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Orowan 1943
Orowan 1943
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What is This?
( I ) Introduction. Beginning with the pioneer work of Siebel the material suffers work hardening ; and in hot rolling, because
(1924, 1925)t and Karman (1925), many attempts have been the yield stress depends on the rate of compression which varies
made during the last twenty years to obtain a satisfactory along the arc of contact.
method of calculating roll pressure and torque from geometrical ( d ) All detailed calculations were made with the assumption
and physical data of the rolls and of the rolled material. I n view of dry friction; only in a recent paper by Nadai (1939) are the
of the complexity of the problem, only the simplest case of flat alternative cases of purely viscous friction and of a constant
rolling without lateral spread has been treated; not until this frictional drag considered.
is thoroughly understood can section rolling and the effect of (e) All theories were based upon the assumption of a circular
spread be investigated. Even in dealing with flat rolling without arc of contact. As will be seen in section 33, p. 163, this excludes
spread, it was found necessary to use a number of more or less the treatment of thin strip or sheet rolling where roll flattening
drastic simplications, such as are given in paragraphs ( a ) - ( f ) is considerable and the arc of contact is far from being circular.
below. ( f ) Even with the above simplifications, the exact mathe-
(a) It was assumed that, for the purpose of the calculation, matical solution of the problem would have been far too com-
the rolled stock could be considered as consisting of thin vertical plicated for use in rolling mill practice. All authors, therefore,
segments perpendicular to the direction of rolling, with no shear resorted to mathematical approximations. It was in the nature of
stress but only a normal pressure acting between the neigh- these approximations that the various theories of rolling
bouring segments, and the plastic deformation of the segments differed ; the main physical simplifications of homogeneous
was assumed to be a homogeneous cornpression. I t was this deformation, dry slipping friction, constant yield stress, and
simplification upon which the first mathematical treatment of circular arc of contact, were used generally.$
rolling by Siebel and K h d n was based. It involved the assump- While thus all theories of rolling were based on a number of
tions that the vertical and horizontal pressures were constant more or less arbitrary approximations, there has been so far
within a segment, and that initially plane cross-sections only one experimental investigation available by which their
remained plane. results could be checked quantitatively. This is the work of
(b) Most authors assumed that the rolled stock was slipping Siebel and Lueg (1933) on the distribution of roll pressure over
on the rolls, i.e. that the friction was dynamic, not static. I n this the arc of contact. A comparison of these measurements with
case the frictional drag exerted by the rolls upon the rolled stock theoretical calculations, however, does not give directly the
was simply the normal roll pressure, multiplied by the coefficient informations required. I n cases of disagreement between theory
of friction (dry friction being assumed). and experiment (see, e.g. Fig. 3, p. 146) it is not clear which of
( c ) It was assumed that the yield stress (“compressive the numerous simplifying assumptions and approximations is
strength”) of the material remained constant during the pass. In responsible; on the other hand, agreement can be the result of
reality, it varies along the arc of contact : in cold rolling, because several errors cancelling each other. I n fact, Siebel’s theory with
The MS. of this report was originally received at the Institution its crude mathematical simplifications was often found to agree
cn 3rd May 1943; and in its revised form, as accepted by the with roll pressure measurements much better than the theory
Oouncil for publication, on 9th August 1943. put forward by Karman who, with the sameghysical assump-
The report gives an account of original research carried out for tions, had used far better mathematical approximations.
the Rolling Mill Research Subcommittee of the Iron and Steel T h e obvious way out of this deadlock was to discard as many
Industrial Council. Communications will be published later. simplifications as possible, and to work out a more accurate
* Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge.
t An alphabetical list of references is given in Appendix 11,
p. 165.
*
Apart from an unsuccessful attempt by Ekelund to take into
account static friction (cf. section 9, p. 146).
