UET LAHORE (NWL CAMPUS)

ASSIGNMENT
Heat and Mass
Transfer
(LAB)

December, 2017

Submitted To:
- SIR Umer ishaq

Submitted By:
-
MUDASSIR HUSSAIN
2014-ME-522
Contents
PREFACE........................................................................................................................................5
Heat:.................................................................................................................................................6
Thermal conductivity.......................................................................................................................6
Modes of Heat Transfer:..................................................................................................................6
Convection...................................................................................................................................6
Radiation......................................................................................................................................7
Experiment No: 1.............................................................................................................................8
Objective......................................................................................................................................8
Equipment and components used................................................................................................8
Specifications...............................................................................................................................8
Linear Module.............................................................................................................................8
Theory..........................................................................................................................................9
LAB SESSION # 02......................................................................................................................12
Objective....................................................................................................................................12
Apparatus...................................................................................................................................12
Theory........................................................................................................................................12
Heat Transfer.........................................................................................................................12
Modes of Heat Transfer.........................................................................................................12
LAB SESSION # 03......................................................................................................................15
Objective....................................................................................................................................15
APPARATUS............................................................................................................................15
PROCEDURE............................................................................................................................17
Comment and Suggestions........................................................................................................18
LAB SESSION # 04......................................................................................................................19
OBJECTIVE..............................................................................................................................19
Apparatus:..................................................................................................................................19
THEORY...................................................................................................................................19
Procedure...................................................................................................................................19
Observations & Calculations.....................................................................................................20
Comments:.................................................................................................................................21
Experiment # 05.............................................................................................................................22
Objective....................................................................................................................................22

Apparatus:..................................................................................................................................22
Procedure...................................................................................................................................22
 Observations & Calculations.....................................................................................................23
CONVECTION.............................................................................................................................24
Experiment:6&7............................................................................................................................24
FREE & FORCED CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER.............................................................24
Objectives..................................................................................................................................24
Apparatus:..................................................................................................................................24
Equipment Description..............................................................................................................24
Introduction............................................................................................................................24
Detailed Description..............................................................................................................25
Theory........................................................................................................................................25
Free Convection.....................................................................................................................26
Forced Convection.................................................................................................................26
Experimental Procedures...........................................................................................................27
Start•up Procedures................................................................................................................27
Shut•down Procedures...........................................................................................................28
EXPERIMENT a: Free Convection Heat Transfer.......................................................................28
Schematic Diagram of Apparatus..............................................................................................28
Procedures:................................................................................................................................28
EXPERIMENT b: Forced Convection Heat Transfer................................................................29
Observations And Calculations:................................................................................................30
Graph:........................................................................................................................................30
Heat Exchanger:.............................................................................................................................32
Types of Heat Exchangers:........................................................................................................32
Shell and Tube.......................................................................................................................32
Plate Type..............................................................................................................................32
Air Cooled:............................................................................................................................32
Experiment # 8...............................................................................................................................34
Objective......................................................................................................................................... 34
Apparatus:..................................................................................................................................34
Theory........................................................................................................................................34
Procedure...................................................................................................................................35
Table..........................................................................................................................................35

Observations and Calculations:.................................................................................................35

Graph:........................................................................................................................................36
Comments:.................................................................................................................................37
Experiment # 09.............................................................................................................................38
 Objective....................................................................................................................................38
Apparatus:..................................................................................................................................38
Theory........................................................................................................................................38
Procedure...................................................................................................................................38
Table:.........................................................................................................................................39
Observations and Calculations:.................................................................................................39
Graph.........................................................................................................................................40
Comments..................................................................................................................................40
References......................................................................................................................................41
 PREFACE

This report is about the work done during lab performance of 6 weeks at UET LAHORE. It will
give overview of tasks completed during the lab period with technical details. During lab
experiments students were provided opportunity to analyze various areas of Heat and Mass
Transfer application which constitute a clear vision of subject.

The report is going to brief you about various procedures adopted in field for operation and
running of equipment, and conclusions drawn from these experiments.

We hope this report covers the major aspects of lab experiments; giving reader an
overview of HMT Lab.

Heat and Mass P a g e 5 | 41

Transfer
Heat:
Heat, energy that is transferred from one body to another as the result of a difference in
temperature. If two bodies at different temperatures are brought together, energy is transferred
i.e., heat flows from the hotter body to the colder. The effect of this transfer of energy usually,
but not always, is an increase in the temperature of the colder body and a decrease in the
temperature of the hotter body.
A substance may absorb heat without an increase in temperature by changing from one physical
state (or phase) to another, as from a solid to a liquid (melting), from a solid to a vapour
(sublimation), from a liquid to a vapor (boiling), or from one solid form to another (usually
called a crystalline transition).
Thermal conductivity:
Thermal conductivity is defined as the quantity of heat (Q) transmitted through a unit thickness (L) in a
direction normal to a surface of unit area (A) due to a unit temperature gradient (ΔT) under steady state
conditions and when the heat transfer is dependent only on the temperature gradient.
In equation form, this becomes the following:
Thermal Conductivity = heat × distance / (area × temperature gradient)
λ = Q × L / (A × ΔT)
Thermal conductivity is measured in watts per kelvin-meter (W/K-1-m-1, i.e. W/(Km) or in IP
units Btu/(hr.ft.F).
Modes of Heat Transfer:
There are three basic modes of heat transfer: Conduction, Convection, and Radiation.
Conduction:
In Conduction, heat transfer takes place due to a temperature difference in a body or between
bodies in thermal contact, without mixing of mass. The rate of heat transfer through conduction
is governed by the Fourier’s law of heat conduction.
Q = -kA(dT/dx)
Where, ‘Q’ is the heat flow rate by conduction
‘K’ is the thermal conductivity of body material
‘A’ is the cross-sectional area normal to direction of heat flow and
‘dT/dx’ is the temperature gradient of the section
Convection
In convection, heat is transferred to a moving fluid at the surface over which it flows by
combined molecular diffusion and bulk flow. Convection involves conduction and fluid flow.
The rate of convective heat transfer is governed by the Newton’s law of cooling.

