Science and Technology of Welding and Joining

ISSN: 1362-1718 (Print) 1743-2936 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ystw20

Fatigue properties of ferrite/bainite dual-phase

X80 pipeline steel welded joints

Z-P. Zhao, G-Y. Qiao, G-P. Li, W-W. Yang, B. Liao & F-R. Xiao

To cite this article: Z-P. Zhao, G-Y. Qiao, G-P. Li, W-W. Yang, B. Liao & F-R. Xiao (2016): Fatigue
properties of ferrite/bainite dual-phase X80 pipeline steel welded joints, Science and
Technology of Welding and Joining, DOI: 10.1080/13621718.2016.1219120

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13621718.2016.1219120

Published online: 08 Sep 2016.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 59

View related articles

View Crossmark data

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=ystw20

Download by: [Ryerson University Library] Date: 17 October 2016, At: 07:55
Fatigue properties of ferrite/bainite dual-phase
X80 pipeline steel welded joints
Z-P. Zhao1 , G-Y. Qiao1,2, G-P. Li3, W-W. Yang3, B. Liao1 and F-R. Xiao∗ 1
Fatigue properties are important parameters for the safety design and security evaluation of
pipelines. In this work, fatigue life and fatigue crack propagation of full-thickness X80 pipeline
steel joints compared with the base metal (BM) was investigated. Full-thickness BM specimens
showed superior fatigue life compared with that of welded joints. The fatigue crack initiation of
full-thickness X80 welded joint specimens occurred at the outside weld toe and then grew
inward until a fracture was formed. During fatigue crack growth in the heat-affected zone (HAZ),
crack growth rate linearly increased with increased ΔK in each HAZ subregion. However, the
change rate of fatigue crack growth rate (da/dN ) differed among HAZ subregions. This
difference was related to the variation in crack path and fracture mode because of the possible
microstructural sensitivity of fatigue crack propagation behaviour.
Keywords: X80 steel, HAZ, Fatigue property, Failure mode, Microstructure, Crack propagation

Introduction gradually becomes one of the prime concerns in structural

In 2010, International Energy Outlook reported that world
gas consumption is expected to increase to 40% from 2007
to 2035. Therefore, a large supply of resources is required
over long distances to meet the requirement of long-dis-
tance gas transportation.1 Consequently, as an efficient
long-distance transportation pathway to transmit oil and
gaseous fuel from production, pipelines are used widely
around the world.2 However, for long-distance transpor-
tation, pipelines inevitably pass through geological com-
plex areas, such as landslide, earthquake and frozen soil.
A pipeline steel of high strength should exhibit excellent
deformability to reduce deformation and damage caused
by ground movement. Hence, ferrite/bainite dual-phase
X80 pipeline steel is gaining increased wide attention
because of the combined properties of high strength and
excellent ductility.3 This pipeline steel consists of ferrite
and bainite microstructures manufactured using an
advanced thermo-mechanical controlled process.
Approximately, 20% of pipeline construction costs are
due to welding, coating and subsequent maintenance to
confirm the integrity.4 Welded joints also undergo nom-
inal vibratory stresses over a long period in the pipeline
steel work environment, such as millions of cycles and
fatigue failure often occurring at welded joints (account-
ing for over 80%).5 Hence, the property of welded joints
is an important parameter to the overall pipeline perform-
ance, and studying the fatigue property of pipeline
1
Key Lab of Metastable Materials Science & Technology, College of
Materials Science & Engineering, Yanshan University, Qinhuangdao
066004, China
2
Key Lab of Applied Chemistry of Hebei Province, School of Environment
and Chemical Engineering, Yanshan University, Qinhuangdao 066004,
China
3
CNPC Bohai Equipment Manufacturing Co. Ltd, Qingxian 062658, China
∗ fatigue crack growth behaviour. Full-thickness welded joint
Corresponding author, email frxiao@ysu.edu.cn
design. In view of whole welded joint structure, the prop-
erties of the weld metal itself can be controlled through
the use of consumables with suitably designed alloying
additions; however, the heat-affected zone (HAZ) adja-
cent to weld is often the most critical region with regard
to potential failures.6 As a result, many investigations
on the fatigue properties of pipeline steel in HAZ have
been conducted.1,7–9 Furthermore, some of these reports
indicate that the softening in HAZ is the major reason
why the initiation and propagation of fatigue crack easily
occur in HAZ than in weld metal and base metal (BM). In
the case of X80 pipeline steel, the microstructure in HAZ
may be a combination of ferrite, bainite and martensite/
austenite (M/A) because of different thermal cycles. Accord-
ingly, the properties of the HAZ and BM are significantly
different. Undoubtedly, the HAZ fatigue properties of X80
pipeline steel should be given more attention.
However, welding thermal simulation specimens or the
specimens without weld reinforcement were usually used
to study the effect of microstructure on fatigue behaviour
in most previous studies. Thus, very limited investigations
have been reported on the fatigue life and fatigue crack
growth behaviour using full-thickness specimens without
machining. Unfortunately, the weld toe profile and sur-
face condition of steel plate are important considerations
for pipeline fatigue life and fatigue crack initiations. Full-
thickness specimens without machining can also reflect
the real fatigue fracture path in HAZ. Therefore, the fati-
gue properties of welded joints for ferrite/bainite dual-
phase X80 pipeline steel require further investigation.
In this work, the fatigue crack propagation and fatigue life
of the welded joints in a bainite/ferrite dual-phase X80 pipe-
line steel were investigated to consider the relationships
between the microstructures of each HAZ subregion and

