Early Years: An International Journal of Research and

Development

ISSN: 0957-5146 (Print) 1472-4421 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ceye20

Enhancing Transition from Early Childhood Phase

to Primary Education: Evidence from the research
literature

David Achanfuo Yeboah

To cite this article: David Achanfuo Yeboah (2002) Enhancing Transition from Early Childhood
Phase to Primary Education: Evidence from the research literature, Early Years: An International
Journal of Research and Development, 22:1, 51-68, DOI: 10.1080/09575140120111517

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/09575140120111517

Published online: 02 Jul 2010.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 4272

Citing articles: 28 View citing articles

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=ceye20
Early Years, Vol. 22, No. 1, 2002

Enhancing Transition from Early Childhood

Phase to Primary Education: evidence from
the research literature

DAVID ACHANFUO YEBOAH, Special Studies and Research Methods Unit, Sir
Arthur Lewis Institute of Social and Economic Studies, University of the West Indies,
Bridgetown, Barbados

ABSTRACT There are many levels in the educational continuum, and each time a child
moves from one level to the other transition occurs. Transition from the early childhood
phase to primary school is one of the major steps that each child has to take in the
education continuum, and has been known to be traumatic for most children. There is
also research evidence which contends that this transition to the Ž rst year of primary
school is very important for the child’s future physical, emotional and intellectual
development. This article examines the literature on transition to school, and discusses
its importance and the need to minimise its adverse effects by providing a smooth
transition for the child. The article presents the factors which impact on successful
transition from the early childhood phase to primary school.

Keywords: successful, transition, early childhood, education, school

Introduction
Generally children move from one level to the other in the education continuum in a
seemingly unabated series of transitions (transition to primary school, transition to
secondary school, transition to tertiary education, etc). Early childhood education and
primary school education are different phases in the education continuum, with distinct
differences in policies, curriculum, teaching methodologies, environment and surround-
ings, role of parents and what is expected of the children (see Fabian, 1994; Klerfelt &
Graneld, 1994). Early childhood education incorporates the formal and informal edu-
cation of children under 5 years old, i.e. the learning which occurs at home and in early
childhood centres, including generally play centres, kindergartens and pre-schools.
ISSN 0957-514 6 print/ISSN 1472-4421 online/02/010051-1 8 Ó 2002 TACTYC
DOI: 10.1080/0957514012011151 7
52 D. A. Yeboah

When a child moves from early childhood education to the primary school, transition
to school is said to occur. Transition to school, therefore, symbolises the change or shift
from early childhood education to formal education as provided in the Ž rst year of
primary school. When a child moves from the early childhood education phase to the
primary education phase without much difŽ culty, successful transition is said to occur
(see, for example, Alexander & Entwise, 1988). Successful transition has links to
readiness for school, and is said to occur if the child is emotionally, psychologically,
physically and intellectually able to settle into primary school.
A child who is ready for school (through either transition programmes in both
early childhood and primary education phases or other preparatory activities) is most
likely to experience successful transition (see Elliot & Lambert, 1985; Caughy et al.,
1994).
Children in most societies experience transition to school in one way or another, and
for those who do not receive formal early childhood education, the transition is from the
informal settings of the home to school. Even so, the notion of formally preparing
children to move from early childhood education to primary school is, by and large, a
western concept. In many developing countries in Africa, Asia, the Caribbean and the
South PaciŽ c, children start formal education at the primary school level. Many
developing countries in Africa, the Caribbean, Asia and the South PaciŽ c have some
early childhood education programmes in the form of day nurseries, kindergartens or
pre-schools. However, actual access to formal early childhood education such as
kindergartens, pre-schools etc. is limited and generally restricted to children of middle
and upper class families and to urban residents. Whether they are resident in urban or
rural localities, and regardless of the class status of their parents, all children, who enter
primary school, transit from early childhood education, either from an early childhood
institution or home (see Davis, 1995).

Importance of Successful Transition to School

The importance of a successful transition to school cannot be overemphasised. Experi-
ences during the transition may have a long-term impact on the child’s future develop-
ment and learning not only at the primary school, but also at subsequent levels of
education, if the negative or adverse effects of the transition on the child are not
addressed (see Ramey & Ramey, 1998).
There is a long list of literature which testiŽ es to the importance of successful
transition in preparing the child for primary school learning and associated acquisition
of skills in the future. For example, Davis (1995), and McGuire and Austin (1987)
alluded to the view that quality pre-schooling could improve not only young children’s
health and nutritional status, but also their mental capacity and cognitive development.
Thus, successful transition appears to be positively correlated with performance in the
Ž rst few years of primary school, if not the entire primary education phase (see also
Davis, 1995; Alexander & Entwise, 1988).
Furthermore, successful transition to school is a sure way of consolidating the child’s
early childhood education achievements and development. Writing about early childhood
education in the Caribbean, Grant (1974, p. 7) corroborated this notion by stating that
there was a general agreement and belief among educators all over the world that early
childhood education has educational value for children.
Alexander and Entwise (1988) provided a synthesis of evidence to support the position
 Transition to School 53

that the child’s achievement at primary school was a function of the extent to which the
child made a successful transition to school. Children who make a successful transition
from early childhood education to school, are most likely to enhance their performance
in the primary school. They are also likely to move quickly to grasp the processes (i.e.
the primary school way of life), teaching and learning methods, rules, regulations, and
other demands of primary school education (see also Childcare Resource and Research
Unit, 1994; Fletcher, 1997). Ramey and Ramey (1998) used the United States’ experi-
ence to demonstrate that the experiences of the transition lasted for a long time and
contributed to the future interest, development and achievement of the child.
In relation to cultural and ethnic considerations, Ete (1993) pointed out that the
inherent beneŽ ts of early childhood education included the support that early childhood
care and education provided to parents. Ete also pointed to the difference that early
childhood education made to children’s ability to learn, socialise and be receptive to the
socialisation process in the primary school. In situations where a child receives early
childhood education in a minority culture (such as the case of Maori and PaciŽ c Island
centres in New Zealand) and this practice continues in the Ž rst year of school, the
potential for the child to settle well in school is enhanced.
Parents constitute a major source of learning and information for the children when
it comes to culture and Ž rst language, as they are with the children at home and are able
to teach the children their culture at home. In addition, children perform better in the
primary school if aspects of the ethnic education they receive in early childhood is
continued in the primary school (see, for example, Smith, 1992; Glover, 1994).
Writing about the Caribbean, Davis (1995, pp. 206–207) stated:

there is convincing research evidence that early childhood intervention pro-

grammes are important not only for the essential childcare services they
provide for families, but also for the compensatory role they can play in
redressing the negative effects of poverty on millions of children born in
disadvantaged circumstances.

