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Electrical Geophysics1 PDF
Electrical Geophysics1 PDF
Electrical Geophysics1 PDF
Faculty of Science
Department of Geology
ELECTRICAL PROSPECTING
METHODS
Prepared By
El-Arabi Hendi Shendi
2008
1
CONTENTS
Definitions ……………………………………
ELECTRICAL METHODS:
Introduction ……………………………………….. 2
Telluric current methods ………………………….. 3
Magneto-telluric methods ………………………… 4
Electrical properties of Earth's materials ………... 5
Resistivity method …………………………………. 6
Basic principles …………………………………… 8
Potential in a homogeneous medium ……………. 11
Effects of geologic variations on the resistivity
measurements …………………………………….. 14
Resistivities of rocks and minerals …………………17
Factors controlling the resistivity or earth's
materials ……………………………………………18
Equipments for resistivity field work ………………20
Electrode configurations …………………… ……..28
Wenner array ……………………………………...29
Schlumberger array ……………………………….30
Dipole – Dipole array ……………………………...31
Resistivity method field procedures…………………36
Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES)……………….36
Presentation of sounding data …………………….42
Electrical horizontal profiling ……………………...45
Presentation of profiling data ……………………...46
Recommendations for field measurements …………57
2
Geoelectric sections and geoelectric parameters …..60
Types of electrical sounding curves …………………64
Two-layer medium …………………………………64
Three-layer medium ………………………………..66
Multi-layer medium ………………………………...68
Interpretation of resistivity sounding data ………….70
Qualitative interpretation ………………………….71
Distortion of sounding curves ………..…………….76
Quantitative interpretation ………………………...81
Two-layer interpretation ………………………....83
Three-layer interpretation ……………………….88
Four-layer (or more) interpretation……………...90
Examples of interpretation for different VES curves.100
Curve matching by computer ………………………..107
ATO program ………………………………………108
RESIST program …………………………………...109
Applications and case histories………………………..110
3
Definitions:
The use of physics to study the interior of the Earth, from land
surface to the inner core is known as solid earth Geophysics
4
Applied Geophysics
Comprises the following subjects:
1- Determination of the thickness of the crust (which is
important in hydrocarbon exploration.
2- Study of shallow structures for engineering site
investigations.
3- Exploration for ground water and for minerals and other
economic resources.
4- Trying to locate narrow mine shafts or other forms of buried
cavities.
5- The mapping of archaeological remains.
6- Locating buried piper and cables
5
Solid Earth Geophysics
GEOPHYSICS
It involves the study of the inaccessible earth by means of
physical measurements, usually on or above the ground surface.
7
- Electrical and electromagnetic methods
- Radiometric method
- Geothermal method
8
ELECTRICAL METHODS
INTRODUCTION
9
TELLURIC CURRENT METHOD
11
As a function of direction with respect to axis of anticline
MAGNETO-TELLURIC METHOD
11
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF
EARTH'S MATERIALS
3- Dielectric constant.
12
Measuring the electrical potential distribution produced at
the Earth's surface by an electric current that is passed
through the earth.
13
Anomalous conditions or in-homogeneities within the
ground, such as electrically better or poorer conducting
layers are inferred from the fact that they deflect the
current and distort the normal potentials.
14
solutions with which they are in contact. No external
currents are needed in this case. The detection of these
potentials forms the basis of the self potential (SP)
method of exploration for ore bodies such as pyrite.
BASIC PRINCIPLES
Electrical Resistivity (the inverse is electrical conductivity)
15
For almost all electrical geophysical methods, the true or
more scientifically, the specific resistivity of the rock is of
interest.
16
R α 1/A
R α L/A
R = ρ (L/A) …. (1)
Fig.4
R = ∆ V / I …. (2)
17
E=ρJ
ρ = E/J ……. (Ohm's law)
(E) expressed in volts/meters
(J) expressed in amperes/meter2
ρ = E/J
ρ = (VA) / (IL)
18
Power I (C1)
C1
Equipotential
lines R
Current flow
P
This current will flow radially from the point of entry and
at any instant its distribution will be uniform over a
hemispherical surface of the underground of resistivity (ρ).
V = Iρ / 2πR
VP = (Iρ/2π) (1/R)
I
Power
A M N B
R1
P
A+ B-
R2
19
In practice we have two electrodes, one positive (A ),
sending current into the ground and the other negative (B),
collecting the returning current.