© 2016 Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining

Published by Taylor & Francis on behalf of the Institute
Received 14 May 2016; accepted 25 July 2016
DOI 10.1080/13621718.2016.1219120 Science and Technology of Welding and Joining 2016 1
Zhao et al. Fatigue properties of ferrite/bainite dual-phase X80 pipeline steel welded joints
Table 1 Chemical composition (in wt-%) of the X80 steel selected in the present study
C Mn Si P S
0.07 1.69 0.21 0.011 0.002
specimens were used for the investigation. The effects of
stress concentration on fatigue crack initiation were also ana-
lysed. In addition, fatigue crack growth behaviour in HAZ
was examined by means of electron back-scattered diffrac-
tion (EBSD). This study provided beneficial experimental
data for safe designs and life prediction of pipelines.
Experimental procedure
In this work, a commercial ferrite/bainite dual-phase X80
pipeline with a thickness of 26.4 mm was used as the base
material. The chemical composition of the X80 steel is as
shown in Table 1. Plates were cut from the commercial
longitudinal submerged arc welded (LSAW) pipe with a
diameter of 1219 mm. The tensile strengths of the BM
and welded joint are approximately 723 and 702 MPa,
respectively. The tensile strength in the welded joint is
lower than that in the BM.
Specimens were machined from the BM and welded
joints for tension testing and fatigue testing as shown in
Fig. 1a. Two types of fatigue specimens were machined:
fatigue life specimens and fatigue crack propagation
specimens. In the fatigue life test, full-thickness specimens
were used and the steel plate surface and welded joint
were not subjected to machining (Fig. 1b). This study
aimed to provide results that could reflect the actual fati-
gue life of LSAW pipe. In the fatigue crack propagation
test, single-edge notched bend (SENB) specimens were
used (Fig. 1c). The location of notch was determined by
the situation of fracture in the fatigue life test.
The fatigue life tests were performed by using an MTS
servo-hydraulic universal testing machine. A stress ratio
(R = σmin/σmax) of 0.1, sinusoidal waveform and a
1 Schematic illustrations showing the a layout and section-
ing locations of test specimens, b the critical dimensions
of the tensile and fatigue test specimens and c SENB
specimens. All dimensions are in mm
2 Science and Technology of Welding and Joining 2016
Mo Ni Cr Cu Nb Ti Al
0.003 0.255 0.223 0.129 0.082 0.015 0.035
frequency of 10 Hz were selected in all of the tests. The
fatigue crack propagation test was performed using an
MTS 858 Mini Bionix universal testing machine. The
R-ratio and frequency were set at 0.1 and 10 Hz, respect-
ively. The tests were initiated with a fatigue precracking
process to initiate an initial crack from the sharp notch
of each SENB specimen. The fatigue precracking was
generated by cyclic loading until a crack with the desired
length was formed. This procedure was conducted follow-
ing the ASTM standard.10 The precrack length of each
SENB specimen was not less than 2.0 mm. Microhard-
ness tests were performed on the polished specimens
across the weld using a Vickers hardness tester (FM-
ARS 9000) at a load of 500 gf.
The analysis of microstructures was performed using
optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy
(SEM) (S-3400N), EBSD (EDAX) and transmission elec-
tron microscopy (TEM) (JOEL 2010).
Results and discussion
Microstructure change and microhardness
profile
Figure 2 depicts typical OM images showing the various
weld zone microstructural regions of LSAW pipe. A
macroscopic cross-section of a welded joint is shown at
the top indicating the various weld regions as BM,
HAZ and fusion zone (FZ). The BM microstructure con-
sists of polygonal ferrite (PF) and bainite (BF) (Fig. 2b).
The fraction of PF is approximately 54 vol.-%. BF is pre-
dominant granular BF, which consists of fine lath ferrite
and M/A constituents distributed in the matrix.11
The HAZ contained four different subregions: coarse-
grained (CG), fine-grained (FG), intercritical-grained
(IC) and subcritical-grained (SC). As shown in Fig. 2d,
the CGHAZ microstructure is characterised by BF. The
primary austenite grain boundaries are clearly visible
and the grain sizes gradually decreases with distance from
the fusion line (Fig. 2e). In FGHAZ, the structure is a mix-
ture of BF and ferrite (Fig. 2f ). Meanwhile, in ICHAZ, the
microstructure is unsharp as-rolled mixed one (Fig. 2g).
The SCHAZ microstructure is similar to BM (Fig. 2b and h).
Microhardness values of inside and outside welds are as
shown in Fig. 3. Both of them are consistent in trend with
different regions. The highest hardness value is at FZ and
the hardness gradually declines with distance from the
fusion line. The average hardness in the FGHAZ is
205 HV, which represents the lowest hardness observed.
Compared with BM hardness (around 220 HV), the
FGHAZ hardness decreases significantly, i.e. softening
has occurred in this weld region. According to the descrip-
tion above (Fig. 2), the hardness profile of the welded joint
was corresponding directly to the microstructural change.
The changes of local microstructure and hardness of the
HAZ influence the overall failure mechanism and fatigue
crack growth behaviour; these are discussed in succeeding
sections.
 Zhao et al. Fatigue properties of ferrite/bainite dual-phase X80 pipeline steel welded joints

2 OM images of the welded joint microstructures: a welded joint, b BM, c fusion line, d CGHAZ microstructure close to fusion
line, e CGHAZ microstructure far from fusion line, f microstructure of FGHAZ, g microstructure of IGHAZ and h microstructure
of SGHAZ

Fatigue life test
Fatigue life
The S−N curves obtained from the load control fatigue
tests are shown in Fig. 4. The fatigue limits of the BM
and welded joints show nearly identical trend within
the experimental range, i.e. the fatigue cycles increase
as the maximum stress decreases. The welded joints
have a remarkable lower fatigue life than that of the
BM at different maximum stresses. The fatigue limit
stresses of the BM and welded joints are approximately
350 and 250 MPa, respectively. The safety coefficient of
the pipeline strength design is the highest when yield
strength is 80%. For the X80 steel, the minimum yield
strength is 550 MPa; hence, the maximum operating
stress may reach 440 MPa. Thus, the fatigue limits of
the BM and welded joints are approximately 4.2 × 105
and 1.0 × 105 cycles, respectively, when the maximum
stress is 440 MPa.

