Formal Writing

Handbook

Shelbyville High
School
Created by the following teachers:

Janet Godby, Business

Todd McCullough, English
Kris Schwickrath, Latin
Tammy Witte, Spanish
Maggie Wood, Science

Summer 2005
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TYPES OF WRITING.........................................................................................1

THE WRITING PROCESS .................................................................................2

RUBRICS ............................................................................................................5

COMMONLY MISUSED AND MISSPELLED WORDS ................................7

PRINCIPAL PARTS OF COMMON IRREGULAR VERBS............................9

BASIC GRAMMAR AT A GLANCE ..............................................................11

PLAGIARISM ...................................................................................................24

WORKS CITED LIST OVERVIEW ................................................................24

WORKS CITED EXAMPLES ..........................................................................25

WORKS CONSULTED ....................................................................................27

Most people feel that they cannot write well formally. This handbook will give simple
suggestions about how you can write complete formal writing assignments.

WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO BE ABLE TO WRITE WELL?

• Both employers and employees write.

• Writing is an effective way to communicate.
• Employees are evaluated by their ability to write.
• Good writers often advance to better jobs.

FORMAL WRITING

Formal English is characterized by a serious tone, a careful attention to

appropriate word choice, longer sentences, and so on. Formal English is
carefully worded so that it can withstand repeated readings without sounding
trite or stale. In formal writing paragraphs usually contain five to six sentences.

TYPES OF WRITING

A. Opinion Writing
1. Journal
2. Personal Reaction
3. Autobiography

B. Supported Writing
1. Biography
2. Essay
3. Term Paper
4. Paragraphs and Compositions
• analysis
• cause/effect
• definition/classification
• process
• argumentation
• comparison/contrast
• problem/solution

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C. Business Writing
1. Resume
2. Business Letter
3. Business Report
4. Memo
5. E-mail

D. Other Types of Writing

1. Creative writing
2. Narrative/book report
3. Short story
4. Story Problem
5. Scientific/technical writing
6. Summary
7. Poetry
8. Description
9. Letter

THE WRITING PROCESS

A. Prewriting

B. Drafting

C. Revising the first draft

1. Editing
2. Proofreading

D. Writing the final draft

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 THE WRITING PROCESS
A. Prewriting

Because prewriting is the backbone of formal writing, it is an important first step.

Possible forms that prewriting can take include:

• Asking the 5W-How? Questions—Who? What? When? Where? Why? How?

• Brainstorming
• Clustering/Mapping/Webbing
• Outlining

For detailed information on these techniques and others, consult the Quick Reference
Handbook section of Elements of Language.
Third Course (9th)—pages 895-900
Fourth Course (10th)—pages 950-957
Fifth Course (11th)—pages 1037-1042
Sixth Course (12th)—pages 1075-1080

B. Drafting

With your prewriting in front of you, write your first draft. Follow these guidelines:

• Try to write the whole paper at once.

• Double space your paper and leave plenty of room in the margins.
• At first, don’t worry about grammar and spelling.
• The end of your paper should come to a closing thought.

For other suggestions for your first draft, consult the Quick Reference Handbook
section of Elements of Language.
Third Course (9th)—pages 889-891
Fourth Course (10th)—pages 943-946
Fifth Course (11th)—pages 1027-1030
Sixth Course (12th)—pages 1066-1069

C. Revising the first draft

Use the checklist on the following page as a guide when you revise your writing.
Remember: When you revise, you improve the thoughts and details that carry your
message.

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 Revising Checklist

Editing
9 Does my writing have a clear focus?
_____ Do I support my thesis statement?
_____ Does my writing follow a clear method of organization?
9 Do I need to add any information?
_____ Do I need to make my opening more clear and interesting?
_____ Does each paragraph after the introductory paragraph have a topic sentence?
_____ Does each topic sentence provide a smooth transition?
9 Do I need to cut any information?
_____ Do any of my details not belong?
_____ Do I repeat myself in parts?
_____ Do I say too much about a certain idea?
9 Do I need to rewrite any parts?
_____ Do some of my ideas sound unclear?
_____ Do I need to reword any explanations?
9 Do I need to reorder any parts?
_____ Do any ideas or details seem out of place?

Proofreading Guidelines
_____ Is every sentence complete, not a fragment or a run-on?
_____ Are punctuation marks used correctly?
_____ Are the first words of sentences, proper nouns, and proper adjectives capitalized?
_____ Does every verb agree in number with its subject?
_____ Are verb forms used correctly?
_____ Are subject and object forms of personal pronouns used correctly?
_____ Does every pronoun agree with its antecedent in number and gender?
_____ Are pronoun references clear?
_____ Are frequently confused words (such as fewer and less, affect and effect) used
correctly?
_____ Are all words spelled correctly?
_____ Is the paper neat and in correct manuscript form?