Early childhood and, by extension, successful transition to primary school have the
potential to assist children to make good progress in the primary school, especially
through the potential to minimise the effects of the challenges of the transition.

Purpose of the Study

The importance of transition to school presupposes a need to identify and discuss ways
of minimising the adverse effects of transition to school on the future development and
learning abilities of children. The fact that many children encounter one difŽ culty or
another when they move from early childhood education to primary school (see, for
example, Margetts, 1997) suggests a need to identify the factors which promote and
enhance a smooth transition to school. The purpose of this article is, therefore, to review
the literature to identify and discuss the diverse range of factors, which promote
successful transition to school with a view to advancing the understanding of early years
professionals.
It is interesting to note that irrespective of the region of residence (Africa, Europe, the
Caribbean, North America or Australasia), there are several universal factors which
impact on early childhood education and subsequent transition to primary school
(Marriott, 1995, p. 234).
54 D. A. Yeboah

DifŽ culties Encountered in Transition to School

Transition from early childhood education to the Ž rst year of school is one of the most
difŽ cult, uncertain, and confused stages in a child’s life, and many researchers testiŽ ed
further to the confusion, anxiety and frustration that children encountered in the
transition (see Pratt, 1985; Bartholomew & Gustafsson, 1997).
Margetts (1997) also agreed that the transition to school had been perceived as one of
the major challenges children had to face in their early childhood years. She indicated
that starting school was a time for children to cope with changes and challenges, and that
adjustment to the new situation was seen as critical to successful transition. Margetts
identiŽ ed a number of challenges including physical discontinuities, as well as disconti-
nuities in curricula, teaching staff, teaching methodologies and peer groups (see also
Elliot & Lambert, 1985; Seefeldt et al., 1997). Fabian (1994) alluded to this by stating
that the transfer from one setting to another, such as the transition to school from
pre-school settings, is a major change in a child’s life.
Edgar (1986, p. 16) summed it up as follows:
Transition from home to pre-school, from pre-school to primary school, from
primary to secondary and from school to work or from youth to adulthood are
always characterised by challenges, uncertainty and tension.
Also, Kakavoulis (1994, p. 42) wrote:
the transition from one level of education to the next puts each time new
demands for adjustment that cause critical psychological strains and con icts
in the relation between the child and the school.
Piaget (1951) suggested that children learn and adapt through the processes of
accommodation and assimilation. In the world of Piaget, equilibration in education
means that children must be allowed activities of their own, directed by materials which
permit their activities to be cognitively useful. The emphasis on learning through play
in early childhood education is consistent with these views. In contrast, primary school
education is more structured and formal.
Despite its overwhelming signiŽ cance to curriculum development and the develop-
ment of children, Piaget’s theory has been used only to a limited extent in the Caribbean
and other developing countries. According to Isaacs (1980), since attaining indepen-
dence, many Caribbean nations have found it necessary to redesign their curricula.
Clearly Piaget’s theory can be of help in this difŽ cult task, and presupposes a need for
some of the early childhood education activities (especially those initiated by the
children) to be included in primary school education at least in the Ž rst years to ensure
continuity.
In a study of New Zealand children’s perspectives on transition to school, Ledger et
al. (1998) agreed with other researchers that moving from pre-school to school was a
major transition in a child’s life (see also Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Brewer, 1995). Other
researchers, notably Glover (1994), Renwick (1984), Brewer (1995) and Stokes (1995)
have corroborated this view.
While a substantial proportion of the existing published research Ž ndings indicates
that transition to school can be difŽ cult, a few researchers have argued that the transition
from early childhood education to primary school is not so traumatic for children. Smith
et al. (1993) demonstrated that in New Zealand, early childcare experience was not
associated with adverse effects on social behaviour in school, and disagreed with the
negative effects reported by other researchers.
 Transition to School 55

TABLE 1. Transition to school variables framework

1. Learning in different settings

a. Theories and paradigms
b. Policies in early childhoo d educatio n
c. Policies in primary school, especiall y year 1
d. Early childhoo d and school practices
e. Role of the governmen t
2. Factors associate d with the school
f. Readiness for school including transition programmes and post-transitio n support
g. Information sharing between early childhood and primary institutions
h. Continuity
i. School culture and teaching methods
j. Peers
3. Factors associate d with the home
k. Parental involvemen t and collaboratio n between the school and home
l. Socio-economi c status and family background
4. Factors associate d with ethnicity, culture and language
m. Ethnicity
n. Culture and language
o. Migrant children ’s special needs
5. Factors associate d with children ’s personal characteristic s
p. Children with special needs
q. Views of children
r. Age and other factors

This disagreement among researchers and the vast amount of research evidence
supporting the belief that the transition is generally difŽ cult for children mean that the
factors promoting or enhancing smooth and successful transition must be identiŽ ed and
emphasised.

Factors Affecting Successful Transition to School

Many factors promote and enhance successful transition to school (see Renwick, 1984;
Margetts, 1997). This article groups them under the following broad headings (see
Table 1):

· learning in different settings;

· factors associated with the school;
· factors associated with the home;
· factors associated with language and culture; and
· the children’s personal factors or characteristics.

Even though the factors which impact on successful transition to school have been
grouped under various broad categories, sight should not be lost of the fact that each
factor works both individually and in conjunction with other factors to impact on the
child’s successful transition to school. The effect of each factor may vary according to
each child’s personal features.
56 D. A. Yeboah