Science and Technology of Welding and Joining 2016 3

Zhao et al. Fatigue properties of ferrite/bainite dual-phase X80 pipeline steel welded joints
3 Microhardness profile across the welded joint
4 S–N curves of the BM and welded joint evaluated at R =
0.1, 10 Hz and room temperature
Fracture analysis
The fatigue fractures were observed to investigate the fati-
gue behaviour of the welded joints. Figure 5 shows the
results of SEM fracture surface of the specimen at a maxi-
mum stress of 400 MPa. The macroscopic fracture indi-
cates fatigue fracture processes consisting of crack
initiation, propagation and final fracture (Fig. 5a). The
fatigue crack generally initiates at the surface and propa-
gates inward (Fig. 5b). Meanwhile, some bulky inclusions
exist on the surface and may act as crack sources. The
crack propagation directions can be identified by the
river line patterns (Fig. 5c), and fatigue striations are
found on the fracture surface (Fig. 5d ). As the crack con-
tinues to propagate inward, the fracture surface reveals
the ductile features of flat facets and plenty of clear second
cracks (Fig. 5e). In addition, the spacing of fatigue stria-
tions in this area clearly increases compared with that in
the early stage (Fig. 5d and f ). With the growth of the fati-
gue crack, fatigue striation spacing and the size of second
crack further increase (Fig. 5g). The final fracture zone
consists of characteristic dimples (Fig. 5h).
Effect of stress concentration on fracture location
The fatigue life test shows that the initial failure position
of the welded joint specimens located at the surface and
the crack propagated into the inner part of the specimens
4 Science and Technology of Welding and Joining 2016
(Fig. 5). Meanwhile, the vast majority of cracks initiated
outside the welds. As welded joint specimens are loaded
with the fillet, stress concentration problem usually occurs
at the fillet position of part. Therefore, crack can easily
initiate close to the fusion line during fatigue. However,
the stress concentration is affected considerably by the
weld toe profile. To evaluate the difference between the
profiles of inside and outside weld toes, the concept of fati-
gue notch stress concentration factor Kf is applied. Kf
could be calculated by Peterson’s equation12
1 + (Kt − 1)
Kf = (1)
(1 + a/r)
where Kt is the elastic stress concentration factor; ρ is
the notch root radius; a is Peterson’s material constant,
which can be described by a = 0.0254 × (2069/σb)2 for
steel; σb is the ultimate strength of the materials (the
unit is in mm).
In general, Kt can be calculated by the following
equation according to Lawrence on the basis of finite
element method13,14
Kt = b × [1 + a(t/r)l ] (2)
where α, β and λ are constants whose values are deter-
mined by the geometric shape of welds and the manner
of loading. t and ρ are the thickness of plates and the
notch root radius. For butt-welded joints, the constants
α and λ are usually 1 and 1/2, respectively. The constant
β can be described by β = 0.27 (tan θ)0.25, where θ is the
weld toe angle.
The calculation results of Kf are as shown in Table 2.
The outside weld has the larger fatigue notch stress con-
centration factor. Therefore, crack can easily initiate at
the outside weld during fatigue.
Apart from the local existence of stress concentration
caused by the weld toe profile, the bulky inclusions at sur-
face of the weld toe can also act as a site of stress concen-
tration that causes crack initiation during fatigue, as
shown in Fig. 5b. It was analysed and compared with
internal fracture surface. The inclusions near the fusion
line were caused by the weld undercut during the welding
process.
In summary, stress concentration caused by the weld
toe profile and bulky inclusions reduce the crack initiation
life when cracks propagate from the weld toe. This
phenomenon is one of the reasons why the fatigue life of
the welded joint specimens is much lower than that of
BM at different maximum stresses (Fig. 4). To improve
fatigue life, the formation of weld undercut during weld-
ing should be avoided and the weld toe profile should be
given the necessary attention at the design and production
stage.
Effect of microhardness on fracture path
The fatigue fracture consists of three different zones: fati-
gue crack initiation, propagation and the ultimate frac-
ture zone. For the welded joint specimens, fatigue cracks
initiate at the weld toe and propagate stably inward
under cyclic loading (Fig. 5). Although the direction of
stable propagation is consistently perpendicular to the
loading direction for most specimens, the stable propa-
gation distance of fatigue crack decreases with increased
maximum stress (Fig. 6a). When the effective loading
area of the cross-section is reduced to a critical value
 Zhao et al. Fatigue properties of ferrite/bainite dual-phase X80 pipeline steel welded joints