This force must be balanced by the horizontal components Using the angle of friction a instead of the coefficient of
of the frictional forces and of the normal pressure exerted by friction p = tan a, and remembering that
the rolls upon top and bottom of the segment. The top or bottom
surface per unit of width of the bar is du/cos 9; the resulting
(horizontal) force due to the normal pressure 5 of the rolls is,
therefore, we have = Dqcos+tan(+fa) . . . . (9)
dx d9
2s sin 4 -= 2s tan 4 dx As mentioned, the condition of plasticity will yield the second
cos 4
relationship between the unknown functionsf(+) and q(4).
If p is the coefficient of friction, and the assumption is introduced
that the bar slips on the rolls, the horizontal component of the (5) Thc Condition of Plasticity, and the Differential Equation
frictional drag acting upon top and bottom of the segment is of the Friction Hill. Let the material be subjected to a uniaxial
compressive stress, and let k* be the magnitude of the stress
dx necessary to produce plastic compression at a given speed. In
f 2 cos~9- = f2pdx
cos 4 the literature of rolling, k* is called the “compressive strength”
of the material. This expression, however, is not quite correct;
The positive sign applies where the friction acts upon the bar with the same right we could call the stress that produces plastic
in the direction of increasing x, i.e. between the plane of exit deformation with a given speed in a viscous liquid its “strength”.
and the neutral plane, and the negative sign between the neutral It is more sensible to use the word “strength” only for the stress
plane and the plane of entry. In what follows, we shall adhere to which definitely overcomes the resistance of the material and
the convention that, in the case of alternative signs, the upper produces fracture, and to call k* the yield strexs of the material,
one always applies on the exit side, and the lower one on the for a given state of strain hardening, a given temperature, and a
entry side of the friction hill. given speed of deformation.
The condition of equilibrium for.the segment between x and The state of stress in a bar between the rolls is not uni-
x+ak is axial; beside the vertical pressure q, a horizontal pressure p is
acting in the direction of rolling, and, unless there is free lateral
spread, there is also another horizontal pressure p’ parallel to
the roll axes. As mentioned in section (4), both q and p are
or -&=
df 2s(tanC+fp) . . . . . (5)
constant within a vertical segment of the bar if the assumption
of homogeneous compression is made ;then p can be calculated
by dividing the horizontal forcef by the height h of the segment.
We introduce the angle 9 instead of x as independent variable. so p =f/h . . . . . . (10)
We have (cf.Fig. 1)
x=Rsin$ . . . . . . (6) The third principal stress p’ vanishes only in the practically
unimportant case of free lateral spread, i.e. of a thin strip rolled
and hence
upon its edges. Its magnitude depends on the amount of the
lateral spread; it is easily found in the case where lateral spread
is prevented, as in plate and sheet rolling. With p’ = p, the
substituting this in equation (5) and using D = 2R,we obtain lateral spread would be, for reasons of symmetry, equal to the
spread in the direction of rolling; hence, p’ must be greater
than p. On the other hand, if p’ = q, then, again for reasons of
symmetry, the bar would suffer a lateral compression equal to
the vertical compression; hence, p‘ must be less than q. A mor?
This equation contains two unknown functions, i.e. the hori- detailed consideration (Nadai 1931, chap. 27) shows that p
zontal force f(+), and the normal pressure on the roll surface must be half-way between p and q, i.e. p’ = (p+q)/2.
s(#J). If we iind a second equation between these functions, we Thus, with the assumption of homogeneous compression made
can calculate both. We shall see in section (5) that the condition in section (4), we have in the case of vanishing lateral spread
of plasticity gives, in fact, the second relationship needed. three principal stresses, all compressive: q, p‘ = ( p + q ) / 2 , and
We have not used so far the assumption of homogeneous p. What is the condition of plastic yielding in this case? We can
deformation explicitly. Now we are introducing it by treating immediately find it in the simpler case when the principal
the vertical segments of the bar as if they were separated from stresses are q, p, and p (i.e. when two of the principal stresses
each other, and their vertical surfaces sliding without friction are equal). According to experience, a hydrostatic stress cannot
on the neighbouring segments, so that no shear stress can arise produce plastic deformation and, superposed to another stress
in them. In this case the vertical pressure is constant within each system, its influence on yielding is negligible. We can, therefore,
segment; it is one of the principal stresses, and the horizontal superpose the hydrostatic tensile stress -p, - p , -p upon
pressure is the other. We assume that there is no lateral spread; our system q, p, p, and then we obtain the stress system q-p,
as will be seen in section (3, the condition of plasticity in this 0,O which is a uniaxial compressive stress with the conditi In of
case is that the difference between the principal stresses must plasticity
be a constant. Hence,the horizontal stress must also be constant
within a vertical segment. We can introduce the vertical pressure
q - p = k* .
