Child Labour in Tamil Nadu: Causes, Governmental Polices

and the Role of Education

1. Introduction

With the heralding of the new millennium, and the

challenges that have appeared globally, the problem of child labour
stands among the most acute ones.  Million of children in the world
have been forced into child labour owing either to non-schooling or
to school dropouts at the initial stage.  Child labour may be defined
as one who has not yet attained the age of 14 years and whose
physical, mental and social development has suffered due to his
pre-mature employment.

The complex issue of child labour is a developmental issue

worth investigating.  The notion that children are being exploited
and forced into labour, while not receiving education crucial to
development, concerns many people.  India is the largest example
of a nation plagued by the problem of child labour.  Estimates cite
figures of between 60 and 115 million working children in India –
the highest number in the world (Human Rights Watch 1996, 1).

In the densely-populated poor and developing countries,

the problem of child labour is acute.  India is no exception.  A
World Bank Report published in January 2000 has revealed that
there are six crore working children in India-the largest in terms of
any country in the world.    Elimination of child labour is no doubt
a big challenge for facing the country today.  The former Union
Labour Minister Dr. Satya Naayan Jatiya and present Union Labour
Minister Mr. Praveen Ranjin Das Munsi says that the Government
has adopted a progressive and integrated approach to eliminate
child labour in the country.

In order to resolve this socio-economic problem, a multi-

dimensional action plan involving awareness generation among all
sections of the society is required.  In creating a national
awareness campaign for the elimination of child labour, the non-
government organizations (NGOs) and the mass media have also
to complement the governmental efforts.

The actual number of working children in the country is

very large.  People at large as well as the public representatives
are greatly concerned with the magnitude of the child labour
problem in the country at present.  Its intensity was felt as early
as five decades ago when the
Constitution of India was framed.  Various Articles prohibit the
employment of children in factories.  Under Article 24 it has been
stated that no child below the age of 14 shall be employed in any
factory or mine or other hazardous occupation or work.  Similarly,
Article 31 provides that the State shall ensure that adolescent
children are not forced to accept an employment detrimental to
their age and physical ability owing to economic compulsions. 
Children are provided opportunities to develop in a healthy manner
and in a free and respectful situation where they are protected
against exploitation of their childhood and youth and against their
moral or physical abandonment.  Article 45 provides for free and
compulsory education for children under the schedule of the Child
Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986 and employment of
children is prohibited in 12 occupations and 51 hazardous
processes.

There are more children under the age of fourteen in India

than the entire population of the United States.  The great
challenge of India, as a developing country, is to provide nutrition,
education and health care to these children.

Children under fourteen constitute around 3.6% of the total

labour force in India.  Of these children, nine out of every ten work
in their own rural family settings.  Nearly 85% are engaged in
traditional agricultural activities.  Less than 9% work in
manufacturing, services and repairs.   Only about 0.8% works in
factories.

2. Historical perspective of the Status of Child Labour

in India

2.1.The Problem of child labour in India. 

 
How many children are involved?

It is difficult to cite a current figure for the number of

children engaged in child engaged in child labour.  As of 1996,
official figures continue to be based on 1981 census
figures”(Human Right Watch 1996, 122).  The 1981 Indian census
reports that there were 13.6 million child labourers in India
(Census of India 1981 cited in Weiner 1991, 20).  Indian
government extrapolations of this 1981 data place the current
number of child labourers at between seventeen and twenty
million (Human Rights Watch 1996, 122).  This extrapolation
seems highly unlikely as “ The Official National Sample Survey of
1983 (of India) reports 17.4 million child labourers, while a
study. . . sponsored by the Labour Ministry, concluded that the
child-labour force was 44 million” (Weiner 1991, 20-21).  UNICEF
“cites figures ranging fro seventy-five to ninety million child
labourers under the age of fourteen” (Human Rights Watch 1996,
122).

A universal difficulty in obtaining accurate data may be that

individuals fail to report child labour participation during surveys,
for fear of prasecution. The International Labour Organization
estimates there are 218 million working children aged between five
and 17 (2006)

Although the figure for the number of child labourers

varies, they are all significantly high when considering that the
child economic activity rate for 1980-1991 was 13.5% for males
and 10.3% for females (International Labour Organization, 1995,
113).

2.2.What are children doing in terms of work?