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D. Writing the Final Draft

Revise your final draft following the teacher’s guidelines.

The following rubrics are for single-paragraph writing and for multi-paragraph
writing.

School-wide Writing Rubric Shelbyville High School

For Single Paragraph Writing Spring 2005

5—This well written paragraph includes:

• a topic sentence
• convincing development of the topic
• clearly developed ideas in the student’s own words
• no or few flaws in mechanics

4—This above-average paragraph includes:

• a topic sentence
• an obvious attempt at expressing and developing complex ideas
• language is less sophisticated, consistent, or expressive as in the 5 ranking
• diminished treatment of the topic
• minor flaws in mechanics

3—This average paragraph includes:

• an undeveloped topic sentence
• unclear or over-simplified control of content
• a lack of vividness and clarity in written expression
• some flaws in mechanics

2—This below-average paragraph includes:

• a vague or superficial topic sentence
• development that is unconvincing, logically flawed, or misguided
• apparent lack of control both over content and mechanics
• weakness in diction, organization, syntax, and/or grammar
• flaws in mechanics that interfere with understanding

1—This unacceptable paragraph includes:

• lack of a topic sentence or one that is incomprehensible
• poor writing
• lack of clarity or coherence
• ill organization; illogical statements; incomplete thoughts
• distracting flaws in grammar and mechanics

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School-Wide Writing Rubric
For Multi-Paragraph Writing
4 3
Word Usage • Chooses words appropriately
and to clearly convey the
Vocabulary intended meaning
• Uses varied and vivid
vocabulary
Language in • Few or no spelling errors
Use • No errors in fundamental
areas such as punctuation,
capitalization, and grammar
• Uses strong, varied sentence
structure
• No run-ons or fragments
Ideas, Tone, • Follows all directions
& Style • Addresses all of the specific
points of the prompt
• Gives well developed,
supporting details
• Tone is appropriate to the
audience and purpose
• to the audience and purpose
Organization • Presents a meaningful whole
with beginning, middle, and
end
• Includes a clearly defined
thesis statement
• Obvious logical progression
• Uses several strong
transitions
Subject- • Extensive knowledge and
specific application of course content
Content
• Words clearly convey
intended meaning
• Some use of varied and vivid
vocabulary
• Some spelling errors
• Few errors in fundamental
areas such as punctuation,
capitalization, and grammar
• No run-ons or fragments
• Uses some varied sentence
structure
• Follows most directions
• Addresses most of the
specific points of the prompt
• Gives adequate supporting
details, but details may not
be developed
• Tone is generally appropriate
• Has beginning, middle, and
end
• Thesis statement not clearly
stated or misplaced
• Apparent logical order
• Some transitions
• Substantial knowledge and
application of course content
6
2 1
• Words usually convey
intended meaning
• Predictable/common words
are used
• Many spelling errors
• Some errors in
fundamental areas such as
punctuation, capitalization,
and grammar
• Contains some run-ons or
fragments
• Uses uninteresting
sentence structure
• Follows few directions
• Addresses few of the
specific points of the
prompt
• Gives few supporting
details and/or includes
unrelated information
• Tone is somewhat
appropriate to the audience
and purpose
• Has only two of the key
elements (beginning,
middle, end)
• Thesis statement not
supported
• Somewhat logical
• Few (not enough)
transitions
• Acceptable knowledge and
application of course
content
Shelbyville High School
Revised June 2005
Points
• Inappropriate word choices
often make meaning
unclear
• Predictable/common words
are used
• Numerous spelling errors
• Many errors in
fundamental areas such as
punctuation, capitalization,
and grammar
• Contains many run-ons or
fragments
• Uses weak sentence
structure
• Does not follow directions
• Does not address the
specific points of the
prompt
• Gives little supporting
detail and/or includes
unrelated information
• Tone is not appropriate to
the audience and purpose
• Has only one of the key
elements
• No thesis statement
• Lack of logical
organization
• No transitions
• Limited knowledge and
application of course
content
 Commonly Misused and Misspelled Words

The words listed below are commonly confused or misspelled. In your written work, check to make
sure that you apply these words correctly. Sample sentences are included for some words.

Commonly confused words:

accept except
I accept your help. Except for my good friend, everyone is here.

affect effect
These measures have been designed to affect savings. [influence]
The measures have been designed to effect savings. [bring about]

are our

awhile (adverb) a while (noun phrase)

It took awhile to get down the hill. [quite long]
It took a while to get down the hill. [a noun phrase meaning a long time]
I’ll stay for a while. [use as a noun after the preposition for]

bought brought
breath (noun) breathe (verb)
choose chose

due do
It’s due tomorrow.
I didn’t do that.

its it’s
Its is the possessive form of the pronoun it (never use an apostrophe):
The cat licked its paws.