5 Typical SEM micrographs of the fatigue fracture surface of the welded joints at a maximum stress of 400 MPa. a Overall view
of the fracture surface, b the position of crack initiation, c fracture surface close to CGHAZ, d magnified view of c, e fracture
surface close to FGHAZ, f magnified view of e, g the area close to ultimate fracture region and h ultimate fracture region

Table 2 Fatigue notch stress concentration factor Kf

equals tensile strength of BM is as shown in Fig. 6a.
Notch root radius Weld toe Most data points sit below the line because the hardness
Status ρ (mm) angle θ (°) Kf of HAZ is lower than that of BM and ultimate fracture
occurs first in HAZ not in BM. The local softening behav-
Inside weld 2.4 20 1.63 iour also affects the direction of rapid fracture. As the
Outside weld 1.8 25 1.76
lowest hardness weld region (Fig. 3), FGHAZ becomes
the major region of rapid crack propagation. According
to the analysis above and the hardness distribution of
corresponding to tensile strength, fracture occurs by rapid welded joints, fatigue crack fracture path for the welded
crack propagation and with appreciable macroscopic joint specimens can be concluded, as shown in Fig. 6b.
deformation. Thus, the stable propagation distance of As expected, the microstructure and hardness of the
fatigue crack can be calculated by the most sustainable HAZ play an important role to fracture path during fati-
loading force. The relationship when the loading stress gue process.

Science and Technology of Welding and Joining 2016 5

Zhao et al. Fatigue properties of ferrite/bainite dual-phase X80 pipeline steel welded joints
6 a Effect of maximum stress on crack propagation distance, b sketch map of fracture path
7 Fatigue crack growth rate as a function of ΔK measured at
R = 0.1, 10 Hz and room temperature
Fatigue crack growth test
Fatigue crack growth rate
As mentioned in the previous section, the initial position
of failure crack located in the CGHAZ. Accordingly, the
notch of welded joint specimens was machined in this
region. Fatigue crack growth paths are as illustrated in
Fig. 7. The fatigue crack initiates from the CGHAZ, pro-
pagates through the FGHAZ and ICHAZ and finally
fractures. Figure 7 shows the relationship of the fatigue
crack growth rates (da/dN ) with a stress intensity factor
of crack tip (ΔK ) for different subregions in the HAZ.
The curve of da/dN with ΔK can be divided to the corre-
sponding subregions according to the distance of fatigue
crack during the crack growth process. Fatigue crack
growth behaviour of the HAZ can be described by Paris
model,15 given by equation (3)
da/dN = C(DK)m
where C and m are constants with materials.
In equation (1) and Fig. 7, the calculated C and m of
different subregions in the HAZ are as listed in Table 3.
The Paris model is fitted with high correlation coeffi-
cient, and da/dN is linearly proportional to ΔK in
double logarithmic coordinates for all subregions in
the HAZ. Therefore, the Paris model can effectively
describe the fatigue crack growth behaviour in the
6 Science and Technology of Welding and Joining 2016
Table 3 Fitting parameters of the different stages in da/dN
with ΔK plot by the Paris equation
Different Correlative
subregions m C coefficient
CGHAZ 6.86 2.55 × 10−14 0.95
FGHAZ 1.83 3.70 × 10−7 0.97
ICHAZ 3.75 3.70 × 10−10 0.98
HAZ. In the Paris model, the m value represents the
slope of fitting line, i.e. this value can reveal the da/
dN growth rate. As shown in Table 3, 1.83 and 6.86
are the minimum and maximum m values, which corre-
spond to the FGHAZ and CGHAZ, respectively. Thus,
the crack propagation in the FGHAZ is much harder
than in CGHAZ.
Effect of microstructure of HAZ on fatigue crack growth
behavior
The fatigue crack propagation test shows that obvious
differences exist in fatigue crack growth behaviour for
the different HAZ subregions (Fig. 7). This result is
related to the changes in crack path and fracture mode
because of the possible microstructural sensitivity of fati-
gue crack propagation behaviour.
In CGHAZ, da/dN increases obviously with ΔK, but
the da/dN growth rate gradually decreases with the propa-
gation of cracks (Fig. 7). The reason is that fatigue crack
resistances have increased significantly as the microstruc-
ture changes. To observe the crack propagation paths in
detail, the fatigue cracks on the cross-section in
CGHAZ and FGHAZ were characterised. The resulting
micrographs are as shown in Fig. 8. A large amount of
crack deflections occurred along the prior austenite
grain boundaries and lath BF boundaries in CGHAZ.
(3) Therefore, prior austenite grain boundaries and lath BF
boundaries have affected fatigue crack growth behaviour
to some extent. Figure 9 provides information on orien-
tation distribution, misorientation distribution and grain
boundary character distribution of special type of grain
boundaries called coincident site lattice (CSL) grain
boundaries. The majority of highly misoriented bound-
aries are found between prior austenite grain boundaries
and only small number of them located in BF. By compar-
ing Fig. 9b with c, highly misoriented boundaries in BF
 Zhao et al. Fatigue properties of ferrite/bainite dual-phase X80 pipeline steel welded joints

