Polarization of Light and its Manipulation

This experiment deals with the nature of light. Light is a wave in which an electric field
propagates in vacuum or inside a medium. A magnetic field ride along too. This experiment
shows that the electric field is oriented perpendicular to the direction of propagation of light.
Such a wave is called a “transverse wave". It can be shown that the linearly polarized light
can be changed to elliptic/circular light and vice versa. A laser, a pair of polarizers and a
quarter wave plate will be used to understand this phenomenon.

Objectives
1. To manifest the wave nature of light through the concept of polarization,
2. To learn that for wave motion, intensities are squares of amplitudes.
3. To learn the manipulation of polarization using quarter wave plate.

Transverse waves
In a transverse wave, all points on a wave oscillate at right angles to the direction of
propagation of wave. Surface ripples on water, secondary seismic waves and electromagnetic
wave (e.g., radio and light) are examples of transverse waves.

Figure 1: A transverse wave propagating perpendicular to the motion of the particles.

A simple transverse wave can be nicely illustrated with a sine or cosine curve. An example is
shown in Figure 1. It tells when a wave propagates in a medium, how a single particle of the
medium oscillates up and down as time progresses. The time required for a point on the wave
to make a complete oscillation is called the period of the wave, and the number of oscillations
executed per second is called the frequency. Wavelength is the distance between
corresponding points on the wave i.e., between two adjacent peaks or troughs.
The transverse nature is described by a property called the polarization. Polarization
specifies the geometric orientation of the oscillation of the motion. As per definition of the

Dr Afshan Irshad February 2020 1

transverse wave, the motion of the particles is perpendicular to direction of the propagation of
the wave. It means, there are a lot of different possibilities for the polarization. If the wave
moves along z-axis, the polarization could be along x, along y or any combination of x and y.

Polarization of light
Since light is a transverse wave and it is electric field vector that always remains
perpendicular to the propagation direction. For example, we may have linearly polarized
waves which could be horizontally or vertically polarized light, wherein the electric field
vector vibrates in the horizontal or vertical planes, respectively. We may also have linear
polarizations that are titled with respect to these axes, 40o, 60o, 230o and so on.

We could have more interesting scenarios. For example, the electric field may rotate from
horizontal to vertical, back to horizontal and so on. It still satisfies the perpendicularity
constraint for transverse waves. This kind of transverse wave is called circularly polarized
light by looking at the tip of the electric field that traverses a circle. Few types of polarization
are shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Diagram showing the locus of the tip of the electric field as light propagates in
the z direction. (a) horizontal, (b) vertical, (c) left circularly polarized and (d) right
circularly polarized light is shown.

Polarizer
A transverse wave can pass only through a slit which is parallel to the polarization of a wave.
However, this slit completely blocks the wave whose polarization is in its perpendicular
direction. This concept is illustrated in Figure 3.
The slit shown in Fig. 3 works well for a wave inside a medium such as water waves or waves
in a rope. But what about light which is a composed of oscillating electric fields?
For this purpose, a specially designed optical component is used that is called a polarizer. It is
a device whose input is light of any polarization state and output is linearly polarized light.
Underlying property of the polarizer material is anisotropy associated with transmission of
light having different linear polarization. Physical mechanisms responsible for this type of

Dr Afshan Irshad February 2020 2

phenomenon are (i) dichroism, or selective absorption; (ii) reflection; (iii) scattering. After the
linear polarizer, light will be linearly polarized parallel to the transmission axis of the
polarizer.

Figure 3: In diagram (a) a transverse wave is propagating towards a slit which is

parallel to the motion of the wave hence allowing the wave to pass through whereas in
(b) the wave gets blocked as its direction of motion is perpendicular to the slit axis.

Figure 4: Various cases in which light wave can interact with polarizer.

