Directionall Drillime Course Manual “The information contained berein ts elleved tobe securate and, where spproprise based on sound enginewring principles. However, Eastman Teleco Company makes 20 warranties or representations o that fie All sch information i furnished "939" and exe of such information i ently at he risk of ner Unauthorized copying nd or se ofthe information contsined herein sprostved a subject to penalties under copyright and other awe ofthe United Stes nd other counties. (01902 Eastman Teleco Company ‘Al Rights Reserves Wreeeco 15355 Vantage Parkway West Houston, Texee 77032nl anand ad Boats by SAS sansaTabie of Contents Applications of directional) drilling Definition of directional drilling . . Applications of directional drilling Multiple wells from offshore structures Relief Wells Controlling Vertical Wells, Sidetracking Inaccessible locations Fault Drilling Salt Dome Drilling Shoreline Drilling Exercises 6.2... 0.2.00. 05 Well planning Reference Systems and Coordinates, Depth References Inclination References ‘Azimuth Reference Systems UTMSystem, Lambert Projection Field Coordinates Direction Measurements ‘Azimuth. Quadrant Bearings Exercises Planning the well trajectory . . . The T ‘Types of Directional Patterns Catenary curve well pian Horizontal wells Allocation of slots to targets Kick-off point and build-up rate Tangent section Drop-off section The horizontal projection Lead angle Nudging.. 2... ee Techniques for “nudging” Planning a nudge programme 15 7 23 ne 13 nee 18 ee 1B ce 2B we BD 1a DATProximity (anti-collision) analysis Computing the well trajectory . . Simplified well planning using radius of curvature method . . . . ‘Well pattems Type | and Il (puild and hold) Well patterns Type Ul (“S-TYPE”) Torque and Drag . . Other considerations In well planning Exercises ........ Answer key... .. Well planning Types I and III (-curve) Well planning Types Il (S-curve) Sidetrack Example #1 (EC*TRAK) Sidetrack Example #2 (EC*TRAK) Downhole motors Introduction... . . . Positive displacement motors. . By-Pass Valve Motor Section Connecting rod assemblies Universai-joint Flex rod Bearing Section “Types of positive displacement motors Observations Characteristics ‘Navi-Drill Mach 1 NavieDrill Mach 2 Turbines ....... Drive Section Bearing Section Directional Turbine Observations Characteristics ‘Turbine formulae Navi-Drill operation Picking up the tool Surface check prior to ranning in hole Tripping. in hole Beginning Drilling ‘Tripping Out Checking the motor ii 244 244 245 2-46 + 224 + 224 + 2:23 + 2632 + 232 + 233 + 248 + 33 + 35 .. 317Advantages and disadvantages of turbines vs POMS . . . Questions on Section3 . . Deflection tools and techniques Whipstocks ......... Standard removable Whipstock Circulating Whipstock Permanent Casing Whipstock ‘Window-Master and Integral Window-Master Introduction The bottom hole assembly vetting 2... 0... ee eee Requirements for jetting Jetting Assemblies Nozzling the bit Procedure for Jetting ‘Advantages of the jetting technique Disadvantages of the ting technique Downhole motor and bentsub . Reactive Torque Factors affecting reactive torque Running Procedures PDMS versus turbines for use with a bent sub ‘Advantages of downhole motor & bent sub as deflection too! Disadvantages of downhole motor & bent sub as deflection tool Positive displacement motors with kick-off subs (bent housing) ‘Questions on Section 4 Tool face orientation Rules ofthumb .....- Rule of thumb orientation Dogleg and dogleg severity . . Calculating dogleg/dogleg severity with HP calculato> Exercises on calculating dogleg and dogieg severity Maximum permissible dogleg severity... . . Problems created by large dogleg severities Exercises Ouijaboard ...-....... Examples of use of the Ouija board Exercises on use ofthe Ouija board Using Ouija Board to estimate Dogleg/Dogleg Severity Examples on estimating dogleg using the Ouija board Estimating Course Length for inclination and azimuth. Estimating dogleg, course length, tool face orientation 4:10 4-10 412 412 413 413 414 414 414 415 ro) ve 820 se aT peo 59 . 5aUsing the Ouija Board for Angles over 30 523 Exercises on Using the Ouija Board for angles over 30 5-24 Using Ouija Board to Estimate Turn due to Reactive Torque 5-25 Exercises on Estimating Turn due to Reactive Torque 5-26 Estimating the Inclination and Azimuth at the bit depth 5.27 Exercises 5-28 Directional control with rotary assemblies Introduction ....... 63 Side Force and jut angle poe eee oes 64 Factors affecting bit trajectory 64 Basic directional control principles .............--...-- - 65 ‘The fulcrum principle 65 Factors which affect the rate of build 66 The stabilisation principle (packed hole principle) 61 The pendulum principle 616 Summary and Recommended Practices 618 Effect of bit type on directional behaviour of rotary assemblies .. . . . . 623 Stiffness of drill collars. . Effects of changing drill collar O.D. 625 ‘The effects of formation on bit trajectory .............++.- + 6:26 Relationship between the angle of dip and deviation force 67 Effective angle of dip ina deviated hole 629 Formation hardness 630 Summary of Formation Effects 630 The use of computer programs to predict BHA behaviour. ......... 6-31 ‘Structural mechanics analysis of the BHA 63 Computer methods of BHA analysis 632 Predicting directional trends ou Progressive drilling 637 Method of equilibrium curvature 637 ‘Computer simulation of BHA behaviour 638 Naviga n drilling systems Introduction © 0 73 The DTU navigation drilling system ..... ee . 74 DTU steerable motor 25 Mades of Operation 75 ‘The double tilted universal joint housing 72 Stabilizer mounted on the upper bearing housing 79 Theoretical geometric dogleg severity 710 Motor selection 71 NorTrak directional performance 712 Tiltangle 7A2First string (NorTrak) stabilizer 73, Placement 743 Size and design 73 First string (NorTrak) stabilizer size - oriented mode 7.43 First string (Nor Trak) stabilizer size - rotary mode 714 Kicking off 745 Bottomhole assemblies 745 Recommended guidelines when kicking off with NDS 747 Interval driting 718 Tangent section drilling 718 NDS assembly for tangent section drilling 719 Guidelines when drilling a tangent or hold section with NDS. 719 Azimuth control 739 Course corrections 720 Drop sections 720 Rig Floor Procedures Prior to Running 721 Tripping in 72 ‘Tripping Out 72 NorTrak oriented drilling 7B ‘Considerations - stabilizer and string drag, 74 Considerations - axial drag, Considerations - torsional drag Troubleshooting (oriented mode) NorTrak rotary drilling ‘Troubleshooting - rotary mode Reaming procedures Drilling the casing float and shoe (Checking NDS between trips ‘Questions on Section 7 Downhole tools Stablzers......--- ~~ Pee es Reasons for using Stabilizers 83 Available types of stabilizer 83 Selection of stabilizer type Sleeve stabilizers Welded blade stabilizers 85 Integral blade stabilizers 86 Roller reamers 86 Non-rotating rubber sleeve stabilizers 87 Note on spiral type 87 Drilling jars... . See ee Mechanical Jars 88 Eastman Teleco Hevi-Hitter mechanical drilling jar 88 Hydraulic jars 89 ‘The Jar King hydraulic drilling jar 810 Hydromechanical jars 8:10 Jar Boosters or Accelerators a1 Placement of Jars ail Some practical examples B12 Using jars 813Shock subshe ee fee 614 ‘The Eastman Teleco Shoc!-Eze shock absorber 814 Float valves and subs BAS BHA weight and weight on bit Along-hole components of force... .... 222 ee eee Required BHA weight for rotary assemblies ........... ee OS Exercises on Calculation of BHA Weight 96 Running drill pipe incompression ............. so0eco Critical buckling farce 97 Calculating critical buckling force 98 Exercises on calculating critical buckling force 99 Calculating BHA weight with drill plpe in compression... . . Exercises on BHA weight calculation Summary of running dril pipe in compression BHA requirements when the drillstring is not rotated . . . . . ses 910 + 917 Computer models of drillstring friction ‘The Eastman Teleco Torque and Drag V3.3 Module ‘Typical drillstring - wellbore friction factors Use of the torque and drag module in BHA weight evaluation BHA weight for steerable motor assemblies Additional exercises on BHA weight calculation... . . 60000 + 920 Projecting ahead Projecting ahead ‘nthe horizontal plane ........... feo ei0-€ Exercises . . . ees + 10-7 Projecting ahead in the vertical plane ....... ee 108 Exercise . . ve 10601 Projecting along a circular arc in the vertical plane ....... se 1042 Additional exercises on projecting ahead... 6... ee ee. 1013 Overview of surveying Reasons for Taking Surveys .........- eee .. 113 What do Survey Instruments Measure? ... 0.2.2.2... ce We Survey Tools used in Borehole Surveying ...........---.- = 11-4 Magnetic single shot surveys The basic components . . ee ee 12-3R Single Shot Instruments . Battery Pack Camera Timing Devices Compass/Angle Units Running Gear E Single Shot instruments Battery Pack 27 Camera 127 ‘Timing Devices - 127 ‘Compass/ Angle Units 27 Running Gear for E single shot 128 Heat Sibelds hey eft eer ye eee Running Procedures «0.1... . eee eee eee eee eee Electronic single shot timer 29 Running gear assembly 1240 Unloading and developing the film 241 Exercises Measurement while drilling Measurement while drilling... 2.2... 6.20 eee eee eee WOU) 6a0060d500000G0000000000en000RnGdcoU Downhole power Retrievable probe vs. collar mounted systems ............... Directional drilling «6.6... eee eee eee eee oe Formation evaluation... . 02-2... eee eee ee eee See Engineering data 2... 6... eee ete Operational considerations... 2.6.16. eee eee eee Research and development ©... 0... 6. eee eee eee Magnetic declination correction West declination correction ©... 0.0.0.2 eee eee eee eee East declination correction... 0.2.0... eee eee eee ee Grid convergence and magnetic convergence ..............- Exercises on magnetic declination correction ..............5 Magnetic interference and instrument spacing Causes of magnetic interference .....- 2.2.2 eee eeeThe effect of drill string magnetisation ...............---- Simple Rules of Thumb forSpacing ..............--05-. “Magcap” collar and compass spacing calculator............. ‘To determine collar length and compass spacing 156 To determine compass error given NMDC length/ compass spacing 156 Survey calculation methods Inputs and outputs... ........00, Avaliable methods ............ Tangential Method ..............., Balanced Tangential Method... 2-22.00. ee eee eee ee Average Angle Method 2... 0.2... eee ee Radius of CurvatureMethod ..... 2.2... 0000 e ee eee Minimum Curvature Method . . . . Definition of terms used in field calculations... ............45 Performing survey calculations ........--.-0--e00eee0eAppendix Mathematical solutions for basic well paths ‘Type ONE (bulld and hold) Type 2Well (Stype) 2... eee eee ee eee eee Average angle, radius of curvature and minimum curvature survey calculation Average angle calculations ........... ee eee. Aa Vertical section A23 “Average angle calculations on non-programmable calculator A25 Closure ADT og leg and dog leg severity A29 Radius of curvature formulae... 1... eee eee eee eee Aan Example: ADM Derivation of dogleg formula... 2.2... 6 eee eee eee eee eee A245 Derivation of minimum curvature formulae... ...--.+...005 A246 Other “magnetic” survey tools Standard magnetic multishot (drop multishot).......--....-. AM Running gear A32 Miniature multiple shot (mini multi-shot) A32 Heat Shields ABB Running procedure A33 Electronic magnetic surveyor (EMS) .............00.0006 AG System components AB4 Faster, more accurate surveys AM ‘Sample of data verification report Ass Wireline Steering Tools 2.0... ee eee eee ee A36 Advantages of the DOT. Agar Disadvantages of the D.OLT. ABI Gyroscopic survey systems and inertial navigation systems The level rotor gyro... eee eee Aad Photo-mechanical systems ..........-.0. 0000000005 AaSome Orientation ofthe gyro compass card A42 Example of orientation correction Ad Gyro drift AG Inter cardinal gimbal error Aad Gyro single shots AS Running procedure for conventional gyro single shots A46 Gyro-multishot surveys (photo-mechanical) Ass Running gear Aa Running procedure Ag8 ‘Advantages of GMS (photo-mechanical) Aso Disadvantages of GMS (photo-mechanical) Ags Surface readout gyro systems . Bega A410 ‘The Sigma gyro/encoder A410 ‘The Sigma probe A410 Sigma 175 Aan “Advantages of Sigma 175 Aa Disadvantages of Sigma 175, Aa Rate gyroscopes... 6... eee eee eee AANB ‘The integrating gyro AAAS ‘The rate integrating gyro A416 Rate gyro to measure components of Earth’s Spin Rate Aa? ‘The Seeker survey system AGB Running Procedure A420 Advantages of Seeker A420 Limitations of Seeker A421 Inertial navigation systems (INS) . . Be tee A 22) FINDS A423 Typical run procedures ALB RIGS ALB Typical run procedures ALB Laser gyro principles ... AME historical notes Introduction: Drilling in general... . . : ore - ASI Directional Drilling ....... Be ee AS2 Eastman Whipstock 2... 0.00 ce eee ee A53 H. John Eastman ........ ee eee ASa Frank L. Christensen ..........- fee AS4Introduction Directional drilling course manual Introduction From its early beginnings in the 1920s when it was regarded as a “black art”, directional drilling has evolved to the point where it can truly be regarded as a science, although not always an exact science. The offshore drilling industry is founded on directinal driling. ‘Without the use of directional drilling techniques, it would not be economical to produce cil from most offshore fields. Improvements in directional drilling tools and techniques coupled with advances in production techniques have led toa steady increase in the pro- portion of wells drilled directionally rather than vertically. As the search for oil extends into ever more hostile and demanding environments, this trend will continue. ‘Scope of the manual This manual covers all the tools and techniques used in normal directional drilt- ing, including the use of steerable motor systems. It is the course manual for East- man Teleco’s “Directional Drilling 2” course. This manual does not deal with Horizontal Drilling since that subject is dealt with in the manual for the “Hcrizon- tal Drilling 1” course. Diireczeo 15055 Vantage Parkway West Houston, Texas 7052BSSection Il Applications of directional drilling Ww Definition of directional drilling Directional Drilling isthe science of directing a wellbore along a predetermined trajectory to inter- secta designated sub-surface target. 1.2 Applications of directional drilling 1.2.1 Multiple wells from offshore structures ‘Today’s most common application of directional drilling techniques isin offshore drilling. Many oil and gas deposits in the Gulf of Mexico, North Sea and other areas are situated beyond the reach of land based rigs. To drill a large number of vertical wells from individual platforms is obviously im- practical and would be uneconomical. The conventional approach for a large oilfield has been toin- stall a fixed platform on the seabed, from which many directional wells may be drilled. The bbottomhole locations of these wells can be carefully spaced for optimum recovery. Figure 1-1 Mutiple wels tom otlchore stuctxes. osie2 EASTMAN Uigexo" | _ a iIna conventional development, the wells cannot be drilled until the platform has been constructed and installed in position. This may mean a delay of 2-3 years before production can begin. This delay can be considerably reduced by pre-drilling some of the wells through a subsea template while the platiorn: is being constructed. These wells are directionally drilled from a semi-submers- ible rig and tied back to the platform once it has been installed. 1.2.2 Relief Wells Directional techniques are used to drill relief wells in order to “kill” blowout wells. The relief well is deviated to pass as close as possible to the uncontrolled well in the reservoir. Heavy mud is [Pumped into the reservoir to overcome the pressure and bring the wild well under control FJ Figure 12 Roa ol 1.2.3 Controlling Vertical Wells Directional techniques are used to “straighten crooked holes”. n other words, when deviation oc- cursina well which is supposed tobe vetical, various techniques are used to bring the well back to vertical. This was one of the earliest applications of directional drilling. ~ Figure 13 Conrting Vrca Wet 06/92 ~ a Baker Hughes company1.2.4 Sidetracking Sidetracking out of an existing wellbore is another application of directional drilling. This side- tracking may be done to bypass an obstruction (a “fish”) in the original wellbore or to explore the ‘extent of the producing zone in a certain sector ofa field. Figure 14 Sidetacking 1.2.5 Inaccessible locations Directional wells are often drilled because the surface location directly above the reservoir is inac- cessible, either because of natural or man-made obstacles. Examples include reservoirs under cit- ies, mountains, lakes ete. Figure 1-5 Inaccessble locations 6/92 EASTMAN TELECO1.2.6 Fault Drilling Directional wells are also drilled to avoid drilling a vertical well through a steeply inclined fault plane which could slip and shear the casing, Y Figure 1-6 Faut Ong 1.2.7 Salt Dome Drilling Directional Drilling programmes are sometimes used to overcome the problems of salt dome drill- ing. Instead of drilling through the salt, the well is drilled at one side of the dome and is then devi- ated around and underneath the overhanging cap. Y Figure 1-7 Sahaome dni ~1.2.8 Shoreline Drilling. Inthe case where a reservar lies offshore but quite close to land, the most economical way to exploit the reservoir may be to dil directional wells froma land rg onthe coast. Figure 1-8 Shoreline dling, “These are only some of the many applications of directional drilling, Although itis nota new concept, hor zontal drilling s the fastest growing branch of directional ring, wth major advances occuring inthe tools and techniques used. There are numerous speci applications of horizontal drilling As stated earlier, discussion of horizontal dilingis beyond the scope ofthis manual.1.3 Exercises ‘After studying the material in Section One, try to answer the following questions without look- ing back atthe tex 1. List six applications of direction drilling. @) () © @ 0) Cc) 2. For the three applications above which you consider most important, ve a brie explanation of each @ Gi) a Baker Hughes eompany eeeSection ll Applications of directional drilling Objectives Upon completion of this section, the trainee should be able to: 1. Define “Directional Drilling”. 2. List and explain at least six applications of directional drilling.Objectives for Section 1 a ea : 0382Section, Well planning Objectives Upon completion of this section, the trainee should be able to: Describe the general aspects involved in well planning. Define the terms “measured depth”, “true vertical depth”, “inclination” and “azimuth”. Define and explain “True North", “Magnetic North” and “Grid North”. Explain why grid coordinate systems are used. Convert directions expressed as quadrant bearings into azimuths and vice versa. Describe the main features of the common well patterns and list the ap- plications and disadvantages of each. Explain what is meant by “nudging” and why it is done. Calculate proposals for basic “Type 1” and “S type” well pattems (2-4 well paths) using radius of curvature calculations.Objectives for Section 2 STSection Z Well planning Introduction ‘There are many aspects involved in planning a well in the widest sense. Many individuals are in- volved in designing various programmes for the well, eg. the mud programme, the casing pro- ‘gramme, the drill string design for each section, the bit programme, etc. The new engineered approach of Eastman Teleco to well planning means that we, as 2 company, may now be involved imareas such a drill string design which were not previously our concern. In this section, however, we shall concentrate on thase aspects of well planning which have al- ways been the province of directional drilling companies. 24 Reference Systems and Coordinates. With the exception of Inertial Navigation Systems, all survey systems measure inclination and azi- ‘muth at particular measured depths (depths measured ‘along hole’). These measurements must be tied to fixed reference systems so that the borehole course may be calculated and recorded. The ref- erence systems used are: Depth references ae 2 Inclination references: O Azimuth references 2.1.1 Depth References ‘There are two kinds of depths: Measured depth or “Along Hole Depth” is the distance measured along the actual course of the borehole from the surface reference point to the survey point. This depth is always measured in some way eg. pipe tally or wireline depth counter. True Vertical Depth (TVD) is the vertical distance from the depth reference level to a point on the borehole course, In most drilling operations the Rotary Table (RT) elevation is used as the working depth reference GBRT of RKB). This is also referred tas derrick floor elevation. For floating drilling rigs the rotary table elevation is not fixed and hence a mean rotary table elevation has to be used. ane -In order to compare individual wells within the same field, a common reference must be defined and always referred to. When drilling a relief well into a blow-out well, the difference in elevation between the wellheads has tobe accurately known. Offshore, mean sea level is sometimes used. a Variations in actual sea level from MSL can be read from tide tabies or can be measured. 