Learning in Different Settings

A number of theories, paradigms, policies and practices in both early childhood and
primary education enhance our understanding of why transition difŽ culties occur. Pratt
(1985) examined children’s transition to school and, in particular, the demands that were
placed on children when they began formal education.
Using the concepts of development and learning, Pratt pointed out that pre-school
children were encouraged to explore and develop their potential in an environment which
was designed to promote the development of oral, intellectual, physical, emotional,
moral and social skills. These are salient features of Piaget’s theory, and similar in a
sense to Froebel’s postulations (see Mellor, 1991). These early childhood education
approaches differ from the primary school situation in the sense that early childhood
education encourages children to initiate their own learning activities through play, while
learning is more structured in the primary school with the teacher determining what the
children do and learn.
Schweinhart and Weikart (1998) assessed which of three theoretical models worked
best at pre-school by following 68 young people aged three and four. The three models
they looked at were: direct instruction, in which the teacher presented the activities and
the children participated in them; the high/scope curriculum, which involved both the
teacher and children planning and initiating activities; and, Ž nally, the traditional nursery
school approach which involved activities being initiated by the children.
Margetts (1997) expressed the view that transition programmes should be based on the
philosophy and theory that adjustment to school was easier when children were familiar
with the new situation, parents were informed about the new school and parents had
information about children’s development and previous experience.
Dahlberg and Taguchi (1994) undertook a theoretical analysis of the interaction
between pre-school and school in Sweden. Using a socio-historical and contextual
analysis of the traditions of pre-school and school, they demonstrated that those two
institutions were the result of predominant values and notions, as well as ideological,
economical, social and judicial circumstances prevailing at any one time.
According to Dahlberg and Taguchi (1994), there were two social constructs of
the child, namely the child in pre-school and the child in school. These constructs
identiŽ ed the child as ‘nature’ in the pre-school setting, and as ‘a cultural and knowledge
producer’ in the school setting. They attempted to postulate an alternate construct,
which saw the child as a ‘producer of culture and knowledge’ even in the pre-school
system.
Mellor (1991) examined the structural divisions between pre-school and primary
school education in Australia, and how this division re ected major differences in aims,
philosophy and pedagogy. According to Mellor, prior to the 1970s there were historic
pedagogical and philosophical differences between pre-school and primary education.
Kindergartens encouraged a general acceptance of Froebelian philosophy and theory,
while Froebel’s belief that play was the main vehicle for a child’s development became
the mainstay of pre-school methodology. Mellor (1991) noted further that the kinder-
garten movement deplored what it considered to be the compromise of Froebelian
principles in primary schools.
However, Miller (1985) indicated for the Commonwealth Caribbean that interactions,
instructions, and programmes for special needs children needed to be tailored to the
needs and characteristics of each child. In other words, instructions, programmes and
interaction should be individualised to achieve successful transition.
 Transition to School 57

Kagan (1994), Ramey and Ramey (1998), and Sameroff and McDonough (1994)
provided a synthesis of evidence, which showed that the new paradigms portrayed
transition to school as multilevel, multiyear and amenable to empirical interdisciplinary
perspectives. There is also considerable research evidence to support the position that
cognitive functioning at pre-school predicts success in primary school (see Hess et al.,
1984; Tizard et al., 1988; Ladd, 1990). This means that a child who develops adequate
cognitive functioning in early childhood education is most likely to achieve successful
transition.
It is essential for teachers and other educational practitioners to consider these
theories, paradigms, hypotheses and approaches in order to facilitate a successful
transition from early childhood education to school.

Policies
Policies developed and implemented in both early childhood education and primary
school may exert a tremendous impact on the child’s transition to school.
Institutions and professional staff should develop and implement policies which deŽ ne
clearly what is expected of the children in both phases of education long before children
move to primary school (see Seefeldt et al., 1997). This has the good potential to ease
the difŽ culties associated with transition to school.
Pratt (1985) proposed a gradual transition of children from pre-school to school, and
both early childhood education and primary schools can develop policies to achieve this
suggested objective. Seefeldt et al. (1997) afŽ rmed that it is usual practice for educators
to develop policies, regulations and rules which together serve to impose their ideas,
beliefs and values on the children. Educators do not base their educational plans, policies
and programmes on what children already know, understand and expect and this,
according to Seefeldt et al. (1997), affects children’s transition to school.
The lesson is, therefore, clear. For successful transition to occur, consideration should
be given to including the previous knowledge, understandings and expectations of the
children involved in programme and policy development.

Practices
Pratt (1985) noted further that, as children were introduced to formal education, more
attention should be given to the processes involved (i.e. what formal education entails),
including explicit discussion of the processes with the children. Pratt provided testimony
to suggest that children made signiŽ cant gains from explicit discussion of language and
thought.
Wolbers (1997, p. 31) reviewed the literature on the implications of school practices
for early intervention teams assisting New Zealand West Coast families’ transition to
school, and identiŽ ed the following key features of successful transition:

· supporting and empowering the family as equal partners in the transition process
(Family Focused Model);
· holistic focus of transition with emphasis on the child’s needs in relation to the family,
early childhood centre, community and school (Ecological Context);
· promoting the rapid adjustment of the child and family to school by ensuring
appropriate services are provided (Transition Planning);
58 D. A. Yeboah

· information sharing early in the transition process regarding the new placement
(Placement);
· staff training in the awareness of attitudes may lead to enhancement of the child’s
successful participation in school (Attitudes);
· collaboration among all those who are involved in the child’s education (Collaborate
Approach);
· increasing all participants’ satisfaction with the transition process, their participation
in transitional planning and the results of the transition process (Evaluating the
outcome).

For children to proceed successfully from early childhood education to primary school,
they must comprehend the primary school culture and teaching methods, which are by
and large different from what they were used to in early childhood education (see
Klerfelt & Graneld, 1994). Klerfelt and Graneld explained that if the learning approach
in the school was totally different from the child’s pre-school experience, the child
withdrew from full participation in class activities. Children who withdraw in this way
usually encounter difŽ culties in adapting to school life.
Teachers in both pre-school and primary school have a signiŽ cant potential to
in uence the outcome of the transition, as they implement the teaching methodologies,
procedures, rules and regulations. There is some evidence in the literature to suggest a
need to equip teachers with the necessary tools to facilitate a smooth transition for the
children (see, for example, Briggs & Potter, 1990).

Evaluation
There is increasing support in the literature for the evaluation of early childhood and
primary school programmes, policies and practices. Evaluation is necessary to assess the
effectiveness and efŽ ciency of transition programmes, policies and practices, and to
establish best practice. Beamish (1995) noted that best practice evaluations were recent,
and that they could actively contribute to the quality and improvements in early
intervention. While supporting the need for best practice evaluations, Jephson (1992)
pointed out that the greatest constraint to programme evaluation was the lack of
appropriate methods and measurements, even though lack of time, resources and training
were also important.
The lack of evaluation skills in schools and early childhood centres should not serve
as a hindrance to the evaluation of programmes, policies and practices. Schools can
always contract out evaluation studies to professional evaluators, and should consider
setting aside some money in their budgets for that purpose.