. . . . . (11)
q($) instead of the normal pressure s(4) into equation (7). The What is now the effect of a third principal stress of a magni-
vertical force in the segment, per unit of width of the bar, is tude between the greatest and the smallest principal stress?
qhr ;this must be equal to the vertical component 5 cos 4 - 1 dx * This relationship is a necessary consequence of the assumption
c0-3 9 of homogeneous compression and, therefore, we have to accept it in
= s d r of the normal pressure, plus the vertical component Part I of this report, where the aim is to draw conclusions from that
1 assumption and compare them with experimental data. It must be
~ p s i n $ - dx = ~p tan+ of the frictional drag (the emphasized, however, that equation (8) is not quite correct, because it
cos d takes no account of the shear stresses which, in general, cannot be
upper sign applying between the plane of exit and the neutral neglected (cf. section 9, p. 146).
Experiment 1: Experiment 2 :
smooth rolls rough rolls
P A R T 11. C A L C U L A T I O N O F T H E R O L L P R E S S U R E W I T H -
OUT THE ASSUMPTIONS OF HOMOGENEOUS COM- (10) The Yield Stress in Shear. I n the preceding section a
PRESSION AND SLIPPING FRICTION theorem has been used according to which the yield stress in
shear is k / 2 if the yield stress in compression with inhibited
(9) The Shear Stress Produced by the Friction of the Rolls. lateral spread in one direction is k . This should be proved now.
We can easily trace the error that has led to the discrepancy According to a well-known theorem a shear stress is equivalent
shown in Fig. 3 between the measured roll pressure distribution to a numerically equal compressive stress and a numerically
curve and those calculated by methods based on the assumptions equal tensile stress in planes which are perpendicular to each
of homogeneous compression and slipping friction. According other and make angles of 45 deg. with the planes in which the
to measurements of Siebel and Pomp (1927), the yield stress shear stress is acting. Now, as we have seen in section (9,we
in compression of the material at the neutral point in this experi- can superpose a hydrostatic pressure upon any state of stress
ment was 20 kg. per sq. 111111. We shall see presently that the yield without influencing yielding. Superposing a hydrostatic pressure
stress in shear is numerically half of the yield stress in compres- of magnitude T upon the principal stresses T and - T (the third
sion; hence the maximum shear stress that could possibly exist principal stress being 0), we obtain the system of principal
in the material at the neutral point was 10 kg. per sq. mm. On stresses 27, T, 0. According to section ( 5 ) , this will produce
the other hand, the nornial roll pressure at the neutral point was yielding if 21 reaches the magnitude of the yield stress k in com-
90 kg. per sq. mm. according to the curve measured by Siebel pression with inhibited lateral spread in one direction. Hence
and Luep. Now the theories working with the assumption of the result : If k is the yield stress in compression with the lateral
slipping friction derived their results by calculating the frictional spread inhibited in one direction, then k / 2 is the yield stress in
drag upon the rolled stock as the product of the normal pressure pure shear.
and the coefficient of friction which, in this case, was not less
than 0.4. This would give a frictional drag of 0.4 x 90 = 36 kg.
per sq. mm. which would create a shear stress of equal magnitude (11) Equilibrium Condition for a Segment of the Rolled Stock.