2.1.2 Inclination References ‘The inclination of a well-bore isthe angle (in degrees) between the vertical and the well bore axis ata particular point. The vertical reference is the direction of the local gravity vector and would be indicated by, for example, a plumb bob. 2.1.3. Azimuth Reference Systems For directional surveying there are three azimuth reference systems: O Magnetic North True (Georgraphic) North O Grid North a All ‘magnetic type’ tools initially give an azimuth (hole direction) reading referenced to Magnetic North. However, the final calculated coordinates are always referenced to either True North or Grid North, True (Geographic) North This is the direction of the geographic North Pole which lies on the axis of rotation of the Earth. ‘The direction is shown on maps by the meridians of longitude. Grid North During drilling operations we are working on a curved surface, ie., the surface of the Earth, but ‘when we calculate horizontal plane coordinates we assume we are working on flat surface. Obvi- ously it is not possible to exactly represent part ofthe surface of a sphere on a flat well plan. Cor- rections have to be applied to the measurements. There are many different projection systems which can be used. 2.1.3.1 UTM System ‘Asan example of a grid system, let us examine the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) Sys- ‘tem. In the transverse mercator projection the surface of the spheroid chosen to represent the Earth is wrapped in a cylinder which touches the spheroid along a chosen meridian. (A meridizn isa circle running around the Earth passing through both geographic North and geographic South Poles.) ‘The meridians of longitude converge towards the North Pole and therefore do not produce a rectangu- lar grid system. The grid lines on a map forma rectangular grid system, the Northerly direction of which is determined by one specified meridian of longitude. This direction is called Grid North. tis identical to"True North only for the specified meridian. ‘The relationship between True North and Grid North is indicated by the angles ‘a’ in Figure 2-1. Convergence is the difference in angle between grid north and true north for the location being considered, ey Dee uyThe Noh a AN ‘The reference meridians used are 6 degrees apart starting at the Greenwich meridian, which means the ‘world is divided into 60 zones. The zones are numbered 0 to 60 with zone 31 having the O degrees me- ridian (Greenwich) on the left and 6 degrees East on the right. Each zone is further divided into sectors -a grid sector covering 8 degrees latitude starting from the equator and ranging from 80° South 10 80° North. The sectors are given letters ranging from C to X (excluding I and O). ‘Therefore each sector is uniquely identified by a number from 0 to 60 (zone number) and a letter. For example, the sector 31 U is shown in the diagram (below); this is the Southern North Sea. Figure 24 De Ww Des E Fr Figure 22 saz Dy receco™‘Coordinates in the UTM system are measured in metres. North coordinates are measured from the ‘equator. For the Northern hemisphere the equator is taken as 0.0m North whereas for the South- ‘em hemisphere the equator is 19,000,000m North to avoid negative numbers. The East coordinates for each sector are measured from a line 500,000m west of the central meridian for that sector. In other words, the central meridian for each zone is arbitrarily given the coordinate 500,000m East. Again this avoids negative numbers. So UTM coordinates are always Northings and Eastings and are always positive numbers. ee one Central Meridian i 550,027.0E <— 8258,194.0N L 00,000m E <— : To the Equator oure2s 2.1.3.2 Lambert Projection. - Analternative projection system used in some parts of the world is the conical projection or LAM- BERT system whereby a cone as opposed toa cylinder covers the spheroid under consideration. ‘This produces a representation with meridians as convergent lines and parallels as arcs of circles. Further discussion of the coordinate systems and map projections is beyond the scope of this text. ee ee2.1.4 Field Coordinates Although the coordinates of points on a wellpath could be expressed as UTM coordinates, this is. not the normal practice. Instead a reference point on the platform or rig is chosen as the local ori- {gin and given the coordinates 0.0. On offshore platforms this point is usually the centre ofthe plat- form. The Northings and Eastings ofall points on all the wells drilled from the platform are referenced to this single origin. This is important for comparing positions of wells in particular for anti-ollision analysis. 2.1.5 Direction Measurements Survey tools measure the direction of the wellbore on the horizontal plane with respect to the North reference, whether it be True or Grid North. There are two systems used: 2.4.5.1 Azimuth. In the azimuth system, directions are expressed as a clockwise angle from 0" to 359.99", with North being 0°. Figure 24 * Dro2.1.5.2 Quadrant Bearings 2 In the quadrant system, the directions are expressed as angles from 0°-90° measured from North in the two Northern quadrants and from South in the Southern quadrants. The diagram in Figure 2-6 ih Tustrates how to convert from the quadrant system to azimuth, and vice versa Figure 2-5 Figure 26 De Cy2.1.6 Exercises Convert the following quadrant bearings into azimuth. (Quadrant Bearing ‘Azimuth Example S64-4°E, 1155" N35°E S884 N66.5°W_ S22.25°E N35.5°W S89°E N714°E, $25.5°W N3aOW S15 Note The subjects of Magnetic Declination Corrections and Grid Convergence Corrections will be dealt with in detail later in the section on surveying. 22 Planning the well trajectory ‘One area of well planning in which directional companies are closely involved is the planning of the well trajectory. Again, this is not as simple a task as it might seem at first glance, particularly. ona congested multi-well platform. A number of aspects must be carefully considered before cal- culating the final well path. 2.2.1. The Target. The target is specified by the geologist, who will not merely define a certain point asthe target but also specify the acceptable tolerance, eg, a circle of radius 100 feet having the exact target as its centre. A target zone should be selected as large as possible to achieve the objective. If multiple zones are to be penetrated, the multiple targets should be selected so that the planned pattern is reasonable and can be achieved without causing excessive drilling problems. 2.2.2 Types of Directional Patterns With the advent of steerable systems, some wells are planned and drilled with complex paths in- volving 3-dimensional turns. This happens particulary in the case of re-drills, where old wells are sidetracked and drilled to completely new targets. ‘These complex well paths are, however, harder to drill and the old adage that “the simplest ‘method is usually the best” holds true. Therefore most directional wells are still planned using the traditional patterns which have been in use for many years. The common patterns used for the ver- tical projection are shown on the following pages. usi92TYPE 1 - BUILD and HOLD KICK-OFF POINT BUILD-UP SECTION ‘YARGET Figure2-7 Type 1 (Guid and hols) Features: O. Shallow kick-off point (KOP) Build-up section (which may have more than one build up rate) Tangent section Applications: D_ Deep wells with large horizontal displacements Moderately deep wells with moderate horizontal displacement, where intermediate casing is not required Boe kaon eadTYPE 2-S TYPE WELL -~ ‘TANGENT SECTION START of DROP DROP SECTION END of DROP HOLD TARGET Figure 28 Type 2 (6 Type wel) - Features: Shallow KOP D Build-up section Tangent section Drop-off section There are several variations: QBuild, Aold and drop back to vertical D Build, hold, drop and hold (itustrated above) A. Build, hold and continuous drop through reservoir ~. ose DAEBEZEONApplications: Multiple pay zones. D To reduce final angle in reservoir for easier completions. Lease or target limitations. 2 For well spacing requirements on multi-well fields. Deep wells with a small horizontal displacement Disadvantages: Increased torque and drag, Increased risk of key-seating. May give logging problems due to increased maximum inclination, = ealTYPE 3 - DEEP KICK-OFF and BUILD KICK-OFF POINT BUILD-UP SECTION ‘TARGET Figure 29 Type 3 (Deep Kickot and Bui) Features: Q Deep KOP Build-up section Short tangent section (optional) Applications: O Appraisal wells to assess the extent of a newly discovered reservoir. O Repositioning of the bottom part of the hole or re-drilling. Salt dome drilling. Disadvantages : Formations are harder so the initial deflection may be more difficult to achieve Q._ Harder to achieve desired tool face orientation with downhole motor deflection assemblies - more reactive torque (see section 4). Longer trip time for any BHA changes required. On multi-well platforms, only a very few wells may be given deep kick-off points because ofthe small separation of the slots and the dificaty of keeping wells vertical in firmer formation. Most wells rust be given shallow kick-off points to reduce congestion below the platform and minimise the risk of collisions.2.2.21 Catenary curve well plan Tthas been suggested that an efficient well path for many directional wells would be to plan the well as a continuous, smooth curve all the way from KOP to target; the so-called catenary method. A catenary curve is the natural curve that a cable, chain or any other line of uniform weight as- sumes when suspended between two points. The similar suspension of a drill string would also forma catenary curve. Proponents of the catenary method argue that it results in a smoother drilled wellbore, that drag, and torque are reduced and that there is less chance of key seating and differential sticking than with traditional well profiles. However, in practice itis hard to pick BHAs wirich will continu- ‘ously give the required gradual rate of build, soit i in reality no easier to follow a catenary curve well plan than a traditional well plan, Also, the catenary curve method produces a much higher maximum inclination than would result from the build and hold or S type patterns ‘Thus, although the catenary method has been tried with some success, it isnot widely used. It is NOT Eastman Teleco policy to recommend this type of profile. 2.2.2.2 Horizontal wells For many applications, the best well profile is one in which the inclination is built to 90° or even —) higher, in other words a horizontal well. As stated previously, horizontal drilling is not within the scope of this manwal. 2.2.3 Allocation of slots to targets Even this is not always as simple as you would think. Obviously, from a directional drillers view" ‘Point, slots on the North East of the platform or pad should be used for wells whose targets are in ‘a North Easterly direction. However, there may be other considerations, eg. water injection wells may have tobe grouped together for manifolding requirements. Also, a5 more wells are drilled and the reservoir model is upgraded, it has been known for targets to be changed! ‘The inner slots are used to drill to the innermost targets, ie, those targets at the smallest horizon- tal distances from the platform. These wells will be given slightly deeper kick-off points. The outer slots are used to drill to the targets which are furthest from the platform. These wells will be given shallow kick-off points and higher build-up rates to Keep the maximum inclination of the well as Tow as possible 2.2.4 Kick-off point and build-up rate The Selection of both the kick-off point and the build-up rate depend on many factors including the hole pattern selected, the casing programme, the mud programme, the required horizontal dis- placement and the maximum tolerable inclination. Choice of kick-off point may be severely lim- ited by the requirement to keep the well path at a safe distance from existing wells. The shallower the KOP and the higher the build-up rate used, the lower the maximum inclination, Build-up rates are usually in the range 1.5°/100’ M.D. to 4.0°/100' M.D. for normal direc- tional wells. The maximum permissible dogleg severity must be considered when choosing the appropriate rate, Jn practice, the well trajectory may be calculated for several choices of KOP and build-up rate and the results compared. The optimum choice is that which gives a safe clearance from all existing wells, keeps the maximum inclination within desired limits and avoids unnecessarily high dogleg severities. a kee2.2.5 Tangent section During the eighties, a number of extended reach drilling projects were successfully completed. If wells are drilled at inclinations up to 80°, the area which can be covered from a single plat- form is approximately 8 times that covered if the maximum inclination of the wells is limited to 60°. However, inclination angles over 65° may result in excessive torque and drag on the drill string and present hole cleaning, logging, casing, cementing and production problems. ‘These problems can all be overcame with today’s technology, but should be avoided when- ever there is an economic alternative. Experience over the years has been that directional control problems are aggravated when the tangent inclination is less than 15°. This is because there is more tendency for bit walk to occur, ie, changein azimuth, so more time is spent keeping the well on course. To summarise, most run-of-the-mill direc- tional weiis are stil planned with inclinations in the range 15" -60" whenever possible, 2.2.6 Drop-off section (On type wells, the rate of drop off is selected mainly with regard to ease of running casing and avoidance of completion and production problems. Itis much less critical with regard to drilling because there is less tension in the drill pipe run through this deeper dogleg and less time will be spent rotating below the dogleg. 2.2.7. The horizontal projection ‘On many well pians, the horizontal projection is just a straight line drawn from the slot to the target. On multi-well platforms it is sometimes necessary to start the well off in a differ- ent direction to avoid other wells. Once clear of these, the well is turned to aim at the tar- get. Of course, this is a 3-dimensional turn, but on the horizontal plan it would typically ook like Figure 2-10 on the next page. ‘The path of the drilled welt is plotted on the horizontal projection by plotting total North/South coordinates (Northings) versus total East/West coordinates (Eastings). These coordinates are cal- culated from surveys.Exploration, Inc arian 3G TRG Location : Nort seme 1 = 1000 East --> <== South Figure 240 This a 3:dimensional tun on the honzontal pan Ee Cie: creas mad2.2.8 2.3 2.3.1 2.3.2 Lead angle In the old days (pre 1985) it was normal practice to allow a “lead angle” when kicking off a well. Since roller cone bits used with rotary assemblies tend to “walk to the right”, the wells were gener- ally kicked off in a direction several degrees to the left of the target direction. In extreme cases the ead angles could be as large as 20°. ‘The greatly increased use of steerable motors and the widespread use of PDC bits for rotary drill- ing have drastically reduced the need for wells to be given a “lead angle”. Many wells today are deliberately kicked off with no lead angle, i. in the target direction Nudging ‘The technique of “nudging’ is used on platforms in order to “spread out” conductors and surface cas- ings and thereby minimise the chance of a collision when wells are drilled. Basically, when the hole for surface casing is drilled, some angle is built at alow rate (eg, 1°/100") in the chosen direction. AS well as the basic reason of “spreading things out”, other reasons for “nudging” are: . to drill from a slot located on the opposite side of the platform from the target, when there are other wells in between, b. to keep wells drilled in the same general direction as far apart as possible, and G. if the required horizontal displacement of a well is large compared to the total vertical depth, then it is necessary to build angle right below the surface conductor to avoid having to use a high rate of build. Techniques for “nudging” 1. When the formation is suitable (soft, jetting is the best technique to use. 2. The most common method is to use a mud motor of 914" OD or greater with a 1744" bit and a 142" bent sub. Using 2 112° bent sub gives a low build rate and hence a low dogieg severity as re- quired. The hole is opened out to the required gauge after the mud motor run, 3. Occasionally the job is performed with a large mud motor and 26” bit from the start. In this case either a 1%" or 2” bent sub might be used. Planning a nudge programme ‘The directions in which the wells are “nudged” should be chosen so as to achieve maximum sepa- ration. The wells will not necessarily be nudged in their target directions. ‘The nudges will not only be shown on the individual well plans for each well, but also a structure plot will be drawn which will show the well positions at the surface casing point after the nudge.- __Exploration, Inc. | 8 5 Siracture : Platform 5 — RG I Field 5 — RG Location « North S S a ° 3 ° - 2 S > oo 3- Em i v | = Figure 211 Typical évectonal vel plan showing both vertcal and hozontal projector, ealExploration, Inc. jracture : Platform 5 — IRG Field : Figld § ~ JRG £- a s ory i bi » OD = ! > I oe] ae 27] g 2 g 7 = : ~ 3 z i 3 — ee . ss ERT MN:[Siruclore | Plalform 5 - JRO Field S = RG Lecetion | North Seo ft Figura 2-13 Example of suace plan view of wels dled tom an ofthore patore <-— yynos BN eed24 Proximity (anti-collision) analysis ‘On multi-well projects, particularly offshore, there is only a small distance between slots. In order to eliminate the risk of collisions directly beneath the platform, a proposed well path is compared to existing and other proposed wells. The distances between other wells and the proposal are cal- culated at frequent intervals in the critical section. These calculations are performed using the EC'TRAK software. ‘Survey uncertainty must also be computed both for the proposed well and the critical existing. wells All the major operating companies have established criteria for the minimum acceptable separation of wells, which are usually linked to “cone of error” or “ellipse of uncertainty” calcula- tions. 25 Computing the well trajectory ‘The calculation of the well path is usually performed in the local Eastman Teleco office using the EC'TRAK software, Increasingly, the EC*TRAK software is also used by directional drillers at the rigsite on portable computers. ‘Simple well plans can be calculated using the TRAJECTORY (TR)) and WELL PLAN (WP) which are available in the HP4i drilling modules (‘chips") for the HP42C, CV and CX calculators. Comprehensive instructions on how to run these programs are given in the HP41 Module Docu- ‘mentation booklets which are distributed with the modules. ‘A.considerable amount of information is required before a well plan can be calculated and plotted. The following page shows a typical Well Planning Data Sheet. 92 Rong 2EASTMAN Reviaion DyFirece WELL PLANNING DATASHEET [| GENERAL INFORMATION SURFAGELOGATION ee TT = | T aoa : | setene temete | ‘OPTIGNSREFERENGEUNTS [eon nam — ona rane = = = cel Y TIE ON : “PLAN INFORMATION | 7 nation at Target ma ee - [cnet ener a once a | | rang Tterancen a Shape | Y ‘SIGNING ae _ _ eee ~~ ‘Sopteg yy cxmtemen, ‘Pan Reseed vy (we Punnas) | Pan Recaimsby(Cosnanaert ‘an Received wy customer, De ud2.6 Simplified well planning using radius of curvature method 2.6.1 Well patterns Type | and Wit (build and hold) Required data: Target horizontal plane coordinates VD, (Vertical depth of the kick-off point) O BUR Build up rate) 1D TVD True vertical depth of the target) Note: This procedure given on the following pages assumes the well to be vertical from surface 0 the KOP. Also this method only works for well trajectories which are in a single vertical plane. ‘The full derivation of all the formulae on Page 2-24 is given in Appendix 1. Using the given data listed above, the values listed below will be calculated. Q atvp _ change in True Vertical Depth vwinclination of the tangent section ~radius of the build section curve Jength of the build section curve ‘measured depth at the end of the build section --»-Total Measured Depth horizontal displacement at the end of the build section -horizontal displacement of the target obooooaced VD: .. Vertical depth at the end of the build section sree DI RCEEEEN.ATVD i t 1 t t t ' t ' ' ' t ' ' 1 t 1 t t i t 1 ' TvD a iy - oben en eee ee TMD | -—_% ___.._| gua ats Br1L Assuming the well isto be drilled from a platform or rig reference point, Fh s calculated from ‘the given target horizontal plane coordinates using the formula below. H2= VN/S coordinater 7+ E/W coordinate; * Figure 26 {f the well is drilled froma surface focation or “siot” which must also be referenced to the platform or rig reference point, the coordinates of the slot must also be considered by using the following, procedure to determine H,. z Figure 247 H2=V(N/S coordinater — N/S coordinates)? + ( E/W coordinater — E/W coordinates)”2. Calculate the A TVD using the following formula: ATVD=TVD~VDi 3. Calculate R using the following formula 18,000_ “x (BUR ) (R in feet BUR in degrees per 100’ ) 4. Calculate «using one of the two following formulas: If Hp is greaterthan R,then... + cost. R s[H2-R a= 90° — cos) ——— | + tan | ma a If He is less than R,then... a=90" — cos] ———_R_ Varvp? +(R—H2 )? 5, Calculate MD, using the following formula: MD1 “TUR x 100 6. Determine MD @ B using the following formula: MD@B=VDi+MD1 7.Calculate VD; VD2=VDi+(Rsina) 8, Calculate H, Hi=R (1~cos a) 9. The only remaining factor to determine is TMD which can be calculated inthe following manner. TMD =MD @B + V(TVD — V2)" +(H2- Hi eed2.6.2 Well patterns Type ll (“S-TYPE”) ‘When planning S-Type well patterns, wells that drop partially and maintain an inclination to the target (see Figure 2-19) are calculated using a method different than that used to calculate well pat- terns that return to vertical at the end of the drop section (see Figure 2-18). The following proce- lures address both of these S-Type patterns. Given factors: Coordinates. .Surface Slot Horizontal Plane a ‘arget Horizontal Plane Q pur. = id up rate @ por trop off rate a Vertical depth of the kick-off-point a vertical depth atthe end of the drop section a -vertical depth of the target op final inclination through the target in partial drop well patterns that do not retum to vertical in the drop section Using the given factors listed above, the values listed below will be calculated. inclination of the tangent section ~Fadius of the build section curve soFadius of the drop section curve _-measured depth at the end of the build section ‘vertical depth at the end of the build section \orizontal displacement at the end of the build section ‘measured depth at the start of the drop section Vertical depth at the start of the drop section -~-horizontal displacement at the start of the drop section - measured depth at the end of the drop section horizontal displacement at the end of the drop section. If the ‘well is vertical atthe end of the drop section, H3 also represents horizontal displace- ment of the target DTM versnnsnnn Atal measured depth tothe target euuuoouu0u0u0n0 DK. -horizontal displacement of the target in partial drop well pattems that do not return to vertical in the drop section vane‘VD, o-----------5 tw He Hs bl pe | VDs Figure 2.18 i j per)lg : 1 1 1B t i 4-8 +Mp wee eee Figure 219Note: The procedure given on the following pages assumes the well to be vertical from surface to the KOP. Also, this method only works for well trajectories which are in a single vertical plane. The full derivation of all the formulae in this section is given in Appendix I. 1. The radii of curvature of both the build up curve (R,) and the drop off curve (R,) are calculated in the same manner as before with Type I and III well pattems. 18,000 R2= DOR) 2. Horizontal displacement ofthe target with “S-Type” wells also calculated in the same man- ner as before with Type Tand III well patterns. In Figure 2-18 the horizontal displacement of the target is represented by Hy while in Figure2-19 it is represented by H,. Assuming the well is to be drilled from a platform or rig reference point, horizontal displacement is calculated from the given target horizontal plane coordinates using the equation below. Y HD of Target = VN/S coordinater” +E / W coordinate” ‘The procedure and illustration above assumes the well to be drilled from a platform or rig refer- cence point If the well is drilled from a surface location or “slot” which must also be referenced to the platform or rig reference point, the coordinates of the slot must also be considered by using the following procedure to determine horizontal displacement of the target. HD of Target = \(N/S coordinate, -N/S coordinate.) + (E/ W coordinatq-E/ W coordinate” In the above formula, South and West coordinates should be treated as negative numbers. 3. For S-Type well pattems that return to vertical atthe end of the drop section as in Figure 2-18, is calculated as follows: wolf Hy R, +R, steps become: a) Calculate ©= tan“ DeadWw ye al Hs-Ri-Re a 2-640 For S-Type well patterns where the inclination is to be dropped partially and maintained to atar- {gets in Figure 2-19, horizontal displacement at the end of the drop section (H;) must be deter- mined prior to calculating H,=H,- (VD,—VD, Jian B if Hy R, +R, c0s B, steps (D) and (IV) change while steps (ID and (II) remain the same as above. aw (Calculate X = Ha — Ri - Ra cos B - (VDs~ VDs) tan B. qv) a=0+0 Once ais calculated, all the remaining required values can be calculated. 