In the first column (a) of Figure 4, the light wave with axis Eois propagating towards polarizer
whose axis is aligned with the polarity of light wave, resulting in the maximum transmission
at the output. In the second column (b) the light wave with axis Eo is propagating towards
polarizer whose axis is perpendicular to the direction of oscillation of electric field. That
results zero output field at the transmission axis. In the last column (c), the light wave with
axis Eo is propagating towards polarizer whose axis is at certain angle to the axis of light
wave, resulting in magnitude Eo cos  emerging from the polarizer. The emergent electric
field is parallel to the optic axis of polarizer.

Malus's Law
In this experiment unpolarized light from a He-Ne laser will passes through two polarizers A
and B as shown in Figure 5. The field emerging from B is determined by the relative

Dr Afshan Irshad February 2020 3

orientations of the optical axes of A and B. The polarizer B used in this way is called an
analyzer. If the relative orientation between A and B is  , then the emergent electric field
after passing through B leads to a decrease in the amplitude by a factor of cos . The electric
field at the transmission axis will be Eo cos . In this lab, instead of measuring electric field,
intensity will be recorded.

Figure 5: Polarization of laser light can be verified using a setup verifying Malus's
principle. A and B are two polarizers, intensity of the light will be measured using a
laser power meter after the second polarizer.

The intensity of a transverse wave is proportional to the square of the electric field,
𝐼 ∝ |𝐸|2
So if Eo is the electric field of the linearly polarized wave after polarizer A, the intensity after
A will be 𝐼 = |𝐸𝑜 |2
After B, the intensity will be 𝐼 = |𝐸𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠|2 = |𝐸𝑜 |2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 2
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 2
This is known as Malus's Law. Which states that the intensity of a beam of plane-polarized
light after passing through a rotatable polarizer varies as the square of the cosine of the angle
through which the polarizer is rotated from the position that gives maximum intensity.

Quarter-Wave Plate

A waveplate or retarder is an optical device that alters the polarization state of a light wave
travelling through it. Two common types of waveplates are the half-wave plate, which shifts
the polarization direction of linearly polarized light, and the quarter-wave plate, which
converts linearly polarized light into circularly polarized light and vice versa. Waveplates are
constructed out of a birefringent material (such as quartz or mica, or even plastic), for which
the index of refraction is different for light linearly polarized along one or the other of two
certain perpendicular crystal axes. The behavior of a waveplate (that is, whether it is a half-
wave plate, a quarter-wave plate, etc.) depends on the thickness of the crystal, the wavelength

Dr Afshan Irshad February 2020 4

of light, and the variation of the index of refraction. By appropriate choice of the relationship
between these parameters, it is possible to introduce a controlled phase shift between the two
polarization components of a light wave, thereby altering its polarization.

A quarter-wave plate consists of a carefully adjusted thickness of a birefringent material such

that the light associated with the larger index of refraction is retarded by 90° in phase (a
quarter wavelength) with respect to that associated with the smaller index. The material is cut
so that the optic axis is parallel to the front and back side of the plate. Any linearly polarized
light which strikes the plate will be divided into two components with different indices of
refraction. One of the useful applications of this device is to convert linearly polarized light to
circularly polarized light and vice versa. This is done by adjusting the plane of the incident
light so that it makes 45° angle with the optic axis of plate. This gives equal amplitude o- and
e-waves. When the o-wave is slower, as in calcite, the o-wave will fall behind by 90° in
phase, producing circularly polarized light. Similarly, the incident circularly polarized light
can be changed to linearly polarized light.

Experimental Procedure
The laser which we will be using in this experiment will produce coherent beam of red color.
The output from the laser is unpolarized. In this experiment, two polarizers A and B will be
used to verify the Malus law, while in the second part of the experiment a quarter wave plate
will also be used with the polarizers.