Q = hA (Ts-T∞)

Where ‘Ts’ is the surface temperature

‘T∞’ is the outside temperature
‘h’ is the coefficient of convection.
Radiation
In radiation, heat is transferred in the form of radiant energy or wave motion from one body
to another body. No medium for radiation to occur. The rate of heat radiation that can be emitted
by a surface at a thermodynamic temperature is based on Stefan-Boltzmann law.
Q = σT4
Where ‘T’ is the absolute temperature of surface
‘σ’ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant.
"Radiation is the transfer of heat energy from a hot surface or gas, the radiator, to a cooler
material, the target, by electromagnetic waves without the need of an intervening medium.
Radiant energy can be transferred only by line of sight and will be reduced or blocked by
intervening materials."
 Experiment No: 1
Objective: “To measure the temperature distribution along a linear homogeneous bar for steady
state condition”.

Equipment and components used:

The equipment comprises two heat-conducting specimens, a multi-section bar for the
examination of linear conduction and a metal disc for radial conduction. A control panel
provides electrical and power digital for display heaters in the specimens as well as the selector
switch for data acquisition system.

A small flow of cooling water provides a heat sink at the end of the conducting path in each
specimen.

1
2

3 7
4

5
8
6
9
10

Figure: Unit Assembly for Heat Conduction Study Bench

1. Control Panel 6. Temperature Selector

2. Heater Power Indicator 7. Main Power Switch
3. Heater Power Regulator 8. Temperature Sensors
4. Heater Power 9. Radial Module
5. Temperature Indicator 10. Linear Module

Specifications

Linear
Module
Consists of the following sections:
 i) Heater Section
Material : Brass
Diameter : 25 mm
ii) Cooler Section
Material : Brass
Diameter : 25 mm
iii) Interchangeable Test Section
- Insulated Test Section with Temperature Sensors Array (Brass)
(Diameter = 25mm, Length = 30 mm)
Theory

In this experiment, we will investigate conduction in an insulated long slender brass bar like the
one in Figure 1. Assume that the bar is of length L, and a uniform hot temperature T h is imposed
on one end and a cold temperature Tc is imposed on the other. We will assume, because the bar is
insulated, that all the heat flows in the axial direction due to an imposed temperature differential
along the bar.

The equation that governs the heat flow is known as Fourier's Law, and in the axial direction it is
written as

where qx is the conduction heat flow in the x direction, Ax is the cross-sectional area normal to
the x direction and k is the thermal conductivity. The negative sign implies that heat is
transferred in the direction of decreasing temperature. In more general cases, Fourier's Law
becomes a vector relationship, which includes all directions of heat flow.

Figure 1: Schematic of a long cylindrical insulated bar

Linear Conduction of heat along a simple bar.

If a plane wall of thickness (ΔX) and area (A) supports a temperature difference (ΔT) then the
heat transfer rate per unit time (Q) by conduction through the wall is found to be:
 Q ∝ A(dT/dx)

If the material of the wall is homogeneous and has a thermal conductivity (k) then:
Q = kA(dT/dx)

Heat flow is positive in the direction of temperature fall.

The heat flow through a material cannot always be evaluated at steady state e.g. through the wall
of a furnace that is being heated or cooled. To calculate the heat flow under these conditions it is
necessary to find the temperature distribution through the solid and how the distribution varies
with time. Using the equipment set-up described above, it is a simple matter of monitoring the
temperature profile variation during either a heating or cooling cycle thus facilitating the study of
unsteady state conduction.

Procedure:

1. Take a brass sample (30 mm long) and coat each end including the apparatus with
conducting compound.
2. Insert the brass sample to the test unit.
3. Allow a fair amount of cold water to flow through the test unit.
4. Select an intermediate position for the heater power control and allow sufficient time (10-
20 min.) for a steady state condition to be achieved. If temperature does not stabilize after
20 minutes, assume steady state.
5. Record the temperature (T) at all nine sensor points and the input power reading on
the wattmeter (Q) in Table 1.
6. Repeat the procedure for other input powers keeping the equilibrium temperature
below 100o C. After each change, allow sufficient time (20 min.) to achieve steady state
conditions.
7. Plot the temperature profile along the length of bar.
8. Install the insert and adjust the cooling water flow rate and the heater power.
9. Switch on the unit and adjust the desired temperature drop through the power setting on
the control and display unit.
10. When the thermal conduction process has reached a steady state condition i.e. the
temperature at individual measuring points are stable note the measurement results at the
individual measuring points and the electrical power supplied to the heater.
Table
Q T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9
watt o
C o
C o
C o
C o
C o
C o
C o
C o
C
10 54 53.3 51 49.7 47 44 34.7 34 33.6
15.1 68.6 68.1 64.5 61.3 55.3 46.2 37.2 35..5 34.6
20 80 76 70 68 65 42 40 35 34

Graph

Temperature Distribution
60 54 53.3 51 49.7
47
Temperature oC

50 4
35
4 33.6
40

30

20

10

0 0 10 20 30 40 50
Distance (mm)
 LAB SESSION # 02

Objective:
To Investigation of Fourier law of heat conduction and measuring thermal conductivity by using
same material.

Apparatus: Heat conduction apparatus, Brass sample.

Theory
Heat Transfer:
It is a form of thermal energy which is in transit due to temperature difference. It is concerned
with the generation, use, conversion and exchange of thermal energy (heat) between physical
systems.