in the surface layer of the rolled stock at the neutral point We generalize the consideration made in section (4) about the
where, according to the direct measurement, the maximum equilibrium of a thin vertical segment of the rolled stock. We
shear stress possible (the yield stress in shear) was only 10 kg. consider a thin segment bounded by cylindrical surfaces A, A‘
As mentioned, the Prandtl solution applies only to the by the polar co-ordinates r, 8 with respect to the bisector of the
peripheral regions of a plastic slab where the horizontal direction compression plates (drawn with full lines) and to the apex of
of flow is the same everywhere. Thus, it would apply to the the angle made by the compression plates. Instead of the
peripheral regions of the compressed slab shown in Fig. 6 , the vertical pressure s, we use the azimuthal pressure which acts
centre of which is in the middle of the figure. Let 2L be the upon a surface element parallel to the radius vector t in a
width of this strip (in the x-direction). The vertical pressure direction perpendicular to r ; we retain the notation s for the
should vanish for x = &I,; according to equation ( 2 4 ) ; the azimuthal pressure. Instead of the horizontal pressure, we use
constant c must then have the value -he radial pressure which acts upon a surface element per-
k pendicular to r in the direction of r, and denote it by t . The
c + = --L
h
. . . . . . (27) azimuthal pressure is the normal pressure acting upon the
compression plates; in this respect, too, it plays the role which
the vertical pressure played in the case of parallel plates. Nadai
* Prandtl‘s solution is derived in A. Nadai’s “Plasticity”, pp. 221- has shown that the variation of the radial pressure along an arc
224 (New York, 1931, McGraw-Hill). The signs of some terms differ
from those in equations (24)-(26) because in the present paper, con- r = a constant is given by the same formula (29) as for parallel
trary. to the usual convention, compressive stresses are regarded as plates if we understand by t the radial pressure, by s the azi-
posiuve. muthal pressure, by y the co-ordinate angle 8, and by h the
or
The stress distribution in the strip of thickness h* is obtained Fig. 8. Illustrating Calculation of Horizontal Force in Bar
by substituting h* for h in equations (26) and (29):- between Cylindrical Rolls
. . (33) We have seen that the forcef(4) is the same for all surfaces
joining these two lines, and we can, therefore, choose the surface
so as to make the calculation off(+) convenient. We take
cylindrical surfaces whose side views (Fig. 8 ) are circular arcs
Hence we have
The quantity a = expresses the frictional drag ps as a
k/2
fraction of the yield stress in shear k/2. Slipping or sticking at
the rolls occurs according to whether a< 1 or u >1 (d. equation
(711).
I n the case of sticking, ps has to be replaced by K / 2 , and w(a)
becomes w( 1) = n / 4 :-
Fig. 9. Graphical Representation of the Function w(4,a) (16) The Differential Equation of the Friction Hill. We can
express now s(4) byf(d), in the case of slipping friction by means
The function w(d,a) has been computed and is given of equation (46) :-
graphically in Fig. 9. It is not strictly, but is practically, inde- F = . f / h + k ~ . . . . . (47)
where m means m+(~$)on the exit side and m-(4) on the entry
(I
f = 2p
hk ---(a) . . . . . (46~)
side. mi($)and m-($) are given as curves in Fig. 10; the slight
dependence of w upon 4 has been taken into account in these This equation can be solved graphically in a very simple way.
curves.
Equations (49) and (53) play the same fundamental role in
"9
Fig. 10. Values of m+ and m- in Differential Equation of Fig. 11. Calculation of a Criterion for Deciding whether
the Friction Hill Material Sticks or Slips
the alternative cases of slipping and sticking as equation (12) We plot the curve w(a) over a as abscissa. As mentioned in
played in the homogeneous method treated in Part 1. Equa- section (15), we may regard w for most purposes as depending
tion (53) is of the same form upon a only (see Fig. 9). We plot the distance OA = f / h k
(Fig. 11) on the negative ordinate axis, and draw the parallel
-dfl@+A(+)f(+)+B($) = 0 . . (13) AB = 1 to the abscissa axis. I f f is negative, as in the case of
as equation (12), with the front or back tension, A will lie above 0. We consider A as
A(+) = (D/h) sin+ . . . . . (54) the origin of a new system of co-ordinates, with axes parallel to
the old ones ; then the ordinates of the curve PQ representing
and B(4) = Dkm . . . . .
