artist: Diliff
• File:Nato_awacs.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/Nato_awacs.jpg License: Public domain Contribu-
tors: http://www.edwards.af.mil/archive/2003/2003-archive-nato_tests.html Original artist: initially loaded by user Cornellrockey on en:
• File:Nature_cover,_November_4,_1869.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Nature_cover%2C_
November_4%2C_1869.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Nicolas_P._Rougier’{}s_rendering_of_the_human_brain.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/
Nicolas_P._Rougier%27s_rendering_of_the_human_brain.png License: GPL Contributors: http://www.loria.fr/~{}rougier Original artist:
Nicolas Rougier
• File:Office-book.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Office-book.svg License: Public domain Contribu-
tors: This and myself. Original artist: Chris Down/Tango project
• File:Old_Bailey_Microcosm_edited.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Old_Bailey_Microcosm_
edited.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Ackermann, Rudolph; Pyne, William Henry; Combe, William (1904) [1808] "Old Bailey"
in The Microcosm of London: or, London in Miniature, Volume 2, London: Methuen and Company Retrieved on 9 January 2009. Original
artist: Thomas Rowlandson and Augustus Pugin
• File:P_derecho.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/P_derecho.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
own work based on File:Scale of justice 2.svg and File:P blank.svg Original artist: User:Kontos
• File:P_philosophy.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/P_philosophy.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Con-
tributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:People_icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/People_icon.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Open-
Clipart Original artist: OpenClipart
• File:Photograph_of_Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan_presented_to_First_Lady_Jacqueline_Kennedy_in_1962.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Photograph_of_Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan_presented_to_First_Lady_
Jacqueline_Kennedy_in_1962.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.jfklibrary.org/Search.aspx?nav=Rpp:25,Nrc:
id-9-dynrank-disabled%7Cid-5,N:16-4294957667-24&id=9 Original artist: White House
• File:Physical_world.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Physical_world.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: CIA World Factbook [1]
Original artist: Central Intelligence Agency
• File:Planche_de_Galton.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Planche_de_Galton.jpg License: CC BY-
SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Antoine Taveneaux
• File:Plato-raphael.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/Plato-raphael.jpg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: Unknown Original artist: Raphael
• File:Popper_and_Hoschl.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/Popper_and_Hoschl.jpg License: CC

BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Prof. Cyril Höschl Original artist: Arnošt Pasler
• File:Popper_gravesite.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Popper_gravesite.jpg License: CC BY-SA
3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Profpjm
• File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
• File:Psi2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/Psi2.svg License: Public domain Contributors: No machine-
readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided.
Gdh~commonswiki assumed (based on copyright claims).
• File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0
Contributors:
Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist:
Tkgd2007
• File:Red_flag_II.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Red_flag_II.svg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors:
No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author
provided. Ssolbergj assumed (based on copyright claims).
• File:Register_transfer_level_-_example_toggler.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Register_
transfer_level_-_example_toggler.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist:
Alinja at English Wikipedia
• File:Research-Warner-Highsmith.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Research-Warner-Highsmith.
jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division, LC-DIG-highsm-03153 (original digital
file), uncompressed archival TIFF version (92 MB), cropped and converted to JPEG with the GIMP 2.2.13, image quality 88. Original
artist: Artist is Olin Levi Warner (1844–1896). Photographed in 2007 by Carol Highsmith (1946–), who explicitly placed the photograph
in the public domain.
• File:Rongo_Analects_02.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Rongo_Analects_02.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: From here. Original artist: Confucius and his disciples,
• File:Schlick_sitting.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Schlick_sitting.jpg License: Public domain
• File:Science-symbol-2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/Science-symbol-2.svg License: CC BY 3.0
Contributors: en:Image:Science-symbol2.png Original artist: en:User:AllyUnion, User:Stannered
• File:Simmel_01.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Simmel_01.JPG License: Public domain Contribu-
tors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Sna_large.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/Sna_large.png License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors:
Screenshot of free software GUESS Original artist: Screenshot taken by User:DarwinPeacock
• File:Socrates.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Socrates.png License: Public domain Contributors:
Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was Magnus Manske at English Wikipedia Later versions
were uploaded by Optimager at en.wikipedia.
• File:Socrates_Pio-Clementino_Inv314.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Socrates_
Pio-Clementino_Inv314.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Jastrow (2006) Original artist: Unknown<a
href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https:
• File:Spencer-detail.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Spencer-detail.png License: Public domain Con-
tributors:
• Herbert_Spencer.jpg Original artist:
• derivative work: Zik2 (<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Zik2' title='User talk:Zik2'>talk</a>)
• File:Stephen_Hawking.StarChild.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/Stephen_Hawking.StarChild.
jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Original. Source (StarChild Learning Center). Directory listing. Original artist: NASA
• File:Sun_stone_detail.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Sun_stone_detail.JPG License: CC BY 2.0
Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/rosemania/4419055059/ Original artist: Rosemania
• File:Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6e/Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg
License: Public domain Contributors: self-made; based on Image:Hammer and sickle.svg by Zscout370 Original artist: Rocket000
• File:Symbol_book_class2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.svg License: CC
BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Mad by Lokal_Profil by combining: Original artist: Lokal_Profil
• File:Templo_Positivista_em_Porto_Alegre.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/Templo_Positivista_
em_Porto_Alegre.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Eugenio Hansen, OFS
• File:Terra.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/Terra.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
• File:Text_document_with_page_number_icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Text_document_
with_page_number_icon.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Created by bdesham with Inkscape; based upon Text-x-generic.svg
from the Tango project. Original artist: Benjamin D. Esham (bdesham)
• File:Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Text_document_

with_red_question_mark.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Created by bdesham with Inkscape; based upon Text-x-generic.svg
from the Tango project. Original artist: Benjamin D. Esham (bdesham)
• File:The_United_Nations_Secretariat_Building.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/The_United_
Nations_Secretariat_Building.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: originally posted to Flickr as The United Nations Building Original
artist: Steve Cadman
• File:Thomas_Hobbes_(portrait).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Thomas_Hobbes_%28portrait%
29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
National Portrait Gallery: NPG 225
Original artist: John Michael Wright
• File:Thucydides-bust-cutout_ROM.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/Thucydides-bust-cutout_
ROM.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:UN_Members_Flags2.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/UN_Members_Flags2.JPG License:
CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Aotearoa
• File:United_Nations_Flags_-_cropped.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/United_Nations_Flags_-_
cropped.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Flickr: IMG_1965 Original artist: Tom Page
• File:Wiki_letter_w.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors:
? Original artist: ?
• File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg License:
CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: This file was derived from Wiki letter w.svg: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Wiki_letter_w.svg' class='image'><img alt='Wiki letter w.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_
letter_w.svg/50px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png' width='50' height='50' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/
Wiki_letter_w.svg/75px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/
100px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='44' data-file-height='44' /></a>
Original artist: Derivative work by Thumperward
• File:Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.
svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.
• File:Wikibooks-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.
• File:Wikidata-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: Own work Original artist: User:Planemad
• File:Wikinews-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: This is a cropped version of Image:Wikinews-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Simon 01:05, 2 August 2006 (UTC)
Updated by Time3000 17 April 2007 to use official Wikinews colours and appear correctly on dark backgrounds. Originally uploaded by
Simon.
• File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rei-artur
• File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau
• File:Wikiversity-logo-Snorky.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Wikiversity-logo-en.svg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Snorky
• File:Wikiversity-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Wikiversity-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Snorky (optimized and cleaned up by verdy_p) Original artist: Snorky (optimized and cleaned up by verdy_p)
• File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg License:
CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
• File:WomanFactory1940s.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/WomanFactory1940s.jpg License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: This image is available from the United States Library of Congress's Prints and Photographs division under the
digital ID fsac.1a34951.
This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.
Original artist: Howard R. Hollem
• File:World_Bank_building_at_Washington.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/World_Bank_
building_at_Washington.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Flickr Original artist: Shiny Things
• File:World_empires_and_colonies_around_World_War_I.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/
World_empires_and_colonies_around_World_War_I.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Taken from wikipedia map Original
artist: See below.
• File:Wundt-research-group.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/Wundt-research-group.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: the English language Wikipedia (log) Original artist: uploaded to Wikipedia by Kenosis
• File:Yellow_flag_waving.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Yellow_flag_waving.svg License: CC-
BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
• Blue_flag_waving.svg Original artist: Blue_flag_waving.svg: Viktorvoigt
• File:Zoobentos_sampling_Krippenbach.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Zoobentos_sampling_
Krippenbach.jpg License: GFDL Contributors: Own work Original artist: Panek
29.6.3 Content license

• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0

Book of Sociology

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Book of Sociology

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Book of Sociology

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Book of Sociology

Theory and Methodology

6.3.3 Individual or sub-unit level concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

11.1 Rise of organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

13 Positive statement 100

13.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

14.6.21 Urban and rural sociology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

16 List of philosophies 140

17.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

18 Logical positivism 157

19 Frankfurt School 168

19.1.2 Germany before WWII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

20 Critical theory 181

21 Conﬂict theories 187

22 Structure and agency 191

23.8 Role of women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

24 Inductive reasoning 214

25 Deductive reasoning 219

26.4 Scientiﬁc research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

27 Field research 233

27.8.1 In anthropology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

29 Statement (logic) 245

more completely. ﬁeld’s approach to a subject matter. These assumptions

• Falsiﬁability 1.8 Notes

• Theoretical deﬁnition [5] Schafersman, Steven D. “An Introduction to Science”.

[6] Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, Institute of

[17] Suppe, Frederick (1998). “Understanding Scientiﬁc The-

[18] Halvorson, Hans (2012). “What Scientiﬁc Theories Could

[19] Bradford, Alina (March 25, 2015). “What Is a Law in

1.9 External links

Remember, the way that you prove an

In its ancient usage, hypothesis referred to a summary of

[20] Hempel, C. G. (1952). Fundamentals of concept forma-

[15] Oxford Dictionary of Sports Science & Medicine. Eprint

hypothesis [...]—Working hypothesis,

[17] Patricia M. Shields, Hassan Tajalli (2006). “Intermediate

Comte oﬀered an account of social evolution, propos-

Fabien Magnin was the ﬁrst working class adherent to

3.3.3 Durkheim’s positivism anomie". Durkheim described sociology as the “science

3.3.4 Antipositivism and critical theory

Main articles: Antipositivism and Critical theory

At the turn of the 20th century, the ﬁrst wave of Ger-

The key features of positivism as of the 1950s, as deﬁned

1. A focus on science as a product, a linguistic or nu-

3.7 Criticisms lationships and necessary principles, or that we cannot

3.9 Notes [17] Raymond Boudon and François Bourricaud, A Critical

3.11 External links

• Kremer-Marietti, Angèle. Le positivisme, Collection

• LeGouis, Catherine. Positivism and Imagination:

• Mill, John Stuart. Auguste Comte and Positivism.

• Mises, Richard von. Positivism: A Study In Human

• Petit, Annie. Le Système d'Auguste Comte. De la

• Pickering, Mary. Auguste Comte: An Intellectual Bi-

• Richard Rorty (1982) Consequences of Pragmatism

• Schunk, Dale H. Learning Theories: An Educational

• “Positivism.” Marxists Internet Archive. Web. 23

The interdisciplinary and cross-disciplinary nature of 4.2.1 Anthropology

ferent approaches a third ﬁeld has emerged, which is

A trial at a criminal court, the Old Bailey in London