Modes of Heat Transfer:

Conduction:
Transfer of energy from high energy particles to the low energy particles adjacent to them as a
result of interaction between the particles. Basically, diffusion theory involves i.e.
 Heat is transferred by conduction
 When adjacent atoms vibrate against one another (Lattice waves)
 When electrons move from one atom to another (Electronic conduction)
Convection:
Transfer of heat from one place to another by the movement of fluids(actual movement of
particles not just the interaction b/w particles), a process that is essentially the transfer of heat via
mass transfer. Convection is usually used to describe the combined effects of heat conduction
within the fluid (diffusion) and heat transference by bulk fluid flow streaming.

Natural convection: Forced convection:

Type of heat transport, in which the fluid
motion is not generated by any external
source (like a pump, fan, suction device, etc.)
but only by density differences in the fluid
occurring due to temperature gradients.
It is a term used when the streams and
currents in the fluid are induced by external
means such as fans, stirrers, and pumps;
creating an artificially induced convection
current.

Radiation:
Transfer of energy due to emission of electromagnetic waves as a result of change in electronic
configuration of atoms or molecules.
Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction:
The law of heat conduction, also known as Fourier's law, states that the time rate of heat
transfer through a material is proportional to the negative gradient in the temperature and to the
area, at right angles to that gradient, through which the heat flows.
For many simple applications, Fourier's law is used in its one-dimensional form. In the x-direction.

Thermal Conductivity:
Ability of material to conduct heat (thermal energy). It is a characteristic property of material
through which the heat is flowing. Larger the value of k more is the ability of material to conduct
heat.
dx
k  q
dT

Procedure: Switch on the apparatus and start from the cooling side that is open the coolant
valve to avoid the overheating of the equipment. Allow the system to reach stability and take
readings corresponding to the specified locations by adjusting the nob to that position. Record
the temperatures and also note the power of the heat source which is actually the heat transfer
rate. After taking the readings draw the graph of temp vs. positions to find the temp gradient and
finally using it thermal conductivity can be found out.

Observations & Calculations:

Q T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9
watt o
C o
C o
C o
C o
C o
C o
C o
C o
C
10 54 53.3 51 49.7 47 44 34.7 34 33.6
15.1 68.6 68.1 64.5 61.3 55.3 46.2 37.2 35..5 34.6
20 80 76 70 68 65 42 40 35 34

Heat flow rate = 10.0 W

Diameter of bar = 25 mm
Total length of bar = 80 mm
Area = 490.87 mm2 = 0.00049087 m2
q = Heat flow rate/Area = 10/0.00049087 = 20371.99 W/m2

GRAPH:
 Temperature Distribution
60 54 53.3 51 49.7
47

Temperature oC
50 4
35
40 4 33.6

30

20

10

0 0 10 20 30 40 50
Distance (mm)

From
graph: dT/dx = -0.7/5 = -0.14 K/mm
So, dx/dT = -7.14 mm/K
dx/dT = -0.00714 m/K
Now, k = - q dx/dT gives
k = 20371.99 x (0.00714)
k = 145.45 W/m K

Comments:
 The reason for abnormal behavior of the curve is due to structural integrity; an air gap is
created at the interface due to which conductivity decreases and the temperature
distribution with position show abnormalities i.e., it suddenly falls down.
 A precaution is to be taken that we should start the experiment with cooling of the circuit
to avoid over heating of the equipment.
 There are a big difference b/w theoretical and experimental values because of faulty
readings due to faulty apparatus, as the material were Brass for which theoretical value of
k is 109 W/m2K.
 The experimental curve shows error bars that correspond to the uncertainty in the
experiment. This is due to the thermocouples not being accurate.
 LAB SESSION # 03
Objective
The objective of this experiment is to study the conduction of heat along a composite bar.

Description:
There is an analogy between the conduction of electricity and the conduction of heat. Since
electrical resistance is associated with the conductance of electricity, there is also a thermal
resistance associated with the conductance of heat. Composite fluids and solids behave much like
series and parallel combination of resistors in an electrical circuit. Using this approach, we can
add up the thermal resistances to find the overall resistance and heat transfer coefficient.

APPARATUS: Heat Conduction Unit, Brass, steel

THEORY:

Let's assume that we have a combination of different materials put together to form a composite
structure like the composite wall in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Composite wall (Heat Transfer, A. Bejan, Wiley, 1993)

Let's also assume that the cross-sectional area normal to the flow of heat transfer is
constant and that heat flows in a one-dimensional direction. Taking only one of the
slabs for now, we learned from Experiment 1 that the heat transfer is governed by
Fourier's Law, given by

(1)

We already have an idea of the concept of thermal resistance for conduction.

Resistance in general is defined as the ratio of driving potential over the transfer rate.
As transfer rate goes to zero, the resistance becomes infinite and, similarly, as the
driving potential goes to zero, resistance fails to exist. By using Fourier's Law and the
definition of resistance, we can derive the thermal resistance for all the modes of heat
transfer:

(2)

(3)

(4)

where R is the resistance for each mode. Symbols Ts, Tfld, and Tsur are the
temperatures for the surface, fluid, and surroundings respectively. The symbols
hr and h are the heat transfer coefficients for radiation and convection respectively.

Now what happens if we combine all the slabs? If we sum up all the individual heat
transfers, the intermediate temperatures cancel and we get:

(5)

To simplify Equation 5, let's combine everything that does not change across the
composite, like the initial and final temperature and the area A, and call the rest that
does change from material to material the overall heat transfer coefficient U. Now we
have

(6)

and the overall heat transfer coefficient is:

 (7)

We have two ways to find the overall heat transfer coefficient by finding k tot. The first
way is by summing up all the individual k's by methods from Experiment 1, and using
these values in Equation 7. The second way is to evaluate k tot by the overall slope of
the plot from the extreme temperatures.