It’s is a contraction for it is or it has (always use an apostrophe):

It’s the funniest show I’ve seen in years.

knew new
know no

lie lay
lie, lay, lain (to recline, to rest, or remain in a lying position)
I need to rest. I’m going to lie down. Y

lay, laid, laid (to put, to place something)

Lay the book on the table. He laid the book on the table.

lose loose
morning mourning

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passed (verb) past (preposition)
He passed a dessert to me.
I drove far past that point.

quite quiet quit

raise (transitive) rise (intransitive)

The effect of the law was to raise prices again. [to force something to move upward]
The river has been rising all night. [to go up]

sale sell sail

sit set
She has been sitting by the telephone all evening. [to rest, be in an upright sitting position]
Extra chairs were set in the aisles by the ushers. [to put, to place something]

than then
there their they’re
though through thorough threw

to too two
Give the book to me, please. [preposition]
We will have to leave early. [part of infinitive form of verb]
Devon is a sophomore, too. [also]
It is too late to go now. [too much]

well good
The adjective good may be used with linking verbs such as be, seem, or appear.
Plans for the reunion are looking good.
It looks good.

The pants fit well. [adverb]

When applied to people, well usually refers to a state of health.
Matt may look good, but he’s not well.

where were
whether weather
whole hole

wonder wander
I wonder where I’ll be in five years.
The dog wandered throughout the countryside before returning home.

your you’re
This is your new house. [possessive]
You’re my best friend. [contraction of You are]

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Commonly misspelled words (spellings below are correct):

a lot himself themselves

across lead (present tense) lEd (past tense)
all right (never alright) no one
appreciate occurrence occurred
beginning original
business paid
convenient convenience position
definitely recEive decEive concEive
dragged separate
etc. (= et cetera in Latin “and the rest”) sequel
familiar similar
February supposedly
tries
truly

Refer to lists of Commonly Misspelled Words and Words Often Confused in the Quick
Reference Handbook section of Elements of Language.

Principal Parts of Common Irregular Verbs:

Present Past Past Participle

bear bore (have) borne

beat beat beaten
begin began begun
bite bit bitten
blow blew blown
break broke broken
bring brought brought
burst burst burst
catch caught caught
choose chose chosen
come came come
creep crept crept
dive dived dived
do did done
draw drew drawn
drink drank drunk
drive drove driven
eat ate eaten
fall fell fallen
flee fled fled
fling flung flung

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 Present Past Past Participle

fly flew (have) flown

freeze froze frozen
get got got or gotten
give gave given
go went gone
grow grew grown
hurt hurt hurt
know knew known
lay laid laid
lead led led
lend lent lent
lie lay lain
lose lost lost
ride rode ridden
ring rang or rung rung
rise rose risen
run ran run
say said said
see saw seen
set set set
shake shook shaken
shine shone shone
sing sang or sung sung
sink sank or sunk sunk
sit sat sat
slay slew slain
speak spoke spoken
spring sprang or sprung sprung
steal stole stolen
sting stung stung
swear swore sworn
swim swam swum
swing swung swung
take took taken
tear tore torn
throw threw thrown
wear wore worn
write wrote written

Additional irregular verbs may be listed in the Usage section of Elements of Language.

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 BASIC GRAMMAR AT A GLANCE

Section Page Section Page

1. Agreement 11 8. Fragments 19
2. Ambiguous Reference 12 9. Hyphenation 19
3. Antecedent 12 10. Numbers 19
4. Apostrophe 14 11. Quotation Marks 21
5. Capitalization 15 12. Run-on Sentence 22
6. Comma 17 13. Semicolon and Colon 23
7. Comma Splice 18

1. Agreement

A. A verb must agree with its subject in person and number.

Singular: The main road goes through the center of town.

Plural: Both main roads go through the center of town.

B. The following words are usually singular: each, either, neither, one, everyone,
everybody, no one, nobody, anyone, someone, somebody.

Each has a motorcycle.

Each of the boys has a motorcycle.

Everyone wants more money.

Every one of the workmen wants more money.

C. The words some, all, and most may be either singular or plural, depending upon
whether they refer to a quantity of something (singular) or to a number of things
(plural); none and any may also be singular or plural, depending upon whether
the speaker is thinking of one thing or several.

Some of the money was stolen.

All of the fruit looks ripe.
Most of the book was interesting.
None of the players was injured. [Not one was injured.]
None of the players were injured. [No players were injured.]
Any of these authorities is reliable. [Any one is reliable.]
Any of these authorities are reliable. [All are reliable.]