Part-A: Verification of Malus Law

1. The polarizer A is mounted in a fixed mount and you can’t rotate its polarization axis
while the polarizer B is mounted in rotation mounts and its polarization axis can be
rotated by 360o. The rotation mount is provided with an angular scale, that keeps track
of the polarizer orientations of rotation. Be careful not to touch the surface of the
polarizer. This will scratch the surface resulting in permanent damage.
2. Turn on the laser and power meter. Measure the intensity of the light after polarizer A.
3. Now put the power meter after the second polarizer. Now start rotating the polarizer
very slowly by using the knob at the mount. Always be gentle and slow with your
movements and wait for the response of meter. Find the point where you get the
maximum intensity. now your polarizers are aligned. Note this angle. You can mark it
as  = 0.

Dr Afshan Irshad February 2020 5

 4. Now rotate your angle by 90o with respect to the previous angle to verify that you get
minimum intensity when orientation of polarization axis is perpendicular to each
other.
5. Now change angle by 5oand measure the power after 2nd polarizer. Wait for some time
to stabilize the power on meter. You will see fluctuation in the reading. Take number
of readings at every point to average out the effect of noise.
6. Repeat the step 5 until you complete the data for 360o of rotation.
7. Use the equation of Malus law to see whether your results verify the theory. calculate
the error in your results.
8. Pot the intensity obtained in step 6 as a function of angle on the radial graph. If
possible, plot the theoretical results on same graph too. What kind of trend you
observe.

Part-B: Manipulation of Polarization using Quarter Wave Plate

1. Turn on the laser and rotate polarizer B until you get minimum intensity. Now both
polarizers are at 90o angle with respect to each other.
2. Now place the quarter wave plate in between them. Like polarizer B, quarter wave
plate is also installed in a rotational mount and gives you liberty to rotate its optical
axis by 360 degrees.
3. Put the power meter after the second polarizer. Now start rotating the quarter wave
plate by using knob on the mount. You will observe that intensity start to increase on
the power meter. Note that your polarizers are still at the cross position. It shows that
you are changing the polarization after first polarizer. Rotate the quarter wave plate to
45o of angle with respect of the polarizer A. Now fix its position.
4. Start rotating the polarizer B very slowly by using the knob at the mount. Measure the
intensity after every increment of 5o. Give some time to stabilize the power meter.
Take number of readings at every point to average out the effect of fluctuations.
5. Repeat the step 5 until you complete the data for 360o of rotation.
6. Pot the intensity obtained in step 5 as a function of angle on the radial graph. Did you
achieve circular polarization or elliptical?
7. Change angle of quarter wave plate slightly and repeat all process. See what type of
trend you observe now.

Dr Afshan Irshad February 2020 6

Questions
1. Suppose a third polarizer C is placed between A and B. The relative orientation
between A and B is unchanged at the value . The inclination between A and C is β.
What relationship must the angles satisfy to ensure that IB = IA?
2. Does the sun emit polarized light?
3. Can a star emit polarized light? If yes / no, what consequences could be seen in
nature?
4. Is the light from the sky polarized?
4. A small radio receiver is placed near a radio transmitter. What is the optimum
orientation between the transmitter and the receiver that maximizes the reception?
5. At the time of dusk, the atmosphere appears somber blue but looking directly at the
sun, it has an orange or pinkish tinge. Reason why.

CAUTION: Lasers can be dangerous if mishandled or if the stated safety procedures are
not followed. Always contact the lab staff if you have any doubt. The following
precautions MUST BE OBSERVED AT ALL TIMES:
• Keep the laser turned off when not in use.
• Do not lift/move the laser around when it is on.
• Do not mount the laser at eye level.
• Do not look directly into the beam or at its reflection from a mirror or other
shiny surfaces.
• Do not direct the beam to anyone else or to an area where people are present.
This may result in serious visual impairment.
• Do not scoop down to the level of the table or bring the laser to the level of the
eye.
• Do not bend in the lab to pick the things from floor with open eyes.
• Do not wear cuff links, rings and other shiny stuff in the laser lab.

Dr Afshan Irshad February 2020 7