PROCEDURE: Figure 2: Temperature distribution along the composite bar

1. Take a stainless-steel sample (30 mm long) and coat each end of the sample and
apparatus with conducting compound.
2. Insert the steel sample to the test unit.
3. Allow cold water to flow through the test unit.
4. Select an intermediate position for the heater power control and allow sufficient time for
a steady state condition to be achieved.
5. Record the temperature (T) at all six sensor points and the input power reading on
the wattmeter (Q) in Table 1.
6. Repeat the procedure for other input powers up the maximum setting of the control.
After each change, allow sufficient time to achieve steady state conditions.
7. Plot the temperature profile along the length of the core as in Figure 2, and obtain the
outer surface temperature Ths and Tcs.
8. Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient (U) using both methods. For the first
method, use the extreme temperatures. For the second method, use Equation 7 and the
individual k’s found from the plot. Enter the results in Table 2.
9. Compare the two experimental values of (U). If they disagree significantly, explain why.
10. Compare the experimental (U) by the second method with the (U) calculated from
Equation 7 and using the k’s from the reference. Discuss sources of error from equipment
and assumptions.
Table:
 Sr. 𝑄̇ T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9
watt o
C o
C o
C o
C o
C o
C o
C o
C o
C

1 5 44.6 44.5 43.2 33.1 32.7 30.7 30.1 29 29.9

2 20 51 50 48.2 40 35 33 30 29.8 29.7
3 25 65 62.8 61.7 44.7 39.2 35 30 20.4 30.1

Graph:

Temperature Distribution
Tempartature oC

5044.6 44.5 43.2

40 33.1 32
.7 30 .7 30 .1 29 29.9
30
20
10
0

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Distance (mm)

Comment and Suggestions

1. When heat enters from brass to steel (at temp T3 to T4) slope in graph shows that there is
sudden drop in heat transfer rate. This is due to the contact resistance and influence of
some other factors.

2. Be sure to amply coat both surfaces of the sample where contact will be made to reduce
thermal contact resistance.
3. Note that the sample (test insert) can be put in only one way to insure good
thermal contact.
4. Do not exceed a wattage of 20 W nor any temperature above 100o C.

5. Be careful not to touch any surfaces (metallic or plastic) on the heating end as they might
cause a burn.
6. If not indicated on the apparatus, all temperature sensors are number from left to right.
7. Do not use a high-water flow as this will prevent the disconnection of the water hose.
 LAB SESSION # 04

OBJECTIVE:
To determine the effect of change in cross-sectional area on the temperature profile using same
material.

Apparatus: Heat conduction apparatus, Brass rods of different diameter are used.

Brass Brass Brass

25mm (Heater) (Cooler)

13mm

THEORY
Fourier’s Law states that the rate of heat transfer is proportional to the cross-sectional area
normal to the direction of heat flow. Since the outer surface is insulated, the heat flow rate qx is
the same for each section of the bar and since it is the same material, the thermal conductivity k
is assumed to be constant.
Then
q  K A T
    T    T 
KA KA
hh  ss  cc 
 x x x
Where the subscripts h, s, and c denote the hot, sample, and cold segments of the bar,
respectively. In other words, the temperature gradient is inversely proportional to the cross-
sectional area. In this experiment, the hot and cold segments will have the same cross-sectional
area, which will differ from that of the sample inserted in between the two segments.

As the material is same throughout so,

qs  qh  qc
kh T / xh  Ah ks T / xs  As  kc T / xc  Ac


As material is of same quality, so k will be cancelled out

T / xh  Ah T / xs  As  T / xc  Ac


Ah / As  T / x  / T / xh 
s

Procedure:
Switch on the apparatus and start from the cooling side that is open the coolant valve to avoid the
overheating of the equipment. Allow the system to reach stability and take readings
corresponding to the specified locations by adjusting the Nob to that position. Record the
temperatures and also note the power of the heat source which is actually the heat transfer rate.
After taking the readings draw the graph of temp vs positions to determine the temperature
profile.
Observations & Calculations:
Diameter of the Brass Rod (heater and cooler) = 25mm
Area of the heater and cooler ‘Ah’, ‘Ac’ = πd2/4 = π * (.025)2 / 4 = 0.00049087 m2
Diameter of the specimen = 13mm
Area of the specimen ‘As’ = πd2/4 = 0.0001327 m2

𝑄̇ T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9
watt o
C o
C o
C o
C o
C o
C o
C o
C o
C
1 10 72.7 72.5 68.9 - - - 30.7 30 29.5
2 15 38.8 36.2 36 - - - 34.2 29.8 29

Temperature Distribution
Tempartature oC

90
.5
80 72.7 72 68.9
70
60
50
40
30 30.7 30 29.5
20
10
0

0 10 20 30 40 50
Distance (mm)

From Graph:

T / xh  345.7  345.5 0.005  0.01

 /
  40
T / xs  300.7  300 0.035 
 / 0.040  140
T / xs  / T / xh   140 / 40
 -3.5
T / xs  -3.5 T / xh                        1
Comments:
 The temperature profile’s trend changes by varying the cross-sectional area. Its effect is
that temperature profile becomes steeper which shows that slope increases with the
decrease of area of cross section.
 Precaution is the still same that is we should start the experiment with cooling of the
circuit to avoid over heating of the equipment.
 It’s necessary to give some time to the apparatus to develop steady state otherwise
temperature values vary improperly and we get some abnormal behavior of the
temperature profile.
 Another thing which is noticeable is that at higher heat flow rates, the slope of the
temperature profile is little increased at the specimen region which shows that to
compromise the effect of area decrement; slope is increased at higher flow rate.
 The experimental and theoretical values of the ratio (dT/dxs) / (dT/dxh) are greater than
one showing that area decrement causes the slope to increase in the specimen region
compared to the heater region.
 The thermostat 6 was out of order so technically we only have 5 values of temperature to
plot graph.
 There may have variation in specimen i.e. it may have not been a perfect cylinder.
 Although the temperature for higher q should be higher but lower values of T for high q
shows enough time was not given to sample to achieve steady state.
 Experiment # 05
Objective
To investigate Fourier’s law of conduction and measuring the thermal conductivity of brass
material radially.
Apparatus:
Heat Conduction Unit H940
Radial Module
Material : Brass
Diameter : 110 mm
Thickness : 3 mm

Instrumentations:
Linear module consists of a maximum of 9 temperature sensors at 10 mm interval. For
radial module, 6 temperature sensors at 10 mm interval along the radius are installed.
Each test modules are installed with 100 Watt heaters.