D. When a compound subject is considered as a unit, not as two distinct things, it

takes a singular verb.

Macaroni and cheese is the cafeteria special on Friday.

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 E. When two subjects, one of which is singular and the other plural, are joined by
or or nor, the verb agrees with the nearer subject.

Either the judge is wrong or the lawyers are wrong.

F. Collective nouns may be either singular or plural. A collective noun names a

group: crowd, committee, jury, class. A collective noun takes a plural verb when
the speaker is thinking of the group as a unit.

The team were talking over some new plays.

The team was the best in the county.
The family have agreed among themselves to present a solid front.
The family is the basic unit of our society.

2. Ambiguous (Unclear) and Weak References

A. Ambiguous reference occurs when a pronoun refers confusingly to two

antecedents so that the reader does not know at once which antecedent is meant.

Ambiguous: Jesse told Chris that he was too young for college.
In this sentence the pronoun he could refer to either Jesse or Chris.

B. Weak reference occurs when the antecedent has not been expressed but exists
only in the writer’s mind.

We spent a day aboard a fishing boat, but we didn’t catch a single one.
In this sentence there is no antecedent of the pronoun one. The adjective fishing is
not the antecedent. The writer meant the pronoun to stand for the noun fish.

3. Antecedent A pronoun must refer clearly to the right antecedent.

The cases of personal pronouns are listed below as an aid in understanding what
case to use.

Nominative Case Singular Plural

First Person I we
Second Person you you
Third Person he, she, it they

Objective Case Singular Plural

First Person me us
Second Person you you
Third Person him, her, it them

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 Possessive Case Singular Plural
First Person my our
Second Person your your
Third Person his, her, its their

A. The subject of a verb is in the nominative case.

When you use a pronoun as a subject, it should be in the nominative case.

She and I are good friends.

Neither Matt nor he was in school today.
[Someone calls and asks] Is Sarah home? [Sarah’s answer] This is she.

B. The object of a verb is in the objective case.

The object of a verb answers the question “What?” or “Whom?” after the verb.

I saw her. [Saw whom?]

She greeted me cordially. [Whom?]
I remember him very well. [Whom?]

C. The object of a preposition is in the objective case.

Errors in the use of the pronoun as the object of a preposition, like those made when it
is the object of a verb, usually occur when the object is compound.

Give the message to either Sarah or her. [to her]

I begged a ride from Tony and him. [from him]
This is between you and me.

D. Who and Whom (interrogative pronouns)

Who is nominative; whom is objective.

Who left his backpack here?

Whom did he call?

When the interrogative pronoun is used immediately after a preposition, whom is the
only correct form.

To Whom It May Concern:

To whom were you speaking?
This is for whom?

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 E. Who and Whom introducing a subordinate clause

The case of the word introducing a subordinate clause is determined by its use in the
clause that it introduces.

In order to analyze a who-whom problem, follow these steps:

1. Pick out the subordinate clause.

2. Determine how the pronoun is used in the clause—subject, predicate nominative,
object of verb, object of preposition—and decide its case according to the usual
rules.

The new teacher, who has taken Mrs. Fox’s position, comes from southern Indiana.
[who is used as the subject of the clause]

4. The Apostrophe

Use an apostrophe to form the possessive case of nouns and indefinite pronouns and in a
contraction. Do not use an apostrophe to form the possessive case of personal pronouns.

A. To form the possessive case of a singular noun, add an apostrophe and an s.

Father’s opinion
Man’s coat
Chris’s hat [one-syllable name]
Mr. Furness’ car [more than one-syllable name]
the princess’ wedding
Odysseus’ travels

B. To form the possessive case of a plural noun not ending in s, add an apostrophe
and an s.

women’s fashions
children’s games

C. To form the possessive case of a plural noun ending in s, add the apostrophe
only.

boys’ gymnasium (not boy’s)

the Joneses’ tennis court

Note: Do not use the apostrophe to form the plural of a noun.

WRONG Bicycle’s and truck’s are not allowed on the parkway’s.
RIGHT Bicycles and trucks are not allowed on the parkways.

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 D. The indefinite pronouns one, everyone, everybody, etc., form their possessive case
in the same way as nouns.

Everyone’s prediction was wrong.

E. Personal pronouns in the possessive case (his, hers, its, ours, your, theirs, whose)
do not require an apostrophe.

WRONG I thought the car was her’s.

RIGHT I thought the car was hers.

WRONG You have seen baseball at it’s best.

RIGHT You have seen baseball at its best.

