BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO

P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria

Telecommunication Engineering I
ELE 4301

Lecture 3

9th May, 2019

 BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
10 mins. Quiz !!! P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria

A 98.6 MHz carrier is frequency modulated by 5 KHz

message signal. If the frequency deviation of the
resulting FM signal is 50 KHz, determine:-
1. the highest and lowest frequency of the FM
2. the carrier signal
3. the modulation index

9th May, 2019

 BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
Radio Wave propagation I P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria

 An important part of communication system is the channel which

links the transmitting and receiving terminals
- the channel may be hard-wired (e.g. cables) or the space as in wireless
communication
- here we are going to study radio waves as a “vehicle” conveying a transmitted
signal to the receiving terminal

 A radio wave is a form of electromagnetic wave having both electric

field (E) and magnetic field (H) component

9th May, 2019

 BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
Radio Wave propagation II P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria

 In plane waves, the electric field intensity (E) and the magnetic field
intensity (H) are naturally perpendicular and related by:

9th May, 2019

 Radio EM Wave In Free BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria
Space I
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 In free space, radio waves radiate uniformly in all directions from

source to a destination
- this is known as isotropic radiation

9th May, 2019

 Radio EM Wave In Free BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria
Space II
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9th May, 2019

 Properties of Radio BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria
Waves
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 Electromagnetic (or Radio) waves have the following properties

1. Polarization: this refers to the physical orientation of the radiated

electromagnetic waves in space
- a wave can be vertically, horizontally or elliptically polarized
- the direction of E vector normally designates the polarization of the wave
- thus a vertically polarized wave implies that the vector E of the wave is in the
vertical direction
- it is very important to know that the polarization of a transmitted wave in
order to employ a similarly polarized antenna at the receiving

9th May, 2019

 Properties of Radio BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria
Waves II
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9th May, 2019

 Properties of Radio BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria
Waves III
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3. Absorption: in free space, no absorption of electromagnetic waves

takes place since there is nothing to absorb them.
- If the waves pass through other media apart from free space
- because some of the energy from the waves are transferred to the atomic
molecules of the medium
- e.g. the energy of radio wave travelling along earth surface is absorbed by the
soil and physical obstructions such as mountains and hills
+ metal roofs and reinforced concrete buildings are also good absorber of
the waves

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 Properties of Radio BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria
Waves IV
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4. Reflection: reflection occurs at the boundary of two media with

different dielectric permeability
- Electromagnetic waves are reflected by the ground, mountains and buildings
- An electromagnetic wave arriving at such boundaries sets up currents in the
surface layer of the reflecting body
- such currents produce the radiation of new electromagnetic waves
- in reflection, the angle of incidence of the wave at the boundary is equal to the
angle of reflection
- each reflection leads to the weakening of the electromagnetics wave because
some absorption takes place
- in order for reflection to take place, the electric wave must be perpendicular
to the conducting surface otherwise surface currents are set law and no
reflection would occur

9th May, 2019

 Properties of Radio BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria
Waves V
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5. Refraction: refraction takes place when an electromagnetic waves

passes from one propagating medium (dielectric) to another
- having different dielectric constants
- it occurs because of a difference in velocity with which the waves pass through
various substances

9th May, 2019

 Properties of Radio BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria
Waves V
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5. Diffraction: this refers to bending of waves around various obstacles

- the radio wave is capable of going around obstacle such as mountains and
large buildings by bending from its path
- the longer the wave (i.e. the lower the frequency), the better the capability of
wave being diffracted
- Diffraction is based on the Huygen’s principle, which state that every point on a given
wave front may be regarded as a source of waves from which further waves are
radiated outwards
- this makes it possible for space waves to be received behind mountains and tall
buildings

9th May, 2019

 Modes of Radio wave BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria
Propagation
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 Radio waves could be propagated by different means

 Radio waves are propagated in order to enable the transmitting

antenna and the receiving antenna to communicate with each other

 The different propagation modes are:

