INTRO

Introduction
• Microwave engineering is an evolving field

• Tremendous sophistication has been achieved. There is always more to come

• Current applications are LTE, 5G, WiFi, LoS microwave, SATCOM, aircraft comm, radar etc

• Bands of communication are P, L, S, C, X, Ku, K, Ka. 0.1 to 1, to 2, 4, 8, 12, 18, 26, 40 GHz
V, W & mm waves are in the 40 to 75 GHz, 75 to 110 GHz and 110 to 300 GHz bands

• Few of the challenges are

• Interface
• Miniaturization
• Signal Manipulation

• P Band – RF; L band to Ka – Microwave; V, W & mm – Millimetric Wave region

• NOTE : Many slides or Diagrams in this presentation are taken from the Internet &
references will be provided.
INTRO

Advantages of Microwave communication

• Higher bandwidths are available with increase in carrier freq (typically 1% of 𝒄)

• Cricket stadiums, theatres etc require to support 100s of clients & MW / WiFi helps

• OFC laying in cities prohibitively expensive; MW short haul links helps extend LTE

• Noise at MW is lesser than at RF

• Antenna gain and size of components can be very small giving high directivity,
• High Directivity
• Easy containerisation
• Signal Manipulation

• Properties of materials affect MW

• Concept of dB and dBm

Primer on Txn lines

At higher freqs, length of Txn Line becomes critical

RΔz LΔz A RΔz LΔz B

~
~
~
~

i(z,t) i(z+Δz,t)

v(z,t) GΔz CΔz v(z+Δz,t) CΔz ZL

~

~
~
~
~

• One solution to the Txn Line Equation is 𝜸𝒛 𝜸𝒛

indicating waves
travelling in the +ve & –ve z directions

• is the complex propagation constant

• is the attenuation of the signal (real part) & is the fraction of the wavelength
traversed in the distance ‘z’

• As can be seen, depends on Hence, no communication load can be perfectly matched

• Hence, there will be mismatch between the characteristic impedance & load impedance
Primer on Txn lines

VSWR, Reflection coefficient, return loss etc

• Reflection coefficient due to load mismatch is given by

𝑳 𝟎
𝑳 𝟎
𝑳 𝟎

• The Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR) is a very significant parameter given by

• Other expressions for the same are

• Return Loss, defined as, the loss due to returning power is given by
𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅

𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕
Problem on Txn lines

Problem Set # 1

• If 85% of the incident power is absorbed by a load and 15 % is reflected. Calculate VSWR
and the reflection coefficient

• If a 1 W amplifier delivers power to a load

through a 6 meter line with

• Calculate the radiated power in W & in dBm

Also calculate reflected power that reaches
the signal generator

• Looking at the representative diagram,

What can you comment on 𝒊𝒏 at two points
that are 𝟒 away from each other
Impedance Matching with Stubs

VSWR, Reflection coefficient, return loss etc

• Average Power delivered to the load is given by

𝟐
𝟎 𝟐
𝒂𝒗 𝑳
𝟎

• This shows that the power delivered is the incident power subtracted by the
reflected power

• The power that is reflected from the load was meant to be delivered and not
returned. Hence, it is defined as a loss called the Return Loss given by

𝟐
𝑳 𝑳
Impedance Matching

Quarter Wave Transformer

λ/4

Z0 Z1 Zℓ
A B

Z1 / Z 0 Zℓ / Z1
Consider a lossless line, of and characteristic impedance of 𝟏 interfaced to match
a line with characteristic impedance Z0 with a load Zℓ

𝟐
ℓ 𝟏 ℓ 𝟏 𝟏
𝟎 𝟏 𝟏
𝟏 ℓ 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜷ℓ → 𝟏 ℓ ℓ
Thus
𝟏 𝟎 ℓ

Impedance seen at A is (Z1 /Zℓ )Z1 = Z0 . Hence if Z1 can be adjusted for Z1 = (Z0 Zℓ)1/2
impedance matching can be achieved
Primer on Txn lines

How can multiple frequency signal be matched

• QWT works only at a very narrow band of frequencies.

• A special Z1 is required for the QWT which may not be available COTS

• The QWT has to be placed between the line and the load and may be physically
challenging

• If the load is complex, the QWT will become lossy.