F. Use an apostrophe to indicate where letters have been omitted in a contraction.

For do not the contraction is don’t (letter o omitted)

For it is the contraction is it’s (letter i omitted)
For they are the contraction is they’re (letter a omitted)

5. Capitalization

A. Capitalize the first word in any sentence.

B. Capitalize the first word of a direct quotation.

Mr. Jackson said, “Your sister is her own worst enemy.”

Do not capitalize the first word of a quoted sentence fragment.
I agree with Mr. Jackson’s remark that my sister is “her own worst enemy.”

C. Capitalize proper nouns and proper adjectives.

A proper noun is the name of a particular person, place, or thing. The opposite of a
proper noun is a common noun, which is not capitalized.

PROPER NOUNS COMMON NOUNS

James McCall man
Canada country
Ohio River river

A proper adjective is an adjective formed from a proper noun.

PROPER NOUNS PROPER ADJECTIVES

England English
Europe European

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D. Capitalize the names of persons.

E. Capitalize geographical names.

CITIES, TOWNSHIPS, COUNTIES, STATES, COUNTRIES, CONTINENTS:

Garden City, Addison Township, Shelby County, Indiana, United States of America,
North America

ISLANDS, PENINSULAS, STRAITS, BEACHES: Sea Island, Iberian Peninsula,

Strait of Gibraltar, Daytona Beach

BODIES OF WATER: Shafer Lake, Lake Erie, Mississippi River, Atlantic Ocean,
Baltic Sea, Hudson Bay

MOUNTAINS: Rocky Mountains, Pike’s Peak

STREETS: Miller Street, Washington Avenue, Forty-second Street, Haven Drive

PARKS, FORESTS, CANYONS, DAMS: Yosemite National Park, Hoosier National

Park, Grand Canyon, Hoover Dam

RECOGNIZED SECTIONS OF THE COUNTRY OR WORLD: the South, the

Northwest, the Far East

F. Do not capitalize east, west, north, and south when they indicate directions. Do
capitalize them when they refer to recognized sections of the country or world.

Turn east at the next corner.

You will see the store on the north side of the street.
We were going south when the car hit us.
To understand America, visit the Middle West.
We are going South for the winter.

G. Do not capitalize a word used with a proper noun or adjective unless the word is
part of a name, in which case it is a proper noun.

The great city of Chicago, New York City; the valley of the Hudson, the Hudson
Valley; Chinese restaurant, Sing Lee’s Chinese Restaurant

Note: Do not capitalize such words as hotel, theater, church, high school, college, and
university unless they are part of a proper name.
Signature Inn Hotel a hotel in Indianapolis
Purdue University a university in Indiana
Shelbyville High School a high school textbook
United States Post Office the local post office

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 BUILDINGS, BUSINESS FIRMS, AND BRAND NAMES OF BUSINESS
PRODUCTS: Chrysler Building, American Airlines, Nike, Cheerios, Coca-Cola

CALENDAR ITEMS: Sunday, November, Christmas Eve, Labor Day

GOVERNMENT BODIES: Congress, House of Representatives, Securities and

Exchange Commission, Treasury Department

H. Do not capitalize the names of school subjects, except the languages. Course
names followed by a number are usually capitalized.

English, French, Spanish, Latin, German, Italian, Japanese

algebra, art, chemistry, biology
Algebra II, History III, Art 102, Biology I

Summary Style Sheet

Mexico City a city in Mexico
Twenty-ninth Street across the street
the South a mile south
Ford Motor Company an automobile company
the Freshman Class freshman classes
Principal Zobel Mr. Zobel, the principal
Don’t tell Mother Don’t tell my mother
Uncle Bill my uncle

6. Comma

A. Use commas to separate items in a series.

He was formerly on the staff of the embassies in Moscow, Vienna, and Madrid.
We had a refreshing, exciting, entertaining experience.

B. Use commas to set off expressions that interrupt the sentence.

A syndicated column by Bernard Silverman, the noted author, will appear in the
Times-News.
I don’t know, Alice, where your brother is.
My father, I am sure, will let me have the car tonight.
Yes, you were elected.

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 C. In dates and addresses every item after the first is enclosed by commas.

Our idea was to hold a class reunion on June 18, 2000, at the high school.
Address me at 222 Twin Oaks Road, Akron, Ohio, after the first of March.
Their son was born on Monday, May 1, 1999, in Baltimore, Maryland.

D. A nonessential clause or phrase is set off by commas.

A nonessential subordinate clause or participial phrase contains information that is

not necessary to the basic meaning of the sentence.

Joan Thomas, who was offered scholarships to three colleges, will go to Mt. Holyoke.
Bismarck, which is the capital of North Dakota, is in the central part of the state.
My little brother, playing in the street, was struck by a car.
Mrs. Hampton, frightened by the thunder, locked herself in a closet.