The 2001 Census of India divided child labour into nine industrial
divisions:

1. Cultivation
2. Agricultural Labour
 3. Livestock, Forestry, Fishing, Plantation,
4. Mining and Quarrying
5. Manufacturing, Processing, Servicing and Repairs
6. Construction
7. Trade and Commerce
8. Transport, Storage and Communication, and
9. Other Services

It is observed that the majority of rural child workers (84.29%)

are employed in cultivation and agricultural labour (divisions I and
II).  Urban child labourers are distributed differently, 39.16% of
them are involved in manufacturing, processing, servicing and
repairs.  Although more children are involved in agriculturally
related jobs a total of 78.67% for divisions I and II), human rights
organizations tend to focus on the manufacturing types of child
labour because most children in these situations are bonded
labourers.  Bonded labour “refers to the phenomenon of children
working in conditions of servitude in order to pay off a debt”
(Human Rights Watch 1996, 2).  Estimates place the number of
bonded child labourers in India a close to one million (International
Labour Organisation 1992, 15).

These children work in agricultural farms and land or are

engaged in conventional industrial occupations.  Andhra Pradesh
has the largest number of 17 lakh children as per the 1991
census.  The other States having more than 10 lakh working
children are Madhya Pradesh,Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh. 
More than 90 per cent of these children are engaged in rural
sectors, i.e., agriculture and its allied activities like harvesting,
farming, animal husbandry, forestry and fishing.  Presently, the
child labourers are concentrated mainly in Sivakasi, Tamil Nadu
(matches and fireworks industries), in Uttar Pradesh, Firozabad,
(glass industry), Khurija (pottery), Mirzpur-Bhadohi (carpet),
Moradabad (brassware), Aligarh (lock making), in Rajasthan,
Jaiapur (gems and jewellery), in Madhya pPradesh, Sagar (biri),
and Mandsaur (state industry).  The latest report of the World
Bank reveals that child labourers in india are forced to join work
ranging from prostitution to hazardous occupations.  For want of
suitable conditions at their work places lakhs of child labourers are
become permanently sick..

2.3.Causes of child labour in India and governmental policy

dealing with it
 

How necessary is child labour to families in India?

Child labour is a source of income for poor families.  A study

conducted by the ILO Bureau of Statistics found that “Children’s
work was considered essential to maintaining the economic level of
households, either in the form of work for wages, of help in
household enterprises or of household chores in order to free adult
household members for economic activity elsewhere” (Mehra-
Kerpelman 1996, 8). In some cases, the study found that a child’s
income accounted for between 34 and 37 percent of the total
household income.  This study concludes that a child labourer’s
income is important to the livelihood of a poor family.  There is a
questionable aspect of this study.  It was conducted in the form of
a survey, and the responses were given by the parents of the child
labourers.  Parents would be biased into being compelled to
support their decision to send their children to work, by saying
that it is essential.  They are probably right; for most poor families
in India, alternative sources of income are close to non-existent. 
There are no social welfare systems such as those in the West, nor
is there easy access to loans, which will be discussed..

What is apparent is the fact that child labourers are being

exploited, shown by the pay that they receive.  For the same type
of work, studies show that children are paid less than their adult
counterparts.   A Comparison of child wages to adult wages
obtained by a study of child workers in the Delhi region of India. 
Although 39.5% of employers said that child workers earn wages
equal to adults, if the percentage of employers admitting that
wages are lower for children is added up, a figure of 35.9% is
found.  This figure is significant when taking the bias of employers
into account.  Employers would have been likely to defend their
wages for child workers, by saying that children earn the same
wages as adults.  The fact that no employers stated children
earned more than adults should be also is noted.  Other studies
have also concluded that ‘children’s earnings are consistently lower
than those of adults, even where there two groups are engaged in
the same tasks” (Bequele and Boyden cited in Grootaert and
Kanbur 1995, 195).

2.4.What role does poverty play?

The percentage of the population of India living in poverty

is high.  In 2001, 37% of the urban population and 39% of the
rural population was living in poverty (International labour
organization 2001, 107).

The combination of poverty and the lack of social security

network form the basis of the even harsher type of child labour –
bonded child labour.  For the poor, there are few sources of bank
loans, governmental loans or other credit sources, and even if
there are sources available, few Indian living in poverty qualifies. 
Here enters the local moneylender; for an average of two
thousand rupees, parents exchange their child’s labour to local
moneylenders (Human Rights Watch 1996, 17).  Since the
earnings of bonded child labourers are less than the interest on the
loans, these bonded children are forced to work, while interest on
their loans accumulates.  A bonded child can only be released after
his/her parents make a lump sum payment, which is extremely
difficult for the poor (Human Rights Watch 1996, 17).  Even if
bonded child labourers are released, “the same conditions of
poverty that caused the initial debt can cause people to slip back
into bondage” (International Labour Organization 1993, 12).