• Cascaded QWTs can be used for load matching over a band of frequencies but there will
be standing waves in the QWT itself and significant power can be lost.
Impedance Matching with Stubs

Impedance Matching

ys
~ Z0 l ZL

d
y11
yd

• A stub is a piece of Txn line made to size & attached to the main line at a calculated
distance to achieve impedance matching. It can be short or open circuited

• Normalized impedances & admittances are used (z = Zℓ /Z0 & y = Yℓ /Y0)

• The impedance will be matched seen ahead of the stub (towards generator)

𝒅 𝒔 𝟏𝟏 𝒅 𝒔
Smith Chart

Problem Set # 2

• Load impedance can be normalized & represented as a fraction of the characteristic

impedance. Admittance can also be expressed similarly
ℓ
𝟎

Find z for 𝟎 and ℓ

Find z for 𝟎 and ℓ

Find z for 𝟎 and ℓ

Find z for 𝟎 and ℓ

Find z for 𝟎 and ℓ

Smith Chart

Representing Γ in real and imaginary parts

𝑳
𝟎
In terms of Admittance, we have,

ℓ 𝟎 ℓ 𝟎 𝟎 ℓ ℓ 𝟎
ℓ 𝟎 ℓ 𝟎 𝟎 ℓ ℓ 𝟎

Negative sign indicates 180° shift since all are complex quantities

In a general sense, we can derive for z and convert it to y by simply reversing the phase

can be expressed as and can be expressed as

𝟐 𝟐

𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
Smith Chart

Locus of real part of Γ

𝟐 𝟐

𝟐 𝟐

𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

𝟐 𝟐

𝟐
𝟐 𝟐

𝟐 𝟐
𝟐

𝒓 𝟏
The Locus turns out to be a set of Circles with Center@ and a radius of
𝒓 𝟏 𝒓 𝟏
Smith Chart

Locus of real part of Γ - putting values of r

𝟐 𝟐
𝟐

r = 0; radius = 1; center (0,0)

jv
r = 1; radius = 1/2; center (1/2,0)

r = 2; radius = 1/3; center (2/3,0)

r = 3; radius = 1/4; center (3/4,0)

u

r = ∞; radius = 0; center (1,0)

Smith Chart

Locus of imaginary part of Γ

𝟐
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

𝟐 𝟐
𝟐 𝟐

𝟐 𝟐
𝟐

The Locus turns out to be a set of Circles with Center @ 𝟏

𝒙 and a radius of 𝟏
𝒙
Smith Chart

Locus of imaginary part of Γ - putting values of x

jv
𝟐 𝟐
𝟐

Straight line; Γ is real

Smith Chart

The Plot Thickens

Short Circuit Impedance; r=0; x=0
Open Circuit Admittance; g=0; b=0
jv +ve susceptance
capacitive;
+ve reactance;
Inductive

Impedance matching problem

boils down to bringing the
normalized impedance to
(r=1;x=0) point

Open Circuit Impedance; r= x = ∞

-ve susceptance Short Circuit Admittance; g= b= ∞
inductive;
-ve reactance;
Capacitive
Smith Chart

UNABRIDGED, UNCENSORED VERSION OF SMITH CHART

Smith Chart

Rules for the Smith Chart

Constant Reflection
Toward Coefficient Circle
Generator

VSWR & VSWR & RMAX

RMIN

Away Scale in
From Wavelengths
Generator

Full Circle is One Half Wavelength

Since Everything Repeats
Smith’s Chart

Features of the Smith Chart

It is a polar plot of reflection coefficient (Γ )

Implicitly SWR (ρ) is also plotted

Plots of Resistance (Admittance) and Reactance (Susceptance)

Intersection of the two can uniquely locate z = Zℓ / Z0.

Γ & VSWR remain constant over the circle drawn through z centered at (0,0)

IΓI & ρ may be read from scale at the bottom of the chart read right to left

ρ may be read from +ve real axis on impedance chart

Return loss and transmission loss also on the same scale read left to right
Smith Chart

Problem Set #3 - Plotting on the Smith Chart

IMPEDANCE NORMALIZED No Given To find

𝒁𝟎 = 𝟓𝟎 𝜴 IMPEDANCE Zd @ 0.1, ℓ, VSWR
1 𝒁𝟎 = 𝟓𝟎 𝜴 and
Z1 = 100 + j50 z1 = 2 + j Zℓ = 5 +j25
2 Z0 = 1 Ω ; Zℓ = 0.2 How far are 𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏 & 𝑰𝒎𝒊𝒏 from
Z2 = 75 -j100 z2 = 1.5 -j2 the load. Find VSWR
– j 0.2 ;
Z3 = j200 z3 = j4
3 Z0 = 50 Ω; Zin = - j Find the Impedance at an
Z4 = 150 z4 = 3 125 electrical distance of 𝟑𝝀⁄𝟒
Z5 = infinity (an z5 = infinity 4 Z0 = 50 Ω; f = Find Zℓ if the minima shifts by
open circuit) 3GHz; 0.1λ towards generator when
VSWR = 3.3 the load is shorted
Z6 = 0 (a short z6 = 0
circuit) 5 Z0 = 50 Ω; Find Zℓ if the minima shifts by
VSWR = 1.6; λg = 3cm when the load is shorted
Z7 = 50 z7 = 1 8 cm
z8 = 184 – j900 z8 = 3.68 -j18 6 Z0 = 300 Ω; Find Zℓ for d = 2 cm
Successive Vmin 0.24-j0.24
@ 6; λ = 150 cm;
VSWR 4.48;
Smith’s Chart