E. Use a comma before and, but, or, nor, for, yet when they join main clauses unless
the clauses are short.

The Council meeting was unusually productive, for no one raised any objections.
The first two acts were slow moving, but the third act was full of action.
You go ahead and I’ll follow.

F. Use a comma after an introductory adverb clause, an introductory participial

phrase, or a succession of introductory prepositional phrases.

While Mario put the costume on, his accompanist played “Deep Purple.”
Watching the game from his elm-tree vantage point, Joe forgot to hold on.
At the edge of the deep woods near Lakeville in Cumberland County, he built a small
log cabin.
NOTE: A single introductory prepositional phrase need not be followed by a comma unless it is
parenthetical (by the way, on the contrary, etc.) or necessary to prevent confusion.
In the morning I am never wide awake.

7. Comma Splice

A comma splice is a mistake made when two independent clauses are connected with
only a comma. The comma is not enough: a period, semicolon, or conjunction is needed.

Splice: People say that being a stay-at-home mom or dad is an important job, their
actions tell a different story.
Corrected: People say that being a stay-at-home mom or dad is an important job, but
their actions tell a different story.
Corrected: People say that being a stay-at-home mom or dad is an important job; their
actions tell a different story.

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 Corrected: People say that being a stay-at-home mom or dad is an important job. Their
actions tell a different story.

8. Sentence Fragment

A sentence fragment is a group of words that does not express a complete thought.

Fragment: Waiting for her mother to pick her up.

Corrected: On the school steps I saw Alice, waiting for her mother to pick her up.
Fragment: To go with Bill to the game at West Point.
Corrected: My parents gave me permission to go with Bill to the game at West Point.

9. Hyphenation

A. Hyphenate compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine. Hyphenate

fractions when used as adjectives before the word they modify.

thirty-three students
a two-thirds majority BUT two thirds of the students

B. Hyphenate a compound adjective.

a second-story room a room in the second story

an after-school meeting a meeting after school
dark-colored glasses glasses of a dark color
door-to-door soliciting soliciting door to door
well-planned program The program was well-planned.

C. Use a hyphen with all prefixes before proper nouns and with the prefixes ex-,
self-, all- and the termination –elect with any nouns.

un-American ex-president
Pan-American self-imposed
anti-Russian all-star
pro-British governor-elect

10. Numbers

A. Numerals or Words

Numbers from one to one hundred are usually written as words; numbers 101 and
greater are usually written as numbers. Hyphenate numbers written as two words if
less than one hundred.
two, seven, ten, twenty-five, 106, 1,079

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 The same rule applies to the use of ordinal numbers.
second, tenth, twenty-fifth, ninety-eighth, 106th, 333rd

If numbers greater than 101 are used infrequently in a piece of writing, you may spell
out those that can be written in one or two words.
two hundred, fifty thousand, six billion

You may use a combination of numerals and words for very large numbers
1.5 million, 3 billion to 3.2 billion, 6 trillion

Numbers being compared or contrasted should be kept in the same style

8 to 11 years old or eight to eleven years old

Particular decades may be spelled out or written as numerals

the ‘80s and ‘90s or the eighties and nineties

B. Numerals only

Use numerals for the following forms: decimals, percentages, pages, chapters (and
other parts of a book), addresses, dates, telephone numbers, identification numbers,
and statistics.
26.2 8 percent Chapter 7
pages 287-289 Highway 36 (212)555-1234
398-55-0000 a vote of 23 to 4 May 8, 2005

Note: Abbreviations and symbols are often in charts, graphs, footnotes, and so forth,
but typically are not used in texts.
He is five feet one inch tall and ten years old.
She walked three and one-half miles to work through twelve inches of snow.

However, abbreviations and symbols may be used in scientific, mathematical,

statistical, and technical texts.
Between 20% and 23% of the cultures yielded positive results.
Your 245B model requires 220V.

Always use numerals with abbreviations and symbols.

5’4”, 8%, 10 in., 3 tbsp., 6 lb. 8 oz., 90oF.

C. Hyphenated Numbers

Hyphens are used to form compound modifiers indicating measurement. They are
also used for inclusive numbers and written-out fractions.
a three-mile trip the 2001-2005 presidential term
a 2,500-mile road trip one-sixth of the pie
a thirteen-foot clearance three-eighths of the book

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 D. Time and Money

If time is expressed with an abbreviation, use numerals; if it is expressed in words,

spell out the number.
4:00 a.m. or four o’clock (not 4 o’clock)
the 5:15 p.m. train
a seven o’clock wake-up call

If money is expressed with a symbol, use numerals; if the currency is expressed in

words, spell out the numbers.
$20 or twenty dollars (not 20 dollars)

Abbreviations of time and of money may be used in text.