The potential at any point "P" in the ground will then be:
V = ρI / 2π (1/R1 – 1/R2)
21
This equation is a fundamental equation in D.C. electrical
prospecting.
ρ = K (∆V/I)
Fig.5
21
Lines of current flow tend in general to avoid high
resistivity material.
Fig.6
Fig.7
22
a. The variation of true resistivity with increasing depth
should appear as a variation of apparent resistivity
with increasing electrode spacing.
Fig.8
23
The above figure shows resistivity measurements made
near a vertical cliff.
24
of 10-5 ohm-m, whereas some dry quartizite rocks have
resistivities of more than 1012 ohm-m.
25
Factors controlling the resistivity of earth materials:
4) Temperature.
26
B. Materials whose pore spaces lacks water will show high
resistivity such as: dry sand or gravel and ice.
27
3) Electrodes
4) Cables
5) Reels.
1) Power Source
28
Fig.10: equipment for measuring resistivity
29
2) Meters
31
depending on the electrode spacing, type of ground and
power used.
Potentiometer:
3) Electrodes
- Current Electrodes:
- Potential electrodes
31
the electrolytic solution in the soil pores may take minutes
to reach equilibrium and may vary erratically during this
time.
4- Cables:
Cables for connecting the current electrodes to the power
source or the measuring (potential) electrodes to the
measuring circuit present no special requirements.
Instrumental problems:
32
the potential electrodes and the soil. This will appear as a
spurious voltage in series with the true voltage.
Apparent Resistivity
33
34
35
In making resistivity surveys a direct current or very low
frequency current is introduced into the ground via two
electrodes (A & B) and the potential difference is
measured between a second pair of electrodes (M & N).
Both sets of electrodes are laid out along a line for all of
those arrangements.
36
1) Wenner array
Fig.11
ρ = 2π.∆V/I (a)
ρa = 2πa.∆V/I
37
2) Schlumberger Array
Fig 12
38
Spurious electrode potentials are frequently canceled by
using low frequency alternating current.
ρa = K .∆V/I
l2 = (MN)2 or 4(MN/2)2
39
between the potential electrodes M and N (measuring
dipole) are significantly smaller than the distance (r)
between the centers of the two dipoles.
The potential electrodes (M & N) are outside the current
electrodes (A & B).
Fig 13
K = π {(r3 / a2 ) – r}
If each pair has a contact nutual separation (a) and (na) is
the distance between the two innermost electrodes (B &
M), then:
ρa = K .∆V/I
41
Various dipole – dipole arrays:
41
Fig 14: Dipole – dipole arrays
When the angle (θ) equals 90o , the azimuth array and the
parallel array reduce to the equatorial array.
When the angle (θ) =0, the parallel and radial arrays
reduce to the polar or axial array.
42
4) Pole – dipole (or pole – bipole or tripole or the half
Schlumberger) array:
B at infinity
M N A
N A B
M B
N A
A pole – pole arrangement will be obtained when one of
A, B and one of M, N are removed to infinity.
43
RESISTIVITY METHOD FIELD PROCEDURES
44
Fig 15
45
As the electrode separation is increased a greater fraction
of current will penetrate deeper, the lines of current flow
being distorted at the boundary.
Fig 16
46
At spacings which are very large compared with (h), a
greater fraction of current will penetrate deeper and the
apparent resistivity approaches (ρ2) because the fraction of
current confined to the surface layer becomes negligible.
Fig 17
47
Wenner configuration (Sounding)
Fig 18
All the four electrodes have to be moved after each
measurement so that the array spacing, a, is increased by
steps, keeping the midpoint of the configuration fixed.
Schlumberger sounding
Fig 19
48
The potential electrodes (M & N) are kept at a fixed
spacing (b) which is no more than 1/5 of the current
electrode half spacing (a).
49
The different segments must be suitably merged to obtain
a single smoothed sounding curve.
Fig 21
Once the dipole length has been chosen (i.e. the distance
between the two current electrodes and between the two
potential electrodes), the distance between the two dipoles
is then increased progressively to produce the sounding.
51
ordinate. The curve obtained is called an electrical
sounding curve.