2000 4. MD,=VD.+ Son 5. VD,=VD,+Rysing 6. HysR,d-cosa) 7. Vertical depth at the start of a drop section for S-type wells which return to vertical is calculated as follows: 4= VD, - My sin a} Vertical depth at the start of a drop section for S-type wells which drop partially and maintain an inclination to the target is calculated as follows: VD, = VD,- Ry (sina sin B)27 2.8 Pav} 8. MD,-MD,+7=¥P 9, Hy=tan a (VD,- VD)+H, 110, Measured depth at the end of a drop section which retums to vertical is calculated as follows. 1000 MD,=MD, +500 Measured depth it the end of a partial drop section where the inclination is to be maintained to the target is calculated as follows. 200 B) MD, =MD, + 8 11. Total measured depth at the end of an S-Type well profile which returns to vertical is caleu- lated as follows. TMD =MD, + (VD,- VD) ‘Total measured depth at the end of an S-Type well which drops partially and maintains an inclina- tion to the target is calculated as follows. 2s— VDy cos TMD =MD, + Torque and Drag For complex directional wells, the Torque and Drag software module performs standard calcula- tions and computes stress profiles for verification of dril- string integrity under the projected com- bined stress loading. This software module may be used to optimise well path design for minimum torque and /or drag, perform post-well analysis of drilling problems and to assist in planning dil string design, Other considerations in well planning A primary consideration is planning a directional well i the technology available in the area. This includes not only reliable tools and experienced personnel, but the capability to plan and analyze the programme for optimum drilling efficiency. Finally, well planning is an iterative process, usually requiring several revisions before the plan is finally accepted. In this section we have considered only some of the many complex factors which must be considered when planning a directional well. a Baker Hughes company2.9 Exercises 1L. List the main features of each ofthe common well profiles and give two specific applications ofeach. Type 1 (Build and Hold) Features: Applications: () (ii) Type 2 (S type) Features: Applications: a) di) Type 3 (Deep Kick-off and Build) Features: Applications: a aa (ii) 2, State three disadvantages of a deep kick-off point. w (ii) (iii) 3. Calculate the relevant values to complete the wel plans and sidetrack proposals on the following pages. a “Wi rercesEXAMPLE Given factors: Type | and ii Well Plan » | Target Horizontal Plane Coordinates VD, R 2864.79 4200 ~ p 1 ' 1 Wa r 5156.60 > 1 atvp} ot 3400 4 1 1 1 ' 1 1 ' 1 1 ' ~ ' ' 1 ‘ 1 ' ' ' 1 1 _[ne Oe ne ee ee ee = TMD 7767.52 7600 Hy 1164.43 Hy 1030 Figure 220 edExercise #1 Given factor: N2418.6°| Target Horizontal Plane CoordiExercise #2 Given factors: Target Horizontal Plane Coordinates kine eee cdExercise #3 Given factors: 15700" ‘Target Horizontat Plane Coordinates }---Xuve@s ATVD To a lo eee eerrraeb:') Hy {}—___*_ —_—___| Calculate the relevant values to compiete this well plan. “ Dire”Exercise #4 Given factors: Target Horizontal Plane Coordinates |VD, — " ' ' ' \vD2 H 1 ' ATVD ' t ' ' ' 1 ' ' Y 1 1 1 1 wee eee =O TD |e He Calculate the relevant values to complete this well plan. ‘a Baker Hughes companyEXAMPLE Given factors: Type ! Well Plan 4361" | Target Horizontal £1984" | Plane Coordinates hy 2864.79 Vy ef MD 2406.44 2371.16 MD. 6863.28 ‘VD; 6438.54 eS wi 9 MD 8471.87 8000 ah deta nn nen e ee 8 TMD 10,491.87 Ds Hy 10,000 250.3 te (2027.21 Hy 2405.95 5S oom WRSEREENExercise #1 Given factors: 2.571100" 1.577100 Target Horizontal Plane Coordinates VDs eo) cateGiven factors: Exercise #2 Target Horizontal Plane Coordinates.Given factors: Exercise #3 ‘Target Horizontal Plane Coordinates Calculate the relevant values to complete this well plan. Baker Hughes companyExercise #4 Given factors: 1.577100" Target Horizontat 3663" | Plane Caordinates eT2.10 Answer key 2.10.1 Well planning Types | and Ill (J-curve) f a" ee ATVD | 6,000" 10,800" 7,800 5000" fe 13807 [1785 1082 2553 [RC 2,864.79" | 1,909.86" 3,819.72" 3,819.72" IMD; 190332) seate 1241.62 1708.16 MD @ BUILD | 4,903.32 1,698.18 3841.62 2,502.18 imo | toz9076 [ease 7057432 6218.74 [dy eons 3281 200.09 [379.08 He | 3825.00 3400.12 7350.19 97497 [vD2 3,768.35 1,808.45 3818.87 2448.4 . 2.10.2 Well planning Types II (S-curve) a a #2 8 #4 a [are aii Ri 5619 Ry 2201.83 2201.88" 2564.79) 2201.89" Re [3.1072 2.06479 5,729.50 3,819.72 [MDs 3131. 2,846.32 4,260.43 4,277.48 Oo 2,942.46 2,708.34 __| 4237.05 3,934.19, Hs 693.46 566.32 [190.43 1,016.45 Le _|_ 6.027.89 10,026.88, 7,288.5 3,120.48 V3 [4.62.56 6,114.67 7,003.3 6,629.21 [He 276927 $.202.12 [1260.4 5.04028 MDs 9.07965 12,064.78 2587.37 0.066.24 Ha [rases.04 €.000.61 71 553.24 222 64 TMD TOSTOAS 1508479 {saat 7,520.96, [3.730 6,550 Ha ae as foe denned2.10.3 Sidetrack Example #1 (EC*TRAK) 1. A three dimensional J” shaped sidetrack (build and hold) is planned from the following survey station: Measured Depth : 7522" Inclination 36.39" Azimuth =: 163.86 wo 2 6487.98 North : -3895.70 East Rare! 2. itis planned to following target: wo: 8500" North =: - 5750" East = -575) 3. The curved section of the sidetrack is planned to have a constant dog leg severity of 25°/100’. 4, Print the screen with your solution. . If the maximum permissible inclination for the sidetrack is to be 48°, what dog leg severity will this require the curved section to be ? wol922.10.4 Sidetrack Example #2 (EC*TRAK) ~ 1. A directional well has to be sidetracked from the following survey station: Measured Depth : 7321 Inclination: 64.68" Azimuth ==: 11842" wo 8507.26 North : 2906.67" East : 2Nast 2. The targetis: wo: 9800" North : = 4200" Est: 5500" 3. ‘The well profile from the sidetrack point is as follows: @. Drop and turn maintaining a consistent dog leg severity to a measured depth of 7600 feet where an inclination of 55° and an azimuth of 118° are required b. From a measured depth of 7600 feet, continue dropping and tum back round towards the target ‘maintaining a constant dogleg severity of 3°/100. ©. Tangent section. d. Drop down at 3°/100 toa TVD of 9500 feet. = @. Tangent section to target where inclination is to be 25° and azimuth is to be 112.6% 4. Print the scrcen with your solution ee eedSection 3 Downhoie motors Objectives Upon completion of this section, the trainee should be able to: State the two basic types of downhole motor and give a simple explana tion of the operating principies of each. List the main sub-assemblies of a PDM motor and explain the function of each. List the main sub-assemblies of a turbine and explain the function of each. Explain what is meant by “multi-lobe” PDM motors. Explain what is meant by “differential pressure” in connection with mo- tors. State the relationships between torque and differential pressure, and between flow rate and RPM. Explain what is meant by “reactive torque” and the importance of this in directional drilling. List the main advantages and disadvantages of both turbines and posi- tive displacement motors. List and explain the surface checks on a Navi-Drill before it is run in hole, the precautions taken while tripping in and out of hole and the procedures for checking and laying down a Navi-Drill after use. Describe and explain the recommended procedure for beginning drill- ing with 2 Navi-Drill.BEd eaeai a Objectives for Section 3 6/02Section B Downhole motors 34 Introduction ‘The idea of using 9 downhole motor to directly tur the bit is not a new one. Indeed, the first com- ‘mercial motor used was a turbine. The USSR focused efforts in developing downhole motors as far back as the 1920's and has continued to use motors extensively in their drilling activity. The first patent for a turbodrill existed in 1873. After 1945, the West focused efforts more on rotary drilling but the field of application for downhole motors increased spectacularly from about 1980 onwards. ‘The turbine consists of a multistage vane type rotor and stator section, a bearing section, a drive shaft and a bit rotating sub. Each stage consists of a rotor and statot of identical profile. The stators are stationary, locked to the turbine body, and deflect the flow of drilling mud onto the rotors ‘which are locked to the drive shaft. The rotors are forced to turn; the drive shaft is thus forced to turn, causing the bit sub and the bit to rotate. ‘The positive displacement motor consists of helicoid motor section, a dump valve, a connecting rod assembly and a bearing and shaft assembly. The helicoid motor has a rubber-lined spiral cav- ity with an elliptical cross-section which houses a sinusoidal steet rotor. As the mud is pumped un- der pressure from above, itis force downwards between the rotor and the stator. In order for the - drilling mud to progress through the motor section, it must force the rotor to turn. The bottom of the rotor moves in an ellipse and this eccentric motion is converted fo true concentric drive shaft rotation by the connecting rod assembly.3.2 Positive displacement motors ‘The positive displacement motor is a hydraulically driven downhole motor that uses the Moinez principle to drive the drill bit, independent of drill string rotation. The PDM is made up of several sections: 41. The by-pass valve or dump sub. 2, The motor section. 3. The universal joint section. 4, The bearing section with drive sub, 3.2.1 By-Pass Valve “The by-pass valve allows fluid to fill the drill string while tripping in the hole and drain while trip- ping out. While mud is being pumped, the valve closes to cause fluid to move through the tool. Most valves are of a spring piston type which closes under pressure to seal off ports to the annu- lus, When there is no downward pressure, the spring forces the piston up so fluid can channel through the ports to the annulus. (Figure 3:2) Figue 32 Abypassvave,3.2.2 Motor Section This is a reverse application of Rene Moineau’'s [pump principle. The motor section consists of rubber stator and coated steel rotor. The simple type isa helical rotor which is continuous and round. This is said to be a single lobe type. The stator is molded inside the outer steel housing is of elastomer compound and will always have one more lobe than the rotor. Hence mo- tors will be described at 1/2,3/4,5/60r 9/10 ‘motors. Both the rotor and stator have a certain pitch length and the ratio ofthe pitch lengths is equal to the ratio of the number of lobes of the rotor to the number of lobes.on the stator ‘As mud is pumped through the motor, i ills the cavities between the dissimilar shapes of the rotor and stator. The rotor is forced to give way by turing or is displaced, hence the name positive displacement motor. Its the rotation Of the rotor shaft which is eventually transmit- ted to the bit. Accu-Trak MWD system NorTrak string stabilizer Double-Tilt U-Joint Housing (DTU) U-joint assembly Upper Bearing Housing Stabilizer (UBHS) 2437 mosaic drill bit ed keen ad3.2.3. Connecting rod assemblies Since the rotor is spiral shaped, it does not rotate concentrically, rather it traces a back and forth ‘motion. This motion must be converted back to concentric motion to be transmitted to the bit via the drive sub. This is achieved by a connecting rod assembly. There are several possible types. 3.2.3.1 Universal-joint Usjint assemblies (Figure 3-4) have been conventionally utilized by the industry and are stil used in most positive displacement motors presently in the field. The assembly consists of two univer- sal pints, each grease filed and sealed with ol-resistant reinforced rubber sleeves which protect them from drill fluid contamination. A drawback of the U-oint assembly is the lack of sufficient strength for higher torque applications such as that encountered with recent generations of high torque PD's, particularly when used with PDC bits. This inherent weakness results from the ‘manufacturing process whereby the U-joint is “flame-cut” rather than machined. ~ 3.2.3.2 Flex rod Another development in connecting rod assembly technology has been the utilization of flexible steel or titanium flex rods (Figure 3-4b ). While in general, flex rods are limited by the degree of al- owable lateral bending, they have the ad vantage of low maintenance as they do not require the use of lubricants or rubber sleeves as with U-joints. I's utilization has generally been limited to low offset steerable motors or straight motor applications. One unique approach has been to ‘mount the flex rod inside the hollow rotor ofa short, high torque steerable PDM rather than con- necting to the bottom of the rotor. By connecting a long flex rod to the inside of the top end of the rotor and extending the flex rod through the rotor to connect tothe top of the drive sub assembly, the overall rate of bend of the flex rod is decreased due to its increased length. Figure 343.2.4 Bearing Section A typical positive displacement motor utilizes three sets of bearings attached to a drive shaft. These are two sets of radial bearings (an “upper” and “lower”) with one set of axial thrust bearings. The axial thrust bearing section supports the on and off bottom loading and hydraulic thrust. It consists of a series of ball bearings stacked one on top of the other, each set being contained in its own race or g-oove. The number of axial thrust bearings will vary, depend- ing on the size of the tool. ‘The upper and lower radial bearings are lined with tungster c1-bide inserts. The function of these bearings is to support the concentrically rotating dvive staf: against !atera! loads. The in- herent design of the upper radial bearing limits the amount of fluid flow diverted to the annu- lus to cool and lubricate the bearing package. This diversion of flow is typically 2 - 10%, depending on motor and bit pressure drop. The major portion of the drilling fluid is collected by ports in the drive shaft and exits through the bit. In some motors, diamond bearings are be- ing used and may need up to 20% of the flow to be diverted, depending upon conditions. Fig- ure 3-5 illustrates typical bearing sections found in PDMs. ~ Inner ring Axial pressure bearing Tungsten-carbide bearing inserts Bonding material Lower radial bearing housing Rotating drive Navi-Drill axial thrust bearing. Figure 3-5 re ee3.2.5 Types of positive displacement motors PDMSs come in various configurations. As has been mentioned previously, the stator will have one ‘more lobe than the rotor. The first types of PDMs, and the simplest, are 1/2 motors. These gener- ally give medium to low torque output and medium to high speed. Torque output is directly pro- portional to pressure drop across the motor. The 1/2 motors have good applications in performance drilling with a PDC, diamond, or Ballaset-type bits. Some shorter models are used {for directional purposes. ‘The multi-lobe motors, such as the Baker 3/4, Navi-Drill 5/6, Smith 7/8, and Drilex 9/10, have ‘high torque output and relatively slow speed. Therfore, they have good applications with roller cone bits and in coring. These motors are also suitable for use with PDC bits, especially the large cutter type bits which require a good tonque output to be efficient. These tools, being fairly short, also have good directional applications with bent subs as.a deflection device. These mult-lobe mo- tors may be constructed with a hollow rotor and a nazzle or blank will be placed in a holding de- vice at the top. The nozzle allows for high flow rates to be accommodated by by-passing the excess flow from the motor section and the fluid will ext through the bit. 3.2.6 Observations Motor stall will be obvious due to an increase of surface pressure, LCM can be pumped safely, though care should be taken that the material is added slowly and the system is not slugged. Sand content should be kept toa minimum. Temperature limits are around 270°F (although Navi-Dril stators are being tested at up to 400°F). Pressure drop through the tool while wurking is typically in the range of 50 psi - 800 psi. D_ Wear on bearings is ofthe order of 1mm - 8mun (0.025" -0.200"7, depending upon too! size. The too! should be flushed out prio to laying down. In general, muds of a iow aniline point may damage the rubber stator. Asa rule, the oil of oil based muds should have an aniline point of at least 150°F (60°C). Usually, this is related to the aromatic content which should be equal to or Jess than 10%. Contact the local, supplier if there is any doubt D Ifaby-pass nozzle is fitted to a multi-lobe rotor, then it must be sized very carefully to allow the motor section to develop the necessary power, and any variation of the flow for which the nozzle was inserted will compromise the motor's performance,3.2.7 Characteristics Torque is directly proportional tothe motor differential pressure. ‘This makes the tool a very simple one to operate Q_ RPM is directly proportional to flow rate and is somewhat affected by torque output. Hydraulic horsepower consumed = = 2 drop across the motor and Q is flow mite! where P is the pressure TN Horsepower Created = 555 where Tis torque and Nis bit speed. ciency «HP oeted O Bificency = Ep consumed ~ Pec ri one 73.2.8 Navi-Drill Mach 1 Bypass valve ‘The Navi-Drill Mach I i a positive-displacement motor that develops high torque at the bit ata relatively low speed range (80-340 rpm). This makes it ideal for direc- tional applications, drilling with high weight-on-bit. Navigation Drilling with roller cone or King Cutter PDC bits, and coring operations. ‘The Mach 1 motor has a mult-lobe ( /6) rotor/stator configuration, which generates more torque than other Eastman Teleco motors, permitting more weight-on-bit and increasing ROP. The Mach 1 is specifically recom- mended for use with roller cone bits. Because the motor develops its power at low speeds, it can improve the per- formance of these bits without accelerating wear on bit ‘bearings or cones. Rotor Stator Universal Joint ~ ‘A.unique bearing assembly and improved elastomer ‘compounds in the stator have increased the Mach I's hy- draulic horsepower and extended operating life. The Mach 1 also has a new rotor nozzling system that allows the motor to be run at 50-100% over its maximum recom- mended flow rate without exceeding maximum recom- Bearing mended motor speed. The additional mud passes assembly through the motor's rotor, and flow rate can be adjusted with interchangeable nozzles. The higher rates offer im- proved hole leaning and bit hydraulics. Drive sub Although primarily a directional performance drilling ‘motor, the Mach I can also be used for straight-hole drill- Bit ing and for coring operations. cifications (U.S. Standarc [mem] rage TS | ees - ftom Mowe | SS) ae | Seow | ieee we | ea = = lm | = a a ogee [tee [ea a i) wT mae Eos See eee etl ee [ome | oe | ow eo = |e ew nes Geto |e CY Se = 2 | “Sra a or Sess eae fe ep et mt Tp wean = a es ‘ease eet a oy a z each iter Samy “OnaeyooT eee Poona Figure 36 Mobs specications lov te Mach 1¢ Navi Oi a vere2 Di riceca /LELECO3.2.9 Navi-Drill Mach 2 ‘The Navi-Drill Mach 2is a positive-displacement motor that can improve ROP in both straight-hole and direc- tional applications. ‘The Mach 2 has a multi-stage, 1/2 rotor/stator configura~ tion, which generates high torque at medium speeds for higher penetration rates with less weight-on-bit. This makes ita good choice for drilling straight and direc- tional holes in difficult formations. ‘The motor is particularly suited for long-interval per- formance drilling with a natural diamond, BallaSet, or PDC bit. And the motor is available with integral blade stabilizers for optimum stabilization in performance dril- ing applications. ‘Mach 2 motors also come in 194", 298", 334" and 434" ODS for stimhole applications. K Bypass valve ; Rotor Stator Universal joint Bearing assembly Drive sub Bit | i ‘ 1 slalelatalelelole| Z “ror [ome | tar | moe | ae 3} |] |] 5) aie 3 asaenh Shay “Oeseey Dov haan aaa Motor specications fo te Mach 2 Nave- Dal ee3.3 Turbines The turbine is made up of several sections: 4. The drive stages or motor section. 2. The axial thrust bearing assembly and radial bearings. ‘3. The bit drive sub. ‘The drive stages, or motor section, consists ofa series of stators and rotors of a bladed design. One stator and one rotor together form a stage. Turbines will be referred to as 90 stage, 250 stage, etc. The number of stages will equate to the torque generated. Each stage, theoretically, applies an ‘equal amount of torque to the control shaft and itis the stim of those torques which will be output tothe bit. ~ ‘The drive sub is simply the bit connection and bearing shaft. The radial bearings protect the shaft from lateral loading. The thrust bearings support the downwards hydraulic thrust from mud be- ing pumped through the tool and the upwatd thrust of weight being applied to the bit. Theoret- cally, weight on bit should be applied to equalize the hydraulic thrust and therefore unload the bearings and prolong their life. 3.3.1 Drive Section This consists of a series of bladed stators, fxed to the outer tool housing and bladed rotors fixed 10 the central rotating shaft. Mud flow is deflected at a pre-determined angle off the stator blades to hit the rotor blades and cause the shaft to rotate. The angle ofthe blades will affect the torque and speed output ofthe turbine. (Figure 38, next page) 3.3.2 Bearing Section Usually, thrust bearings are made up of rubber discs (Figure 3-8, next page! which are nor-rotat- ing, being fixed to the outer housing of the tool, and rotating steel discs attached to the central ro- = tating shaft. Long bearing sections known as cartridges are used for long life in tangent or straight hole driling sections. These are changeable on the rig. If the bearings wear past the maximum point, considerable damage can be inflicted as the steel rotors will crash into the stators below.Bearing and seal section Turbine section Thrust bearings Radial bearings Seal Figure3-8 Downe miroine3.3.3 Directional Turbine ‘This is a short tool which hasa set number of stages and its bearing section entirely within one housing, That is, itis not a sectional too! and will be typically less than 30 long. It is designed for short nuns to kick off or correcta directional well using a bent sub as the deflection device. Steer- able turbodrills do exist and will be discussed later. 3.3.4 Observations oooo o a Q There is minimal surface indication of a turbine stalling, ‘Turbines do not readily allow the pumping of LCM. Sand content should be kept to a minimum. ‘Due to minimal rubber components, the turbine is able to operate in high temperature wells. a Pressure drop through the tool is typically high and can be anything from 500 psi ta over 2000 psi. Turbines do not require a by-pass valve. Usually, the maximum bearing wear is of the order of 4mm (0.10°). 