The concert begins at 7:00 p.m., and tickets cost $30.

E. Words Only

Use words to express numbers that begin a sentence.

Fourteen students “forgot” their assignments.
Three hundred contest entries were received.

Use words for numbers that precede a compound modifier that includes a numeral.
(If the compound modifier used a spelled-out number, use numerals in front of it.)
She sold twenty 35-millimeter cameras in one day.
The chef prepared 24 eight-ounce filets.

Use words for the names of numbered streets of one hundred or less.
Ninth Avenue
123 Forty-fourth Street

Use words for the names of buildings if that name is also its address.
One thousand State Street Two fifty Park Avenue

Use words for references to particular centuries.

the twenty-first century the fourth century B.C.E.

11. Quotation Marks

Use quotation marks to enclose a direct quotation—a person’s exact words.

A. A direct quotation begins with a capital letter.

I heard her say, “Complete the lesson at home.”

21
 B. When a quoted sentence is divided into two parts by such interrupting
expressions as he said, she replied, Jack added, etc., the second part begins with a
small letter unless some other rule requires a capital.

“Go home,” he pleaded, “before you cause more trouble.”

C. If the second part of a broken quotation is a new sentence, it begins with a capital
letter.

“Drive carefully,” he warned. “Speed is the cause of most accidents.”

D. A direct quotation is set off from the rest of the sentence by commas.

She said, “We can reach them by telephone.”

E. Question marks and exclamation points are placed inside the closing quotation
marks if they belong with the quotation; otherwise they are placed outside.

“Are the players ready?” asked the referee.

Were you surprised when he said, “Hop in”?

F. When a quoted passage consists of more than one paragraph, place quotation
marks at the beginning of each paragraph and at the end of the entire passage,
not at the end of each paragraph.

G. Use single quotation marks to enclose a quotation within a quotation.

I remember her exact words, “For tomorrow read Frost’s poem ‘Mending Wall.’”

H. When you write dialogue, begin a new paragraph every time the speaker
changes.

I. Use quotation marks to enclose titles of chapters, articles, short poems, and other
parts of books and magazines.

Read Chapter 37, “Victorian Poetry.”

I enjoyed Hollis Alpert’s story “The Home of a Stranger” in the New Yorker.

12. Run-on Sentence

A run-on is two (or more) sentences joined without adequate punctuation or a connecting
word. One sentence is permitted to “run on” into the next.

run-on sentence
The choice of a camera is difficult, there are many good kinds on the market.

22
 These two sentences should either be completely separated by a period or joined into one
sentence by means of a conjunction or a semicolon. There are four ways of removing the
error:

1. The choice of a camera is difficult. There are many good kinds on the market.
2. The choice of a camera is difficult, but there are many good kinds on the market.
3. The choice of a camera is difficult because there are many good kinds on the
market.
4. The choice of a camera is difficult; there are many good kinds on the market.

13. Semicolon and Colon

A. Use a semicolon between main clauses not joined by and, but, or, nor, for, yet.

Representatives of fifty-nine nations attended the spring meeting of the General

Assembly; they remained in session from April 5 to May 18.

B. Use a semicolon between main clauses joined by the words for example, for
instance, that is, besides, accordingly, moreover, nevertheless, furthermore,
otherwise, therefore, however, consequently, also, thus, instead, hence, still.

Tension rose rapidly during yesterday’s meeting; nevertheless, Council members

remained calm.

C. Use a semicolon between main clauses if there are commas within the clauses;
and between items in a series if the items contain commas.

The following business executives were elected to the Board of Education: John
White, owner of White’s Department Store; Allen Norton, vice-president of the
Farmers State Bank; and Michael Todd, president of the American Cement Company.

D. Use a colon to mean “note what follows.” As a mark of punctuation which “looks
forward,” the colon is commonly used in three constructions:

Use a colon before a list of appositives or a list of any kind introduced formally by
such words as the following or as follows.

The car trunk was large enough for everything: rackets, golf clubs, fishing supplies,
and a picnic basket.

Use a colon before a long and formal statement.

Dr. Thomas made the following observation: The time is coming when a general
college education will be as common as a high school education is today.

23
 Use a colon between main clauses when the second clause explains or restates the
idea in the first clause.

These seat covers are the most durable kind: they are reinforced with double stitching
and covered with a heavy plastic coating.

Plagiarism

Using someone else’s words or ideas without giving proper credit—even if you do so
unintentionally—is called plagiarism. Plagiarism is dishonest. It is considered intellectual
stealing—a serious academic offense. Therefore, the best policy is to be scrupulous about
crediting not only direct quotations but also restatements of the original ideas of others. Do
not use another person’s phrases or exact sentence structure unless you enclose the material
in quotations marks.