51
4. Schlumberger sounding curves give a slightly greater
probing depth and resolving power than Wenner
sounding curves for equal (AB) electrode spacing.
52
4. The availability of a larger album of the theoretical
master curves for two, three and four layer earth
models.
53
Representation of profiling data
54
Fig 23
55
Fig 25: Apparent resistivity map using Wenner array
56
- Schlumberger electric profiling
57
It is a modification of the Brant array in which the
potential electrodes are moved not only along the middle
third of the line AB but also along lines laterally displaced
from and parallel to AB.
58
CST uses Wenner configuration with a constant electrode
separation and discrete station interval along the profile.
Fig 29
59
Dipole – Dipole mapping ( profiling)
61
With multi-core cables and many electrodes, the entire
array can be established by one person.
61
Special requirements for Schlumberger measurements
62
Fig 31
For a down going segment of the resistivity sounding
curve, the new value for apparent resistivity will be larger
than the old value.
63
Fig33: Correct displacement on a Schlumberger sounding curve
and method of smoothing
64
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FIELD MEASUREMENTS
65
the current electrode separation is small. Once the
current electrodes are sufficiently far apart, minor
anomalies in positioning are insignificant.
66
c. High resistance at the potential electrodes will appear as
low sensitivity and ambiguity in taking the potential
reading.
67
GEOELECTRIC SECTIONS AND
GEOELECTRIC PARAMETERS
68
Other geoelectric parameters are derived from its
resistivity and thickness. These are (Dar Zarrouk
parameters, which were called by Maillet 1947 after a
place near Tunis where he was a prisoner of war):
n n
ρt = T/H = (Σ hiρi ) / ( Σ hi)
i i
69
The anisotropy is :
λ = √ρt / ρL = √TS/H
R = R1 + R2 + R3 +…… Rn
Or
R = ρ1 (h1/1x1) + ρ2 (h2/1x1) +…… ρn (hn/1x1)
n
R = Σ ρ i hi = T
i
71
If the current flows parallel to the bedding , the layers in
the column will behave as resistors connected in parallel
and the conductance will be:
Or
Example:
71
TYPES OF ELECTRICAL SOUNDING
CURVES OVER HORIZONTALLY
STRATIFIED MEDIA
72
If the ground is composed of two layers, a homogeneous
and isotropic first layer of thickness (h1) and resistivity
(ρ1) underlain by an infinitely thich substratum (h2 = ∞) of
resistivity (ρ2) then the sounding curve begins at small
electrode spacing with a horizontal segment (ρ\ = ρ1).
73
Three-layer medium
74
Fig 39: Types of the Sounding curves
75
Types A and Q shows fairly uniform change in resistivity,
the first increasing the second decreasing with depth.
Multilayer – medium
76
1. ρ1 > ρ2 < ρ3 < ρ4 ………… HA – type curve
2. ρ1 > ρ2 < ρ3 > ρ4 ………… HK – type curve
3. ρ1 < ρ2 < ρ3 < ρ4 ………… AA – type curve
4. ρ1 < ρ2 < ρ3 > ρ4 ………… AK – type curve
5. ρ1 < ρ2 > ρ3 < ρ4 ………… KH - type curve
6. ρ1 < ρ2 > ρ3 > ρ4 ………… KQ – type curve
7. ρ1 > ρ2 > ρ3 < ρ4 ………… QH – type curve
8. ρ1 > ρ2 > ρ3 > ρ4 ………… QQ – type curve
77
INTERPRETATION OF RESISTIVITY
SOUNDING DATA
Plotting
The first step in the interpretation of VES measurements is
to plot these in a graph.
78
In the interpretation of resistivity sounding we note that
the earth is assumed to consist of uniform layers, separated
horizontal interfaces. The parameters of this model are:
1) Number of layers
2) Resistivity values for each layer, and
3) Thickness for each layer
Fig 42
Qualitative Interpretation
79
2) Preparation of apparent resistivity maps. Each map is
prepared by plotting the apparent resistivity value, as
registered on the sounding curve, at a given electrode
spacing (common to all soundings) and contouring the
results.
81
It should be noted that an apparent resistivity map for a
given electrode spacing does not represent the areal
variation of resistivity at a depth equal to that electrode
spacing. It merely indicates the general lateral variation in
electrical properties in the area.