Even though poverty is cited as the major cause of child

labour, it is not the only determinant.  Inadequate schools, or lack
of schools, or even the expense of schooling leaves some children
with little else to do but work.  The attitudes of parents also
contribute to child labour; some parents feel that children would
work in order to develop skills useful in the job market, instead of
taking advantage of a formal education.

2.5. Five Year Plans programme

Five Year Plan Programme are reviewed here:

2.5.1. Constitutional Provisions

The Indian Constitution provides several provisions for

protection, development and welfare of children.  Article 24
prohibits the children’s employment in any factory or mine or in
any other hazardous occupation.  Article 39(e) and (f) lay down
that the state should direct its policy in such a manner that the
tender age of children is not abused, children are given
opportunities to develop in a healthy manner and childhood is
protected against exploitation and against moral and material
abandonment.

2.5.2. Child Development Approach During Fifties (1950’s)

During fifties (1951-60) the First Five year Plan

acknowledged that the need of children should receive mush
greater consideration than is commonly given to them.  According
to 1st Plan the total responsibility of welfare had to be borne
cumulatively by the family, community and the state.  Voluntary
agencies could organize child welfare activities, as they had been
engaged in this task even earlier without adequate state aid with
their own resources.  Voluntary organizations were sanctioned
grants-in-aid by the state for strengthening; improving and
extending the existing activities all aspects of child development
the first national level organization “The Indian Council for Child
Welfare” was established.  In a significant development in 1953
‘Central Social Welfare Board’ was set up to assist voluntary
organizations and mobilize their support.  In 1954 the SCWB
launched the WEP (Welfare Extension Project) to cater the rural
population.

During Second Fiver Year Plan (1956-61) the CSWB

programmers were reviewed and it was decided to locate welfare
Extension Projects in community development blocks and convert
it into the Co-ordinate Pattern Projects.  Demonstration Projects
were set up on rural areas whose component consisted of
education, health, nutrition and welfare.  But these projects could
not do well due to many unavoidable reasons.

2.5.3. Child Development Approach During Sixties (1960’s)

During this decade also the emphasis on child welfare

continued and the Children Act, 1960 came into effect which
provided penalisation of offenders for cruel treatment of children,
employment of children in begging; giving a child liquor or
dangerous drugs and employing a person below 14 years in mines
or factories. This Act was amended in 1978.  On the basis of
recommendations of WEP (Welfare Extension Programme) and the
Evaluation Committee a new scheme of Family and Child Welfare
was launched in 1967 which would provide integrated basic social
services to children and promote cultural, educational and
recreational activities for women and children.  The ICCW was
entrusted with the responsibility of providing trained personnel
i.e., Mukhya Sevikas; Balsevikas and Grih Sevikas.  In 1963
NCERT was established with the objective of conducting child
studies and evolving methods of childhood education.  In 1966
Kothari Commision was set up which recommended expansion of
pre-school facilities to children from disadvantaged areas in
particular.  In 1967 the ‘Ganga Saran Sinha Committee’ was set up
to identify the problems and needs of the child and suggest action
programmes.  In 1968 the ‘national Policy of Education’ was
announced which reiterated the recommendations of the Education
Commission (1964-66).

2.5.4. Child Development Approach During Seventies

(1970’s)

During seventies ‘National policy for Children’ was adopted

on the basis of recommendations of ‘Ganga Saran Sinha
Committee’.  It stated that State should provide adequate services
to children before and after birth during the period of growth to
ensure their full physical, mental and social development.

During Fifth Plan, ANP & SNP was transferred to state

sector with fully funded by the government.  Balwadi Nutrition
Programme started with central government funding during fourth
plan was another feeding programme.  In the same year
Prophylaxis Programme was launched to prevent nutritional
anemia in children and expectant and nursing mother. A Child
Labour Cell was also constituted in 1979 witch is now under the
Ministry of Labour.  It has been responsible for protecting child
labour from exploitation.  It also provides grants to the voluntary
organizations.

2.5.5. Child Development Approach During Eighties (1980’s)

 

Programmes of services for children in health, nutrition,

education, social services were expanded during eighties.  In 1983
the National Health Policy was adopted.  Legislation pertaining the
minimum age for employment of children, hours of work etc. was
consolidated into a comprehensive law.

The Seventh Plan continued the strategy of promoting early

childhood survival and development through programmes in
different sectors, important among these being ICDS.  In order to
upgrade and strengthen the available infrastructure for effective
implementation of the juvenile justice Act, the scheme for
Prevention and Control of Juvenile Social Maladjustment was
initiated in 1986-87.   During this decade efforts for safeguarding
the rights of children were also under way at the regional level.