Single Stub Matching

ys
~ Z0 l ZL

d
y11
yd

a) Normalize zℓ = Zℓ / Z0 ONLY NORMALIZED VALUES ARE USED

b) Mark it on the chart READ ON RESISTANCE & REACTANCE CIRCLES
c) Mark yℓ diametrically opposite y IS RECIPROCAL OF r
d) Draw constant VSWR circle through yℓ ALL POINTS WILL HAVE SAME Γ and VSWR
e) Intersection with r=1 / g=1 circle is y11 CREATING g = 1.0 CONDITION
f) y11 = 1.0 + jb = yd + ys ADMITTANCES IN PARALLEL ARE ADDED
g) Extend y11 to ext circle for d STUB POSITION TOWARDS LOAD
ADMITTANCE
h) Plot ys = -jb & Extend to ext circle for l STUB LENGTH FROM ADMITTANCE POINT
Smith Chart

Problem Set # 4 – Single Stub Matching

No Given
1 Z0 = 50 Ω; Zℓ = (20 – j 20) Ω
2 Z0 = 50 Ω; Zℓ = (15 + j 25) Ω
3 Z0 = 50 Ω; Zℓ = (20) Ω
4 Z0 = 50 Ω; Zℓ = (– j 200) Ω
5 Z0 = 50 Ω; Zℓ = (100 + j 150) Ω
To find
Design a short Circuit stub to match the load to the
transmission line. How will the design change if you were to
design an open circuit stub ?
Design a short Circuit stub to match the load to the
transmission line. Can we design a stub in series rather than a
stub in parallel
Design a short Circuit stub to match the load to the
transmission line.
Design a short Circuit stub to match the load to the
transmission line.
Design a short Circuit stub to match the load to the
transmission line.

a) Short Circuited stubs are preferred since they radiate lesser at higher frequency range
than open circuited stubs

b) Sometimes single stubs will have to be places at inconvenient locations. Hence double
stubs are used.
Smith Chart

Double Stub Matching

y22 y11
Ptr

l2 l1 ZL
~ ys2 ys1

d2 d1
yd2 yd1

First stub positioned arbitrarily say 0.4λ from the load towards generator.
Second stub positioned λ/8, 3λ/8 or some such distance away from the first stub.
Second stub length provides tuning capability to match varying loads
Smith’s Chart

Features of the Smith Chart

a) Normalize zℓ = Zℓ / Z0 & mark zℓ & yℓ ONLY NORMALIZED VALUES ARE USED

b) Rotate g=1 circle by 2β ℓ counterclockwise TO ENSURE STUB 1 ADMITTANCE ON g=k
CIRCLE
c) Move yℓ by d1 ARBITRARY POSITIONING OF FIRST STUB
d) Intersect g=k circle with yℓ circle IDENTIFY VALUES y11 = x11 + jb = yd1 + ys1
e) Calculate ys1 AND ℓ1 FIRST STUB LENGTH FIXED
f) Rotate g=k circle by 2β ℓ clockwise CREATING r = 1.0 CONDITION FOR SECOND
STUB
g) Locate x11 on g = 1.0 circle & identify yd2 LOCATE NEW POINTS FOR yd2
h) y22 = 1.0 + jb = yd2 + ys2 ; Calculate ys2 ADMITTANCES IN PARALLEL ARE ADDED
i) Extend ys2 to ext circle for ℓ2 SECOND STUB LENGTH FIXED

No Given To find
1 Z0 = 50 Ω; Zℓ = (100 + j 100) Ω Design a double short Circuit stub to match the load to the
Two stubs are separated by 3λ/8. transmission line.
First stub 0.4λ away from the load
2 Z0 = 50 Ω; Zℓ = 16 + j30 Ω. Two Design a double short Circuit stub to match the load to the
stubs are separated by λ/8 transmission line.
First stub 0.5λ away from the load