. . (55) the dependence of w upon a in the new system are w+f/hk.
and it can be solved by the graphical method described in Equation ( 4 6 ~ is
) satisfied if these new ordinates are equal to
The integral of the first term on the right-hand side has been
where y = ho/D . . . . . . . . . (5i) found in the preceding section (equations (58) to (58s); for the
is the gap ratio. second, we have
Obviously
Q
log& = sin+ d+ = b2(y+l-ccos+)
+1-cos+
$1
= log,
+
y 1 - cos 4
y+ 1 -cos
Tile function H(#J,y)is given in the graphs, Figs. 12a, 126,
and 12c. The thickness ratio y is chosen as abscissa, and H-
curves are drawn for a number of values of the parameter 4.
On the exit side we have to put = do = 0 and obtain This has been done because the valucs of 4 (the points by which
the arc of contact is subdivided into intervals) can be chosen
z+(+) = y+1--0s+ - _ h- . . . ( 5 8 ~ ; more or less arbitrarily; in calculating f,a vertical line is drawn
Y h0
at the given value of the gap ratio y, and the arc of contact
on the entry side = +,n and subdivided into intervals by points &, . . . represented
z-(& =
+l-cOs+ -
- -h . . (58B) among the curves on the chart.
y + 1-cos & h, The auxiliary function z(4) is given by
Nowf(4) can be computed from equation (20). For the exit y + 1 -cos
+pH . . .
#J
(20) The Cause of the Rounded Peak of the Friction Hill :Slip
Cones of Unplastic Material at the Neutral Point. There would
be a discontinuity of the plastic flow along the y-axis in Figs. 12
if the stress field-equations (24), (25), (26), with (27) on
the right- and (28) on the left-hand side of the plastic strip-
would extend right to x = 0. Prandtl (1923) has assumed,
therefore, that the two plastic stress fields on the right- and
left-hand side of the y-axis are separated by two wedge-shaped
areas, indicated by shading in Fig. 6, in which the material
remains unplastic. The boundaries of the unplastic regions are
determined by the following considerations. In the plastic
region the material is extended in the direction of the major
principal stress, and contracted in the direction of the minor
principal stress. The amount of the strain must be opposite and
equal in the two directions, because no deformation takes place
perpendicularly to the plane of the figure, and the volume of
any element of the body must remain constant. Consequently,
there will be neither extension nor compression in the two
directions which bisect the angles between the two principal
stress axes in the plane of the figure. The two bisectors are the
traces of the only two planes not parallel to the plane of the
figure which remain undistorted in the course of the plastic
deformation; they are called the directions of principal shear.
Lines whose tangents are at every point parallel to a direction
of principal shear arc called slip lines; they are the traces of
surfaces which suaFer no distortion if the plastic deformation is
infinitesimally small. Now the boundary between a plastic and
an unplastic region must be an undistorted surface of the plastic
region ;otherwise there would be a discontinuity of the displace-
ments at the boundary. Hence, in the projection shown in
Fig. 6 the boundary of the unplastic region must consist
17 I8XIO'*
THICKNESS RAno, y
Fig. 120.
11
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154 T H E C A L C U L A T I O N O F R O L L PRESSURE I N H O T A N D C O L D F L A T R O L L I N G
other in one point only which, for reasons of symmetry, must be
of slip lines. Furthermore, the unplastic region must include
the whole y-axis within the compressed body, as otherwise the centre of the figure. By these conditions the boundaries are
points of discontinuity would remain in the plastic region;completely determined; an easy calculation (Nidai 1923, p. 223)
shows that the slip lines are cycloids, and the boundaries of the
on the other hand, there can be no unplastic bridge of finite
two wedge-shaped unplastic regions shown in Fig. 6 are parts
width between the compression plates as otherwise they could
not approach. Hence, the unplastic regions must touch each of four cycloidal slip lines. The width of the unplastic wedges
is the distance between those two points of a cycloid which are
in the middle between the two compression plates; in the case
of sticking, this is (n/2+1) times the distance between the
The existence of unplastic wedges or (in the three-dimensional
case) of unplastic cones is a characteristic feature of compression
tests with plastic materials. They are usually called slip cones
because the deformation in their neighbourhood is prevalently
by shear (“slip”) parallel to the surface of the cone.