2.5.6. Child Development Approach During Nineties

(1990’s)

During 1990’s a large number of constructive efforts for the

welfare and development of children and child labour have been
initiated by the Government.  During Eighth Plan the universal
programme of immunization was to be further expanded and
strengthened.  An attempt has been made for creating greater
awareness about the need and importance of immunization
through ass media and non-formal channels.  Child development
programmes have been given high priority during eighth plan.

According to the approach paper of the Ninth Plan, “There

has been a significant shift in approach towards the well-being of
women and the children from ‘welfare during fifties’ to
‘development during seventies’ and to ‘empowerment during
nineties’.  During Ninth Plan investment of child development will
be viewed not only as a desirable social investment for the nation’s
future but also as fulfillment of rights of every child for survival,
protection and development so as to achieve their full potential.

As regards food and nutrition security to children during

IXth Plan, the Government adopted a National Nutrition Policy in
1993 and initiated the National Plan of Action in 1995, food and
nutrition security has been recognized as one of the primary
objectives of the Ninth Plan.

2.5.7. Child Development Approach During Two Thousands

(2000’s)

One argument put forth by Mitesh Badiwala (2005) was

that ‘poverty forces high drop outs and thus no matter how good
schools are, school survival rates and illiteracy rates will still
remain low’.

During the Xth Five Year plan, eradication of child labour is

considered as a special importance to the economic development
of our country due to the following reasons. Even though poverty
can be cited as the major cause of child labour; it is not the only
factor.  There are various other forces, which compel the children
to go for work.  The can be cited as

       Inadequate schools

       Expense of schooling

       Children not interested to go to school

       Children failed in school

       Drop outs

       Attitude of parents

       Big families

       Children like to work

The attitude of the parents that a formal education is not

beneficial as the children learn work skills through labour at a
young age; has to be changed.  The parents o these victims, and
society at large, should realize that child labour not only harms the
physical and intellectual growth of the child but stunts the growth
of children and ultimately affect nation’s future growth. India has
committed itself to be against child labour.  Articles 24 and 39 (e)
of the Indian Constitution state that ‘no child below the age of
fourteen years shall be employed to work in any factory or mine or
employed in any hazardous employment’.

It is also important to get the latest estimate of the number of

child labourers for planning purposes.  However, since the 2001
Census does not provide child labour data disaggregated by age
group.  It is nearly impossible to get authentic data for the latest
years.   But it is possible to project, based on the observed decline
between 1981 and 1991, for the current year.  For this purpose, it
is assumed that (i) the absolute number of child workers declines
at a compound rate, and (ii) the rate of decline calculated,
employing the compound growth rate formulae, for the decade
1981 and 1991 is applicable to the subsequent decades.  The
compound growth (decline, to be specific) rate is obtained by
solving for r from the equation given below:

 NCL1 = NCL0 * (1+r) n                           ….. (3.1)

Where NCL1 and NCL0 are, respectively, the total number of

child workers as obtained from the Census for the years 1991 and
1981, n is equal to 10 and r is the compound growth rate. The
estimated annual compound growth rate and the projected number
of child workers for the years 2001, 2005 and 2010 are presented
for all states and India in Table 1.

Table 1 – Distribution of Child Workers Across States

(Ages 5-14)

                          The Restrictive Count (in Millions)

  1981 1991 r 2001 2005 2010

Sl.no
. State NCL0 NCL1
 1. Andhra 1.951 1.662 - 1.416 1.32 1.226
Pradesh 0.016 8
2. 1.102 0.942 0.805 0.699
Bihar - 0.75
3. 0.617 0.524 0.016 0.445 6 0.384
Gujarat
4. 0.194 0.110 - 0.062 0.41 0.037
Haruyana 0.016 7
5. 0.099 0.056 0.032 0.019
Himachal - 0.05
6. Pradesh 1.132 0.976 0.055 0.841 0 0.736

7. Karnataka 0.093 0.035 - 0.013 0.02 0.005

0.055 5
8. Kerala 1.699 1.356 1.082 0.883
- 0.79
Madhya 0.015 3
9. 1.558 1.068 0.732 0.521
Pradesh
- 0.00
10. 0.702 0.452 0.291 0.196
Maharashtra 0.093 9
11. 0.217 0.143 0.094 0.065
Orissa - 0.98
0.022 9
12. 0.820 0.774 0.731 0.694
Punjab
- 0.62
13. 0.971 0.579 0.037 0.345 9 0.217
Rajasthan
14. 1.435 1.410 - 1.385 0.24 1.364
Tamil Nadu
0.043 4
15. 0.608 0.712 0.834 0.961
Uttar
- 0.08
Pradesh    
0.041 0
Wesh   - 0.71
Bengal
0.006 4
 
- 0.28
0.050 1

- 1.37
0.002 6

 0.016 0.88
8
 
  All India 13.198 10.799 - 8.836 8.15 7.376
0.020 5
Source : Census of India for the Year 1981 and 1991
 

Note: Formula : NCL 1 = NCL 0 X (1+r) 2

NCL1 is the total number of child workers in 1991

NCL0 is the total number of child workers in 1981

r’ is the compound growth rate

n’ is the number of yeas between the base year and the terminal
year

These projected figure show that even if the rate of decline,

which has been observed to be relatively steep in the decade
between 1981 and 1991, continues, the magnitude of child labour
would still remain high in India at around 7 million in 2010.