3.3.5 Characteristics a Torque and RPM are inversely proportional, ie.,as RPM increases, torque decreases and vice versa. RPM is directly proportional to flow rate (at a constant torque). Torque isa function of flow rate, mud weight, blade angle and the number of stages, and is affected by varying weight on bit. (Optimum power output takes place when thrust bearings are balanced, Changing the flow rate causes the characteristic curve to shift. Off bottom, the turbine RPM will reach “runaway speed” and torque is 2er0. On bottom, and just at stall, the turbine achieves maximum torque and RPM is zero. Optimum performance is at half the stal) torque and at half the ‘runaway speed, the turbine then achieves maximum horsepower. {A stabilized turbine used in tangent sections will normally cause the ole to ‘walk’ to the left,3.3.6 eed tesco a Turbine formulae When flow varies Q, to Q 1. Rotation speed is directly proportional (Q) meng, 2. Torque is directly proportional to the square of the flow rate. 3. Pressure drop is directly proportional to the square of the flow rate (assuming same mud weight). 4. Axil thrust is direc proportional tothe square ofthe flow rae (ay Th; =Th, | {Q) 5. Power is directly proportional to the cube of the flow rate. If the mud weight changes, the RPM remains the same while torque, pressure drop, axial thrust and power vary as MW: MW, 6. The power curve is given by (parabolic): NaN, |2- toa where N, and n, are nominal power and speed respectively. 7. The torque curve is given by (linear): 8. Total efficiency isa function of hydraulic efficiency, volumetric efficiency and mechanical effi- Gency and will be of the order of 65%, 9. Hydraulic horsepower is given by: FlowRate (gpm) x PressureDror(psi) 5, nin 17 HP~ 3.4 344 3.4.2 = DD EASTMAN iy ae Navi-Drill operation Special care shauld be taken whenever oading or of-oading the Navi-Dril froma transport vehi- ‘le, The tool isa rigid, reliable one, yet damage may occur ifitis dropped. Prior to using a Navi-Drill, careful on-site inspection is required. Measure the outer diameter of the too! to be sure the correct size is on site. Also remove the thread protection at the drive sub end of the Navi-Drill and check the threads are not damaged. Test the by-pass valve by pressing the piston down to the internal stop, using sledgehamuner handle or wooden stick. Release the pis- ‘ton and check its spring teset force. Picking up the tool ‘Make sure the handling sub is tight on the top end of the tool. When liting the Navi-Drill to the sig floor use a cat line or air tugger secured around the lifting sub. (The lifting sub supplied with the tool should only be used for lifting the Navi-Drill. The capacity of the lifting sub is restricted to the weight of the Navi-Drill and should not be used for any other purpose). Note All the connections of the Navi-Dril are made up to the proper torque in the Eastman ‘Teleco service shop. Thus, further making-up is not required. Surface check prior to running in hole. 1. Pick up the Navi-Dril with the lifting sub and set it into the slips of the rotary table. Insta the drill collar safety clamps. 2. Connect the kelly to the Navi-Drill, remove the safety amps and lift the tool out of the slips, Lower the Navi-Drill until the by-pass valve is below the rotary table, but stil visible. Secure with the rig tongs. 3. Start the rig pumps and increase the flow rate to about 10% of the maximum recommended. ‘Mud will flow out of the ports of the by-pass valve. Increase the pump rate until the valve closes and the motor starts. Make a note of tis flow rate. 4. Lift the Navi-Drill until the rotating drive sub becomes visible. A portion of the mud will pos- sibly exit through the bearing section during this operation 5. Before stopping the pumps, the too! should again be lowered below the rotary table. Check to see if mud flows out of the by-pass valve ports after having shut down the pumps. 6. After this surface check, the bit should be attached to the Navi-Drill using a bit-breaker, while holding the drive sub stationary with a rotary tong. ., When using a bent sub, the key of the muleshoe sleeve must be aligned to the scribe line on the bent sub (the tool face). Once this has been done, the mule shoe must be locked in place by fully tightening up the set screws. When a UBHO sub is used, it should be made up directly on the top of the bent sub which in tum is directly above the motor. 8 ifthe motor has been «sed to drill previously, even for a short time, then the bearing clear- ance must be checked as follows. Pick up the string so that the bit box is above the rotary table and measure the gap between the bit box and the lower radial bearing housing. Record it. lowly ineset the bit box to the side of the rotary table and slack off on the weight. Measure and record the gap again, making sure the play is within specified tolerances. It s good practice to perform this check even with anew motar, 3.4.3 Tripping in hole Generally, a drill string with a Navi-Dril can be ni into the hole like a standard bottomhole as- sembly. When a deflection device is used, special care must be taken when passing the well head, ‘casing shoe, liner hanger, etc. Itis recommended that circulation be done periodically when tripping to great depths. This is aso desirable in high temperature wells to cool the motor. Circulation through the motor should not be done inside casing if a PDC bit is being used of damage tothe bil cutters may occur. 3.4.4 Beginning Drilling ‘When the assembly has been tripped to bottom, the Navi-Drill is started as follows : 1, With the bit 2-3 feet off bottom, start the mud pumps and slowly increase the flow rate to that desired for drilling. Do not exceed the maximum flow rate for the size of Navi-Drrill (see Navi- Drill tables). 2, Make a note of the flow rate and the total pump pressure. 3. After a short cleaning interval, lower the bit carefully to bottom and slowly increase the ‘weight. Pump presstire will rise a5 the weight on bit is increased. Ifthe dril bit is new, drill the first single with very low weight. 4. Note the increase in pump pressure compared to the off-bottom pressure - this is the differen- tial pressure. Try to drill with steady pump pressure, which means constant weight on bit. Also, keep the flow rate constant. 5. After the first single has been drilled, the differential pressure and flow rate should be in- ‘creased. In order to achieve long runs, itis recommended that the differential pressure be kept be- tween 50% and 80% of the maximum recommended for the tool, Both differential pressure and flow rate should be kept constant as far as reasonably possible. 3.4.5 Tripping Out No special procedures are necessary for tripping out a drill string which inchades a Navi-Deil. The string is automatically emptied through the bypass valve. The rotary table may be used to break connections without fear of backing off either Navi-Drill housing joints or internal connections. 3.4.6 Checking the motor “The bearing clearance should be checked as described in paragraph 8 of “Surface Checks” on page 3-17. The Navi-Drill should be flushed out with fresh water before itis layed down. The bit is now removed. With the bit in the bit breaker, otate it counterclockwise while holding the tangs on ihe drive sub of the Nawi-Drill. Once the bit is removed, the bit box should be cleaned by directing ‘water into the drive sub, The outside of the tool should be hosed dawn with fresh water. ‘Don't forget to replace the protective thread cover on the drive sub before the tool is laid down. eee35 Advantages and disadvantages of turbines vs PDMs Turbine Advantages Disadvantages O High power output / high speed O High pressure requirement Reliable (250 hrs +) Limited number of bit styles useable. Low pressure drop bits required. 1 No universal joint Q Cannot handle LCM No dump valve High thrust load High lost in hole cost output parameters cannot be redesigned easily 2 Long too! 2 High maintenance costs ‘output parameters (multilobe) Lower lost in hole price Short tool POM Advantages Disadvantages Low pressure requirement OQ Lower maximum temperature rating than turbines G1 Can handle high bit pressure drops! Connecting rod assembly required wide range of bit styles Can use differential pressure as an indication of WOB and torque 2 Can handle Lom O Low thrust load D Can be redesigned easily to modity a a3.6 Questions on Section 3 eeNOM SB & SectionY. Deflection tools and techniques Objectives Upon completion of this section, the trainee should be able to: List the main deflection tools available and state the advantages and disadvantages of each, List and describe the three types of whipstack and explain the basic op- erational procedures followed in using each. Explain the basic concept of the jet deflection method. Recommend appropriate nozzle sizes for a bit which is to be used for jetting. List a typical jetting BHA. List and explain the operational procedures followed when jetting. State the advantages and disadvantages of the jet deflection method. Explain the basic concept of using a downhole motor and bent sub asa deflection tool. List a typical motor and bent sub BHA. Explain what is meant by the “toolface” of a deflection tool. Explain what effect the reactive torque of a motor has on the tool face setting and how to compensate for this. List and explain the operational procedures to be followed when orient- ing a motor and bent sub assembly downhole. continued overeat,13. 14. Objectives for Section 4 List and explain the advantages of a PDM motor over a turbine when used with a bent sub asa deflection tool. List and explain the advantages and disadvantages of the motor and bent sub compared to the older deflection methods. ~ anSection 4! Deflection tools and techniques 44 Whipstocks ‘The Whipstock was the main deflection tool from 1930-1950. The standard Whipstock is seldom. ‘used nowadays, but it has not disappeared completely. There are 3 types of Whipstocks: 4.1.1 Standard removable Whipstock ‘The Standard Removable Whipstock is used mainly to kick off wells, but is also used for sidetrack- ing. It consists ofa iong inverted steel wedge which is concave on one side to hold and guide a Whipstock drilling assembly. It is also provided with a ‘chisel point a the bottom to prevent the tool from turning, anda heavy collar at the top to withdraw the tool from the hole. The Whipstock is used with a drilling assembly con- sisting of abit, a spiral stabilizer, and an orientation sub, rigidly attached to the Whipstock by means of a shear pin. ‘The Whipstock assembly is lowered to the bottom of the hole and orientated. Weight is applied to set the Whipstock and shear the pin. The bit is then drilled down and forced to deflect to one side by the Whipstock. A 12’ to 16’ “rat hole” is drilled below the toe of the Whipstock. The assem- bly is then pulled out of hole, taking the Whipstock with it. Anhole opener run is made to open the rat hole out to full ‘gauge. The hole opener assembly is then tripped out and a rapid angle build assembly run in hole to “follow up” the initial deflection. This whole procedure may have to be re- peated several times in the kick-off Itis obvious that the major disadvantage of the standard ‘Whipstock is the number of “trips” involved which uses a lot of rig time. The other important disadvantage is that the Whipstock produced a sudden, sharp deflection - in other words, a severe dogleg - which may give rise to subsequent problems with the hole. The advantages are that it isa fairly simple piece of equipment which requires relatively little maintenance and has no temperature limitations, Flaure4 Sanda omovane iestoc a4.1.2 Circulating Whipstock The “Circulating Whipstock” is run, set and drilled like the standard Whipsiock. However, in this case the drilling mud in- itially lows through a passage to the bottom of the Whipstock which permits more efficient cleaning of the bottom of the hole it and ensures a clean seat for the tool. Itis most efficient for wash- [BE ing out bottom hole fils. Permanent Casing Whipstock —a77 Starting mill ‘The "Permanent Casing Whipstock", Figure 4-2 (right), is de- signed to remain permanently in the well. tis used where a “window” is to be cut in casing fora sidetrack. The Casing Woipstock is set using a Baker Model “D” Packer. The special stinger at the base of the Whipstock slips into the packer assem- |_4—Shear pin bly. A stainless steel key within the packer locks the Whip- stock’s anchor-seal and prohibits any circular movement of the DL wear pad =< Whipstock during drilling. or lui ‘The normal procedure is to orientate and then set the packer. Af- ¢ ter this, the starting mill is pinned to the Casing Whipstock and the whole assembly run slowly in hale and seated in the packer. Although the packer has already been orientated, itis ood prac- tice to orientate the Casing Whipstock in the same manner as the packer. This should ensure that faster “latch up” will take place without endangering the shear pin. ‘After the Whipstock has been “seated” in the packer, the pin is sheared and circulation and rotation begun. The starting mill is used to make an initial cut through the casing and mill approxi- mately 2’ of casing, The lug that held the starting mill to the Casing Whipstock must aiso be milled off. © || Whipstock This assembly is tripped out and the mill changed. A tungsten carbide or diamond speed mill is used to cut the rest of the win- dow. Once the window has been cut, approximately 5' of forma- tion is cut before pulling out of hole. Next, taper mill is run with a watermelon mill immediately above it. This is done to “clean” the top and the bottom of the window. Finally, another trip is made to change over to the drilling assembly which is ‘used to drill ahead. ‘The advantage of using a Casing Whipstock, instead of the nor- ‘mal method of milling a section and sidetracking, is that the op- cration usually takes less time. The main disadvantage is that it givesa sharp dogleg. and s0 the Casing Whipstock is not recom- ‘mended if there isa considerable distance to drill below the sidetrack. This is because problems can occur when trying to atos ppl stabilizers, etc back into the casing through the window. up joint ‘On the other hand, if there is only a short distance to be drilled pup ‘below the sidetrack point, then the Casing Whipstock is well 2 Bull plug ‘worth considering. = — Whipstock ~ anchor assembly Figure 42 Permanent casing Wnipstack, Bd enced4.2 Jetting Jetting (or badgering) isa technique used to deviate wellbores in soft formation. The technique ‘was developed in the mid 1950s and superceded the use of whipstocks as the primary deflection technique. Although jetting has subsequently been supplanted by downhole motor deflection assemblies as the primary deflection method, itis still used frequently and offers several advantages which make it the preferred method in some situations. ‘A special jet bit like the one shown below may be used. It is also common practice to use astand- ard soft formation tr-cone bit, bt fit one very large nozzle and two stall nozzles. Large jet Figure #3 4.2.1 Requirements for jetting DThe formations must be soft enough to be eroded by the mud exiting the large jet nozzle. ‘Asa rough rule of thumb, if formations cannot be drilled at penetration rates of greater than 80 ft/hr using normal drilling parameters, they are not suitable for jetting. Jetting is most effective in soft, sandy formations, and of course effectiveness reduces as depth in- ‘creases, since the formations become more compacted. In the Gulf of Mexico, the maxi- mum depth for effective jetting is approximately 2500’. Adequate rig hydraulic horsepower must be available. For jetting to be successful there must be adequate hydraulic energy available at the bit to erode the forma- tion. A rule of thumb for jetting is that mud velocity through the large jet should bbe 500 ft/sec or greater. 6192 EASTMAN. a TELECO. ——4.2.2 Jetting Assemblies A typical jetting assembly used to drill a 1214" plat hol is: 1244" jet bit extension sub 12M" stab Q a a O VBHOsub Q 3x8"NMDC O 12ve" stab a BDC HWP as required. This is essentially a strong angle build rotary assembly (see section 7) with a suitable bit for jetting. The upper stabiliser is optional and is often omitted. 4.2.3 Nozzfing the bit There are three alternatives: ‘A. Use a specialised jet bit with 2 ange extended nozzle in place of one of the cones. B. Fitone large and two small nozzles in a conventional three nozzle bit. C. Blank off one nozzle of a conventional bit to divert the flow through the other two. Flow through two jets may be desirable in large hole sizes (eg. 1712") because of the large washout required to deflect the bit and near bit stabiliser. Both (A) and (B) work well in most hole sizes which are comunonly jet drilled. (B) is the most common option because it uses standard bits and nozzles and results in a bit dressed in such a way as to be suitable for both jetting and drilling. A124" bit dressed for jetting would typically have the main nozzle size 26/32" or 28/32" and the = other two nozzles 10/32" or 1/4" 4.2.4 Procedure for Jetting 41. The assembly is run to bottom a survey is taken and the large jet nozzle (the “tool face”) is ori entated in the required direction 2. Maximum circulation is established (eg. 800 GPM in 12M" hole) and a controlled washing way of the formation opposite the big jet eye is effected 3. The drill string may be spudded up and down periodically, but not rotated, until several feet ff hole have been made and the bit and near bit stabiliser have been forced into the washed out pocket. The technique is to lift the string 5 to 10 feet off bottom and then lett fall, catching it with. the brake so that the stretch of the string causes it to spud on bottom rather than the full weight of the string. Another technique which may improve the effectiveness of jetting involves tuning, the rotary lable a few degrees (15°) right and left while jetting, ‘aBaker Hughes company Sg.4, Having jetted 3 to 8 feet of hole, the exact distance depending on required build rate and pre- -vious results, drilling is begun. The circulation rate is now reduced to about 50% of that used for jetting. Hole cleaning considerations are ignored while drilling the next 10 feet or so. High ‘weight on bit (40 - 45 KIb? and fow rotary speed (60-70 RPM) should be used to bend the assem- bly and force it to follow through the trend established while jetting. Progress may be difficult at first because of interference between the stabilizer and the irregularly shaped jetted hole. 5. After approx. 10’ of hole has been drilled, the pump rate can be increased to perhaps 60% - 70% of the rate originally used while etting. High WOB and low RPM should be maintained. The hole is drilled down to the next survey point. 6. A survey is taken to evaluate progress. Ifthe dogleg is too severe the section should be reamed and another survey taken. 7. Atthe start of a kick-off, jetting is repeated every single until about 3° of angle have been built. After that, it is normal to jet every “double”. After drilfing each section, the jet nozzle has to bbe re-orientated tothe desired tool face setting before jetting again. The operation is repeated un- til sufficient angle has been built and the wells heading in the desired direction. ‘The principleis that, during the initial spudding and washing process, « pocket is produced in the formation opposite the jet nozzle: When high WOB is then applied and the drill string rotated, the bitand near bit stabilizer work their way into the pocket (the path of least resistance). The collars above the NB stab bend and contact the low side of the hole. This causes leverage about the NB stab which acts asa pivot, and the bit is pushed harder into the pocket, i.e. the direction in which the large jet nozzle was originally orientated.4.2.5 Advantages of the jetting technique Itisa simple and cheap method of deflecting well bores in soft formations. No special equipment is needed except, perhaps, a jet bit. The dogleg severity can be partly controlled from surface by varying the number of feet “jetted” each time. 2 Thesurvey tool is not far behind the bit, so survey depths are not ‘much less than the corresponding bit depths. O cai sion of tool face is fairly easy. The same assembly can be used for normal rotary drilling as an angle build assembly. 4.2.6 Disadvantages of the jetting technique The technique only works in soft formation and so usually only at shallow depths. For this reason, jetting is mainly used to kick wells off at shallow depths. © njetting, high dogleg severities are often produced. Deviation is. produced in a series of sudden changes, rather than a smooth continuous change. For this reason, it is normal practice to jet drill an undergauge hole and then open it out to full gauge, which ‘smooths off the worst of the doglegs. a Baker Hughes companyAZ Downhole motor and bent sub ‘A. common method of deflecting wellbores is to use a downhole motor and bent sub. As illus- trated in the diagram, the bent sub is placed directly above the motor and itis the bent sub which makes this a deflection assembly. Its lower thread (an the pin} is inclined 1°- 3° from the axis of the sub body. ‘The bent sub acts as the pivot of a lever and the bit is pushed sideways as well as downwards. ‘This sideways component of force atthe bit gives the motor a tendency to drilla curved path, pro- vided there is no rotation of the drill string. The degree of curvature, viz. dogleg severity, depends ‘on the bent sub angle and the OD of mator, bent sub and drill collars in relation to the diameter of the hole. It also depends on the length of the motor. ‘Adownhole motor and bent sub assembly may be used for kicking off wells, for correction runs ar for sidetracking. Notice the absence of any stabilisers in the lower part ofthis assembly. Usually there would be no stabilisers for at least 90’ above the bent sub. In fact it is not uncommon for the entire BHA tobe “slick” when a motor and bent sub is used for kicking off at shallow depths. Figure 45. Downhole motar and bent sub assamby431 Reactive torque Reactive torque is created by the drilling mud pushing against the stator. The stator is locked to the body of the motor, so the effect of this force is to twist the motor and, hence, the whole BHA. anti-clockwise. As the weight-on-bit is increased, the drilling torque created by the motor in- ‘creases. The reactive torque increases in direct proportion. Thus a reasonable, although simplistic, way to view this is that the clockwise drilling torque generated at the bit isthe “action” and the ‘counter-clockwise torque on the motor housing is the “reaction”. The reactive torque is equal to the drilling torque. Reactive torque causes a problem for directional drillers when they are using a motor and bent sub to deflect the wellbore. The twisting of the BHA caused by reactive torque changes the facing of the bent sub, i.e. the tool face orientation. Ifhe is obtaining his tool face orientation from single shot surveys, the directional driller has to estimate how much turn to the lft he will get due to re- active torque. He initially sets his tool face that number of degrees round to the right of the desired tool face, 50 that the reactive torque will bring it back to the setting required while drilling. Drill string design will affect the extent of “drill string twist.” This concept is important to under- stand because it can directly affect the tool face orientation of the downhole motor. This twisting of the drillstring becomes more critical at greater depths, especially when using smaller OD drillpipe ina high torque environment. ‘When drilling is in progress, every endeavour must be made to keep the drilling parameters con- stant and, hence, obtain constant reactive torque and a steady tool face setting. Reactive torque oc- ccurs with both types of downhole motor. Obviously, high torque motors prodiuce higher reactive torque. 