Role of the Government

The role of governments in transition to school has not been given adequate attention in
the literature. However, the fact still stands that an effective government role has the
potential to impact on the policies and practices in early childhood and primary
education, and subsequently transition to school. Unfortunately, unlike governments in
more developed countries such as Australia, Britain and the United States, governments
in developing countries do not develop adequate early childhood education and transition
policies.
 Transition to School 59

The available literature on the role of the government tends to focus on policy and
resourcing issues, especially the provision of adequate funding for early childhood
intervention initiatives (see Mellor, 1991). The government ’s contribution to smooth and
successful transition to school can take various forms, including

· the provision of adequate resources (funding, material and human resources);

· the development and delivery of high quality policies and programmes;
· ensuring the provision of culturally and linguistically appropriate programmes and
policies; and
· ensuring a robust monitoring and evaluation of programmes and policies.

In addition, governments everywhere have responsibility for the formulation, develop-

ment and implementation of early childhood and primary school legislation. In relation
to the Caribbean, Davis (1995, p. 222) noted that
regional governments have demonstrated a laissez faire approach to legislating
minimum standards for early childhood programmes (see also Marriott, 1995,
p. 228).
Duncan (1993, p. 83) identiŽ ed the role of the government as to

· fund early childhood education;

· guarantee universal access to quality early childhood education;
· ensure a high quality of early childhood education;
· establish adequate health and safety standards; and
· enable national planning and co-ordination across services.

From the above citations, it appears logical that governments can in uence the outcome
of transition to school through the provision of funding, development and implemen-
tation of policies, guidelines, legislation and national planning and co-ordination of
transition programmes. Besides, in countries where early childhood education is not well
developed, the government has a responsibility to undertake major initiatives to expand
early childhood education. The government can also contribute to successful transition
to school by assisting teachers (especially primary school teachers) to acquire further
training and skills in easing transition difŽ culties for children and parents.

Factors Associated with the School

Many factors associated with both early childhood education and primary school impact
on successful transition to school. These include the children’s readiness for school,
sharing of information between the school and early childhood education, continuity,
school culture and teaching methods, peer relationships, and differences in curricula,
rules and regulations between the two levels of education.

Readiness for School

There is no shortage of evidence from the previous research literature to support the
importance of readiness for school in successful transition (see Childcare Resource and
Research Unit, 1994; Caughy et al., 1994; Bjorklund, 1988). Elliot and Lambert (1985)
postulated that children who were not well prepared for this transition encountered
difŽ culties in settling into school. They acknowledged also that well prepared children
60 D. A. Yeboah

who knew what to expect were most likely to have more conŽ dence and be happy at
school.
Readiness for school is said to occur when children are in a position to participate
fully in school life. It is the combined result of having in place processes, policies and
activities which allow children to settle into school life, as well as the preparation
children receive prior to entering primary school.
Other research on the child’s readiness for school proposed that the child’s main
responsibility on entering school is to learn to adapt to school life (Blenkin, 1992; Peters,
1998), or to become aware of the demands of school life (Jackson, 1987). The standpoint
taken in this article is that the average child’s ability to learn to adapt quickly to the new
school environment is essentially a function of his or her readiness for school.
While many of the previous research Ž ndings supported the need for the child to be
ready for primary school, Bradby (1995) provided contrasting evidence to support the
position that the school should be ready for the child, not vice versa.

Information Sharing between Early Childhood and Primary Institutions

There is an ongoing debate in the published research literature on the usefulness of early
childhood and primary institutions sharing information on children. Blyth and Wallace
(1988) pointed out that, while written records and their transfer were vital to the
children’s development, nursery head teachers and primary school teachers had different
views about record keeping and what should be transferred. Wallace (1985) indicated
that primary teachers perceived little value in transferring records except where a child
with special needs was involved.
Primary school teachers prefer to make up their own minds about the child’s
achievement (see also Kagan, 1994; Peters, 1998). In an earlier study, Cleave et al.
(1982) found that most primary school teachers did not use information passed on by
nursery staff. Blyth and Wallace (1988) reported overwhelming support among nursery
head teachers for written records to be kept and transferred to primary schools, albeit that
there is also contrasting evidence that few nurseries actually pass on written records
(Lomax, 1977; Moore & Sylvia, 1984).
Hurst and Lally (1992), Kagan (1994) and Peters (1998) supported information
sharing and asserted that children came to school with much prior learning experience
and that, in order to build on this foundation, school teachers needed to Ž nd out more
about children’s interests, ideas, abilities and experiences. In addition, Peters concurred
with Meisels’ (1992) suggestion that it was essential to focus on a child’s current skill
accomplishments, knowledge and life experiences, and follow them up with the teaching
and learning of new concepts.
Information sharing will enhance and ease transition to school, and a need, therefore,
exists to tackle and dismantle the organisational divisions which prevent the sharing of
information between early childhood education professionals and primary school profes-
sionals.

Continuity
The lack of continuity from early childhood education to primary school adversely
affects the child’s successful transition to school. Curtis (1986) identiŽ ed four areas
where children experienced a lack of continuity and distress in their transition to school.
These are: changes in the physical environment; differences in classroom organisation in
 Transition to School 61

the two environments; discontinuities in curriculum content; and differing ideologies of

the pre-school and primary school educators [see also Marriott (1995) for Trinidad and
Tobago, and Ledger et al. (1998) for New Zealand]. There is no doubt that reducing the
impact of these changes would serve as a catalyst for successful transition to school.
Ledger et al. (1998) argued that a lack of continuity between pre-school and school
occurred because of differences in teaching styles, philosophy and structure of the two
levels of education. Richardson (1997, p. 19) and Pinkerton (1991) supported the need
to avoid sudden changes during the transition with Pinkerton adding that early childhood
teachers should implement a programme to enable the child to acquire the skills they will
need in primary school prior to the transition.

Peers
Children tend to relate better to familiar situations and surroundings, and this is even
more evident during transition to school. There is growing theoretical and empirical
research evidence, which demonstrates that successful transition to school is enhanced
when children move to the same school as some of their early childhood education peers
(see for example, Childcare Resource and Research Unit, 1994).
Elliot (1998) also reported that the chances of securing successful transition improved
where the children knew some other children at the school, including siblings or close
friends. Similarly, Merritt and Dyson (1992, p. 99 cited in Peters, 1998) suggested that
the ease or discomfort of settling into school was affected by the child’s relationship with
other people, including parents, teachers and friends.