2.6. Education and its effects on child labour

What is the current state of education in India in comparison to

other developing countries?

Dropout rates measured by the Department Education show

that 35% of males and 39% of female dropout (Government of
India cited in The World Bank 1995, 113).  What is the reason for
these high dropout rates and poor school survival rates? One
possible argument given by Nangia (1987) is that “the pressing
need for the child’s earnings as well as low perceived advantages
of school” cause parents to withdraw children from school and
deposit them in the labour force (p.182).  In this case, poverty and
the inadequacy of the school system play significant roles in
causing child labour, but also affect each other.  Poverty forces
high dropout rates, and thus no matter how good schools are,
school survival rates and literacy rates will still remain low.

2.7. Compulsory Education

The concept of compulsory education, where all school- aged

children are required to attend school, combats the force of
poverty that pulls children out of school.  Policies relating to
compulsory education not only force children to attend school, but
also contribute appropriate funds to the primary education system,
instead of higher education.

 Article 45 of the Constitution of India states that “The

State shall endeavour to provide within a period of ten years from
the commencement of this Constitution for free and compulsory
education for all children until they complete the age of fourteen
years” (Jain 1985, 219).  A National Policy on Education was
adopted in 1986, and it addresses the need to “expand and
improve basic education” (The World bank 1995, 124).  Recently,
the central government implemented The District Primary
Education Program (DPEP), in an attempt to act on the
recommendations of the National Policy on Education.  The
program involves the subsidizing of approved investments, by the
Government of India.  The central government will provide a grant
of 85% on expenditures by the states (The World Bank 1995,
123).  Since these measures have been implemented very
recently, results cannot be obtained and the effectiveness of the
District Primary Education Programme  (DPEP) cannot be
commented on at this time.

 
3. Statement of the Problem
While child labour is a complex problem that is basically
rooted in poverty, there is unwavering commitment by the
Government and the people of India to combat it.  Success can be
achieved only through social engineering on a major scale
combined with national economic growth International policies and
actions, therefore, must support and not hamper India’s efforts to
get rid of child labour.

India has all along followed a proactive policy with respect

to the problem of child labour, and has stood for constitutional,
statutory and developmental measures to combat child labour.  Six
ILO conventions relating to child labour have been ratified, three of
these as early as the first quarter of this century.

The first Act in India relating to child labour was the

Enactment of Children (Pledging of Labour) Act of February 1933. 
Since then there have been nine different Indian legislations
relating to child labour.  The strategy of progressive elimination of
child labour underscores India’s legislative intent, and takes
cognizance of the fact that child labour is not an isolated
phenomenon that can be tackled without simultaneously taking
into account the socio-economic milieu that is at the root of the
problem.

The Government of India is determined to eradicate child

labour in the country.  The world’s largest child labour elimination
program is being implemented at the grass roots level in India,
with primary education targeted for nearly 250 million.  In this a
large number of non-government and voluntary organizations are
involved.  Special investigation cells have been set up in States to
enforce existing laws banning employment of children in hazardous
industries.  The allocation of the Government of India for the
elimination of child labour was $10 million in 1995-96 and $16
million in 1996-97.  The allocation for the current year is $21
million.

The International Program on Elimination of Child Labour

(IPEC) has the world’s largest international initiative on child
labour in India.  The total outlay under this program between 1992
and 1996 has been $4.15 million.

On reviewing the factors behind the prevalence of child

labour, we find that casteism, poverty, size of family and poor
income, and education are some of the major factors that have
intensified the problem of child labour in India. The Gurupadswami
Committee report shows that problem of child labour is a direct
result of poverty where elimination in itself is a great problem.

The child labour problem is an intense socio-economic issue

in India that requires a long-term multi-pronged strategy to be
carried out on a continuous basis.  This strategy should include
enforcement of Child Labour Acts, strengthening of primary
education in the rural areas, rehabilitation of child labour,
improvement of economic conditions of the child’s parents through
various poverty alleviation and employment generation
programmes.  It is also necessary that a strong evaluation and
monitoring be done for the various child labour elimination
programmes and projects.  A strong enforcement of the Labour
Acts may be done to ensure legal actions against those who
employ children for work.  The child labour problem is an evil that
requires awareness and change of approach in all sections of the
society.  The Government, media and NGOs have to unite to play
their proper role in this holistic task.  Only then the child labour
problem can be solved effectively.