1 Factors affecting reactive torque Motor characteristics O Bitcharacteristics Formation drillability Weight on bit Estimation of reactive torque has always been a problem for the directional driller. Several charts and rules of thumb have evolved. One such rule is: EXPECTED REACTIVE TORQUE =10° - 20°/1000feet Note: Use lower values for low torque motors similar to the Navidrill Mach 2 and higher values for high torque motors such as the Navidrill Mach 1. Be rsa ed43.2 43.3 Running Procedures “The procedures for picking up and testing a motor, and for running in hole and beginning driling were described in the earlier section on Navi-Drill Operation, pages 57 -60. ‘Before drilling can begin with a motor and bent sub assembly, the bent sub (tool face) must be ori entated in the desired direction. 1. The pipe is worked until string torque is eliminated. Best results are obtained by using a mod- erately fast up and down pipe movement. [tis recommended that the bit be kept a minimum of 5 feet from the bottom of the hole. 2. Makea reference mark on the kelly bushings, lock the rotary table and take a survey to deter- ‘mine tool face orientation. 3. Now tum the pipe to achieve the desired tool face orientation. This orientation should include an allowance for the anticipated left-hand reactive torque. A very rough rule of thumb is to allow 10°/1000’ for lower torque motors (e.g. Mach 2 Navi- Drills) and 20°/1000’ for higher torque mo- tors (eg. Mach 1 Navidrills), but remember the reactive torque obtained is a function of WOB and differential pressure across the motor. 4, When orienting, tun the pipe tothe right untess the turn i less than 90"left of the present set ting, Work the string up and down so that the turn reaches the bottomhole assembly. Lock the rotary table before beginning to drill. PDMs versus turbines for use with a bent sub For directional work with a bent sub, positive displacement motors offer several advantages over turbines. When drilling with a PDM, the directional driller can use the pump pressure gauge as a weight indicator. If the pump pressure is constant, the differential pressure across the PDMis constant, so the torque and WOB are constant. It is also much easier to telf fa PDM has stalled because there will be an immediate large increase in surface pressure. PDMs give a longer bit life than turbines because of the slower rotation speed. They can tolerate LCM ‘whereas turbines cannot. Finally, instead of using a bent sub, a PDM with a small bend at the joint housing can be used. As this bend is nearer to the bit, a smaller angle of bend will have the same effect as.a larger bent sub angle. This reduces the problem of the bit riding the side of the hole while tripping in and out. ‘The only real advantage of turbines is that they can operate at higher temperatures than PDMS. Also, of course, turbines do NOT have a dump valve. Years ago, the short deviation turbines could handle higher flow zates than PDMs but this is no longer the case. Nowadays, it is quite rare to use a turbine with a bent sub. The reasons for this should be clear from the preceding discussion.4.3.4 Advantages of downhole motor and bent sub as deflection tool They drill a smooth, continuous curve, giving a full gauge hole with ‘good hole condition. D_ Dogleg severity is more predictable than with other deflection tools. o ‘They can be used in most formations. OAs there is no rotation from surface, itis possible to use a wireline “steering tool” for surveying and orientation while drilling, Alternatively, a Measurement While Drilling system could be utilized, 4.3.5 Disadvantages of downhole motor and bent sub as deflection tool 1D Reactive torque changes the tool face when drilling commences, and may also make it difficult to keep a steady tool face. O._The motors themselves are expensive and require maintenance. Of course, this is more than offset by the savings due to good hole condition and the greater degree of control which motors give. 4.3.6 Positive displacement motors with kick-off subs (bent housing) ‘An alternative to using a bent sub is to use a PDM motor with a single bend in the universal joint +housing, described as a kick-off sub in the case of a Navi-Drill and a bent housing by some other PDM manufacturers. Historically, these “single tilt” motors were used for difficult deviation jobs such as sidetracking over a short section of hole into hard formation. Since the bend is closer to the bit than when a bent sub is used, a smaller tilt angle can be used but stil give a strong deviation tendency. Nowadays, single tilt motors are frequently used as steerable motors. Ifthe dril string is rotated +0 that the body of the motor rotates, then a fairly straight path is drilled. However, ifthe tilt (tool face) is orientated in a desired direction and there is no drill string rotation, then the motor will rill a controlled curve. (se section 6). cord Ba Ty4.3.7 Questions on Section 4 1. State one advantage and two disadvantages of a standard removable whipstock as a deflection tool. Advantage: Disadvantages: a b. 2. Deseribe the circumstances in which a casing whipstock is used. 3. What nozaesizes would you fit in a 1212" tr-cone bit you intended to use for jetting ? 4, List a possible BHA you would use to et drill a 12-¥2" pilot hole starting from vertical.5. You are going to perform a kick-off in 1712" hole with a Navi-Drill and bent sub. The required build-up rate is 25°/100. List the BHA you would use. 6. Explain what is meant by reactive torque of downhole motors and why it causes problems for di- rectional drillers. 7.. List three advantages of a motor and bent sub asa deflection tool.Section Tool face orientation Objectives Upon completion of this section, the trainee should be able to: Define and explain the terms “Tool Face Orientation”, “High Side Tool Face” and “Magnetic Tool Face”. Using rules of thumb, select the required tool face settings to achieve any desired result with a deflection tool. Explain the terms “dogleg” and “dogleg severity”. Calculate DLS, given dogleg and course length, and calculate dogleg, given DLS and course length. Use a Ouija Board to determine tool face orientation and predict the re- sults obtained by drilling ahead with the calculated TFO. Use the Ouija Board to estimate dogleg values from survey readings, Estimate course length to be drilled, given desired changes in inclina- tion and azimuth and expected DLS. Use the Ouija Board to estimate change in TFO caused by reactive torque. Estimate the survey readings at the bit depth, given the current DLS and the bit to survey sensor distance,Section § Tool face orientation 5.1 Rules of thumb ‘Two “rules of thumb” for orientation of deflection tools are given on the following page. The first rule of thumb will generally apply to aif deflection tools at inclinations of approximately 30"and Jower. Above 30° inclination in soft to medium formations, the probable effect of setting tool face 90° from high side is to drop angle as well as turning hole direction. This tendency to drop in- creases in softer formations, especially with unstabilized motor and bent sub assembly. Increases in inclination also increase this tendency. Therefore, the high inclination rule of thumb given on the bottom of the flowing page for the motor and bent sub assembly is based on common results obtained in the field in soft to medium formations. (On the contrary, in harder formations, a tool face of 90"leftor right of high side may actually hola inclination or build slightly, even with increasing inclination, This is because with increasing for- ‘mation hardness, a deflection assembly may behave more comparably to geometically determined predictions, such as that obtained from a simple vector diagram or a "OUIJA BOARD". The rules of thumb are based on the high side of the hole. We call them “high side tool face” set- tings. - In both cases, the diagrams show the desired high side tool face settings tile drilling. Ifa motor and bent sub are used, then the inital tool face setting (before drilling starts) would have to be fur- ther round to the right to allow for reactive torque. Furthermore, the precise result obtained from a particular tool face setting will vary in different situations and is affected by the formation and by other factors such 2s hole size and drilling pa- rameters. This is where the directional driller’s experience is invaluable! ‘Whatever the inclination of the wel, the effect of setting toot face on high side, i. in hole direc- tion, is to build angle and keep direction constant; conversely, setting the bent sub on low side will always give the maximum possible drop rate while holding direction.HOLE DIRECTION (High Side) Maxtmum Bult Bulld and Left Tum, Build and Right Turn Maximum Maximum aT 90° Right righ Tum Drop and Lett Turn Drop and Right Turn igure s+ Rule of thumb tor orientation of too! face at lower inclinations (leas than 30°). HOLE DIRECTION (High Side) Maximum Build io Build and tum let ieee fight tum teft turn right Drop and turn ieft Drop and turn right -2 Rule of thumb tor too! tace orientation of a motor end bent sub assembly at high inclinations (over 30°) in soft to medium formations. cea5.41 Rule of thumb orientation Inclination 23 {assume Jetting deflection, no resetive torque) Hole Direction =NO2ZE Tool Face =Se6ew Desired | Necessary ToolFaco | soo! Face Setting | Rotation Maximum Build NOE Maximum Drop Builg and Turn Aight Bulld and Tum Left Maximum Right Turn Maximum Left Tum inclination = 47° (assume motor + bent sub, with 40° reactive torque) Hole Direction High Side Tool Face Maximum Build Maximum Drop Build and Turn Right Build and Turn Left Hold Angle and Right Turn Hold Angle and Left Turn =S62E = 12" left of high side | Desired | Necessary (high side) (low side)Figure 53 Compass Card Worksheet Compass card worksheet de keane 69275.2 Dogleg and dogleg severity “Dogleg” (DL) is used in a general sense as the overall change in inclination and azimuth of the well-bore between two points. Mathematically, dogleg is defined as follows: Dogleg ~ cos” { sin I, sin I, cos AA + cas I, 608 1,] 1s the previous inclination in degrees. {jis the present inclination in degrees. ‘AA isthe azimuth change in degrees between the two points. Dogleg Severity (DLS) is the dogleg per 100’ or dogleg per 30m. Course Length (CL isthe distance between the two survey points. Dis 5 DL_DILS , CE TES EDLSisin Ae) or Oe ana GFDESis in 40m) pis Dba» When orientating 2 deflection (oo, itis necessary to estimate the expected dogleg value for the sec- tion about to be drilled. When jetting, previous experience in a given atea would be an initial guide; thereafter, the DLS obtained in previous jetting nuns will be considered. ‘When deflecting with a motor and a bent sub, the expected DLS will depend on the angle of the bent component within the motor. Other factors such as motor size and length and hole size greatly affect DLS. Toa lesser extent, the existing inclination of the well may also have some effect. Again, previous experience or records of prior wells would be a valuable initial guide, but thereaf- ter use the recorded DLS values of successive survey stations. 5.2.1 Calculating dogleg and dogleg severity with the HP calculator Punch in: Ful Display. 7. previous inclination ‘sin 2. present inclination sin a. x 4. azimuth change cos 5 x 6. previous inclination cos. 7. present inclination cos a x ® + 10. Dogleg 11. 100 x 12. course length + Dagleg Severity5.2.2 Exercises on calculating dogleg and dogleg severity Previous inclination = 12 Previous azimuth = 327° Course length = 190" Dogleg Dogleg severity Previous inctination 45" Previous azimuth ce Course length 60" Dogleg Dogleg severity Previous inclination 3 Previous azimuth 194" Course length = 180 Dogleg ° Dogleg severity Previous inclination Previous azimuth Course length 60 Dogieg : Dogieg severity . keel New inclination New azimuth “00° New inclination New azimuth *s100" New inclination New azimuth “n00" New inclination New azimuth “00° 1s sar" 48° 74 18 0625.3 Maximum permissible dogleg severity ‘As explained earlier, the term dogleg severity is used for the rate of hole curvature. It is usually ex- pressed in degrees per 100 feet or degrees per 30 metres measured depth, Directional drilling in- tentionally creates bore hole deviation, ie, doglegs. However, the severity of the dogleg must be limited or a variety of problems may arise. 5.3.1. Problems created by large dogleg severities O. Fatigue failure ofthe drill string Key seating Difficulty in logging and surveying below the dogleg Inferior cementing caused by non-centralised casing ooooa Casing coupling failure due to excessive flexure Q Production problems Early detection of doglegs is very important. In the event of a severe dogleg being detected, an im- portant decision must be made before further drilling. A dogleg can be smoothed somewhat by string reaming, but a severe dogleg should be wiped out and resurveyed or even sidetracked to en- sure its elimination. Untit dogieg reaches some threshold value, no dril string fatigue damage occurs. This threshold values called the critical dogleg. The critical dogieg is dependent upon the dimensions and metal- lurgy of the dril pipe and on the drill pipe tension in the dogleg. This critical value of the dogleg allows maximum permissible dogleg severity to be established for each section of hole. Dogleg limits are established to prevent drill pipe fatigue, but when those limits are maintained there is also a large reduction in all the problems listed above.5.3.2 Exercises Calculating expected values of dogieg, given previous values of dogleg severity. 1. Jota in 60° course length - DLS = 327/100" Jet 6 in 60’ course length - DLS = 48°/100° . We plan tojets! and drill a course length of 60” be b. Weplan tojet6’ and drill a course length of 0” oe 2. We have a 9¥2" Mach 3 Navi-Drill drilling 17%" hole and are using a 2¥2" bent sub. We predict a DLS of 35*/100’ based on previous results, but plan to take another survey after drilling a single. cL -30" DLs = 35°/100 DL 3. An8" motor is being used for a correction run in 12/4" hole with a 1¥2" bent sub. Based on pre- vious experience, the predicted DLS is 257/100 cL -60 DLs = 25°/100 ole ey 22 ae eae 06925.4 Ouija board ‘The Directional Calculator, or “Ouija Board” as itis nicknamed (you will soon see why), isa type of slide rule which is used to determine tool face settings for a deflection tool and predict the result of drilling ahead with these tool face settings. Itis based on the following simple vector diagram: Dogleg Ret, gy, “ATs Previous Drift Angle Figure 54 Note: if you do not have a Oui Board, you can obtain the answers by drawing the appropriate vec trangle which called a Raglan Diagram. Inclination is a vector quantity where the magnitude of the inclination is the magnitude of the vec- tor and hole direction is the direction of the vector. Scales Previous Drift Angle (first inclination) A Dogleg Direction Change New Drift Angle (second inclination) 2 Toot Rotation from highside (high side tool face) Solving Scales You must know 3 of the 5 to get the other 2. Set previous Drift Angle to proper number Locate your other two known values on the Ouija Board D Read the two unknown values weeApplications of the OUIJA Board SET eo Previous Drift Angle =, 1 2 3 TURN Maximum BUILD/DROP- with TURN with Build/Drop gy Turn SET SET MATCH Resuttant New Drift Angle New Drift Angie Direction Tangent To with Change Dogleg Semi-Circle Dogleg Semi-Circle Find Intersection READ READ of Resultant Resultant Dogleg Semi-Circle Direction Direction and Change Change New Drift Angie ~ READ Resulting Tool Rotation Frqore $5 _Aplcatos om Ou toms oeboard 5.4.1 Examples of use of the O1 Example 1 ‘The present survey reads: 12", N25W, DLS = 3.00 ‘The directional driller wants to turn the hole 5 degrees left and build some angle in a 90 foot course length. ‘The Previous drift angle and the direction change are given. The dogleg can be calculated as DL DL=270 ‘The unknowns are the new drift angle and the tool rotation from high side. The steps to follow on the Ouija Board for this problem are: 1. Setthe previous Drift Angle. a 2 ‘Set the new Drift Angle arm to the direction change. 3. Read the new Drift Angle at the dogleg semicircle. 90 x5 4. Read the Tool rotation. Thus: Previous Drit Angle = 12° Dogleg = 27 Direction Change = _5L for anew direction of N3OW New Drift Angle = 145° Too! Rotation = 30LetExamples of use of the Ouija board (continued) Example 2 ‘The Present survey reads: 22°, S37W DLS=3.22 ‘The directional driller wants to drop 2 degrees of inclination and turn the hole to the right in a90 foot course length ‘The previous drift angle is given. The Dogleg can be calculated as: 3.33 x90 100 DL=3.00 ‘The new drift angle is found by subtracting the desired drop from the previous drift angle. New drift angle is 20 degrees. The unknowns are the resultant direction change and the tool rotation from high side. The steps to follow an the Ouija Board for this problem are: 1. Setthe Previous Drift Angle DL= 2. Set the New Drift Angle at the Dogleg semicircle a 3. Read the Resultant Direction Change from the New Drift Angle arm 4 Read the Tool Rotation. Thus: Previous Drit Angle = 22° Dogieg = 300 Direction Change = 6” R for anew direction of S42.5W New Drift Angle = 20° oo! Ratation = 130 R . EASTMAN . . oe = a marrow Kosuthslfrttiaetla tM daily a fo a a — Ey e Figure 57 PERE og2_/ Dee ed yeExamples of use of the Ouija board (continued) Example 3 ‘The Present survey reads: 14°, N30E, DLS = 5.00 ‘The directional driller wants a maximum right turn in a course length of 60 feet. The previous drift angle is given. The Dogleg can be calculated as: pp = 800 x60 100 DL=3.00 ‘The unknowns are the new drift angle, the resultant direction change and the tooltotation from high side. The steps to follow on the Ouija Board for this problem are: 1. Set the Previous Drift Angle 2. Set the New Drift Angle arm tangent to the Dogleg semicircle 3. Read the New Drift Angle at the tangency point between the New Drift Angle arm and the Dogleg semicircle. 4. Read the Resultant Direction Change from the New Drift Angle arm 5. Read the Tool Rotation = cope 2 Seems 2 SiS ercmme cect ‘Tool Rotation = 100°R € € Di ecrco™ meaner —_ ee PES Booman snes cn Sisoutfinsatiisstlaah laa 7” noTATIN. 2. jo aa ca ea Ey3.4.2 BE end Exercises on use of the Ouija board 1. A motor and bent sub is being used for a correction run in 1214" hole. The average dogleg se- verity has been 25°/10". We have just taken a survey which gave: Inctnation: 28.0 Azimuth: 140.0 Determine the tool face setting for a maximum right turn and determine the results of drilling 100° with that TFO. Too! Face New inctnation Now azimuth 2. During a kickoff, the directional driller has been getting a consistent 35/100’ DLS by jetting the first 6 feet of every “double” drilled. Present survey is 14°, NSE. He “pars to et 6 feet and then complete a 60 course length, and he wishes to turn left 2"and build. Wht toot ace setting should he use and what should the result be? ‘Anticipated doglog Tool Face New inctnation New hole direction 3. We are using a 914" Navidrill with a 2V4" bent sub to kickoff in 171" hole. We have been get- ting.a dogleg, severity of about 3°/100'. Present survey is 12°, N33W (327") We want to build 2° and get some left turn over a 100’ course length, ‘What should our tool face setting be and what result should we get? Too! Face New inctnation New hole direction ows2 —~Exercises on use of the Ouija Board (continued) 4. 18° N30°E (030°) dL-3 ‘Turn 6 right and build angle Now Hole Direction 5 Now Dritt Angle (Incination) = Tool Face 5 5. 8° S25°W(205") OL=4 ‘Tum 4 right and build angle New Hole Direction e New Diitt Angle (Incination) = Tool Face 5 6. 28°N90°W 330") DL-37 Turn 5 lt and drop angie Now Holo Direction . New Drit Angle (Incknation) = Tool Face . 7. During a kick-off, the directional driller has been getting a consistent 35°/ 100’ D.LS. by jetting 6 feet each time. Present survey is 14, N3SE. He plans to jet 6 feet and then complete a 60” course length, and he wishes to turn left 2 and build angle. What tool face setting should be used and. what should the result be? Toottace . Now inctnation . Now hole direction . 8. 25° 828°E (1527 DLS = 5.0°100" CL 60 Drop 2 and tum iat Dogieg a Now Dritt Angie (Inctnation) = Now Hole Direction a Tool Face : ES esFor a maximum turn, set the new drift angle slide tangent to the dogleg semicircle. 9, 20° N60"W(300") Lee Maximum night turn Now Drit Angie (Inctnation) = Now Hote Direction o Tool Face a 10. 5° N75°E (075°) Les Maximum ft turn New Ortt Ang (nefnation) = Naw Hol Deecton 5 Toot Face : 11. We are driling with a 914" Mach 2 Navi-Drilt with a 059° DTU sub. We have just taken a sur- vey which gave 28°5" inclination, 140° azimuth, A correction run is required for right turn, Based ‘on previous runs in the oriented drilling mode, we predict a dog leg severity of 3°/100'. Find the tool face setting for a maximum right turn and predict the result of drilling 60 feet with that tool face setting Too! ace : New inetnation - Now azimuth : cary a Baker Hughes company 062 _,5.4.3 Using the Ouija Board to estimate Dogleg and Dogleg Severity ‘The Ouija Board may be used to estimate values of Dogleg. The procedure is as follows 1. Set the value of the inclination atthe first survey station on the “Previous Drift Angle” scale. 2. Set the line on the “New Drift Angle” scale to the appropriate division on the “Resultant Di- rection Change" scale, 8. Locate the value of the second inclination on the “New Drift Angle” scale. 4, At that point, read off the value of the dogleg. 5. This isthe value of dogleg forthe particular course length drilled, Now calculate the value of dogleg severity per 100 feet (or per 30 metres) ~ Example Survey at1706-MD «18° SABE Suny a1765MD 21° SS0'E change in hol drecton = Dogieg (from Ouija Board) = 3.1" Dogleg severity = S210 Calculate the dogleg using the formula and compare this with the value obtained us- ing the Ouija Board,5.4.3.1 Examples on estimating dogleg using the Ouija board 1. First Survey 6° N21"E at 1560" MD ‘Second Survey 7.5" No4’E at 1620 MD Dogieg (trom Ouja Board) : Dogleg seventy o Dogieg (cakulated using formula} - 2. First Survey 11° S17"W Second Survey 12° S15°W Course Length Dagleg (trom Ouja Board) 5 Dogieg Sevarty _ Dogieg (calculated using formula) . 3. First Survey 22.5° NSS.O"'W Second Survey 24.0" NEI. W. Course Length 60 Dosles {from Ouja Board) 5 Dogleg seventy 5 Dogleg (cak-uiated using formuta) - ~ 4 062 — Pe5.4.4 Estimating the Course Length to be drilled to achieve desired values of inclination and azimuth. 1, First estimate the required dogleg using the Ouija Board using the procedure given on Page 5.19. 