Factors Associated with the Home

Many factors associated with the child’s home affect transition to school. These include
the role of parents and collaboration between the school and home, sharing of infor-
mation between home and school, the socio-economic background of the child, language
spoken at home, and the child’s ethnic or cultural backgrounds.

Parents’ Involvement
The support and involvement of parents and families are vital to successful transition to
school, especially to optimise the child’s gains from early childhood education (Wolbers,
1997). Watson (1979, p. 178) wrote:
The child’s acquisition of general competence is continuous with his experi-
ence in the environment. As he responds to environmental demands to adapt,
he acquires the general capacity to do and to be. The childhood environment
is perceived in two main dimensions: the environment of the school, and the
home and community environment.
As noted by Ete (1993) and McNaughton et al. (1996), the impact of the role of
parents and the collaboration between the school and home transcends cultural and
linguistic boundaries. It also works in the same direction in both developing and
developed countries (see also Parr et al., 1993; Glover, 1994). Stubbs (1988) highlighted
four factors including parental involvement, which contributed to the child’s learning and
development in Australia, namely:
· the language used by staff with the children;
62 D. A. Yeboah

· disciplinary and classroom management;

· the curriculum and programme; and
· the integration of parents into the programme at all levels.
Children who, through their parents’ assistance, are able to build conŽ dence and adapt
quickly to the school environment, maintain self-esteem and self-reliance. They also
develop positive attitudes in school and at home and achieve successful transition from
early childhood education to primary school. Pinkerton (1991) has gone further and
alluded to the need for parents to be seen as teachers, partners, decision-makers, and/or
advocates.
Bronfenbrenner (1979), Balaban (1985) and Edgar (1986) postulated that best results
were achieved where parents, teachers and children worked as equal partners in the
transition to school. In contrast, Katz (1984) and Lareau (1989) drew attention to
inherent problems when teachers worked with parents and the need to separate the roles
of parents and teachers.
Other researchers pointed out that teachers’ understanding of the children’s home
background could facilitate communication and learning and subsequently transition to
school [Renwick (1984) and Peters (1998) for New Zealand; and Marriot (1995) for
Trinidad and Tobago]. Thus, the body of evidence from previous research continues to
emphasise the importance of family or parental involvement in achieving a smooth
transition to school.

Socio-economic Status
There are linkages between the socio-economic status of the child’s family and
successful transition to school, as evident from the long list of supporting literature (see,
for example, Kontos et al., 1997; Elliot, 1998). Anandalakshmi (1975) concurred with
this view by stating that there was abundant research evidence to show that disadvan-
taged children exhibited difŽ culties in learning.
Indeed, socio-economic disadvantage is one of the major reasons for the higher rate
of wastage and stagnation in rural, tribal and urban poverty areas and among children
from disadvantaged communities (Yeboah, 2000). While this is true in both developed
and developing countries, it is more so in developing countries where the proportion of
the population living in rural areas is large.
Transition to school is more difŽ cult for rural children who are usually not adequately
provided for. This is not necessarily due to poor socio-economic background of rural
children (some rural children have high socio-economic backgrounds). The point is that
most rural early childhood and primary institutions may not have as adequate amenities
and teaching and other resource personnel as their counterparts in urban areas, and this
impacts on transition to school.
Edgar (1986) explained that each new entrant to school came with a unique family
background in terms of resources, experiences, competencies and expectations. He stated
further that families with little or no money would have difŽ culty providing adequately
for their children. In line with Schweinhart and Weikart (1998), it may appear logical to
argue generally that children from high socio-economic background homes are most
likely to be well provided for and thus most likely to experience successful transition to
school.
However, it must also be pointed out that, despite the potential effects of poverty on
successful transition, in some cases the problem is not so much the poverty of the
children’s home background as the mismatch between home and school cultures.
 Transition to School 63

Ethnicity, Culture and Language

There is some evidence in the literature to suggest that the extent to which transition to
school is successful varies by ethnicity. For example, Kontos et al. (1997) noted some
differences regarding children’s ethnicity, and whether English was their Ž rst language.
Transition difŽ culties are minimised if the children receive early childhood education
from providers of their own ethnic group, and if some aspects of this ethnic education
continues into the Ž rst years of school [see, for example, Smith (1992) for New Zealand,
and Glover (1994) for Australia].
The role of ethnicity, culture and language Ž ts in well with the Ž ndings and
postulations of Pratt (1985), Dahlberg and Taguchi (1994) and Margetts (1997). Ethnic
language is essential for achieving Pratt’s oral skills. Ethnicity and culture are inter-
twined with Dahlberg and Taguchi’s predominant values and notions and prevailing
social circumstance which impact on transition to school. In addition, culture, ethnicity
and language Ž t into Margetts (1997) postulation that adjustment to school is easier
when children are familiar with the new school situation. When children receive early
childhood education from providers of similar culture and that practice is continued in
the early years of primary school, they have a better chance of settling successfully (see
also Glover, 1994).
The growing importance of culture and the language used as the medium of
instruction in early childhood education is well noted in the literature. Hall (1985) for
the Caribbean, Ete (1993) for PaciŽ c Islands, Ka’ai (1990) and Duncan (1993) for New
Zealand, Margetts (1997) and Glover (1994) for Australia, DeStefano et al. (1992) and
Division of Early Childhood (1993) for the United States all demonstrated the signiŽ cant
role of language and culture in successful transition to school. The acquisition of
language skills (including hearing and understanding) is essential for the child’s learning,
adaptation and development (Hall, 1985, p. 264).
Duncan (1993) stated that Te Kohanga Reo (Maori early childhood education)
provided explicit evidence that culture was a signiŽ cant part of early childhood
education in New Zealand. This is due to New Zealand’s very mixed population,
comprising indigenous New Zealand Maori, Cook Island Maori, PaciŽ c Island children,
other migrants from non-English speaking backgrounds and the Anglo-Celtic population.
Each of the non Anglo-Celtic groups prefers to educate their children in their own
culture, and actually insists on sending their children to early childhood centres based on
their culture (see, for example, Ete, 1993; Sauvau, 1998). In New Zealand, some parents
send children from minority cultures to non-mainstream centres as a matter of parental
preference to perpetuate their culture and language, as explained by Ete (1993).
In addition, Margetts (1997) showed that language impacted signiŽ cantly on the way
children adjusted to school while Sauvau (1998) found a less satisfactory transition
where children moved to schools without continuity in language and curricula, and vice
versa (see also Morgan, 1993).