4. Objectives of the Study

1. To map the intensity (sectors) of child labourers in various

activities in  Tamil Nadu
2. To review the Government policy under the Five Year Plan with
regard to     child labour

3. To find out the causes for drop-out of child labourers from the
schools

4. To estimate the child labourers contribution to family income of

the

      sample households

5.To examine the child labour – poverty link in the study area

6. To suggest measures to improve the welfare of child labourers

and to  establish a society without child labourers

5. Hypothesis

1. Intensity of child labourers could be found in cultivation and

agricultural  labourers and in rural areas

2.The Five Year Plan Programme were not effective in eradicating

the child  labour.

3. The child labourer’s income forms a sizeable portion of the

family income  of the sample household.

6. Concepts used in the Study

6.1. What is child labour?

Some types of work make useful, positive contributions to a

child’s development.  Work can help children learn about
responsibility and develop particular skills that will benefit them
and the rest of society.  Often, work is a vital source of income
that helps to sustain children and their families.
 However, across the world, millions of children do extremely
hazardous work in harmful conditions, putting their health,
educations, personal and social development, and even their lives
at risk.  These are some of the circumstances they face:

 Full time work at a very early age

    Dangerous workplaces
  Excessive working hours
  Subjection to psychological, verbal, physical and
sexual abuse
  Obliged to work by circumstances or individuals
  Limited or no pay
  Work and life on the streets in bad conditions
   Inability to escape from the poverty cycle—no
access to education

 
6.2. How big is the problem?

 The International Labour Organization estimates there are

218 million working children aged between five and 17
(2006)
 126 million are estimated to work in the worst forms of
child labour-one in every 12 of the world’s five to 17 years
olds (2006)
 74 million children under 15 are in hazardous work and
should be “immediately withdrawn fro this work” (2006)
 8.4 million children are in slavery, trafficking, debt bondage
and other forms of forced labour, forced recruitment for
armed conflict, prostitution, pornography and other illicit
activities (2002)
 Girls are particularly in demand for domestic work
 Around 70 per cent of child workers carry out unpaid work
for their families
 
6.3. Trafficking

Trafficking involves transporting people away from the

communities in which they live, by the threat or use of violence,
deception, or coercion so they can be exploited as forced or
enslaved workers for sex or labour. When children are trafficked,
no violence, deception or coercion needs to be involved, it is
merely the act of transporting them into exploitative work, which
constitutes trafficking.

Increasingly, children are also bought and sold within and

across national borders.  They are trafficked for sexual
exploitation, for begging, and for work on construction sites,
plantations and into domestic work.  The vulnerability of these
children is even greater when they arrive in another country. Often
they do not have contact with their families and are at the mercy
of their employers.

6.4. Why do children work?

 Most children work because their families are poor and their
labour is necessary for their survival.  Discrimination on
grounds including gender, race or religion also plays its pat
in why some children work..
 Children are often employed and exploited because,
compared to adults, they are more vulnerable, cheaper to
hire and are less likely to demand higher wages or better
working conditions.  Some employers falsely argue that
children are particularly suited to certain types of work
because of their small size and “nimble gingers”.
 For many children, school is not an option.  Education can
be expensive and some parents feel that what their children
will learn is irrelevant to the realities of their everyday lives
and futures.  In many cases, school is also physically
inaccessible or lessons are not taught in the child’s mother
tongue, or both.
 As well as being a result of poverty, child labour also
perpetuates poverty.  Many working children do not have
the opportunity to go to school and often grow up to be
unskilled adults trapped in poorly paid jobs, and in turn will
look to their own children to supplement the family’s
income.
 

6.5. Where do children work?

 On the land
 In households – as domestic workers
 In factories – making products such as matches, fireworks
and glassware
 On the street – as beggars
 Outdoor industry: Brick kilns, mines, construction
 In bars, restaurants and tourist establishments
 In sexual exploitation
 As soldiers

6.6. What do children want?

Children in several countries have formed their own

organizations and movements to force leaders to hear their
concerns and take action to improve a dire situation.

The Child Labour Movement wants the realization of 12 rights in

particular, and they are:

 Right to vocational training

 Right to remain in our villages (not to have to go to the
cities)
 Right to exercise our working activities in safety
 Right to light and limited work
 Right to rest during illness
 Right to be respected
 Right to be listened to
 Right to healthcare
 Right to learn to read and write
 Right to play and have free time
 Right to express and organize ourselves
 Right to equitable justice in case of problems.
 