8 Typical OM and TEM micrographs of the fatigue cracks in HAZ. a and c The area in CGHAZ, b and d the area in FGHAZ

9 Crystallographic characteristics of the fatigue cracks in CGHAZ. a Orientation image maps, b image quality maps with grain
boundary misorientation distribution, c image quality maps with CSL boundary distribution and d histogram of CSL boundary
fraction of total number of grain boundaries (%)

Science and Technology of Welding and Joining 2016 7

Zhao et al. Fatigue properties of ferrite/bainite dual-phase X80 pipeline steel welded joints

10 TEM micrographs of M/A constituents

are mainly low-Σ (Σ ≤ 29) CSL boundaries. It has been
reported that low-Σ CSL boundaries because of low
boundary energy can play a significant role in the resist-
ance of fatigue crack propagation.16,17 Hence, low-Σ
CSL boundaries forming between bainite laths in differ-
ent austenite grain boundaries can efficiently arrest and
deflect the propagation of fatigue microcracks. When
the fatigue crack propagates towards FGHAZ, the size
of prior austenite grain it passed through gradually
decreases because of the increasing peak temperatures
in CGHAZ with distance from the fusion line (Fig.
2e). However, given that the number of different direc-
tion bainite laths per unit area increases, the fatigue
crack propagation resistance also increases. Conse-
quently, the da/dN growth rate decreases with the propa-
gation of cracks.

11 Crystallographic characteristics of the fatigue cracks in FGHAZ. a Orientation image maps, b image quality maps with grain
boundary misorientation distribution, c image quality maps with CSL boundary distribution and d histogram of CSL bound-
ary fraction of total number of grain boundaries (%)