Children’s Personal Characteristics

A number of factors, which are personal to each individual child, can affect transition
to school. These include the special needs of the child, age, ethnic background (discussed
previously), disability, social skills and their ability to make and maintain friends (see
Miller, 1985; Hall, 1985). Ethnicity here refers to the ethnic background of the child and
his or her parents, i.e. the cultural practices of the child and his or her family.
64 D. A. Yeboah

Children with Special Needs

If children are to achieve a successful transition to school, their special needs should be
considered in the design and implementation of transition programmes and arrangements
in both early childhood and school settings. Children with special needs are most likely
to experience transition difŽ culties if facilities established to enhance their early
childhood education disappear without adequate alternatives in primary school.
The point is that many countries have special early childhood programmes for
disabled or special needs children. These programmes tend to disappear in the primary
school where most special needs children receive main-stream education, and this
impacts on their successful transition to school. In some cases, special facilities to assist
special needs children (such as the hearing impaired or slow learners) are not available
in the primary school, with implications for transition to school (see, for example, Hall,
1985; Payne, 1985; Bentley-Williams & ButterŽ eld, 1995; Brewer, 1995).
Brewer (1995) and Bentley-Williams and ButterŽ eld (1995) discussed the transition
experience of children with disabilities and their families, focusing on parents’ percep-
tions of problems in the transition to school. Brewer argued that the theoretic shift in
perspective towards a family centred philosophy was a major consideration when it came
to planning transition for families of special needs children.
Wartmann and Kindergarten (1997) provided empirical evidence on transition to
school of special needs children and indicated that the relationship between parents and
professionals was important for a successful transition. They identiŽ ed a number of
attributes for a successful transition including

· the development of individualised, timely, systematic and collaborative planning

which involved all those working with the child;
· support for families to be actively involved in their child’s transition and to have an
equal partnership with professionals;
· the need for kindergarten and primary school to work together to prepare and educate
the child for integration into mainstream education; and
· provision of services which promote and support the child in the school setting.

For a successful transition to occur, teachers and school staff of children with special
needs must be supportive and improve their knowledge of and attitudes towards those
children.

Children’s Views, Age and Other Factors

Exploring the perceptions of children, Green (1997) identiŽ ed a number of expectations,
understandings and their implications for transition programmes. Green pointed to
children’s limited knowledge and understanding of the role of teachers and the teaching
process, and encouraged parents and school professionals to consider the views of
children to ensure successful transition to school.
Many researchers have noted that successful transition to school depends, to a large
extent, on the individual cognitive and social development and self-esteem and
conŽ dence of each child (see, for example, Elliot, 1998). In terms of linkages between
age and successful transition to school, the research evidence is inconclusive (Richard-
son, 1997).
 Transition to School 65

Summary
Adequate evidence exists in the research literature to support the argument that transition
from early childhood education to primary school can be difŽ cult for some children.
Even so, a few authors found no formal administration and professional links between
early childhood services and Ž rst year of primary school (see, for example, Smith, 1992).
From the review of the existing research literature, this article identiŽ es a number of
factors which promote successful transition to school (see Table 1). It is evident from
this literature review that the following principles are essential prerequisites for smooth
and successful transition to school.
1. The acknowledgement of the importance of transition from early childhood to
primary education is essential for successful transition.
2. Early childhood and primary school policies must support smooth transition to
school, by mutually complementing what happens at each phase to ensure successful
transition.
3. Transition from early childhood to primary school is likely to succeed if children are
gradually introduced to new school processes when they transfer to primary school.
4. Consideration could be given to the inclusion of the needs of children during
transition in the primary school’s management and general practices.
5. Children must be prepared for school, through the inclusion of transition pro-
grammes in early childhood and Ž rst year of primary school.
6. Ongoing post-transition support would be helpful in achieving successful transition.
7. Sharing of information about the children’s progress between early childhood and
primary school teachers and parents could assist with successful transition.
8. Some degree of continuity in children’s education in terms of continuing some of
the early childhood education practices in primary school is necessary for successful
transition.
9. It is essential for primary school education to consolidate the gains children make
in early childhood education.
10. The school culture and teaching methods could gradually move from the ‘known to
the unknown ’, from what the children know to what they are required to know in
primary school.
11. Transition is likely to be smooth if the children have siblings or friends in the school
during the transition.
12. Parental involvement would enhance successful transition.
13. Collaboration between the institutions and home enhances successful transition.
14. The socio-economic background of the children makes an impact on successful
transition, and should be given due consideration.
15. Variations in the transition experiences of ethnic minority children could be included
in plans, programmes and policies.
16. Culture and language play signiŽ cant roles in ensuring successful transition.
17. The special needs of migrant children must be acknowledged in programme and
policy development.
18. Due acknowledgement of the fact that each child is different and has personal needs
promotes successful transition.
19. Early childhood and primary school professionals could consider the children’s
views.
20. A requirement to monitor and evaluate early childhood and primary school pro-
grammes, policies and practices in relation to transition to school is helpful in
66 D. A. Yeboah

identifying areas for improvement and establishing if objectives of the programmes

have been achieved.