Works-Cited List: Overview

The works-cited section lists all of the sources you have cited in your paper. It does not
include sources you may have read but did not cite in your paper. The works-cited list
follows the format below [MLA Style (Modern Languages Association), also available on-
line].

Page Numbers and Title: Begin your list of works cited on a new page (the next page after

the text), and number each page, continuing to number from the last page of the text.

• Type your last name and the page number in the same position as on the text

pages.

• Center the title Works Cited one inch from the top. Double-space everything.

Entries: Begin each entry flush with the left margin. If the entry runs more than one line,

indent additional lines five spaces.

• Double-space between all lines on the page of works cited.

• Single-space between words and after punctuation marks in a works-cited entry.

• List each entry alphabetically by the author’s last name. If there is no author, use

the first word of the title. (Disregard A, An, The.)

24
 Works-Cited Examples

Book with one author

Zubin, Robert J. Entering Space: Creating a Spacefaring Civilization. New York:

Tarcher/Putnam, 1999.

Book with two or three authors

Diehl, Daniel, and Mark Donnelly. Medieval Furniture: Plans and Instructions for Historical

Reproductions. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole, 1999.

Book with more than three authors

Roberts, Simon, et al. The Complete Java 2 Certification Study Guide. Alameda, CA:

Sybex, 1999.

Anthology with an editor but no author

Rubin, Steven J., ed. Parents Aren’t Supposed to Like it: Rock and Other Pop Musicians of

the 1990s. Vol. 3. Detroit: UXL-Gale, 1998.

Book with no author

1999 People Weekly Almanac. New York: Cader, 1998.

Article in a Reference Book

Mark, Herman F. “Polymers.” The New Encyclopedia Britannica: Macropaedia. 15th ed.

1991.

Magazine article

Anderson, Kelli. “Going to the Dawgs.” Sports Illustrated 15 Nov. 1999: 116-19.

Newspaper article

Mullen, William. “Dinosaur Bones in Sahara Prove a Monster Find.” Chicago Tribune 12

Nov. 1999, late ed., sec. 1:1+.

25
Government Publication

United States. National Institute on Drug Abuse. Preventing Drug Use Among Children and

Adolescents. Bethesda, MD: NIH, 1997.

Films and Videotapes

Going Back: A Return to Vietnam. Videocassette. Virginia Productions, 1982.

Personal Interview conducted by author of paper

O’Connell, Amanda. Telephone interview. 7 Jan. 2000.

Web Site (Professional)

ESPN.com. 12 Nov. 1999. ESPN Internet Ventures. 24 Nov. 1999 http://espn.go.com.

Article within a web site

Devitt, Terry. “Flying High.” The Why Files. 9 Dec. 1999. University of Wisconsin, Board

of Regents. 24 Nov. 1999 http://weather.com/learn_more/resources/metro.html.

On-line government document

United States. U.S. Census Bureau. Poverty in the United States: 1998. Sept. 1999.

12 Nov. 1999 http://www.census.gov/prod/99pubs/p60-207.pdf.

Article from on-line computer service

“Petroleum News 90.9 (Sept. 1998): 36 (1/6p.). MasterFILE Premier. EBSCOhost.

Lynchburg Public Library. 12 Nov. 1999 http://www.ebscohost.com.

26
The sources used by the committee in preparing this handbook are listed below. Please
consult them for further information.

Works Consulted

Means, Tom. Business Communications. United States: South-Western, 2004.

Odell, Lee, et al. Elements of Language: Fifth Course. Austin, TX: Holt, Rinehart, and

Winston, 2001.

Odell, Lee, et al. Elements of Language: Fourth Course. Austin, TX: Holt, Rinehart, and

Winston, 2001.

Odell, Lee, et al. Elements of Language: Sixth Course. Austin, TX: Holt, Rinehart, and

Winston, 2001.

Odell, Lee, et al. Elements of Language: Third Course. Austin, TX: Holt, Rinehart, and

Winston, 2001.

Pritchard, David, ed. The American Heritage Book of English Usage. Boston, MA:

Houghton Mifflin Company, 1996.

The School Town of Munster Writing Handbook. 2004.

Sebranek, Kemper, and Verne Meyer. Writers INC: A Student Handbook for Writing and

Learning. Wilmington, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2001.

VanderMey, Randall, et al. The College Writer: A Guide to Thinking, Writing, and

Researching. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.

Warriner’s Handbook of English: Book Two. New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Company,

1951.

Zemelman, Daniels, and Arthur Hyde. Best Practice: New Standards for Teaching and

Learning in America’s Schools. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1998.

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NOTES

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