2. Then calculate the course length using the formula: pana Dogg Ses Course length = ogee aity "3° Example Correction run with motor and bent sub Latest suvey 22" ine S10W (190) Survey desired : 28inct stew (198°) “The previous value of dogleg severity was 31/7100. “The dogleg from the Oulja Board = 4 approx). Required course length = x 100= 129. So we would have to dril 4 singles before the desired survey would be obtained Note We have assumed the motor and bent sub will continue to give the same dogleg severity as previously and we are ignoring the important complication of the survey depth being less than the bit depth.5.4.4.1 Exercises cn estimating dogleg, required course length and tool face orientation, inexamples 1 and 2, assume anticipated DLS = 3/100" 1. Prasent survey 18.1" incl, 207.0" azimuth Desires survey 22" incl, 212" azimuth Requited dogieg e Tool Face Orientation = 2. Present survey 12.8" inl 268.2" azimuth Desired survey : 18tinet, 278 azimuth Requited dogieg . Course length a Too! Face Orientation In examples 3 and 4, assume anticipated DLS = 25°/107 3. Present survey 2 28.5 Inet 183.7" azimuth Desirod survey 30" incl 150.5" Required dogieg 7 Course ierath 7 Tool Face Oriantation = 4. Prosent survey 2 23zinet, 349.7 Desicad survey 26" nel, 949.5 Required dagiog - Course length . Tool Face Orientation = Bo ad5.4.5 Using the Ouija Board for Angles over 30 Recalling the vector diagram on which the Ouija Board is based (see page 87), itis easy to see that the Ouija Board can be used for cases where the inclination is greater than 30 by using the proper- ties of similar triangles. Figure &@ The angle. (regutant drecton change is common o bot bianges. isthe ool oon andis he same torbot wang. The steps are as follows: 1. Divide the values of inclination and anticipated dogleg by 2. (Desired values of resultant direc- tion change are not changed). 2, Solve the probfem in the usual manner using the Ouija Board - obtain the required values of tool face, new drift angle, etc. 3. The values read from the Ouija Board of “new drift angle” (inclination) and /or dogleg tif ap- plicable) must be multiplied by 2 to obtain the correct answer. 4, Values of “resultant direction change” and “tool rotation” (high side tool face) are NOT changed - they are correct as tead from the Ouija Board. Important Note Do not use the Ouija Board when the inclination is over 30° if you are drilling with a slick motor and bent sub assembly. It has been found that the Ouija Board analysis does not predict the behaviour of a motor and bent sub correctly at high inclinations, especially soft formations. ‘see page 5-3 thru 5-4).5.4.5.1 Exercises on Using the Quija Board for angles over 30 1. Latest survey is: inclination = 360° azimuth 4.471007, We want to build 2and turn tothe left 7.5" course length = 917. Expected DLS = Expected dogieg a New inctnation . Now aime Tooltace 2. Latest survey is: inclination = 39.0°, azimuth = 239°. Course length = 64”. Expected DLS = 3°/100". We want to tur 3 right and build angle. Expected dogiog G Now inctnation 2 Now azimuth 7 Tooltace e 3. Latest survey is: inclination = 50° azimuth = 138". Course length = 93. Expected DLS = 43°7100.. We want to drop 2 and turn lef. Expected dogleg e Now incfnation q Now azimuth = Too! face - 4, Latest survey is: inclination = 48.2°, azimuth = 337'5”. Expected DLS = 3.8°/100". We want to fum 6 right and hold angle. Expected dogiog . Now incfnation - Tooltace 5 Course langth to be driled = Note: For the remaining exercises, refer to the Navi-Drrill Handbook for expected DLS values. 5. We are drilling with a 912" Mach 1 Navidrill wth 059" DTU angle in 12-1/4* hole, We have just taken a survey which gave 44.2" inclination, 194.5’ azimuth. We are going to drill oriented and wish to tur left while maintaining inclination. Find the required tool face setting and give the results expected after drilling 60” Nowincination = Now azimuth z FO e 6. Present survey is 38.0" inclination, 319° azimuth. Using an 8" Mach 1 with a 0.64" DTU angle in 12-1/4" hole we want to build 2° angle and tun right. Determine the required TFO and give the resulls expected after drilling a stand. Newinctnation = New azimuth E TFO :7. Present survey is 484 *indination, 775° azimuth. We are drilling 1712" hole with an 11-1/4" Mach } with 0.78°DTU angle. We want to turn 2 to the right and build angle aver a 60’ course length. Determine the required TFO and the expected results. Newincination = New azimuth TFO 5.4.6 Using the Ouija Board to Estimate Turn due to Reactive Torque. ‘As explained in Section 4, the reactive torque of a downhole motor will turn the tool face to the {eft when drilling begins, The directional driller will allow for this when setting TPO initially, At the beginning of a run. this allowance will be a “guesstimate” based on rules af thumb and pre- vious experience. Ifan MWD tool or a wireline steering tool is used, then the directional driller ‘ill obtain values of too! face while drilling, If he is using “single shot” surveys, eg, surface tead- _ out gyro surveys, then he must estimate the TPO while drilling from successive survey readings of inctination and azinvath, The Ouija Board can be used to do this as follows. 1. Set the value of the inclination at the first survey station on the “Previous Drift Angle” scale. 2. Set the line on the “New Drift Angle” seale to the appropriate division on the “Resultant Di- rection Change” scale. '3. Locate the value of the second inclination on the “New Drift Angle” scale. 4. Imagine a radius of the semi-circles which passes through that value. Where that radius would cut the “Toof Rotation” scale, read off the value. This is the high side tool face while drilling, 5. The difference between the value obtained in step 4 and the initial tool face setting before drill- ing began gives the amount of turn due to reactive torque.Exercises on Estimating Turn due to Reactive Torque 1. The last three surveys were: Inet Atimath 18.0" 47s" = 205" a5 nao we ‘The directional driller has been setting tool face 10° right of high side based on SRG “single shots” Estimate how much left tum he is geting due to reactive torque. 2. During a correction run for right tum the directional driller has been setting TFO 100 right of high side. Successive surveys are: Incl Azimuth 28.0" 2475 273 2505" 284" a8 Estimate the dogleg over both survey intervals and the actual toot face while drilling. How much turn was there due to reactive torque? 3. Atthe beginning of a correction run for right turn the directional driller estimates he wil get 50 tum due to reactive torque and so, using single shots, he orientate tool face 140" right. He ob- tains the following surveys: Ine Azimuth wa 107.5" 2r4 109.3 26.8" me Use the Quija Board to estimate the dog leg in each case and to find the tool face while drilling, How much actual left turn was he getting due to reactive torque? 06025.4.7. Estimating the Inclination and Azimuth at the bit depth. ‘An important consideration in directional driling especially when using a deflection tol is that the survey depth is some distance back from the bit. When an MWD tool is used with a sterable motor assembly or a motor and bent sub assembly, this distance will be typically between 50 feet ahd 80 feet. During the early stages of a kick-off, SRG surveys taken with the tool in a UBHO sub incated above the MWD tool could be nearly 100 feet behind the it. In such a situation itis italy, important for the directional driller tobe able to extrapolate the survey readings and hence the ‘alt coordinates forward to the bit depth. Estimating the inclination and direction atthe bit can be Gone asa simple exercise using the Ouija Board, knowing the tool face setting used to dri the last section. Consider the following example. Example ‘a kick-off with a NORTRAK DTU assembly, the MWD tool is experiencing magnetic interfer- cence from the casing shoe and adjacent cased wells and so SRG surveys are being run. The distance _ from the bit to the survey depth is 91 feet. The latest survey gives: it dope = 1282" incinaon = 48" Azimuth = $8.5" (corrected) Having allowed for reactive torque, the directional driller has drilled each of the last three singles with a gyro tool face of roughly 40° azimuth. Estimate the inclination and azimuth at the bit depth, assuming a dogleg severity of 3°/100, Solution Bit to survey distance = 91’ ‘Anticipated DLS = 3/100 So the dogleg over 91° = “Fs x91 =2.73° -~ ‘The tool face setting of 40 gyro toot face is approximately 20 LEFT of high side Now use the Ouija Board as follows: . Set the “PREVIOUS DRIFT ANGLE” to 4.8°. . Adjust the line ofthe “EW DRIFT ANCL” scales that inte it intersects the aus fr 20 “TOOL ROTATION” atthe pant where the doglag vans 2%. Atths point ead oie vaucot NEW ORT ANGE €. Read the value of “RESULTANT DIRECTION CHANGE” from the Ouij een fom the Ouija Board and hence calculate the Incindion att = 7" paimuth abt = S88 65" 52 -.- ~ Ditne —___s ee ee5.4.7.1 Exercises 1. Latest survey Inctnation: Azimuth; Bit depth Br to survey distance Fo used to ot ast stand Expected dogleg severty Estimate the inclination and azimuth at 1563’ M.D. . Latest survey Inctnation: Azimuth: Bit depth Bitto survey distance ‘Eo used to dsl last stand Expected dogieg severity Estimate the inclination and azimuth at 1847’ M.D. a Baker Hughes company 1563' MD. 84 80" niGHr of high side as'/100 16.2 236.5 year" ” 20° Lert of high side 4n00 ogee aESection® Directional control with rotary systems Objectives Upon completion of this section, the trainee should be able to: eee ~ J. List the main factors which affect the directional behaviour of rotary as- semblies. 2. Explain the Fulcrum, Stabilization and Pendulum Principles. 3. List six factors which affect the rate of build of a fulcrum assembly and explain fully the effect which each has. 4, — Explain the effect of varying the drilling parameters (WOB, RPM, etc) on the build rate of a fulcrum assembly. 5. Explain the effect of varying the gauge of the first string stabilizer on the directional behaviour of a packed assembly. eA 6. Explain the effect of varying the drilling parameters on the directional behaviour of a packed assembly. 7. List and explain the optimum design features of a pendulum assembly. 8. Explain the effect of varying WOB and rotary speed on the drop rate of a pendulum assembly. 9. Design a suitable rotary BHA for any given application, including the exact placement and gauge of all stabilizers, 10. — Explain the factors which affect the stiffness of drill coflars. continued overtea. ~ ASObjectives for Section 6 11. Explain the effect of changing the OD of the drill collars on the direc- tional behaviour of rotary assemblies, and recommend appropriate col- lar sizes for any hole size. 12. Explain what is meant by “bit walk”, and state the general “walk” char- acteristics of the main types of drill bit. 13. Define and explain what is meant by “formation dip angle”, and de- scribe the effect that formation dip has on the directional behaviour of rotary assemblies. pene oie ce kanal aadSection 6 Directional contro! with rotary assemblies 6.1 Introduction ‘Another important aspect of a directional driller's jb is to design rotary BHAS which will drill the planned trajectory. In this section we shall concentrate on the basic principles used in directional con- ‘rol when drilling with rotary assemblies, and the typical assemblies used! foreach section. The effec of driling parameters such as weight on bit will be considered as will the effect of formation anisotropy. ‘We shall then briefly mention the basis of same of the computer models of BHA behaviour. Historically, it as always been possible to control the angle (inclination) of directional wells dur- ing rotary drilling by correct design of the assembly and use of suitable drilling parameters. How. ever, the control of hole direction has traditionally been poor. Roller cone bits usually “walk” to the right, and directional control was farmerly limited to using well-stabilised assemblies to re- duce this tendency. Until the eighties it was standard practice to give wells a “lead angle” to the left of the proposal to compensate for this right hand walk.6.2 6.2.1 CU ed ei Side Force and Tilt Angle Directional trends are accepted to be related to the direction of theresultant force at the bit. It has ‘also been shown that the bit tit angle, Le. the angle between the bit axis and the hole axis, affects the direction of drilling. This is because a drill bit is designed to drill parallel to its axis. In rotary assemblies where there is a near bit stabiliser, the bt tilt angle is small and the magnitude of the side force at the bit isthe key factor. Side force at Resultant force. stebilizer at bit Hole axis | Formation inisotroy Bittiit angle V ™ Py Figure 6-1 Factors affecting bit trajectory Factors which affect the directional behaviour of rotary assemblies Gauge and placement of stabilisers. Diameter and length of drill collars. Weight on bit Rotary speed. Bit type Formation anisotropy and dip angle of the bedding planes. Formation hardness. Flow rate Rate of penetration. Of course, some of the above factors are interrelated. oucoouuuN 0626.3 Basic directional control principles Othe Fulcrum Principle is used to build angle (ie increase borehole inclination) Q The Stabilisation Principle is used to hold (maintain) angle and direction, Othe Pendulum Principle is used to drop (reduce) angle. We shall now consider each of these principles in tur and look at typical assemblies which are used. 6.3.1 The fulcrum principle Anassembly with a full gauge near-bit stabiliser, then 40-120 of drill collars before the first string, ~ stabiliser, oF no string stabiliser a all, will build angle when WOB is applied. Component of force onhigh site TS ~~ Force vz Full gauge near-bit stabilizer Figure 62 As illustrated in the figure above, the collars above the near-bit stabiliser bend, partly due to their own weight and partly because of applied WOB, The near-bit stabiliser acts as the pivot, or ful- ‘crum, of a lever and the bit is pushed to the high side of the hole. The bit therefore drills a path . which is gradually curving upwards, ie. the assembly builds angle. I: _ eee6.3.2 Factors which affect the rate of build. The rate of build will be INCREASED by the following: ‘An increase in the distance from the near-bit stabiliser to the first string stabiliser. Increase in hole inclination. Reduction of drill collar diameter, Increase in weight on bit. Reduction in rotary speed. Reduction in flow rate (in soft formations). ooooon 4. The distance from the near-bit stabiliser to the first string stabiliser is the main design feature of a fulcrum assembly affecting the build rate. The build rate increases as this distance is increased because a longer fulcrum section will bend more which will increase the fulcrum effect and the side force on high side. There isa limit, however. Once the upper stabi- liser is more than 120° from the near-bit stabiliser (depending on hole size, collar OP, fc), the collars are contacting the low side of the hole and any further increase in this distance will have no additional effect on build rate. b. The rate of build of a fulcrum assembly increases as the inclination increases because there isa larger component of the collars’ own weight causing them to bend. A sim- plified picture of the mechanics involved predicts that the rate of build should increase in di- rect proportion to the sine of the inclination, In reality, the situation and the actual response are more complicated. To take an example, a strong build assembly which built ata rate of 157/100" when the inclination was only 15” might build at 4/100’ when the inclination was 60 €. Drill collar diameter. As will be discussed later in this section (pages 6-24 and 6-25 ), the stiffness of a drill collar is proportional to the fourth power of the diameter. So a small re- duction in the 0D of the drill collars used in the fulcrum section considerably increases their limberness and hence the rate of build. However, it is not common practice to pick drill collar diameter according to build rate requirements. Usually, standard collar sizes for the given hole size are used, d. Weight on Bit. Increasing the weight on bilt will bend the drill collars behind the near- bik stabiliser more, 50 the rate of build will increase. e. Rotary Speed. A higher rotary speed will tend to ‘straighten’ the drill collars and hence reduce the rate of build. For this reason, low rotary speeds (70 - 100 RPM) are generally used with fulcrum assemblies. 1. Flow Rate. In soft formations, a high flow rate can lead to washing out the formation ahead ofthe bit which reduces the build tendency ee ee96 foot Bulid Assembly Full gauge string stabilizer Drill collar Full gauge string stabilizer Drill collar Drill collar Dritt cotar Full gauge near bit Stabilizer 17-1/2" Bit Figure es 172" bit 1772" NB stab / 3x 9¥2" x30’ DC's / 1742" stab / 9¥2" x30 DC / 1712" stab / 912" x20" Dc'sas needed / etc. ‘This assembly will build angle rapidly, typically at 2.0" -25°/100,, depending on the inclination and the drilling parameters. Non-magnetic components and survey tools should be positioned ac- cording to local requirements. Placementof some MWD (measurement while drilling) systems between the near bit stabilizer and the fist string stabilizer could result in increased possibility of MWD falure because some collar mounted Mw systems have a lower equivalent bending stiffness than drill collars withthe same OD, and asare- sult may be the most flexble part ofthe bia. Proper placement of such MWD systems above the First string stabilizer can reduce the frequency of stress related failure. ose2 DRBETESN ~60 foot Bulld Assembly Full gauge string stabilizer 7 Drill collar l, Full gauge string stabilizer ~ 7 Drill collar | | Drill collar =) f, Full gauge near bit stabilizer 17-1/2" Bit Figure 6-4 1714" bit / 172" NB stab / 2x 919" x 30’ DC's / 1719" stab / 912" x 30” DC / 17%" stab / 912" x 30" DC'sas needed / This would give a build rate in the range 1.5°- 2.5°/100' depending on the inclination and the drill- ing parameters. Non-magnetic components and survey tools should be positioned according to la cal requirements. * 062 —~ ed eedGradual Angle Build Assembly Full gauge string stabilizer Drill collar Slightly under gauge string stabilizer t-——— Drill collar Short drill collar Full gauge near bit stabilizer 17-412" Bit Figure 6-5 3794" bit / 1712" NB stab / 9¥2" x 12" DC /9¥2" x 30’ DC / 1714" stab / 9¥2" x30’ DC / 1712" stab / 9¥2" x 30’ DC's as needed / et ‘This would build typically at 0.5* - 1.5°/100’ depending on the inclination and the drilling parameters. Non-magnetic components and survey tools should be positioned a cording to local requirements.Gradual Angle Build Assembly Full gauge string stabilizer Ih Drill collar Drill collar ~ ] }— Full gauge string stabilizer —+——— Drill collar ee ‘Under gauge string stabilizer + Dri collar Full gauge near bit stabilizer Bit stab / 8° x30 DC / 1214" stab /2« 8" x30’ DC /120" Figure 6-6 1204" bit / 1214" stab / 8° x30 DC / stab / 8" x30’ DC’s as needed / et... This assembly would be used in the tangent section when it was necessary to build angle gradu- ally. It would build typically at 05*-1.0°/100. Non-magnetic components and survey tools should be positioned according to local requirements. a Baker Hughes company oneThe stabilisation principle (packed hole principle) ‘This principle is that if there are three stabilisers in quick succession behind the bit separated by short, stiff drill collar sections, then the three stabilisers will resist going found a curve and force the bit to drill a reasonably straight path. The first of the three stabilisers should be immediately be- hind the bit, ie, a near-bit stabiliser, and should be fal! gauge, Figure 67 Assemblies which utilise this principle are called packed hole assemblies and are used to drill the tangent sections of directional wells, maintaining angle and direction. High rotary speed (120- 160+) will assist the tendency to drill straight. “~ > pas"Standard Packed Assembly rm Drill collar ] }— Full gauge string stabilizer =] Drill collar f i) Full gauge string stabilizer Short drill collar ~ j Full gauge near bit stabilizer Bit Figure 6-8 ‘When this assembly is used in directional wells, it usually drops angle, typically at 0.1" -0.5°/100" de- pending on various factors such as formation characteristics, weight on bit, RPM, bit type, etc. Non-magnetic components and survey tools should be positioned according to local requirements. ‘ aoe 062 Se ech solPacked Assembly with undergauge first string stabilizer Full gauge string stabilizer Oritt collar Full gauge string stabilizer Drill collar Under gauge string stabilizer Short drill collar Full gauge near bit stabilizer Bit Figure 6-9 ‘This assembly should hold angle, depending on the exact gauge of the first string stabilizer. 1712" hole IMs" bit / 1742" stab / 92" x 10’ DC / 17” stab / 914" 30’ DC / 1772" stab / 912" x30 DC JIVE" stab /9¥2" x 10’ DC’sas needed / etc... 1214" hole 1214" bit / 1214" stab / 8" x 10 DC / 12" stab / 8° x30" DC / 1214" stab /8" x30 DC /124" stab / 8° x 30’ DC’s as needed / ete. ‘Non-magnetic components and survey tools should be positioned according to Locat requirements. a fe =~Packed Assembly No, 3 Uf Full gauge string stabilizer [/——— pri cottar / Full gauge string stabilizer [———— Drilt collar 1} Full gauge string stabilizer 10° short drill cotiar }—————— 10’ short drill collar ( ] Full gauge near bit stabilizer Bit ‘The use of two shart collars increases the distance between the near-bit and the first string stabi- liser. This assembly should hold angle in most applications. ure 6-10 ‘Non-magnetic components and survey tools should be positioned according to local requirements. ven.Packed Assembly No. 4 Full gauge string stabilizer Drill collar Full gauge string stabilizer Full gauge string stabilizer Drill collar Full gauge string stabilizer Full gauge near bit stabilizer Bit Figuie6-11 The tandem stabilisers make this assembly very rigid. Inthe past it was more common to use tan- ddem stabilizers to contro bit waik of roller cone bits. Presently its use is limited to areas where ex- treme bit walk is common. Rotation of an assembly such as this will generate high rotary torque. Generally, as the number of stabilizers in the BHA is increased, so is the possibilty of hole sticking. Non-magnetic components and survey tools should be positioned according to local requirements.6.3.4 The pendulum principle _ ‘This was the first directional control principle to be formulated and was originally analysed for slick. semblisdriling straight holes We sal encenrate on pendulum assomties usedinsevated well Figure 612 The porsulum principle ‘The portion of the assembly from the bt to the first string stabiliser “hangs like a pendulum’ and, because ofits own weight, presses the bit tothe low side of tne hole. The major design feature of pendulum assembly is that there is either no near-bit stabiliser or an undergauge near- bit stabi- lise. In most cases where a pendulum assembly is used, the main factor causing deviation is the ‘component of force atthe bit acting on the low side of the hole. The length of collars from the bit to the first string stabiliser (the "pendulum”) must not be allowed to bend too much towards the low side of the hoie 692If the collars make contact with low side as shown n the Figure 6-13, then the effective length ofthe pendulum and the side force on low side are both reduced. The situation depicted inthis figure is also undesirable because the bit axis has been tilted upwards in relation tothe hole axis which will reduce the dropping tendency. (In itself this would produce a build tendency). Careful selection of drilling parameters is required to prevent this. High rotary speed (120 - 160+) helps ‘keep the pendulum straight to avoid the above situation. Initially, low weighton bit should be used also, again to avoid bending the pendulum towards the low side of the hole. Once the dropping trend has been established, maderate weight can be used to achieve a respectable penetration rate. Some ele- mentary texts on directional drilling depict the pendulum effect as shown in Figure 6-14 {next page) fa—Tangency point Effective length of pendulum Figure 613. Reductono! pendulum Inrce due 1 wall contact,‘The implication is that part ofthe drop- ping tendency is produced by a down- ward tilting ofthe bit axis Its interesting tonote that ifthe above picture were true then the dropping tendency would be in- creased by increasing WOB and reducing, rotary speed, the precise opposite of what ‘was recommended on the previous page. ‘The example in Figure 6-14 is possible for ‘certain lengths of pendulum when there is zo near-bitstabiliser and only one string stabiliser. The collars above the upper stabi- liser are sagging towards the lw side of the hole causing a fulcrum effect about the string stabiliser and tting the upper por- tion of the pendulum towards the high side of the hole as shown, Some experienced di- rectional drilles recount instances of pen- ddulum assemblies dropping faster with high WOB and low rotary speed. Itmust be emphasised, however, that this is not what would normally occur. ‘The gauge ofthe bit is effectively a point of support, so that for most pendulum assemblies, especially longer pendu- Iams, the pendulum section is most likely to bend towards the low side of the hole as described previously. Figure 6:14 One possible inmrpretaton of te pendulum ect 6.3.5 Summary and Recommended Practices. ‘The safest approach to designing and using a pendulum assembly is to concentrate on producing. a side force atthe bit on the low side of the hole. This is best achieved by running an assembly ‘where the pendulum portion will be as stiff and straight as possible. Itis also desirable that the sec- tion immediately above the first string stabiliser is also stiff and straight and soa second string sta- biliser within 34” of the first is recommended. Omit the near-bit stabiliser when azimuth control is not a concem or when drilling with a PDC bit (see later). When drilling with a roller cone bit, use an under-gauge near-bit stabiliser if azimuth control is a consideration. Typically, the near-bit stabilizer need only be 14" to Y2" undergauge in order to produce a dropping tendency. The assembly should have two string stabilisers withthe second stabiliser not more than 30’ above the first QD Initially use low Wop until the dropping tendency is established, then gradually increase bit weight until an acceptable penetration rate is achieved. Use high rotary speed, depending on bit type. If possible, do not plan drop sections in hard formation. 