Procedure:

1 Make sure that the main switch is initially off.

2 Connect one of the water tubes to the water supply and the other to drain.
3 Connect the heater supply lead for the radial conduction module into the power supply
socket on the control panel.
4 Connect the six sensor (TT1, 2, 3 & 7, 8, 9) leads to the radial module, with the TT1
connected to the innermost plug on the radial. Connect the remaining five sensor leads to
the radial module correspondingly, ending with TT 9 sensor lead at the edge of the radial
module.
 5 Turn on the water supply and ensure that water is flowing from the free end of the
water pipe to drain. This should be checked at intervals.
6 Turn the heater power control knob control panel to the fully anticlockwise position.
7 Switch on the power supply and main switch, the digital readouts will be illuminated.
8 Turn the heater power control to 20 Watts and allow sufficient time for a steady state
condition to be achieved before recording the temperature at all six sensor points and the
input power reading on the wattmeter (Q). Repeat this procedure for input power
between 10 watts. After each change, sufficient time must be allowed to achieve steady
state conditions.
Table
𝑄̇ T1 T2 T3 T7 T8 T9
watt o
C o
C o
C o
C o
C o
C
1 10 35.8 34.8 33.2 31.9 31.2 30.6
2 15 38.8 36.2 34.5 32.1 29.8 29.8
Observations & Calculations

Graphs
CONVECTION
Experiment:6&7 Temperature Distribution
FREE
37
& FORCED CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER
Objectives
Tempartature oC

35.8
36
The objectives of this34.8
experiment are:
6. To demonstrate
35 the relationship between power input and surface temperature in free
34
convection
33.2
7. To demonstrate the relationship between power input and surface temperature in
33
forced convection. 31.9
32 31.2
Apparatus: 31 30.6
A bench top accessory designed to allow experimentally investigate both free (natural)
30
convection and forced0 convection.
5 The
10 accessory
15 20includes
25 a small,
30 variable
35 velocity
40 wind tunnel
45
with a digital velocity meter and a central aperture. Three plates
Distance (mm) with integral heaters and
temperature sensors are also supplied that are designed to fit in the central aperture in the wind
tunnel.
A heated flat plate with surface thermocouple may be directly compared with a similar pinned
plate and finned plate also fitted with a surface thermocouple. In addition to expanding
understanding of the heat transfer enhancement from extended surfaces, the pinned and finned
plates each have three thermocouples arranged at intervals along a fin and a pin. This allows
investigation of the temperature distribution along the extended surfaces.
Equipment Description
Introduction

Heat transfer by simultaneous conduction and convection, whether free or forced, forms
the basis of most industrial heat exchangers and related equipment. The measurement and
prediction of heat transfer coefficients for such circumstances by studying the temperature
profiles and heat flux in an air duct with associated flat and extended transfer surfaces. The
vertical duct is so constructed that the air temperature and velocity can be readily measured, and
a variety of “plug- in” modules of heated solid surfaces of known dimensions can be presented
to the air stream for
detailed study. A fan situated at the top of the duct provides the air stream for forced convection
experiments.
A Control Panel contains temperature measurement, power control, and fan speed control
circuits with appropriate instrumentation. Temperature measurement, to a resolution of 0.1 is
effected using PTD sensors with direct digital read-out in oC.
Air velocity is measured with portable anemometer mounted on the duct.

The power control circuit provides a continuously variable, electrical output in watts with a direct
read-out in watts. Using the instrumentation provided, free and forced
convective heat transfer coefficients may be determined
for:
1. A flat surface
2. An array of cylinders (pinned heat sink)
3. An array of fins (finned heat sink)

Detailed Description

The equipment consists of a vertical rectangular duct supported by stand and a control
panel. A flat plate pinned or finned exchanger may be installed in the duct and secured by a
quick- release catch on each side. Each exchanger incorporates an electric heating element with
thermostatic protection against overheating. The temperature at the base of each exchanger is
monitored by a thermistor sensor with connecting lead.
The exchanger in use may be viewed through an acrylic window in the wall of the duct.
An upward flow of air may be generated in the duct with a variable speed fan mounted at the top
of rectangular duct.
Air velocity in the duct, whether natural or forced, is indicated on a portable anemometer
held in a bracket on the duct wall. The anemometer sensor s inserted through the wall of the duct.
Temperature sensors are provided for the measurement of the in-going and outgoing air
temperatures together with surface temperatures of exchanger pins and fins. A digital readout
indicates the temperature using a thermistor probe connected to a flexible lead.
Theory
Convection is the mechanism of heat transfer through a fluid in the presence of bulk fluid
motion. Convection is classified as natural (or free) and forced convection depending on how the
fluid motion is initiated. The faster the fluid motion, the greater the convection heat transfer. In
the absence of any bulk fluid motion, heat transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent fluid
is by pure conduction. The presence of bulk motion of the fluid enhances the heat transfer
between the solid surface and the fluid, but it also complicates the determination of heat transfer
rates.
Heat transfer processes that involve change of phase of a fluid are also considered to be
convection because of the fluid motion induced during the process, such as the rise of the vapor
bubbles during boiling or the fall of the liquid droplets during condensation. Despite the
complexity of convection, the rate of convection heat transfer is observed to be proportional to
the temperature difference, and is conveniently expressed by Newton’s law of cooling as