8 Science and Technology of Welding and Joining 2016

 Zhao et al.
Besides low-Σ CSL boundaries, M/A constituents in
granular BF also play a role that cannot be ignored for
fatigue crack growth behaviour. As shown in Fig. 10,
thin film-like and rodlike M/A constituents exist between
the parallel BF laths. According to a previous report, an
M/A film structure is an effective barrier to dislocation
motion and crack propagation, despite the small misor-
ientation between neighbouring grains.18 In addition,
our previous study on BM indicates that rodlike M/A
can strongly inhibit dislocation movement in crack tip
and can arrest crack propagation.3 Thus, the M/A con-
stituents between BF laths can lead to strongly deflected
fatigue crack trajectories. This observation is consistent
with that in our study.
Compared with that in CGHAZ, the crack path in
FCHAZ is more tortuous and shows some branches
during the main crack propagation process (Fig. 8b and
d). Based on the above discussion, these results indicate
that the crack propagation in the FGHAZ is much harder
than that in CGHAZ; this deduction is in accordance
with the conclusion of m value (Table 3). The microstruc-
ture in FCHAZ is dominated by a mixture of fine and
homogeneous BF and ferrite, significantly contributing
to the increase in the number of high-angle boundaries
(Fig. 11a and b). A considerable amount of ferrite–ferrite
and ferrite–BF boundaries leads to the significant differ-
ence of direction and crack length between the two sides
of the grain boundary because it has low-Σ CSL bound-
aries (Fig. 11c). Thus, the direction of crack changes
obviously after crossing low-Σ CSL boundaries. However,
the fraction of low-Σ CSL boundaries in CGHAZ and
FCHAZ are 10.7 and 16.9%, respectively (Fig. 9d and
Fig. 11d ). Hence, the crack path in FCHAZ is more tor-
tuous than that in CGHAZ, and the crack growth rate in
FGHAZ is reduced accordingly because of the crack path
deflection that decreases the local driving force for crack
propagation.
In addition, incoordinate deformation may occur
between BF and ferrite because of the difference in
strength. In the crack tip plasticity zone, dislocations
are generated in slip bands as a result of the numerous
plastic deformations occurring first at ferrite, and dislo-
cations can accumulate against highly misoriented grain
boundaries and can form microcracks. Some of these
microcracks form second cracks that consume a substan-
tial energy of the main crack propagation, thereby inhibit-
ing crack propagation. Figure 5e illustrates that a mass of
second cracks can be found on the fracture surface when
the crack propagates in CGHAZ, which further supports
the second cracks are more likely to occur in FGHAZ.
In summary, FGHAZ incorporates many effective bar-
riers to crack propagation and fatigue crack resistance
compared with CGHAZ. Therefore, the da/dN growth
rate decreases when the fatigue cracks extend to
FGHAZ.
Conclusions
The present paper investigated fatigue properties of ferrite/
bainite dual-phase X80 pipeline-steel welded joints. The fol-
lowing conclusions are drawn from the results of the study.
(i) The fatigue life of welded joint specimens increases
as the maximum stress decreases. Furthermore, the fati-
gue life of welded joint specimens is much lower than
that of BM at different maximum stresses. As the
Fatigue properties of ferrite/bainite dual-phase X80 pipeline steel welded joints
maximum stress decreases to the maximum operating
stress (440 MPa), the fatigue limits of BM and welded
joint specimens are approximately 4.2 × 105 and 1 ×
105 cycles, respectively.
(ii) The fatigue crack initiation of the full-thickness X80
welded joint specimens occurs at the outside weld toe
because of stress concentration resulting from the
inclusions and weld toe profile; the fatigue crack
grows inward until the ultimate fracture forms. The
stable propagation distance of fatigue crack decreases
with increased maximum stress, and the direction of
ultimate fracture tends to the low hardness zone.
(iii) During fatigue crack propagation in HAZ, the crack
growth rate linearly increases with ΔK in every HAZ sub-
region. According to the Paris model, the m values of