REFERENCES
Alexander, K. L. & Entwise, D. R. (1988) Achievement in the Ž rst 2 years of school: patterns and
processes, Monograph s of the Society for Research in Child Development, 55 (2).
Anandalakshmi , S. (1975) Language Development in the Pre-school Child. Paper presente d at the XI
Annual Conference of Indian Association for Primary Education, Ajmer.
Balaban, N. (1985) Starting School: from separatio n to independenc e (New York, Teachers College
Press).
Bartholomew , L. & Gustafsson, U. (1997) Transition from nursery to primary school: conduciv e to
education? The story of O, Internationa l Journal of Early Childhood, 29 (2), pp. 1–7.
Beamish, W. (1995) Why Practitioner s and Parents Need to Have Their Say: a Queensland research
project into best practice. Paper presented at the Australian Early Interventio n Association Conference
(NSW Chapter).
Bentley-Williams , R. & ButterŽ eld, N. (1995) Transition to School—In uences of Society on the
Feelings and Concerns of Parents. Paper presente d to the 12th State Conference of the Australian
Early Interventio n Association, Hunter Valley.
Bjorklund, D. B. (1988) Is your child ready for school, Parent, June, pp. 110–116.
Blenkin, G. (1992) Progression, observatio n and assessment in early childhood : the context, in: G.
Blenkin & A. V. Kelly (Eds) Assessment in Early Childhood Education (London, Paul Chapman),
pp. 24–45.
Blyth, C. A. & Wallace, F. M. S. (1988) An investigatio n into the difŽ culties of transferrin g written
records from the nursery to the primary school, Educationa l Research, 30 (3), pp. 219–223.
Bradby, J. (1995) Transition and Why it Matters at Pleasant Street. Paper presente d at the Early Years
of Schooling Conference , Victoria, Australia.
Brewer, L. (1995) Families Talking: what can they tell us about best practice in the transitio n to school.
Paper presente d at the Conference of the Australian Early Interventio n Association (NSW Chapter).
Briggs, F. & Potter, G. K. (1990) Teaching Children in the First Three Years of School (Sydney,
Longman).
Bronfenbrenner , U. (1979) The Ecology of Human Development (Cambridge, Harvard University Press).
Caughy, M., DiPietro, J. & Strobino, D. (1994) Daycare participatio n as a protective factor in the
cognitive developmen t of low-incom e children, Child Development, 65, pp. 457–471.
Childcare Resource and Research Unit (1994) The Great Childcare Debate (Toronto, University of
Toronto).
Cleave, S., Jowett, S. & Bate, M. (1982) And to School: a study of continuit y from pre-school to infant
school (Windsor, NFER-Nelson).
Curtis, A. M. (1986) A Curriculum for the Pre-school Child: learning to learn (Windsor, NFER-Nelson).
Dahlberg, G. & Taguchi, H. L. (1994) Pre-school and School: the encounter of two different tradition s
and a vision of a possible setting of a fruitful and creative interaction. Paper presented at Settings in
Interaction : 4th Annual Conference on the Quality of Early Childhood Education, Goteburg, Sweden.
Davis, R. (1995) Early childhoo d care and education in the Caribbean: an overview of issues and
concerns, Caribbean Journal of Education, 17 (2), pp. 206–226.
De Stefano, L., Maude, S. P., Crews, S. H. & Mabry, L. (1992) Using qualitative evaluatio n methods to
identify exemplary practices in early childhoo d education , Early Education and Development, 3,
pp. 173–187.
Division for Early Childhood (1993) DEC Recommended Practices: indicator s of quality in programmes
for infants and young children with special needs and their families (Pittsburgh , Division for Early
Childhood).
Duncan, H. (1993) What is government ’s role in early childhoo d education? , in: V. Podmore (Ed.)
Papers Presented at the 1993 NZCER Invitationa l Seminar on Early Childhood Education (Welling-
ton, New Zealand Council for Educationa l Research), pp. 82–89.
Edgar, D. (1986) Family backgroun d and the transition to school, Primary Education, July–August.
Elliot, A. (1998) From childcare to school: experience and perception s of children and their families,
Australian Journal of Early Childhood, 23 (3), pp. 27–32.
Elliot, A. & Lambert, B. (1985) Transition to School (Australian Early Childhood Association Inc.
Monograph No 5, October).
 Transition to School 67

Ete, F. P. (1993) The role of the church and governmen t in promoting early childhoo d educatio n in
Aotearoa, in: V. Podmore (Ed.) Papers Presented at the NZCER Invitationa l Seminar on Early
Childhood Education (Wellington, New Zealand Council for Education Research), pp. 90–97.
Fabian, H. (1994) The Transition from One Setting to Another: from pre-schoo l to school. Paper
presente d at Settings in Interaction : 4th Annual Conference on the Quality of Early Childhood
Education, Goteburg, Sweden.
Fletcher, J. (1997) Connect Redfern, in: Evaluating School Community Linked Services : politics,
problem s and possibilitie s (Sydney, Australian Centre for Equity through Education) , pp. 39–42.
Glover, A. (1994) Moving into the system: early childhoo d programmes as a bridge to school for
Aboriginal communities, The Aboriginal Child at School, 22 (1), pp. 12–21.
Grant, D. R. B. (1974) Early childhoo d educatio n in the Caribbean, Caribbean Journal of Education, 1,
pp. 7–11.
Green, R. (1997) I Will Be Drawing Around a Potato: what going to school means to a group of young
children in Adelaide in the 1990s (Adelaide, University of South Australia).
Hall, W. M. (1985) Fostering communication strategie s in children with hearing impairment, Caribbean
Journal of Education, 12 (3), pp. 264–273.
Hess, R. D., Holloway, S. D., Dickson, W. P. & Price, G. L. (1984) Material variables as predictor s of
children ’s school reading and later achievemen t in vocabulary and mathematics in 6th grade, Child
Development, 59, pp. 259–285.
Hurst, V. & Lally, M. (1992) Assessment and the nursery curriculum , in: G. Blenkin & A. V. Kelly (Eds)
Assessment in Early Childhood Education (London, Paul Chapman), pp. 24–45.
Isaacs, P. (1980) Piaget’s theory and the Caribbean, Caribbean Journal of Education, 7 (2), pp. 110–130.
Jackson, M. (1987) Making sense of school, in: A. Pollard (Ed.) Children and their Primary Schools:
a new perspective (New York, The Falmer Press), pp. 74–87.
Jephson, M. B. (1992) The purposes , importance, and feasibilit y of programme evaluatio n in community
based early interventio n programmes, Journal of Early Interventio n, 16, pp. 252–261.
Ka’ai, T. (1990) Te Hiringa Taketake: Mai, Te Kohanga Reo ki te kura (Maori Pedagogy: Te Kohanga
Reo and the transition to school), Mphil thesis, University of Auckland.
Kagan, S. L. (1994) Early care and education: beyond the Ž shbowl, Phi Delta Kappa, 76 (3),
pp. 184–187.
Kakavoulis, A. K. (1994) Continuity in early childhoo d education : transition from pre-school to school,
Internationa l Journal of Early Years Education, 2 (1), pp. 41–51.
Katz, L. G. (1984) Contemporary perspective s on the role of mothers and teachers , in: L. G. Katz (Ed.)
More Talks with Teachers (Urbana, IL, ERIC Clearing House), pp. 1–27.
Klerfelt, A. & Graneld, P. W. (1994) Children Encounter School. Paper presente d at Settings
in Interaction : 4th Annual Conference on the Quality of Early Childhood Education, Goteburg,
Sweden.
Kontos, S., Howes, C., Shinn, M. & Galinsky, E. (1997) Children ’s experience s in family childcare and
relative care as a function of family income and ethnicity, Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 43 (3),
pp. 386–403.
Ladd, G. W. (1990) Having friends, keeping friends, making friends and being liked by peers in the
classroom: predictor s of children early school adjustment? , Child Development, 61, pp. 1081–1100.
Lareau, A. (1989) Home Advantage (London, The Falmer Press).
Ledger, E., Smith, A. & Rich, P. (1998) Do I go to school to get a brain? The transition from
kindergarte n to school from the child’s perspectives , Childrenz Issues, 2 (1), pp. 7–11.
Lomax, C. M. (1977) Record keeping in nursery school, a two-year study, Educationa l Research, 19,
pp. 192–198.
Margetts, K. (1997) Factors impacting on children ’s adjustment to the Ž rst year of life, Early Childhood
Folio, 3.
Marriott, S. (1995) Quality childcare in Trinidad and Tobago, Caribbean Journal of Education, 17 (2),
pp. 227–247.
McGuire, J. & Austin, J. (1987) Beyond survival: children’s growth for national development , Assign-
ment Children, 2, pp. 1–52.
McNaughton, S., Wolfgramm, E. & Afeaki, V. (1996) Reading Strategie s for Tongan Pre-schooler s.
Paper prepared for the Ministry of Education, Wellington.
Meisels, S. J. (1992) Doing harm by doing good: iatrogeni c effects of early childhoo d enrolment and
promotion policies, Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 7, pp. 155–174.
68 D. A. Yeboah