Free Convection
In natural convection, any fluid motion is caused by natural means such as the buoyancy effect,
i.e. the rise of warmer fluid and fall the cooler fluid.
A heated surface dissipates heat primarily through a
process called convection. Heat is also dissipated by
conduction and radiation; however, these effects are not
considered in this experiment. Air in contact with the hot
surface is heated by the surface and rises due to a reduction
in density. The heated air is replaced by cooler air which is in
turn heated by the surface and rises. This process is called
free convection.
The hotter the temperature of the surface, the greater the convective currents and more heat
(power) will be dissipated. If more power is supplied to a surface, the temperature of the surface
must rise to dissipate this power.
Forced Convection
Whereas in forced convection, the fluid is forced to flow over a surface or in a tube by external
means such as a pump or fan.
 In free convection, the heat transfer rate from
the surface is limited by the small movements of air
generated by this heat. More heat Is transferred if the
air velocity is increased over the heated surface. This
process of assisting the movement of air over the heated
surface is called Forced Convection. Therefore, a
heated surface experiencing forced convection will
have a lower surface temperature than that of the same
surface in tree convection, for the same power input.
Heat transfer processes that involve change of phase of
a fluid are also considered to be convection because of the fluid motion induced during the
process, such as the rise of the vapor bubbles during boiling or the fall of the liquid droplets
during condensation. Despite the complexity of convection, the rate of convection heat transfer is
observed to be proportional to the temperature difference, and is conveniently expressed
by Newton’s law of cooling as

Experimental Procedures

Start•up Procedures

1. Connect the mains input power supply plug to a nearest single-phase electrical supply.
2. Turn the heater power control knob and fan speed control knob fully anti-clockwise.
3. Connect the fan supply lead to the socket at the side of the control panel.
4. Connect the temperature probe lead to the socket beneath the control panel.
5. Clamp the flat plate heat exchanger into the duct using the two toggle clamps and connect
the heater power supply lead to the socket on the cover.
6. Connect the plate temperature (TH) connector to the socket on the heat exchanger.
7. Place the meter into the bracket situated on the side of the duct. Then, connect the cable to
the connection beneath the control panel.
8. Ensure that the sensor hole is aligned with the direction of the airflow when inserting the
probe through the wall of the duct.
9. Switch on the main power.
10. Check that the LED temperature meter and watt-meter are illuminated. Check that the
temperature meter indicates ambient temperature.
11. Increase the heater power in the exchanger by rotating the power control knob clockwise.
The power supplied to the exchanger should be shown in wafts on the meter.
12. Switch on the fan and increase the speed by rotating the fan speed control knob clockwise.
13. Observe that the air velocity is indicated on the indicator.
14. Check that the plate temperature (TH) increases.
15. Set the heater power control and fan speed control knob to minimum. Now you are ready
for the following experiments.
Shut•down Procedures
Switch off the heater and turn the power control knob fully anti-clockwise. Set the fan speed
control knob to maximum to cool down the hot plate heat exchanger.
Turn off the main power supply after plate heat exchanger has cooled down to room temperature.

EXPERIMENT a: Free Convection Heat Transfer

Schematic Diagram of Apparatus

Procedures:

1. Remove the fan assembly from the top of the duct.

2. Place the tinned heat exchanger into the test duct.
3. Record the ambient air temperature (Ta).
4. Set the heater power control to 20 Watts (clockwise).
5. Allow sufficient time to achieve steady state conditions before noting the heated plate
temperature (Th) into the table below.
6. Repeat this procedure at 40, 60 and 80 Watts.
7. Plot a graph of power against temperature (Tv-Ta).

Ambient air temperature (Ta) = 23 oC

Input Power Input Plate Temperature (TH) Ambient Temperature (Ta) (TH – Ta)
W oC oC oC

31 35 23 12
40 40 23 17
 50 45 23 22

Graph

Power Input and Surface Temperature

25 22

20
17
TH – Ta

15
12

10

0 10 20 30 40 50 60
iNPUT POWER

EXPERIMENT b: Forced Convection Heat Transfer

1. Place the fan assembly on to the top of the duct.

2. Place the finned heat exchanger into the duct.
3. Note the ambient air temperature (tA).
4. Set the heater power control to 50 Watts (clockwise). Allow sufficient time to achieve
steady state conditions before noting the heated plate temperature (TH).
5. Set the fan speed control to give a reading of 1.3 on the thermal anemometer, allow
sufficient time to achieve steady state conditions. Record heated plate temperature.
 6. Plot a graph of air velocity against temperature. (TH —Ta)

Ambient air temperature (Ta) =

Power input = 30 W

Observations And Calculations:

Sr No P(W) V(m/s) X(m) Tbase(°C) Tpinned(°C) Tfinned(°C)

1 30 1.3 0 28 28 28
2 30 1.3 1 28 22.3 24.3
3 30 1.3 3.6 28 21.8 23.4
4 30 1.3 6.2 28 21.5 22.8
Graph:

Temperature Profile For Forced Convection with pinned and

finned H.E
30

25

20
T(°C)

15

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
X(m)

Tbase(°C) Tpinned(°C) Tfinned(°C)

Comment
It is clear from the graph that heat transfer is highest in the pinned extended surface due to its
large area of contact. So it has the lowest line on temperature line among finned and base
surface. The graph clearly depicts how increasing contact area is responsible for heat transfer.
Heat Exchangers
Heat Exchanger:
A heat exchanger is a device which transfers heat from one medium to another, a
Hydraulic Oil Cooler or example will remove heat from hot oil by using cold water or air.
Alternatively, a Swimming Pool Heat Exchanger uses hot water from a boiler or solar heated
water circuit to heat the pool water. Heat is transferred by conduction through the exchanger
materials which separate the mediums being used. A shell and tube heat exchanger passes fluids
through and over tubes, where as an air-cooled heat exchanger passes cool air through a core of
fins to cool a liquid.
Types of Heat Exchangers:

Shell and Tube:

Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers consist of a large number of small tubes which are
located within a cylindrical shell. The tubes are positioned into the cylinder using a tube bundle
or "tube stack" which can either have fixed tube plates (permanently fixed to the body) or, in the
case of Thermal Heat Exchangers a floating tube stack which allows the tube bundle to expand
and contract with varying heat conditions as well as allowing the tube bundle to be easily
removed for servicing and maintenance.