Qualitatively the same conditions will be observed in the
material between the rolls. There will be two unplastic wedges
around the neutral plane, touching each other along a line in
the nettral plane parallel to the roll axis. In the case of sticking,
the bases of the wedges will have an approximate width of
(7r/2+l)hn, where h, is the height of the bar in the neutral
plane. In the case of slipping the wedges are narrower, as can be
seen from section (14), p. 149. The stress distribution in the
plastic region is the same as if no unplastic wedges were present;
since the stress s(4) (which is nearly equal to the vertical
pressure) does not change considerably across the bar, the same
vertical pressures as would act upon the roll surface if no un-
plastic regions were present will now act upon the surface of
the unplastic wedges which can be regarded as protruding parts
of the rolls. This will, of course, not affect the total roll pressure
and the position of the neutral plane; but, if the distribution of
the roll pressure is measured by a pin embedded in the roll
surface, as in Siebel and Lueg’s experiments, the pressures
measured will be different from those acting upon the wedges.
Obviously, the purely elastic wedges act like pads between the
bar and the rolls, smoothing out the roll pressure distribution
I I I I
04
I 3 s 7 i
THICKNESS RATlO, y
Fig. 1%.
I 3 7 9 II I3 IS 17 x 10'1
THICKNESS RATIO9 )'
Fig. 1%.
1.092 0.910 0.744 0.595 0-463 0.348 0.249 0.169 0.1 10 0.096
0.038 1.959 1.872 1.775 1.666 1.542 '1.396 1.228 1.041 i.982
1.807 1.745 1.680 1.608 1.527 1.433 1.318 1.184 1.030 2.982
logf-/h . 1.997 1.917 1.831 1.734 1.624 1.501 1,354 1.187 1.000 0.941
f-/h, kg. per sq. mm. 99.3 82.6 67.8 54.2 $2.1 31.7 12.6 15.4 10.0 86
- -
kw 21.3 11.2 20.9 20.3 19.7 18.8 18.0 16.8 155 13.0 10.0 8.1
s+=f;/h+h kg. pe;
sq. mm. (equation (47),
p. 150 28.4 17.5 85.3 102.7 119-5
s-=f-/h+km : 120.2 102.9 87.5 73.0 50.1 48.5 38.1 28.4 zo.0 16.7
-- - -
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158 THE C A L C U L A T I O N O F R O L L P R E S S U R E I N H O T A N D C O L D F L A T R O L L I N G
Table 2 shows the calculation for experiment 2 (rough rolls) (23) Comparison m*th the Experiments of Sicbel and Lueg.
of Siebel and Lueg. Here the bar was sticking to the rolls along Fig. 18 shows the roll pressure distribution as measured by
practically the whole arc of contact. The table is self-explana- Siebel and Lueg in their experiment 1 (with smooth rolls), and the
tory; Fig. 16showstheauxiliaryfunctionsz+, z-, B+/Dz+,and curve calculated by the method described in the present report,
with p = 0.14; in t h i s case there was slipping over the whole arc
of contact. I n view of what has been said in section (20) about
the rounding of the peak of the friction hill, it appears that the
calculated curve agrees with the measured one within the limits
of the experimental errors. T h e slight discrepancy near the
point of entry is possibly due to an error of measurement, since
the measured curve rises here less rapidly than the k(4) curve.
Compared with the curve calculated with the homogeneous
method (Fig. 2), the curve obtained by the new method does not
show the shift towards the exit side, and the neutral angle
agrees much better with the measured one.