1. Ground wave 2. Ground-reflected wave
3. Line of Sight (LOS) or direct path 4. Refracted wave
5. Trospheric scattering 6. Ionospheric reflection
7. Trans-ionospheric space wave

9th May, 2019

 Ground wave BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria
Propagation I
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 At low frequencies and the lower end of the medium frequencies,

radio waves are guided along the surface of the ground

9th May, 2019

 Ground wave BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria
Propagation II
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 Is the method of RF propagation that uses the area between the

surface of the earth and the ionosphere for transmission
- follows the contours of the earth

 Can propagate considerable distances

- particularly in low frequency and medium frequency
- propagation is ideal for relatively short distance propagation on these
frequencies during the daytime

 Is used to provide relatively local radio communications coverage

- e.g. AM radio

9th May, 2019

 Ground wave BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria
Propagation III
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 Ground wave propagation are naturally vertically polarized

- it leads to attenuation of the wave due to diffraction
- absorption of the wave also takes place

 Ground wave propagation is used for low and medium frequency

propagation

 The main characteristics feature of ground-wave antenna is the need

for high power and tall masts
- this is due to low frequency of operation

9th May, 2019

 BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
Space wave Propagation I P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria

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 Space wave normally propagates through the LOS mechanism

- radio waves at frequency between 30 MHz and 30 GHz

 Such mode of propagation is possible at these frequencies because

the wave lengths are too short for ionospheric reflection and too long
for ground wave propagation
- the ionosphere cease to reflect the space wave which goes straight through the
various layers
 The transmitting and receiving antennas
must be able to see each other for space
wave propagation to take place
- the maximum LOS distance between the two
antennas depends on the height of each
antenna
9th May, 2019
 Space wave Propagation BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria
II
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 Space wave propagation is limited by the curvature of the earth

- there is diffraction of the wave around the curvature of the earth because of
the varying depth of the earth

 Space waves are obstructed by tall objects, thereby resulting in

shadow zones and diffraction

 Space wave is used for television broadcasting (VHF or UHF) and

microwave communication links
9th May, 2019
 BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
Tropospheric Scattering I P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria

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 Troposphere is the part of the

atmosphere extending up to a
height of 10 to 15 KMs
 In normal atmosphere conditions,
the refracted index increases
uniformly with increasing height

 However, with different metrological conditions a phenomenon

known as “temperature inversion” occurs at the lower part of the
troposphere
- under this condition temperature increases with height, thus leading to rapid
decrease in humidity with height
9th May, 2019
 BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
Tropospheric Scattering II P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria

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 There are subsequent irregularities in the reflective index which may

scatter any incidence radio wave to some degree
 Therefore if two directional antennas are pointed so that their beams
intersect the troposphere within the temperature-inversion region,
then communication line can be established between them

 Tropospheric scattering is a
very reliable means of
communication above the
horizon at UHF and
microwave frequencies

9th May, 2019

 BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
Tropospheric Scattering II P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria

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 Tropospheric scattering mode of propagation is employed in long-distance

telephone and other communication links

 It is used as an alternative to microwave (LOS) links and coaxial cables

particularly in difficult terrains

9th May, 2019

 BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
Ionospheric Propagation P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria

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 Radio wave (in the short wave range ) radiated from an antenna at large
angle with the ground travel through the atmosphere and encounter the
ionized region in the atmosphere

 Under favorable circumstances the radio waves get bent downward due to
refraction from different parts of the ionized region and again reach the
earth at a far distant point

 Such radio wave is called the “ sky wave” and such a propagation of radio
wave is termed the “sky wave propagation” or “ionospheric propagation”

 Long distance radio communication is thus possible through the sky wave
propagation

13th May, 2019

 BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
Sky Wave Propagation I P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria

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13th May, 2019

 BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
Sky Wave Propagation II P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria

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13th May, 2019

 BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
The Ionosphere I P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria

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13th May, 2019

 BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
The Ionosphere II P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria

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13th May, 2019

 BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
The Ionosphere III P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria

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 The ionisation is as a result of the absorption of large amount of radiant

energy from the sun by the Ionosphere

 This heats the atmosphere and also causes ionization, resulting in free
electrons and +ve and –ve ions

 The ionisation in the ionosphere is not uniform throughout but stratified in

the form of layers
- this is because of differences in the chemical composition and physical
properties of the atmosphere at different heights
- and also because of unequal abilities of different gases in absorbing solar
radiations of different frequencies

13th May, 2019

 BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
The Ionosphere IV P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria

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13th May, 2019

 BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
The Ionosphere V P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria

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 There is variation of electron density with height from day and night time

 The levels of electron density maximum are termed as layers

 As shown there are three prominent maxima i.e. three different ionised
layers during the day time
- these are E, F1 and F2 layers
- there are exists yet another ionized region below the E layers and is called the
D region
- this layer offers a high day time attenuation to high frequency radio waves and
it lies between heights of 50 to 90 Km
 The heights of maximum electron density in E & F1 layers are relatively
stable at value of about 110 Km and 220 Km respectively and these heights
undergo inappreciable diurnal and seasonal variations
16th May, 2019
 BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
The Ionosphere VI P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria

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 The height of maximum electron density of F2 layer, on the other hand is

subjected to greater diurnal and seasonal variations, the typical height
lying in the range of 250 to 350 Km
- the diurnal and seasonal variations in the heights of the layers are as a result of
the variations in the composition and temperature of the air at different
heights and in the radiation received from the sun

 During night time, F1 and F2 layers merge to form one single layer which is
designated as F2 layer
- the maximum electron density of the E layer depends entirely on the amount
of ultra-violet radiation from the sun so that at night it decays uniformly with
time
- the D layer vanishes at night

16th May, 2019

 BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
Critical frequency P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria

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The critical frequency in an

ionised layer is the highest
frequency that is reflected by
the layer at vertically incidence

The critical frequency is

proportional to the square root
of maximum electron density in
the layer

The maximum frequency that a radio wave is used to incident at an angle in

the ionosphere and still returned to earth is known as the Maximum Usable
Frequency (MUF)

16th May, 2019

 BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
Skip Distance I P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria

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 Since critical freq is the maximum freq of the radio wave which is
returned from a layer for normal incidence

 Now for the situation where the radio wave exceeds the critical frequency,
the influence of the ionospheric layer on the path of propagation depends
upon the angle of incidence at the ionosphere
- the angle of incidence determine the refractive index that determines the
electron density required for reflection

16th May, 2019

 BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
Skip Distance II P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria

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“Skip distance” is the minimum

distance from the transmitter at
which a sky wave of given frequency
is return to earth by the ionosphere
 The smaller the angle of incidence, the
smaller is the refractive index needed
for reflection of the radio wave and
hence higher is the electron density
required for reflection

16th May, 2019

 BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
Skip Distance III P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria

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 Therefore as shown, Ray 1 (R1) has a large value of angle of incidence, and
the refractive is only slightly less than unity i.e the electron density
required for reflecting the wave is small
- in such case the radio wave is returned earthward after having penetrated only
a distance into the ionized layer

 As the angle of incidence is progressively decreased as for rays R2, R3 etc

- the refractive index required for returning the wave earthward progressively
decreases and the amount of penetration into the layer increases

16th May, 2019

 BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
Skip Distance IV P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria

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16th May, 2019

 BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
Skip Distance V P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria

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 In general, the skip distance depends upon:

i frequency of transmission
ii critical frequency of the ionospheric layer
iii height of the layer

iv distribution of the ionisation within the layer i.e the skip distance increases as the
freq increases , ionisation in the layer reduces as the height of the layer increases

16th May, 2019

 BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria

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Thank you 

27-May-19