T = T1 + T2 = ρ1 h1 + ρ2 h2
81
Fig 44: Graphical determination of total transverse resistance
from a K-type Schlumberger sounding curve
82
Fig 45: Profile of total transverse resistance values, T, in Ohmm
squared. High values indicate thickening of basalt layers
83
In H, A, KH, HA and similar type sections the terminal
branch on the sounding curve often rises at an angle of
45o.
84
A - Formation of Cusps:
The formation of a cusp on a Schlumberger sounding
curve is caused by:
4. Errors in calculation.
85
Fig.47: Distortion of sounding curves by cusps caused by lateral
in-homogeneites.
B- Sharp maximum
86
The maximum or peak value on a K-type sounding curve
is always gentle and broad and should never have a sharp
curvature.
C- Curve discontinuities
87
2- The second type is less common and occurs during the
expansion of the (AB) spacing. The curve is displaced
downward.
88
QUANTITATIVE INTERPRETATION
89
The use of a high speed digital computer is almost always
necessary for the calculation of theoretical sounding
curves.
91
Two-layer Interpretation
Two-layered stratification may be of two types:
1. ρ2 > ρ1 (unconsolidated overburden laying on a
bedrock)
2. ρ2 < ρ1 (poor conducting alluvium laying over a
better conducting sand or a clay formation).
2. The sheet with the field curve is laid over the sheet with
the two layer theoretical curves. Move the transparent
paper up, down, right or left (maintaining the coordinate
axes of the two sheets parallel) until a best fit of the field
curve against one of the theoretical curves is obtained.
91
3. Occasionally the field curve may have to be matched by
interpolation between two of the master curves.
92
Fig 53: Two – layer master set of sounding curves for the
Sclumberger array
93
Interpretation of two-layer curves by asymptotes
In case that the lower bed has a very large resistivity (i.e.
insulator) we have seen that the characteristic two-layer
curve becomes a straight line for large electrode spacing.
94
The interface depth (z or h) can then be found on the
horizontal axis from the intersection of the triangle and the
horizontal straight edge.
95
Three-layer Interpretation
96
2. When (µ = ρ2/ρ1 ) and the type of curve are known, the
corresponding master curve sheet can be selected from
the album of three-layer master curves, and by matching
this with a standard curve the other parameters can be
determined.
If µ2 = ρ3/ρ1 for the field curve and the theoretical curve are
equal, then complete curve matching may be attained.
97
2. Note the value of υ1 = h2 /h1 designating the theoretical
curve and note the values µ1 = ρ2/ρ1 and the value µ2 =
ρ3/ρ1
98
T
ρ
h
T=ρh (1)
h = T/ρ
S = h/ρ (2)
ρ = h/S
99
log T
T- line
135o
T = T1+T2 log h
log ρ
S- line
S=S1+S2 45o
log h
111
log ρ
T-line S-line
h log h
In case of two layer prism:
h1
ρ1 h2
S ρ2
T = T1 + T2 = ρ1 h1 + ρ2 h2
S = S1 + S2 = h1/ρ1 + h2/ρ2
If ρt and ρs are transverse and longitudinal resistivities of
the block, then:
ρt ( h1 + h2) = ρ1 h1 + ρ2 h2
ρt = ( ρ1 h1 + ρ2 h2 ) / ( h1 + h2)
( h1 + h2)/ ρs = h1/ρ1 + h2/ρ2
ρs = ( h1 + h2)/( h1/ρ1 + h2/ρ2)
√ ρt / ρs = √ ( ρ1 h1 + ρ2 h2 ) ( h1/ρ1 + h2/ρ2)
( h1 + h2)2
111
√ ρt / ρs = λ = Coefficient of anisotropy
λ= 1/ ( h1 + h2) √ ( ρ1 h1 + ρ2 h2 ) ( h1/ρ1 + h2/ρ2)
S, T, ρs , ρt and λ are called geoelectric parameters.
112
As each portion of the curve is interpreted the layers
comprising the interpreted portion of the sounding curve
are lumped (to put together in a single group) together to
form a fictitious uniform layer with a lumped resistivity
(equivalent resistivity, ρf ) and an equivalent thickness (hf).
113
Fig 59: Hypothetical example of auxiliary point method of
VES interpretation
1) A transparent paper on which the sounding curve has
been traced is slide on the sheet of the two-layer master
curve keeping the respective axes parallel to each other
until a reasonably long portion of the first branch of the
measured curve coincides with one of the master
curves.