Plate Type:
Plate Heat Exchangers operate in very much the same way as a shell and tube heat
exchanger, using a series of stacked plates rather than tubes. Plate heat exchangers are usually
brazed or gasketed depending on the application and fluids being used. Their compact stainless-
steel construction makes them an ideal choice for use with refrigerants or in food and beverage
processing.

Air Cooled:
Air Cooled Heat Exchangers are commonly used in vehicles or other mobile applications
where no permanent cool water source is available. Thermal designs and supplies combination
cooling packs (or combo-coolers) which combine an engine jacket water cooler, oil cooler and
charge air cooler into a single unit reducing space requirements and improving efficiency. Cool
air is provided either by a fan or by air flow caused by the movement of the vehicle.
Classification of heat exchangers according to flow direction
According to the direction of the flow heat exchangers can be classified as follows:
1) Counter flow;
2) Crossflow;
3) Parallel flow.
In counter flow type of heat exchangers, the two fluids flow parallel to each other, but in
opposite directions. This is one of the most efficient configurations for single-pass arrangements.
In crossflow arrangement, the two fluids flow normal to each other. Examples of this
arrangement are tube-fin heat exchanger and plate-fin heat exchanger.
In parallel flow arrangement, the fluids flow parallel to each other in the same direction. This
arrangement is less efficient than counter flow.

Experiment # 8
Objective:
To investigate the characteristics of concentric tube heat exchanger in parallel flow.
Apparatus:
 Concentric tube heat exchanger apparatus
Theory

The process of heat exchange between two fluids that are at different temperatures and separated
by a solid wall occurs in many engineering applications. The device used to implement this
exchange is called a heat exchanger, and specific applications may be found in space heating and
air conditioning, power production, waste heat recovery and chemical processing. The flow of
heat from a fluid through a solid wall to another fluid is often encountered in chemical
engineering practice. The heat transferred may be latent heat accompanying phase changes such
as condensation or vaporization, or it may be sensible heat coming from increasing or decreasing
the temperature of a fluid without phase change. Heat transfer is the movement of energy due to
a temperature difference. There are three physical mechanisms of heat transfer; conduction,
convection, radiation. All three modes may occur simultaneously in problems of practical
importance.
Procedure:
1. Set the heat exchanger up for parallel flow conditions
2. Switch on the main switch
3. Switch on the heater and set the temperature controller to 60° C and allow sufficient time
for a steady state condition
4. Turn on cold water supply and open the cold-water control valve and set the cold-water
flow rate QC = 2.2 L/min
5. Switch on the pump and open the hot water control valve and set the hot water flow rate
QH = 2.4 L/min
6. Wait until the heat exchanger to stabilize
7. After conditions have stabilized, record the hot and cold-water temperatures at inlet, mid-
point and outlet.
8. After data has been recorded, switch off the pump switch and close the cold-water supply
9. Close the hot and cold-water valves and turn off the power supply cable.
Table

Sr. No Th1 Th2 Th(mid) Tc1 Tc2 Tc(mid) V̇ h V̇ c

(°C) (°C) (°C) (°C) (°C) (°C) ltr/min ltr/min

1 47 43 42 28 34 30 2.4 2.2
2 50 45 43 28 34 31 3.3 2.5
3 53 50 48 28 36 31 3.4 2.9

Observations and Calculations:

Length of pipe = L = 1.5 m

Tube outer diameter = do = (15x0.7) mm
Tube inner diameter = di = (22x0.9) mm
Set Temperature = 65°C
Transmission Area = A = 0.067 m2
Density of water= 1000kg/m3
Specific Heat of Water= Cp= 4.186 kJ/kg°C
For Reading 2
Hot water Flow rate = Qh =3.3 ltr/min
Cold water Flow rate = Qc =2.5 ltr/min
Mass Flow rate of hot water,
𝑚ℎ = 𝑝𝑄ℎ = 0.055 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
Mass Flow rate of cold water,
𝑚𝑐 = 𝑝𝑄𝑐 = 0.0416 𝑘𝑔/𝑠

Temperature Difference at inlet = ∆𝑇1 = 𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇𝑐1 = 50 − 28 = 22°C

Temperature Difference at Outlet =∆𝑇2 = 𝑇ℎ2 − 𝑇𝑐2 = 45 − 34 = 11°𝐶
Log mean Temperature Difference = LMTD = ∆Tm= (T 1  T 2)
 15.86 C

ln( T 1  )
T2
Amount of heat given out by hot liquid,

𝑞𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡 = 𝑚ℎ. 𝐶𝑝. (𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇ℎ2) = 1151 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠

Amount of heat Absorbed by Cold Water,

𝑞𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑚𝑐. 𝐶𝑝. (𝑇𝑐1 − 𝑇𝑐2) = 1044 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠

Losses,
𝑞𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡 − 𝑞𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 107 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
Efficiency of Heat Exchanger,

Ƞ = (𝑞𝑎𝑏𝑠/ 𝑞𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡)𝑥100 = 90.70%

Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient,

𝑈 = 𝑞𝑎𝑏𝑠/(𝐴𝑡×∆𝑇𝑚) = 982 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡/𝑚2𝐶

Efficiency of cold water,

Ƞ𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 (Tco  Tci)

 (Thi  Tci) 100 = 27.27%
Efficiency of hot water,

Ƞℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟  (Tho  Thi) 100 = 22.72%

(Thi  Tci)