6.7. Child Soldiers

There are about 3,00,000 child soldiers involved in over 30

areas of conflict worldwide, some even younger than 10 years old. 
Child soldiers fight on the front line, and also work in support
roles; girls are often obliged to be sex slaves or “soldiers’ wives”. 
Children involved in conflict are severely affected by their
experiences and can suffer from long-term trauma.  The optional
protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child entered into
force on 12 February 2002, which encourages governments to
raise the age of voluntary recruitment into the armed forces and
explicitly states that no person under the age of 18 should be sent
to battle.

6.8.What are the causes of child labour in India?

How do governmental policies affect it?

What role does education play in regard to child labour

in India?

A critical analysis of the answers to these questions may

lead in the direction of a possible solution.  These questions will be
answered through an analysis of the problem of child labour as it is
now, investigating how prevalent it is and what types of child
labour exist.  The necessity of child labour to poor families, and
the role of poverty as a determinant will be examined.
Govermental policies concerning child labour will be investigated. 
The current state of education in India will be examined and
compared with other developing countries.  Compulsory education
policies and their relationship to child labour will be investigated
using Sri Lanka and the Indian state of Kerala as examples of
where these policies have worked.  Finally, India’s policies
concerning compulsory education will be assessed.

7.  Methods of Study

The methods used for analyzing the child labourers are

presented in this chapter.  It deals with choice of the study area,
selection of sample child labourers, sampling procedure, collection
of data, data requirements, and tools of analysis.

Since the present study relates to problems of child Labour,

it is a first of its kind to be undertaken in this area; therefore, it is
an explorative study.

7.1. Universe of the Study

The child labourers spread all over Tamil Nadu. 

Therefore, Tamil Nadu State will form the universe of the study.

7.2. Sample Unit Child labourers family will form the unit of

study.

7.2.1. Sample Design Here the study area consists of Tamil Nadu

only.  From each District 300 families with child labour will be
selected by adopting Multi-stage  random sampling method.  From
the selected samples, all the members are contacted or will be
contacted and there will be 300 x 30 Districts = 9000 child
labourers. So the ultimate sample consists of 9000 families with
child labour.

7.3. Selection of the Child Labourers

7.3.1. Sampling Technique

            Multi stage random sampling method is followed.  There

are 30 districts, scattered all over Tamil Nadu.  From each District
300 families with child labour will be selected by adopting multi
stage random sampling method.  From the selected samples, all
the members are contacted or will be contacted and there will be
300 x 30 Districts = 9000 families with child labour. So the
ultimate sample consists of 9000 families with child labour.  The
sample forms the representative of the total child labourers in
Tamil Nadu.  As such it is a representative sample of the child
labourers in Tamil Nadu.

7.4. Choice of the Study Area There are 28 States in India. 

Tamil Nadu has got the largest number of child labourers in India. 
This study is confined to Tamil Nadu State.  Tamil Nadu State, one
of the largest state in India, has been purposively selected for the
present study.

7.5. Questionnaire Design The child labourers belong to lower

class, and as they are uneducated,  it is decided to use Interview
Schedule  because the respondent is unable to read and
understand the questions and answer the questions.  Therefore
Interview Schedule is found to be suitable for the study.  The
Interview Schedule is structured on the basis of various
components, which cover the problems of child labourers.

7.6. Pilot Study A pilot study will be conducted to ascertain the

feasibility of conducting an inquiry about child labourers in Tamil
Nadu.  In this connection, the researcher contacted 30 families
with child labour through selected child labourers.  Convenience
sampling method is applied. The study had confirmed the
feasibility of the inquiry and the quality of the items in the
Interview.

7.7. Sources of Data The sources of data were primary as well as

secondary.  The data collected from the child labourers survey
constitute Primary and the information gathered from books,
journals, magazines, reports, dailies were secondary.  The data
collected form both these sources were scrutinized, edited, and
tabulated.

7.8. Period of Study The present study covers a period of 3

years i.e., from 2006 to 2009.

 
7.9. Tools of Analysis The data collected from respondents is to
be edited, classified, and analysed with the following tools.  The
study will use simple averages and percentages.  Simple statistical
tests like “Chi-square test is to be applied to bring out the
association of variables.  Principal Component Analysis and Factor
Analysis is to be used to identify the factors involved in child
labourers.  The ANOVA – two way classification is applied to find
out any significant difference between variables.   The analysis of
discrimination is to be made to find out the differences among
variables with respect to the child labourers.