Fig. 19 shows the curve measured by Siebel and Lueg in their
experiment 2 (with rough rolls). This is a case of sticking along
the whole arc of contact, and the curves calculated with the
earlier methods (including the homogeneous graphical method
of Part I) were entirely different from the measured curve (cf.
Fig. 3,p. 146). The curve calculated with the new method almost
completely coincides with the measured curve, and the neutral
angles are equal. This success is particularly convincing because
in this case the coefficient of friction does not occur in the cal-
culation and, therefore, there is no constant whatever that
could be adjusted so as to obtain agreement with the measured
curve.
Although the experimental basis available for checking the
new method is very meagre, the excellent quantitative agreement
shown in Figs. 18 and 19 seems to indicate that the method
represents a satisfactory treatment of flat rolling. Further
measurements of the roll pressure distribution, similar to those
0 I 2 3 4 5
ANGULAR CO-ORDINATE OF ARC OF CONTACT, +DEG.
Fig. 18. Roll Pressure Distribution for Smooth Kol!~
( j=~ 0.14)
Lueg’s measurement.
ANGULAR CO-ORDINATEOF ARC OF CONTACT,+--DEG
--
. Calculated by the new method.
Fig. 17. Mean Horizontal Pressure, Normal Pressure, and of Siebel and Lueg, are desirable in order to give the theory
Yield Stress further trial ;measurements of the total roll pressure, of the roll
torque, or of the forward and backward slip, do not represent a
inhomogeneity of the deformation in a way that will be described severe enough test and give little information about the intrinsic
in section (30). truth and faults of the theory.
D2 4 m
T = k -2( - 2 -4”) . . . . . . . . . . (68.4)
f
d
W
I
Fig. 22. Measurements on Brass Strip in Experiments on
i
li 7 ‘3
I
PROJECTED ARC OF CONTACT-
Fig. 21. Requisite Pressures for Plastic Compression at
Different Points along Arc of Contact
I
3
0
ZI
.l-d++2
bution of roll pressure, with the same mean pressure as F,
producing a flattened arc of contact of circular shape. Obviously,
the elliptical pressure distribution cannot produce plastic com-
pression in the (vertically shaded) regions where the curve F is
above E. On the other hand, plastic compression must take place, ‘, 0
for purely geometrical reasons, at every point of the arc of con-
tact if this is circular: only where the arc is a horizontal line
could plastic deformation be absent. Thus the assumption of Fig. 23. Measurements on Brass Strip in Experiments on
plastic deformation in all regions of the arc of contact is in con- Roll Flattening : Specimen c1
tradiction to the assumption of an elliptical pressure distri-
bution which would produce a circular arc of contact. We may pressure released as quickly as possible, in order to prevent
expect that, in reality, the peak of the friction hill would produce avoidable creep. The shape of the arc of contact, impressed
a bump in the rolls around the neutral point which would reduce into the strip, was then determined by measuring the thickness
the magnitude of plastic compression in this region and thus of the strip point by point along the arc of contact* by means
would lower the peak of the friction hill ; with heavy pressures, of a thickness gauge whose dial was divided into 100 parts, each
the bump may be so deep that a part of the arc of contact would representing 1/10,000 inch. For the measurement the strip was
be horizontal and no plastic compression would take place here.
In order to investigate this problem, the shape of the arc of
* After t h i s manuscript was finished, Mr. E. C. Larke, of the
Research Department, I.C.I. (Metals), Ltd., informed the author
contact has been determined experimentally in a number of that he had made similar experiments (unpublished) several years ago.
‘1 minutes, and the result is far more reliable than any theoretical
calculation can be at present. The use of an instantaneous roll
pressure-release device, of course, is essential whenever the
rolled material shows appreciable creep.