618 RCT tu cd 0692 —30 foot Penduium Assembly (t— Drill collar I -———— Drill collar ] Full gauge string stabilizer Drill collar [ I Full gauge string stabilizer | print conar as— Bit Figues-1s The rate of drop depends on the wellbore inclination and the diameter and weight of the bottom Grill collar, as well as the drilling parameters used. At45" inclination, this assembly would typi- cally drop at 15°-2.0°/100. Non-magnetic components and survey tools should be positioned according to local requirements.‘guia 646 3) 30 foot Pendulum Assembly with under-gauge near bit stabilizer on I c= Drill collar Drill collar -— Full gauge string stabilizer Drill collar Full gauge string stabitizer Drill collar Under gauge string stabilizer This will give a slightly lower rate of drop than the previous ni, but should reduce bit walkand thereby give better azimuth control ‘Non-magnetic components and survey tools should be positioned according to local requirements. Baker Hughes company sez —Gradual Angle Drop Assembly = L| Drill collar Drill collar Drill collar 2 a Bit t}-— Full gauge string stabilizer Bs | Full gauge string stabilizer Short drill collar (10° to 15°) Figure6.17 This short pendulum hook-up would give a more gradual drop rate, say 1°/100’ depending on in- clination, etc. ‘Non-magnetic components and survey tools should be positioned according to local requirements. ~ jpyasree60 foot Pendulum Assembly used to drill vertical wells ] bf Full gauge string stabilizer Drill collar (]j}— Full gauge string stabilizer = Drill collar Driil collar igure6-18 This is too strong a dropping assembly to use on directional wells, except perhaps low angle wells. Itis commonly used to drill vertical wells through soft to medium hard formations. Non-magnetic components and survey tools should be positioned according to local requirements.6.4 Effect of bit type on the directional behaviour of rotary assemblies Roller Cone Bits When rotary drilling with roller cone bits, the type of bit used makes very little difference to ‘whether an assembly builds, holds or drops angle; as already discussed, this is determined by the configuration of stabilisers and collars and by varying the drilling parameters However, the type of bit used hasa significant effect on walk rates. Conventional three-cone rock bits cause right-hand walk in normal rotary drilling. Generally speaking, iong tooth bits drilling soft to medium hardness formation give a greater right walk tendency than short tooth bits drill- ing a hard formation. This is mainly because the gouging /scraping action of soft formation bits “creates a tendency to change direction to the right; also, long toothed soft formation bits have a ‘greater cone offset which increases the effect. PDC Bits During the eighties it became common practice to use PDC bits for rotary drilling, with low WOB and fast rotary speed. When rotary drilling with PDC bits, it has been found that almost no “walk” ‘occurs, ie, the assemblies hold their direction almost constant. It has also been found that the con- tol of the inclination angle is affected by PDC bits, particularly when an angle drop assembly is used ‘The gauge length of a PDC bit may significantly affect the rate of build in a rotary assembly. A PDC with a short gauge length may result in a build rate greater than that would be expected with atri-cone bit. On the other hand, a longer gauge stabilizes the bit, thereby tending to reduce the rate of build. The low WOB typically used with PDC bits may also reduce the build rate, as collar flexure decreases with decreasin WOB. When used with packed assemblies in tangent section drilling, longer gauged PDC bits seem to aid in maintaining inclination and direction due to the in- creased stabilization at the bit. When used with angle drop assemblies, PDC bits may reduce the drop rate previously obtained with a tricone bit. Generally, the longer the gauge length of the PDC bit, the lower the rate of drop obtained because the bit gauge acts similar to a full gauge near-bit stabilizer. Short gauge length PDCs can be used effectively for dropping angle. When sucka suitable PDC bit is used in a rotary pendulum assembly, the low WOB and high RPM, typical to most PDC bit applications, should as- sist in dropping angie.6.5 Stiffness of drill collars As stated earlier, the behaviour of bottom-hole assemblies, particularly fulcrum and pendulum as- semblies, is affected considerably by the stiffness of the drill collars used in the lowest portion of the BHA. Itis generally accepted that drill collars may be considered as thick walled cylinders. ‘Their stiffness depends on the axial moment of inertia and the modulus of elasticity of the steel ID OD. Figure 6-10 ‘The axial moment of inertia Lis given by 4 copt-! @ (OD*-1D*) ‘The weight per unit length, W, is calculated from 7(OD?-ID?) where p is the density of the steel Notice that the stiffness is proportional to the fourth power of the outside diameter whereas collar ‘weight is proportional to the second power of the outside diameter. This means that the inside di- ameter has very little effect on collar stiffness but has a significant effect on collar weight. ‘The relative weights and inertias of some common drill collar sizes are listed in the following table. w Coller OD | Moment of inertia | Weighttength (inches) Int tt 475 25 45 oo 85 100 ao 200 160 95 | 400 235 Itisinteresting to notice that the moment of inertia of a 912" collar is double that of an 8" collar, which in tum is more than double that of a 612" collar ‘The component of weight/unit length tending to bend the drill collars and contributing to the lat- eral forces at the bit and stabilisers is Wx=W (BF) sin ® where W = weight/foot of the drill collar in air, BF = buoyancy factor of the drilling mud and @ = inclination of the wellbore. Be edFor example, if the inclination was 50” and the mud weight was [0ppe then the value of W, for 8" drill collars would be: W,=160 x 0.847 xsin 50° 1 Wy = 160 » 0.847 x 0.766 = 104 "or (Buoyancy factor for 10ppg mud = 0.847) ‘The following table gives the modulus of elasticity and density of various metals which can be used to manufacture drill collars. Metal Modulus of Elasticity { Density (10%pat) (ibm?) aot Steel{iow carbon) Stainless Stee! sot K Monel 529 Aluminium 170 Tungsten 1205 The main thing fo notice is that most types of steel and manel which are actually used in dri cot lars have about the same modulus of elasticity and density. So in practice the stiffness of a drill col- lar depends almost entirely on its outside diameter and is proportional to the fourth power of the OD. However, aluminium drill collars would be more limber than stee) dril collars of the same di- ‘mensions whereas tungsten collars would be much stiffer. In general, it is recommended that standard drill collar diameters should be used for each hole size. However, itis important that directional dritlers understand the effect of changing the drill collar OD. 6.5.1 Effects of changing drill collar O.D. With a fulcrum (build) assembly, reducing collar CD will dramatically increase the build tendency because the collars will be more limber and will bend more. Another factor here isthe clearance be- tween the outside ofthe drill collars and the wall of the hole. The greater the clearance, the more the collars can bend before they contact the low side of the hole. Once the collars contact the low side of the hole, further increases in WOB will have only a marginal effect on build rate by moving the contact point down the hole. ‘With a packed assembly, reducing collar OD may give a slight build tendency because the collars can bend more. With a pendulum assembly, itis best that the pendulum portion be as stiff as possible soit is pref- erable to use large diameter collars if possible. Reducing collar OD increases the likelihood thatthe collars will bend towards the low side of the hole which will reduce the pendulum effect and the rate of drop obtained. Also, of course, reducing the collar OD reduces the weight of the bottom col- lars which reduces the pendulum force and the rate of drop.6.6 The effects of formation on bit trajectory Jn some cases, the nature and hardness of the rock being drilled can have a pronounced effect on directional tendencies, although in many cases the importance of formation effects is exaggerated (Of fundamental importance is whether the rock is isotropic or anisotropic. An isotropic rock is ‘one which has the same properties, or behaves in the same way, no matter which direction you ap- proach it from. Most sandstones are isotropic. Conversely, anisotropic rocks such as shales do not have the same properties in all directions. Most oilfield drilling, although not all, is done in sedimentary formations. Due to the nature of their deposition, sedimentary rocks have layers or bedding planes and most sedimentary rocks show some degree of anisotropy. Experience from drilling into dipping (tilted) formations has shown that the drill bit is forced towards a preferential direction related to the dip angle and direc- tion of the bedding. The trends are most prevalent in low angle medium to hard drilling, notably in fields with pronounced structure. A number of explanations and models have been proposed over the years to explain these effects. In their early work on the pendulum theory, Lubinski and Woods proposed a variable drillability model which related an index of the rock strength when attacked perpendicular to the bedding. planes to the rock strength when attacked parallel to the formation beds. They produced tables of “anisotropy indices” and formation classes which could be used as a guide in selecting pendulum length, drill collar size or weight on bit. ‘Another theory proposes that as the bit drills into hard layers, the hard layer will fracture perpen- dicular to the dip. This creates a miniature whipstock which guides the bit to drill into the dip. Another explanation, proposed by McLamore and others, is that of preferential chip formation. This considers the mode of chip formation ata single tooth. Anisotropic formations have preferen- tial planes c‘ failure. As it impacts the formation, the bit tooth sets up a compressive stress in a rection perpendicular to the face ofthe tooth. Shear failure will occur more readily along the ‘bedding planes in a sedimentary rock. When the bit is drilling an anisotropic rock, large chips will ‘be cut rapidly on one side of the bit and small chips will be cut out more slowly on the other side. Unequal chip volumes will therefore be generated on each side ofa bit tooth as shown below. “The forces between the bit toth and the rock will be greater onthe right side ofthe toth inthe above diagram. Therefore there will bea resultant force on the bit acting to the left. This is F,, the deviation force, shown in the above figure. It follows that the deviation force depends on the angle of dip. ip volumes Figure 6.206.6.1 The relationship between the angle of dip and deviation force. Based on the preferential chip formation theory explained on the previous page, the graph shown below has been derived from experimental work 4 5000: o _¢8 to acl 2 8 ~ 2500: s 500 5 s § z 0 os 3 15 30 45 60 75 3 3 8 ES 2500 soo © § 8 y 1000 5000 Figure 6-21 Maximum deviation force sa fneton of formation dp The effective angle of dip is the angle at which the bit strikes the bedding planes. The graph pre- dlicts that when the effective angle of dip is less than 45° the direction of the deviation force is up- dip, but when the effective dip angle is greater than 45" the direction of the deviation force is down-dip. The meaning of up-dip and down dip is illustrated below. a Up dip Figure 622 Meaning of updip and down ip. Experience of unwanted deviation in vertical wells over many years has bome out the predictions of the graph shown in Figure 6-21. Drilling through alternately hard and soft formations with low dip angles, using a well stabilised bit and weights high enough to cause collar flexure, usually re- sults in a course perpendicular to the bedding planes.628 ‘The figure below illustrates the tendency of the bit to deviate in the up-dip direction wher the for- mation dip angle is low. re ! i Dog leg angle ] Figure 6-23 Atlow dip angles, deviaton endency is upp ‘The formation attitudes will have a similar effect on directional tendencies. For dip angles less than 45°, ifthe direction is due up-dip then the bit will tend to maintain direction but build angle. But if the borehole direction is left of up-dip, the bit tends to “walk” to the right; whereas if the di- rection is right of up-dip the bit ends to “walk” to the left. Both these phenomena are in reality just special cases of the up-dip tendency. ‘When the formation dip angle is greater than 45°, the usual tendency of the bit is to drill parallel to the bedding plane. Dog leg angle Figure 6.24 A:ngn dp angles, devation endency 8 down dp For cases where the dip angle is greater than 45", ifthe hole direction is right of down-dip direc tion then the bit tends to “walk” to the left. Ifthe hole direction is left of down-dip direction, thert the bit tends to walk to the right. Again, these are simply special cases of the down- Y w= weight / unit length Z Nsublizers pivot ned . 7 . A R @= Angle trom hole center line 4d = Deflection tram hole center line R = Reaction force ‘Sructyal dealsaton of botom hola assembly (BHA). 0192‘As stated in the previous part of this section, the elasticity of a continuous beam is determined from its axial moment of inertia and the modulus of elasticity ofthe material. For most BHA com- ponents, a thick-walled cylinder can be used for the beam section, Assumptions Made in Structural Analysis The list below gives assumptions which are usually made in a structural analysis of the BHA. 2 The components of the drilling assembly behave as elastic bodies. Q The bit is centred in the borehole and no moment exists between the bit and formation at the bit face. The components ofthe BHA have geometrical and material Properties which remain constant over some finite element. Q_ Displacement from the hole axis is small relative to the length of elements. Shear deformations are not considered across elements. 7 The borehole wall is rigid and parallel to the borehole axis. O. Theetfects of vibration and hydraulics may be ignored. 1D Atsome point above the last stabilizer, the stiffness of the drill collars near the bit. The side force was graphically compared to the field results and a correlation was found between the side force and the build rates which was related to the inverse of the drill collar ‘moment of inertia. The borehole has a circular cross-section. (One respect in which various models differ is in the assumptions about the gauge of the hole. ‘While some models assume the hole is a certain amount overgauge, the value depending on rock strength, stabilizer side-cutting and bit OD, many models ignore the problem and assume the hole ‘gauge is equal to the bit OD This isa serious limitation of many computer models. 6.7.2 Computer methods of BHA analysis ~ Using the assumptions listed above, several approaches to the problem of BHA structural analysis have been attempted. Most programs available today use one of two main meth- ods described below. 1, Finite Element Analysis This technique considers the BHA to be composed of a series of beam elements, each of which may have its own properties, interconnected at node points. By definition, node points are points of ‘minimum displacement and act as the boundaries of discrete elements. For example, all stabilizers will be node points. ‘The classicial finite element theory uses matrix solutions to the beam problem. The finite element method has been adapted to the BHA problem by many individuals and groups. The basic assump- tion is that the deflections of the node points can be expressed in the form of an external forces vec tor and a stiffness matrix. There exist many variations ofthe stiffness matrix to model structures with varying, degrees of freedom. Ce cd a aeEach node is constrained to remain within a circle whose radius is equal to the difference between the hole radivs and the collar radius. Each node has six degrees of freedom. ‘The six degrees of freedom of each node are: 3 displacements u, v, w along axes X, Y,Z. 3 rotations @, @,, 8, about axes X, Y, Z ‘Corresponding to these six degrees of freedom are six loads 3 forces F, Fy F, along axes X, Y,Z. 3 moments M, My, M, about axes X, Y, Z. ‘The displacements for N nodes are expressed asa vector which has length 6N. The Joads for N nodes are expressed in a force vector which has length 6N. The displacements can be determined by the product of the force vector and a stiffness matrix of size GN by 6N. This is basically a simul- taneous equation solution of many terms. ‘The main limitation of the finite element method is that the solution requires a computer with a large memory and a capable processor. Also, even the most sophisticated versions of the model runon large computers do not satisfactorily account forthe problems of hole gauge erosion and formation anisotropy. ‘The advantage of the finite clement method, however, is that itcan incorporate advanced features such as dynamics analysis, borehole friction and non-linear wall constraints. 2. The Differential Equation Solution ‘The alternative solutions all originate from the differential equation approximation to the forces and moments equilibrium ata point in the beam. The original derivation of these equations was bby Arthur Lubinski in his paper on the “Maximum Permissible Doglegs in Rotary Boreholes”, but ‘more recently this approach has been directed to BHA directional performance by a number of peo- ple. The equations for the three dimensional solution are as follows: 2, pay R at Sere 2k ox Yypok Barty Geo ‘The z direction is along the drillstring axis. ‘The x direction is perpendicular toz and lies in the horizontal plane. ‘The y direction is perpendicular to both z and x and lies in the vertical plane of the borehole. 2% ay % aye anglesin hand splines speciely ant 8 ae te nso angea hee ngs ca 692 jeneraaEis the modulus of elasticity. is the axial moment of inertia Tis the torque about the drill string axis. Ps the axial force (which depends on WOB). W, is the component of buoyed weight per unit length acting in the Y direction. Ris the contact force acting in the Y direction. ‘A general solution for the above equations can be found by reduction and integration. The govern- ing bending relation is calculated for each segment of the BHA, starting from the contact point above the highest stabilizer and working dov'n the BHA, element by element, to the bit. Note that the equations take account of torque in the drill string, However, tests with these models have shown that torque has very litte effect on the deflections and bit force. Hence simplified forms of the equations which ignore torque are sometimes used, ‘The constraint of the clearance between the hole wall and the BHA elements represents a go/no go situation. No point in any BHA element can have a displacement which is greater than the radial distance from the collar or stabilizer to the hole wall. The force required to make the displacement equal to the radial clearance is calculated at each contact point - this isthe reaction force on the ~ BHA element from the wall of the hole. (Once again, the final solution by this method yields the tilt angle and side force at the bit. 6.7.3 Predicting directional trends We have seen that a structural mechanics analysis of the BHA, whether by the Finite Element ‘Analysis Method or the Differential Equation Method, will yield the side force atthe bit and the bit tilt angle. These values are, however, only an intermediate step in the derivation of directional tendencies in terms of build and walk rates. Ifthe build and walk rates can be determined, then it isa simple matter to project the course of the well ahead. Unfortunately, approaches to deriving build and walk rates from bit tilt angle and side force have been individual and inconsistent. It has been found that a given method will not work for all as- semblies under all circumstances. Early work on projecting directional trends was based on establishing a relationship between bit side force and build rates. Qualitatively, a positive side force would indicate a build tendency and a negative side force would indicate a dropping tendency. Comparisons were made with field data. The dogleg severity values were related to the bit side forces and the stiffness of the drill col- lars near the bit. The side force was graphically compared to the field results and a correlation was found between the side force and the build rates which was related to the inverse of the drill collar ‘moment of inertia CM CayY Lj, 2 Point fixed beam analogy de 2-Fs-Li at ~" Sei ca alee ars 3 Point fixed beam analogy de Fs-Li di 261 OT dQ _Fs-Li(ti+le) F «80 Febr(ti+te) al 2:El-L2 1 Doge every naan per ut oath Figure 6-29 Doglag curvature kom beam sities formula. A simple method of deriving build or drop rates used by some 2-d static programs is based on a beam bending formula. This method derives the displacement at the bit as- suming that the bit deflects to a curvature where the elasticity of the assembly counter- balances the side force at the bit. The BHA just above the bit may be considered as either a 2-point fixed beam or a 3-point pivoted beam. Notice the formula derived from the 2-point beam equation gives a constant of 2/3, whereas a con- stant of 1/2s derived from the 3-point beatn equation. Comparison of predictions to field results indicate a value of 0.6 is more appropriate. ‘The simplified solution for build rate from tilt angle given abave can be used to predict the theo- retical relationship between weight on bit and build rate for various bottomhole assemblies. Some examples are shown on the next page. Itis interesting to notice the prediction, which agrees with field experience, that varying WOB with packed assemblies has very lite effect on the build or drop rate. However, this method under-estimates the effect of WOB om the build rates of fulcrum assemblies, since it ignores several factors including the time dependence of side-cutting. Dace ane aenrernaeBuild rate (deg/100") Weight on bit (1000 Ibs) ——— >————— Slick assembly at 3° nd > OO-* Pendulum at 3° —_--— ero’ stab at 15° a > oO” Buliding at 15° -_--- 15° 10° Locked In at 30° oe 35° 35° 30' Holding at 30° Figure 6-20 Buldsat ve weight on bitforvanous BHAS - Deen aah cad6.7.3.1 Progressive drilling ‘A more sophisticated approach to deriving dogleg severties and build and walk rates from bit side forces and tilt angle was used by (amongst others) Keith Millheim of Amoco, who has done a great deal of work on computer simulation of directional drilling. This approach tried to quantify the side cutting done by the bit and the near-bit stabilizer, based on rock class, weight-on-bit, caleu- lated side forces, mud weight and other factots. For given values of weight-on-bit and rock strength, values are calculated for forward penetration rate and lateral penetration rate. ‘The bit is advanced by a small depth increment, say 5 feet: The bit and stabilizers are repositioned at their new location and a new set of side forces are calculated. This procedure is repeated over and over again until the assembly trip depth is reached. This procedure, which is sometimes re- ferred to as “progressive drilling”, is time consuming and requires a large computer witha fast processor. An advantage of this method is that it can accurately account for the variation of BHA response with inclination, which is an important effect with fulcrum or pendulum assemblies as discussed earlier. Another advantage of Millheim's side-cutting analysis is that it can give a predic- tion of the extent to which the hole will become over-gauge and this Value is used in re-calculating the side forces. 