CGHAZ, FGHAZ and ICHAZ are approximately 6.86,
1.83 and 3.75, respectively. FGHAZ has the least value
because it has more low-Σ CSL boundaries that directly
reduce the local driving force for crack propagation and
increase the total length of crack path. Furthermore,
film-like and rodlike M/A constituents can act as effective
barriers to the crack propagation in CGHAZ.
Acknowledgements
This work was financially supported by the Natural
Science Foundation of China [Grant No. 51171162] and
the Natural Science Foundation – Steel and Iron Foun-
dation of Hebei Province [Grant No. E2015203234].
ORCiD
Z-P. Zhao http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5790-3356
References
1. F. Mohammadi, F. F. Eliyan and A. Alfantazi: ‘Corrosion of simulated
weld HAZ of API X-80 pipeline steel’, Corr. Sci., 2012, 63, 323–333.
2. D-H. Jung, J-K. Kwon, N-S. Woo, Y-J. Kim, M. Goto and S. Kim:
‘S–N fatigue and fatigue crack propagation behaviors of X80 steel at room
and low temperatures’, Metall. Mater. Trans. A, 2010, 115, 437–452.
3. Z-P. Zhao, G-Y. Qiao, L. Tang, H-W. Zhu, B. Liao and F-R. Xiao:
‘Fatigue properties of X80 pipeline steels with ferrite/bainite dual-
phase microstructure’, Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 2016, 657, 96–103.
4. M. Herynk, S. Kyriakides, A. Onoufriou and H. Yun: ‘Effects of the
UOE/UOC pipe manufacturing processes on pipe collapse pressure’,
Int. J. Mech. Sci., 2007, 49, 533–553.
5. L. X. Huo, D. P. Wang and Y. F. Zhang: ‘Investigation of the fatigue
behaviour of the welded joints treated by TIG dressing and ultrasonic
peening under variable amplitude load’, Int. J. Fatigue, 2005, 27, 95–101.
6. B. Hutchinson, J. Komenda, G. S. Rohrer and H. Beladi: ‘Heat
affected zone microstructures and their influence on toughness in
two microalloyed HSLA steels’, Acta Mater., 2015, 97, 380–391.
7. S. Kim, D. Kang, T-W. Kim, J. Lee and C. Lee: ‘Fatigue crack
growth behavior of the simulated HAZ of 800 MPa grade high-per-
formance steel’, Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 2011, 528, 2331–2338.
8. J. W. Sowards, T. Gnäupel-Herold, J. David McColskey, V. F. Pereira
and A. J. Ramirez: ‘Characterization of mechanical properties,
fatigue-crack propagation, and residual stresses in a microalloyed
pipeline-steel friction-stir weld’, Mater. Design, 2015, 88, 632–642.
9. J. H. Lee, S. H. Park, H. S. Kwon, G. S. Kim and C. S. Lee: ‘Laser,
tungsten inert gas, and metal active gas welding of DP780 steel:
comparison of hardness, tensile properties and fatigue resistance’,
Mater. Design, 2014, 64, 559–565.
10. ASTM: ‘ASTM E647’, 2008, West Conshohocken, PA, ASTM
International Publisher.
11. X. Chen, G. Qiao, X. Han, X. Wang, F. Xiao and B. Liao: ‘Effects of
Mo, Cr and Nb on microstructure and mechanical properties of heat
affected zone for Nb-bearing X80 pipeline steels’, Mater. Design,
2014, 53, 888–901.
Science and Technology of Welding and Joining 2016 9
Zhao et al. Fatigue properties of ferrite/bainite dual-phase X80 pipeline steel welded joints
12. T. R. Gurney: ‘Fatigue of welded structures’, 1979, Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press.
13. D. Radaj, C. M. Sonsino, W. Fricke: ‘Fatigue assessment of welded
joints by local approaches’, 2nd ed, 110–114; 2006, Cambridge,
Woodhead Publishing.
14. J. Y. Yung and F. V. Lawrence: ‘Analytical and graphical aids or the fatigue
design of weldments’, Fatigue Fract. Eng. Mater. Struct., 1985, 8, 223–241.
15. P. Paris and F. J. Erdogan: ‘A critical analysis of crack propagation
laws,’ J. Basic Eng., Trans. ASME., 1963, 85, 528–534.
10 Science and Technology of Welding and Joining 2016
16. W. Schaef and M. Marx: ‘A numerical description of short fatigue cracks
interacting with grain boundaries’, Acta Mater., 2012, 60, 2425–2436.
17. S. Kobayashi, M. Hirata and S. Tsurekawa: ‘Grain boundary engin-
eering for control of fatigue crack propagation in austenitic stainless
steel’, Proc. Eng., 2011, 10, 112–117.
18. Y. Zhong, F. Xiao, J. Zhang, Y. Shan, W. Wang and K. Yang: ‘In situ
TEM study of the effect of M/A films at grain boundaries on crack
propagation in an ultra-fine acicular ferrite pipeline steel’, Acta
Mater., 2006, 54, 435–443.