Mellor, E. (1991) Improving the transition from pre-schoo l to primary school: a matter of principle s as
well as practice, UNICORN, 17 (4), pp. 216–220.
Merritt, S. & Dyson, A. H. (1992) A social perspectiv e on informal assessment , in: C. Genishi (Ed.)
Ways of Assessing Children and Curriculum: stories of early childhoo d practice (New York, Teachers
Press), pp. 94–125.
Miller, E. (1985) Special education in the Commonwealth Caribbean, Caribbean Journal of Education,
12 (3), pp. 274–282.
Moore, E. & Sylvia, K. (1984) A survey of under-Ž ves record keeping in Great Britain, Educational
Research, 26, pp. 115–120.
Morgan, P. (1993) Anau Ako PasiŽ ca, in: H. May & J. Mitchell (Eds) A Celebration of Early Childhood
(Hamilton, University of Waikato), pp. 23–32.
Parr, J., McNaughton, S., Timperley, H. & Robinson, V. (1993) Bridging the gap: practices of
collaboratio n between home and the junior school, Australian Journal of Early Childhood, 18 (3),
pp. 35–42.
Payne, M. A. (1985) Eastern Caribbean teacher trainees’ knowledge of mentally retarded children and
opinions regardin g their education, Caribbean Journal of Education, 12 (3), pp. 248–263.
Peters, S. (1998) Assessment and Reporting within the Context of the Transition to School. Paper
presente d at the New Zealand Association for Research in Education Conference, Dunedin, 1998.
Piaget, J. (1951) Play, Dreams and Imitation in Childhood (New York, W W Norton and Co, Inc).
Pinkerton, D. (1991) Preparing Children with Disabilities for School (Reston, ERIC Clearinghous e on
Handicapped and Gifted Children).
Pratt, C. (1985) The transition to school: a shift from developmen t to learning, Australian Journal of
Early Childhood, 10 (1), pp. 11–17.
Ramey, S. L. & Ramey, C. T. (1998) The transition to school: opportunitie s and challenge s for children,
families, educators , and communities, The Elementary School Journal, 98 (4), pp. 293–295.
Renwick, M. (1984) To School at Five: the transition from home or pre-schoo l to school (Wellington,
New Zealand Council for Educationa l Research).
Richardson, L. (1997) Review of transition from home to school, Australian Journal of Early Childhood,
22, pp. 18–22.
Sameroff, A. & McDonough, S. C. (1994) Educationa l implications of developmen t transitions . Revisit-
ing the 5 to 7-year shift, Phi Delta Kappa, 76 (3), pp. 188–193.
Sauvau L. M. F. (1998) Transition to School from Aoga Amata: a case study in the Wellington Region.
Paper prepared for the NZCER research group meeting.
Schweinhart, L. J. & Weikart, D. P. (1998) Why curriculu m matters in early childhood education ,
Educationa l Leadership, 55 (6), pp. 57–60.
Seefeldt, C., Galper, A. & Denton, K. (1997) Head Start children ’s conceptio n of and expectation s for
their future schooling , Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 12, pp. 387–406.
Smith, A. B., Inder, P. M. & Ratcliff, B. (1993) Relationships between early childhoo d centre experienc e
and social behaviou r at school, New Zealand Journal of Educationa l Studies, 28 (1), pp. 13–28.
Smith, G. H. (1992) Tane Nui A Rangi’s Legacy: propping up the sky. Paper presente d at the Australian
Association for Research in Education/New Zealand Association for Research in Education Joint
Conference , Geelong, Deakin University.
Stokes, J. (1995) Transition to School: case study. A dissertatio n for the diploma in early intervention ,
Auckland College of Teacher Education.
Stubbs, E. (1988) Continuity: a working model, Australian Journal of Early Childhood, 13 (3).
Tizard, B., Blatchford, P., Burke, F., Farquhar, C. & Plewis, (1988) Young Children at School in the
Inner City (Hore, Lawrence Erlbaum).
Wallace, F. M. S. (1985) The Aims of Nursery Education as Perceived by Head Teachers of Nursery
Schools and Teachers with Posts of Responsibilit y for Reception Children in Large Primary Schools.
Unpublishe d M.Ed. dissertation , University of Birmingham.
Wartmann, S. & Kindergarten , N. L. (1997) Building Blocks and Barriers: the transitio n from
kindergarte n to school for children with special needs. Research report, University of Canterbury .
Watson, E. M. (1979) The non-school environment and children’s creativity , Caribbean Journal of
Education, 6 (3), pp. 178–196.
Wolbers, J. (1997) Implications for Early Interventio n Teams Assisting West Coast Families Transition
to School. A dissertatio n submitted to the Auckland College of Education.
Yeboah, D. A. (2000) Urbanisatio n in Ghana 1960–84, in: S. Nagel (Ed.) Handbook of Global
Technology Policy (New York, Marcel Dekker Inc), pp. 13–30.