(36) Thick Rolls versus Thin Rolls in Strip Rolling. The
results shown in Figs. 22-25 illuminate the question whether
thick or thin rolls are more to be favoured in strip rolling. If roll
flattening is not taken into account, and even more if a flattened
arc of contact of circular shape is assumed, theoretical cal-
culations lead to the result that the power consumption and, to
a much higher degree, the roll pressure increase rapidly with
increasing diameter of the working rolls. If such calculations
were justified in thin strip rolling, the 15-inch rolls of tandem
mills could not possibly compete with the thin rolls of Rohn or
I1
E2
0 ,
0 1
I
04
1 I
1 3
I
4
*2
I
I
I
b
IN@3
I
?Mfi
Steckel mills. This is contrary to experience, which shows that
each of these systems has its own field where it is at least not
much inferior to the others. This seeming contradiction between
theory and practice is explained by Figs. 22-25. If the roll
pressure is very high, as with thin strips and comparatively
thick working rolls, the bump at the neutral point becomes so
deep that no plastic compression takes place in the central part
of the arc of contact. In other words, the arc of contact breaks
Fig. 25. Measurements on Steel Strip in Experiments on up into three parts: a “dead” part in the middle, and two
Roll Flattening : Specimen s4 effective parts where the plastic compression of the rolled stock
takes place, near the planes of entry and exit. The effective parts
Figs. 22 and 23 represent brass strips, and Figs. 24 and 25 are short, and their radii of curvature may be much smaller than
mild steel strips in order of decreasing thickness, and hence, that of the undeformed roll; it is as if two thin rolls would work
in order of increasing roll pressure and roll flattening. They instead of a thick one. Thus, by means of its elasticity, the thick
show that the flattened arc of contact is not even approximately roll automatically avoids too long effective arcs of contact, with
circular; there is always a distinct bump in the neutral region, the accompanying excessive roll pressures. This does not mean,
The curve w(a) as given in Fig. 9, p. 150, is plotted, the specific The horizontal force f+(&) in the point +K is then found from
front tension Go = -fo (where fo is negative) divided by f+(+K) = z + ( + 3 [ ~ J + - G o l * -
(101) .
hok(O), and the quotient plotted from the origin vertically up- where zJ+is the s u m of alLJ+’s f r ~ r n J + ( $ ~toJ+($J.
)
wards (OA in Fig. 11, p. 151, where, however, the horizontal
forcef is assumed to be compressive (positive) and is, therefore, If, in the course of the calculation, the line AC ceases to
plotted downwards from 0).The horizontal AB is drawn, and intersect the curve w(a), the end of the region of slipping has
1/2p plotted vertically upwards from the point B whose abscissa been reached, and the calculation must be continued as under
is 1 (BC in Fig. 11). If the line AC intersects the curve w(a), [Bl], with the last obtained value of f+ instead of -Go in
the bar slips in the plane of exit; the exit side of the friction hill equation (106).
is then calculated as described below under [All. If AC passes
to the right of w(a) without intersecting it, the bar sticks to the [ A 3 Calculation of the Horizontal Force f- on the Entry Side
rolls in the plane of exit; course [Bl] below is then taken. in the Case of Slipping in the Plane of Entry. The calculation
The same construction is repeated with OA = - Gm . is similar to that for the exit side in all details, except that :-
hmk(+m) ’ (a) The points on the arc of contact in which the computation
according to whether AC intersects w(a) or not, the course [A21 is carried out are &,&,- I , 4m-2, . . ., down to about
or [B2] is followed for the calculation of the entry side of the +,,,/3. The computation starts with +,, instead of do = 0,
friction hill. and progresses downwards.
The interval from +o = 0 to 4 = $m is subdivided into 8-12
parts by points $1, .&, .. ., 4 ~ m - 2 , +m- 1, which should be
represented, if possible, among the parameters of the curves
(b) Instead of z+(+), z-(+) is used as given by
H(+, y ) in Figs. 12a-12~~ pp. 153-5, if the bar slips in the plane
of entry or exit; if it sticks at both places, any choice may be h
made. The intervals need not be equal. In what follows & will
be the general symbol for any of the values +o = 0, +1,+2, , . .,
or by z-(+) = h,
-e
/dHm-H)
. . . . (64~)
are computed with m+(# taken from Fig. (lo), and then the A P P E N D I X -1 Ij
quantities
REFERENCES