114
2) In the above example, the coinciding master curve is
one for which ρ2/ρ1 = 3 (dashed line).
115
10) The tracing is now once more placed on the auxiliary
diagram and the curve for ρm/ρ1 = 0.11 copied.
12) This is the dashed curve ρ4/ρm2 = 9 and then the cross
of the master curves is copied on the tracing paper
(point C). The coordinates of which gives ρm2 and h1 +
h 2 + h3 .
116
Fig 60: Auxiliary curves, type A
117
Examples of interpretation for different VES curve types
1- Type H-curve
118
c) The resistivity of the second layer (ρ2) is deduced from the
ratio ρ2 / ρ1 (the resistivity contrast parameter for the
particular theoretical curve which matches with the field
data).
2- Type A-curve
hf = λ ( h 1 + h2 )
b) In use, these curves are super-imposed on a set of the field
data in such a way that the horizontal axis at the top of the
graph lies along the value found for (ρ2 ) by the initial
curve match and the left vertical axis of the graph passes
119
through the point (P1), the origin for the signal overburden
curves when the first portion of the field data is matched.
e) After the right hand portion of the data has been matched
with a theoretical curve, the point (Pf) indicating the
proper value for the thickness and resistivity of the
fictitious layer (hf , ρf ) is marked on the field plot.
111
h) The location of the origin (P1) is located for ρ2 / ρ1 = 3.
j) Next the two-layer master curves are placed over the field
data and moved around until a match with the right – hand
portion of the data is obtained (the origin of the theoretical
curves is restricted to lie along the auxiliary curve).
ρf = 2.7 Ωm
hf = 6.5m
m)The correct thickness for the second layer is found by
placing the auxiliary A-type curves over the field data a
second time and noting which of the dashed curves passes
through the point (Pf).
n) In this case , the dashed curve has the parameter (5), so the
thickness of the second layer is five times the thickness of
the first layer (h2/h1=5).
Type K-curves
111
Fig 64: Interpretation of type-K curve
112
Next the two-layer master curves were superimposed on
the data to match the right – hand portion of the data.
hf = 525 m
ρf = 2500 Ohmm
ρ3 = 1/50 ρf = 50 Ohmm
Q – type curve
The match between the first portion of this curve and the
two-layer master curves gives the location of point (P1) as
follows:
113
Fig 66: Auxiliary curves, type Q
hf = 3.4 m
ρf = 0.33 Ohmm
ρ3 = 0.32 ρf = 0.105 Ohmm
114
Curve Matching By Computer
115
Computer can be used to calculate master curves for
vertical electrical soundings obtained using either a
Wenner or Schlumberger.
116
Fig 67:
117
RESIST SOFTWARE
118
Applications and Case Histories
1- Groundwater studies:
119
Fig.68: Apparent resistivity profile and geologic
interpretation over buried channel
3- Geothermal Studies
121
Fig 69: Map of apparent resistivity in geothermal area.
121
6- Mapping clay layers
7- Landfills
122
Fig 71:
123
References
Sharma, P.V. (1986): Geophysical methods in Geology.
Elsevier Science Publishing Co., Netherlands.
Telford, W.M., Geldart, L.P., Sheriff, R.E. and Keys,
D.A. (1976): Applied geophysics. Cambridge Univ.
Press, U.S.A.
-----------------: Environmental geophysics
124
Practical Course
األدوات
ورقت61 كراست رسم بيانى-
مم2/1 قلم رصاص سنون+ أستيكت+ مسطرة-
آلت حاسبت-
1- Field exercises:
2- Lab exercises:
a- Interpretation of two and three-layer VES curves
of different types by curve matching (i.e. the VES
curves are digitized from the master curves).
b- Interpretation of three-type curves of different
types by two-layer master curves and auxiliary
curves (i.e. the VES curves are digitized from the
master curves).
c- Interpretation of four-layer curves by two-layer
master curves and auxiliary curves.
d- Interpretation of VES curves by computer
programs.
f- In a,b,c & d represent the results in the form of:
1- Section of apparent resistivity
2- Apparent resistivity map.
3- Geoelectric sections
125
h- Interpretation of some digitized VES curves by
asymptotes
126