Graph:
 Parallel Flow Heat Exchanger

Temperature °C
60 53
50 48 50

40
31
30 26
25
20

10
0

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6

Distance (m)

Hot Fluid Cold Fluid

Comments:
 In this experiment, the brass material of the tube is in contact with graphical plate
which has high thermal conductivity co-efficient and decreases the contact
resistance.
 Brass tube is not purely perfect so temperature variation is there.
 Thermal conductivity increases so rate of heat transfer increases.
50  45
  43 (mid value) so this not a linear change because value in the mid does not
(2)
match with average so its exponential change and we will use LMTD method to
determine the temperature difference.
Experiment # 09
Objective:
To investigate the characteristics of concentric tube heat exchanger in counter flow.
Apparatus:
 Concentric tube heat exchanger

Theory
Heat exchangers are typically classified according to flow arrangement and type of construction.
The simplest heat exchanger is one for which the hot and cold fluids move in the same or
opposite directions in a concentric tube (or double-pipe construction). In the parallel flow
arrangement, the hot and cold fluids enter at the same end, flow in the same direction, and leave
at the same end. In the counter flow arrangement, the fluids enter at opposite ends, flow in
opposite directions, and leave at opposite ends.

Procedure:

1. Set the heat exchanger up for counter flow conditions by changing the valve direction.
2. Switch on the main switch
 3. Switch on the heater and set the temperature controller to 60° C and allow sufficient time
for a steady state condition
4. Turn on cold water supply and open the cold-water control valve and set the cold water
flow rate QC = 1.5 L/min
5. Switch on the pump and open the hot water control valve and set the hot water flow rate
QH = 2.0 L/min
6. Wait until the heat exchanger to stabilize
7. After conditions have stabilized, record the hot and cold-water temperatures at inlet, mid-
point and outlet.
8. After data has been recorded, switch off the pump switch and close the cold-water supply
9. Close the hot and cold-water valves and turn off the power supply cable
Table:
Sr. No Th1 Th2 Th(mid) Tc1 Tc2 Tc(mid) V̇ h V̇ c

(°C) (°C) (°C) (°C) (°C) (°C) ltr/min ltr/min

1 60 53 56 29 38 32 3.4 2.2

Observations and Calculations:

Length of pipe=L= 1.5 m
Tube outer diameter=do= (15x0.7) mm
Tube inner diameter=di= (22x0.9) mm
Set Temperature= 65°C
Transmission Area=A=0.067 m2
p = Density of water= 1000kg/m3
Specific Heat of Water= Cp= 4.186 kJ/kg°C
For given reading
Hot water Flow rate= Qh=3.4 ltr/min
Cold water Flow rate= Qc =2.2 ltr/min

Mass Flow rate of hot water=mh= pQh=0.056 (kg/s)

Mass Flow rate of cold water =mc= pQc= 0.03667(kg/s)

Temperature Difference at inlet

∆T1=Th1-Tc2= 22°C
Temperature Difference at Outlet
∆T2=Th2-Tc1= 24°C
Log mean Temperature Difference
LMTD=∆Tm= (T 1  T 2)
  22.98°C
ln( T 1  )
T2
Amount of heat Given out by hot liquid
 qemit=mh.Cp.(Thi-Tho)= 1640 Watts
Amount of heat Absorbed by Cold Water
qabs=mc.Cp.(Tco-Tci)= 1381 Watts
Losses
qemit - qabs= 259 Watts
Efficiency of Heat Exchanger
Ƞ= (qabs/ qemit)x100=84.20%
Overall Heat Transfer Co-efficient
U=qabs/(Atx∆Tm)= 896 Watt/m2C
Efficiency of cold water

Ƞcold water  (Tco  Tci) 100 =29%

(Thi  Tci)
Efficiency of cold water
(T  T )
Ƞhot water  hi ho 100 =22.5%
(Thi  Tci)
Graph

COUNTER FLOW HEAT EXCHANGER

hot fluid cold fluid

70 6 0 56
60
TEMPERATURE°C

53
50
38
9 40 32
2
30
20
10
0
00 . 20 . 40 . 6
0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
DISTANCE (M)

Comment
s
60  53 (mid value) so this not a linear change because value in the mid does not match with

56
(2)
average so its exponential change and we will use LMTD method to determine the temperature
difference.

Prabhat et al. studied on a performance evaluation of counter flow heat exchanger considering
for low temp application. He found those Counter flow heat exchangers are commonly used in
cryogenic systems because of their high effectiveness.
From the literature review of experimental investigation of performance of parallel & counter
flow heat exchanger we came to the conclusion that:
1. Heat transfer is more in case of counter flow heat exchanger using water or any other oil
as heat carrying medium.
2. Experiment is done taking water as a working fluid both as heat carrying & heat absorbing
medium.
3. Heat transfer can be enhanced by changing the material of construction of pipes, taking
liquid as a heat absorbing medium having high specific heat, changing mass flow rates.
From the result and conclusion, we can conclude that,
1. Heat transfer is more in case of counter flow heat exchanger by30%.
2. As LMTD increases discharge increases and so efficiency increases.

References
1. Theodore L., Heat transfer applications for the practicing engineer, Wiley, New Jersey, 2011.
2. Baukal C. E., Oxygen-Enhanced Combustion, CLC Press, 1998.
3. Perry, R. H., and D. Green, Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 7th edition, McGraw-Hill,
1997.
4. Incropera F.P., Introduction to Heat Transfer, 5th edition, Wiley, 2007
5. AkshaykumarMagadum, AniketPawar. “ Experimental Investigation of Parallel and Counter
flow Heat Exchanger”, International Journal of Advanced Research in Science, Engineering
and Technology Vol. 3, Issue 3 , March 2016 Copyright to IJARSET www.ijarset.com 1610,
RushikeshPatil, RohitPhadtare. (Students)
6. https://www.brazetek.com/articles/70-classification-of-heat-exchangers-according-to-flow-
direction