7.10. Analysis of Data The collected data will be analysed and

interpreted against stated objectives.  The data collected from the
child labourers is to be classified and presented.

8. Importance of the Study Child labour cannot be eliminated by

focusing on one determinant, for example education, or by brute
enforcement of child labour laws.  The government of India must
ensure that the needs of the poor are filled before attacking child
labour.  If poverty is addressed, the need for child labour will
automatically diminish.  No matter how hard it is, child labour
always will exist until the need for it is removed.  The development
of India as a nation is being hampered by child labour.  Children
are growing up illiterate because they have been working and not
attending school.  A cycle of poverty is formed and the need for
child labour is reborn after every generation. India needs to
address the situation by tackling the underlying causes of child
labour through governmental policies and the enforcement of
these policies.  Only then will India succeed in the fight against
child labour.

9. Scope and Limitations of the Study The required data is to

be collected only for Five years, by personal interview method. 
Since the Child labourers do not keep records for the data on the
different socio-economic aspects, they recollect and furnish the
information from their memory and hence recall bias is
unavoidable in this study.  However, the response of the Child
labour respondents is to be satisfactory and the recall bias is to be
minimized due to their experience and by several cross checks
made while interviewing them.  The recalcitrant market agencies
and their refusal to divulge the details do affect the quality of data
furnished by them.  But this difficulty was overcome by long
acquaintance with agents, frequent visits to their work place by
imbibing a spirit of confidence in them.  Since it is an attempt to
evaluate the problem of child labour in Tamil Nadu, generalization
of the results of this study to other areas should be done with
care.  The inference of the study would be applicable to similar
situation elsewhere.

10. Conclusion

Child labour is a grave problem in India.  The prevalence of

it is shown by the child work participation rates, which are higher
in Indian than in other developing countries.

The major determinant of child labour is poverty.  Even

though children are paid less than adults, whatever income they
earn is of benefit to poor families.  In addition to poverty, the lack
of adequate and accessible sources of credit forces poor parents to
engage their children in the harsher form of child labour.  Some
parents also feel that a formal education is not beneficial, and that
children learn work skill through labour at a young age.  These
views are narrow and do not take the long- term developmental
benefits of education into account.  Another determinant is access
to education.  In some areas, education is not affordable, or is
found to be inadequate.  With no other alternatives, children spend
their time working.

The Constitution of India clearly state that child labour is

wrong and that measures should be taken to end it.  The
government of India has implemented the Child Labour Act in
1986 that outlaws child labour in certain areas and sets the
minimum age of employment at fourteen.  This Act falls short of
making all child labour illegal, and fails to meet the ILO guideline
concerning the minimum age of employment set at fifteen years of
age.  Though policies are in place that could potentially reduce the
incidence of child labour, enforcement is a problem.  If child labour
is to be eradicated in India, the government and those responsible
for enforcement need to start doing their jobs.  Policies can and
will be developed concerning child labour, but without enforcement
they are all useless..

The State of education in India also needs to be improved.  

High illiteracy and dropout rates are reflective of the inadequacy of
the educational system.  Poverty plays a role in the ineffectiveness
of the educational system.  Dropout rates are high because
children are forced to work in order to support their families.  The
attitudes of the people also contribute to the lack of enrollment –
parents feel that work develops skills that can be used to earn an
income, while education does not help in this mater.  Compulsory
education may help in regard to these attitudes.  The example
of Sri Lanka and Kerala show that compulsory education has
worked in those areas.  There are differences between Sri Lanka,
Kerala and the rest of India.  What types of social welfare
structures do these places have?  What are the attitudes of the
people?  Is there some other reason why the labour market for
child labourers is poor in these areas?  These are some questions
that need to be answered before applying the concept of
compulsory education in India?  India is making progress in terms
of educational policy.  The DPEP has been implemented only four
years ago, and so results are not apparent at this time.  Hopefully
the future will show that this program has made progress towards
universal education, and eradicating child labour.

11. Plan of the Project Report

Chapterisation of the Project Report is given below.

Chapter – I: Introduction, Statement of problem, Objectives,

Hypotheses, Scope, and Limitations of the Study.

Chapter – II : Previous work and Concepts relevant to the

study are to be reviewed to define concepts and scope of the
present study.

Chapter – III : A brief description of the study areas is to be

presented.

Chapter –IV : To trace the origin, growth and problems of 

child labourers in Tamil Nadu

 
 Chapter – V  : Design of the study, model formulation, and
conceptual definition of specific variables are to be outlined.

Chapter – VI : Results of analysis are to be presented and

discussed with reference to the specific objectives and to draw
useful inferences.

Chapter – VII : Summary of findings, conclusions, and

implications of the results for policy and research are to be
presented.

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