6.7.3.2 Method of equilibrium curvature Most of the more sophisticated programs currently in use make some use of the equilibrium curva- ture method. This method is based on the assumption that the BHA tends to drill a trajectory such that the resultant side force at the bit is zero of a minimum value. If the side forces are zero, the horizontal and vertical curvatures of the well should remain constant : these are called the “BHA equilibrium curvatures.” ‘Those assemblies which reach an equilibrium curvature generaily do so after 6 to 250’ of new hole has been drilled. However, rapid angle change assemblies such as strong build or strong drop assemblies will not reach a steady state curvature because the magnitudes of the side forces change considerably as the inclination varies. As has been emphasized earlier in this section, the rates of build or drop for these types of assemblies vary with inclination, For these assemblies, val- ‘ues of build or drop rates must be computed over a series of depth intervals through the build or drop section.6.7.4 Computer simulation of BHA behaviou and conclusions Summary During the last fifteen years or So considerable ad vances have been made in using computer pro- grams to analyse BHA behaviour and predict the directional response. These programs have vary- {ng degrees of sophistication and varying success rates, but they can be very tiseful tools if the predictions are treated with healthy scepticism. First the programs perform a structural mechanics analysis of the BHA using either Finite Element Analysis or the Differential Equation Method. This analysis yields values of the bit tilt angle and the side forces acting atthe bit. These values are then used to predict directional trends, either by a [progressive drilling procedure, the Equilibrium Curvature Method or some combination of the two. All the models make some simplifying assumptions about downhole conditions. None of the eur- rent programs handle the problem of formation anisotropy very satisfactorily; many ignore it com- pletely. Few programs deal with the problem of over-gauge hole. Only a few of the most sophisticated programs do a full dynamic analysis of BHA behaviour. Perhaps in the short term the most important practical use of computers in predicting directional response is the use of computer databases to store the past directional performance of a large num- ber of BHAs under a variety of downhole conditions. 638 PaSectionG Navigation drilling systems Objectives Upon completion of this section, the trainee should be able to: Explain what is meant by the terms “steerable motor” and “Navigation Drilling System”, Explain the use of the offset stabiliser in steerable turbines. List the components of the DTU Navigation Drilling system and ex- plain the function of each. Explain the concept of “three-point geometry” and calculate the “Theo- retical Geometric Dogleg Severity” (TGDS) of a Navigation System. List the main design features of both the UBHS and NorTrak stabilizers and explain their purpose. Explain the criterion used in selecting the gauge of the NorTrak stabi- lizer and select an appropriate gauge for a given application. Design a suitable bottomhole assembly incorporating the DTU Naviga- tion System for any given application. Explain the guidelines to be followed when kicking off with NDS. Explain the guidelines to be followed for drilling a tangent section and for drilling a drop section. List and explain the surface checks to be carried out on the NDS before running in hole. continued overeat.11. 12. 13, 14, 15. List the precautions which should be followed while tripping an NDS assembly. Explain the guidelines to be followed when drilling in the oriented mode with NDS. List and explain various ways of minimising stabilizer and string drag when drilling oriented. Suggest practical remedies for commion problems encountered when drilling with NDS. List the guidelines to be followed when reaming with NDS. BU ea =< 065sSection @ Navigation drilling systems 7A Introduction In conventional directional drilling, extra round trips are sometimes necessary to change the BHA. {or directional control. Also, bit performance may be reduced by conventional deflection tech- niques. Several methods exist for continuously controlled directional drilling using “steerable downhole ‘motors’. These methods are based on tilting the axis of the bit with respect to the axis of the hole and /or creating a side force at the bit. Ifthe drill string, and hence the body of the motor, is rotated from surface, then the bit will tend to drill straight ahead. However, ifthe drill string isnot rotated from surface then bit will drill @ curved path determined by the orientation ofthe side force or the tiltof the bit axis. Steerable turbines use the side force method by having an eccentric or offset, stabiliser at the lower end of the bearing section, i. at the bottom end of the turbine body, quite close to the bit. The three blade version shown below is the one most commonly used, but a single blade version exists and is used if alot of drag (friction) is antiGpeted. ~____Tool face Figure 7-1Asillustrated in the diagram on the previous page, one blade is larger in surface area and is offset by 1/8". When the drill string is rotated, the offset stabiliser has no effect on the well path. When it is desired to deflect the well path, the toolface (the point opposite the centre of the offset blade) is ‘orientated using an MWD tool. Drilling continues with no rotation from surface and the turbine drills a curved path. Steerable turbines have been used to perform various types of deflection including kick-offs. Their ‘most successful application has been tangent section drilling, performing correction rsns.as re- quired to keep the well on course. Most steerable systems presently being used are based on a positive displacement motor and use the principle of tilting the axis of the bit with respect to the axis of the hole. The majority of East- ‘man Teleco’s competitors use a single-tilt PDM, with a bend either on the U-pint housing or at the connection between the U-pint housing and the bearing housing. Eastman Teleco has a variety of steerable motor systems, but some of these are used only for hori- zontal drilling applications. in this section we shall concentrate on the NorTrak DTU Steerable Sys- tem which is the principal system currently used for normal directional wells. “DTU” refers toa unique Double-Tilted Universal joint housing which allows for a lower eccentricity compared to ‘conventional bent sub or bent housing assemblies, with comparable dogleg capability. NorTrak was the original name used by Christensen to market the system, which was their first steerable ~ system. Directional Drillers commonly talk about “the DTU" when they mean the whole system, but as we shall see, the DTU is really ust the particular navigation sub used on the motor. 7.2 The DTU navigation drilling system ‘This Navigation Drilling System consists of the following components: 1. A suitable drill bit, 2. ANavi-Drill motor with a bearing housing stabiliser and DTU. 3. A string stabiliser just above the motor. 4, Asurvey system usually MWD. Some would argue that an experienced Eastman Teleco directional driller is the fifth vital compo- rent ofthe system! - 7 BCa ‘other components are standard Navi-Drill parts, Na 7.2.) DTU steerable motor Basic Components 1, Bypass Valve with box connection 2. Navi-Dril! motor section - Mach Jor 1 3. Double tilted U-joint housing 4, Upper bearing housing with integral stabilizer (UBHS) §. Drive sub with bit box ‘Only the DTU housing, universal jaint, and upper bearing housing components wil! be discussed; _Duill performance or operating specifica- tions are not altered by the addition of these two special components. ‘The DTU steerable motor is shown on the next page. 7.2.2 Modes of Operation ‘The capability to drill either otiented or rotary with the same tool is made possible by incorporat- ing a daubletilted u-joint housing (DTU) and a longer u-joint assembly on a standard Mach for Mach il Navi-drit Positive Displacement Motor. The DTU creates a small tilt much closer to the bit than a conventional bent sub assembly, and produces a lower bit offset. Bit tilt and offset allow directional (azimuth and /ot inclination) changes tobe performed when re- quired to keep the well bore on target. Due to the low bit tit and offset produced by the navigation sub, the string can be rotated when oriented drilling is not required. Rotation of the drillstring negates the bit tilt effect and the bit will usually drill a straight pathStandard bypass valve Standard motor section (Navi-Drill Mach 1 or Mach 2) Doubie-titted U-joint housing Standard bearing assembly with undergauge integral stabilizer Bit Bit ottset__7! S Si \q— Bit angle Figure 72 Navigaten motor wih DTU housing Dn a uy Undergauge integral blade string stabilizer owen —7.2.2.1 The double tilted universal joint housing: replaces the straight universal joint housing on a standard NaviDnill. and universal joint are slightly longer than a straight housing and universal joint. Q is available in various tilt angles and identified by the tilt angle, which is the mathematical resultant angle computed from the two opposing tilt angles. Dproduces a desired bit tlt angle while reducing actual bit offset allows for extended rotation of the motor with a low eccentricity as, ‘compared to conventional bent sub or bent housing assemblies with ‘comparable dogleg capability. Rotation of the drill string negates the effect of the bit tilt and the assembly theoretically drills a straight, slightly oversize, hole. Q isavailable in various diameters ranging from 434" to 1114". With the exceptions of the 8" and the 9-1/2" tools, each diameter has three standard tilt angles designed to provide approximately 2", 3° and 4° per hundred feet theoretical dogleg rates when configured with a Mach II Navi-Drill motor. TGDS is higher when using the shorter Mach I Navi-Drill. 017@, = OTUS er7s oTua=.75 Bit offset = 1.1° Bit offset = 60" On e Figure 7.3 Concept! the Double Tit As illustrated in the diagram above, the concept of the double tilt is that by having the two tilts in the same plane but opposed (at 180°) to each other, the bt offset is minimised. This bit offset isthe distance (in millimetres or inches) from the centre ofthe bit to the axis of the motor section (ex- trapolated down to the bit) ae > (i rememClgure 7-4 DTU Storable Mob confauzaton ose27.2.2.2 Stabilizer mounted on the upper bearing housing. This stabilizer: Q is used to centralize the NorTrak motor and bit in the centre of the hole. isusually manufactured as an integral part of the housing and is, referred to as the UBHS. 9-1/2" and 11-1/4" NorTrak motors are available with either integral or sleeve type stabilizer UBHS. O is always undengauge. 1 hasa special design to reduce drag between the blade and the wellbore and allow sliding when the NorTrak motor is drilling in oriented mode. The design of the UBHS includes: Q adouble taper or watermelon-shape profile with rounded edges to reduce stabilizer hangup and drag. O blade widths of 3" to 4” to help prevent a cutting or ploughing action by the blade when drilling in the oriented mode. blade wraps varying from straight ribbed toa maximum of 30° to reduce contact area and make the stabilizer more manoeuvrable while reducing hole drag. gauge lengths varying from 4" to 12" with recommended length being less than or equal to bit gauge length. three blades at 1/8" undergauge for up to 17-1/2" hole sizes, or four blades at 1/4" undergauge for larger hole sizes. Q_UBHS with 5 straight blades are now available. TS7.2.3 Theoretical geometric dogleg severity Defined by three points ona drilled arc: 1. The bit 2. The NorTrak motor stabilizer or Upper Bearing Housing Stabilizer (UBHS), 3. The first stabilizer above the NorTrak motor or the NorTrak stabilizer. 9% Top stabilizer Figure 75 CalculasngTGDS TGDSY pay) = 200% PTV angle Tiltangle » Bit tilt in degrees L = length between the bit and NorTrak stabilizer = L, + Lz Note: The above formula for calculating Theoretical Geometric Dogleg Severity is based on a sys- tem which contains full gauge stabilizers. owen7.2.4 Motor selection Motor Size ‘The proper motor size for a particular hole diameter can be determined using the following chart. Hole Size fin) Motor Diameter (in) S78" 7-78" aa" 7-18" 19 9718" eae" 9718" t0 12414" ° $214" 9 17-112" eae 17-1" 1026" newer ‘The larger diameter motors are recommended for the transition hole sizes (97", 1214", and 1714") unless other factors are overriding, Motor Type “The motor type to be used usually depends on the bit application. The Mach Jis better suited for use with rock bits or King Cutter PDC bits because King Cutter bits are very aggressive. Mach IL ‘motors normally perform better with bits and formations that are mote RPM sensitive. 9692 EASTMAN: (Ev) sr" annem maannanenamammmamamaaass7.2.5 NorTrak directional performance Tool Hole | UBHS ‘Typical L oT Bit Theoretical | Size Size Size (n+le) Tit Offset | Dogleg severity feel 00. Angie _| (Deg pet 100 tu3om) i | MACH 1| MACH 2 | inen_| _incn | _inen [mp em] t] _¢) _|mminen| mach | mace Sh-Te | ie 025 |4ofore) 12 1.0" om | | 66]217)79|2680| 038 | 50/o20/ 25° ay | | | ose [69 oz) a7 | an’ 3% | le | 0.32 49]oz0| 19° 1s 6% | 72 |28.1|9.7]319] 0.48 |s9 o40l 3.27 25 { a 064 jto.9|o.44] 4.5" 35° 9% 12% | 030 /sejoze) 1s | 1a 8 | 91 )29elr02{/394| 064 |12.9]0.52) 39° 3 i 076 _|148/0.60] 4.5" 4.0" 12%4-17% | te ose | relosal az wr Ls |_| es jaos119/009] 059 _[rr9/048) 36 | a6 T7268) Me oat [119/048] 1.8" 1s WM ro.8|355/125]41.0/ 0.61 |14.8]0.60) 3.0 28 | { 0.7 _|19.8]0.76, 40° aa" Note: The theoretical dogleg severity values listed above are based on field data of systems con- taining undergauge stabilizers. Tend7.2.6 Tilt angle ‘The proper tilt angle and NorTrak motor deflection technique is usually dependent on the direc- tional requirements and characteristics of the well plan, D Forkkicking off or sidetracking, a high tit steerable motor is recommended. The tit angle selected should produce a greater dogieg severity in the oriented mode than the rate of change Specified in the well plan. By getting higher dogleg severities than specified, the directional driller can “get ahead” of the well plan buil 4 requirements and begin utilizing the practice of drilling intervals of oriented and rotary modes. The directional driller can reduce a high build up rate increasing the percentage of footage drilled in the rotary mode. Typically, the rate of penetration will increase greatly when switching from the oriented mode to the rotary mode. Asa rule of thumb, the tilt angle selected should theoretically produce a minimum of 1.25 times the maximum dogleg, severity required for the well plan. Directional drillers must keep in rind that the TODS (Theoretical Geometric Dogleg Severity) assumes that tool face orientation is constant. In practice this is difficult to do, especially in high torque applications. Asa result of a constantly changing tool face orientation, the actual rate of change could be less than expected. D. When a choice is available, a tool with a higher dogleg capability can increase overall efficiency by reducing oriented drilling requirements. D_ When tangent section or straight hole drilling. a lower tilted DTU too! may be more desirable to reduce bit wear. However, this actin either an upwards or downwards direction. Experience has shown that the probability of freeing a drill string is much higher if jarring begins immediately. This is a good reason for using driling jars rather than fishing jars. To use fishing jars, the stuck point must first be determined. ‘The drill string is then backed off above the stuck point and the assembly tripped out to pick up the fishing jars. AA driling jar is basically a sliding mandrel that allows a brief and sudden axial acceleration of the drillstring above the jar. Travel ofthis mandrel is limited by a stop (hammer) that strikes a stop (anvil) on the outer sleeve. Mast jars release or “trip” both up and down; some types work in one direction only. Between the end of upstroke and end of downstroke is the cocked position. When jarting up, the driller pulls and stretches the drillpipe. When the jar releases, the drillpipe contracts and the mass of the drillstring above the jar accelerates up the length of the trip mandrel for sev- eral inches (5" to 9°, depending on jar design). When the hammer hits the anvil, the mass stops and transmits a shock wave up and down the drill string several times. The intention is to break the drillstring loose from the stuck point. A properly designed assembly usually exerts more force jarring up than jarring down. This is be- cause pulling on the drillpipe with the hoisting system allows a greater force to be exerted than by compression from slacking off drillpipe weight. ‘The two basic types of drilling jars use either mechanical or hydraulic action. Mechanical jars oper- ate using a series of springs, Jock and release mechanisms. Hydraulic jars operate using the con- trolled passage of hydraulic uid. There is also a hydromechanical pr that has a hydraulic up- jar section and a mechanical downar section. 8.2.1 Mechanical Jars @ Surface Set Jars Of two types commonly employed. one uses a mechanical action fo produce a hitting force that may not be altered once the toof is down hole. The jar operates on a straight push-pull principle, Up and down tripping loads may be adjusted independently from 0 to 180,000 Ib at the wellsite. The jar may be tripped while circulating through the bit. However, circulation will exert an extend- ing force on the jar that, in effect, reduces the pull required to trip-up and increases the slack-off eal i ceeweight required to trip down. Itis normally run in tension but may also be run in compression un- der certain conditions (discussed in detail later). Torquing or rotating the drill pipe will not affect the tripping load, Q Downhole Set Jars With this type of mechanical jar, the hitting force may be adjusted while the tool is downhole sim- ply by rotating or torquing the drill string. The hitting force is proportional to the load required to trip the jar. This jar also operates on a straight push-pull basis. To make the jar hit harder (with ‘more impact force), right hand torque is applied to the drill string. Left hand torque will alow the jar to trip at lighter loads and impact with a lesser force. Torque should be applied in small incre- ‘ments until the desired effect is obtained, usually one-half a turn at atime. There may be a prob- Jem in transmitting the torque downhole in a high-drag, deviated hole. The jar design is such that downward tripping load is always 60% less than upward tripping load. This jar trips and impacts as soon as the tripping force is pulled. There is no waiting time between cocking and tripping. 8.2.1.1 Eastman Teleco Hevi-Hitter mechanical drilling jar ‘To free stuck pipe and to avoid expensive and time-consuming fishing jobs in both straight and di- rectional wells, Eastman Teleco offers the Hevi-Hitter mechanical drilling jar (see next page). ‘The Hevi-Hitter jar features simple, surface control of direction and force of impact, unsurpassed jarring power and superior durability. Included in the drill string, the Hevi-Hitter jar can fire either upward or downward. The jarring force, which can exceed 700,000 pounds on the larger sizes, can be controlled easily from the surface by applying and holding right-hand torque to in- crease impact and by applying and holding left-hand torque to decrease impact. Because the Hevi- Hitter jar recocks automaticaly, jarring operations can proceed swiftly until the stuck pipe is free. ‘The Hevi-Hiter jar is designed to perform for extended periods under the most demanding condi- tons. Constructed of fatigue-resistant, high quality alloy steel, and machined to extremely close tolerances, the Hevi-Hitter jar can operate reliably in holes with temperatures of 275°F. DerrenTop box conn.. a _—Upper housing Drive shat || Upper conn. Cam shaft c Lower conn. Torque shatt ~~ = ower housing Extension shaft. a ea Inner shaft (assy) Outer shaft (assy) Figur 65 The Easman Tebco Hv itr mochancal dling jn 8.2.2 Hydraulic jars Hydraulic jars contain anol which seeps between a sleeve and a seat a tension is pulled on the jar When the sleeve finally clears the seat, the ar fires, Hydraulic ar blow intensity is determined by the magnitude ofthe pull or push placed on the string. No torque or other manipulation of the string is required. To increase the up-jarring force, pull more weight. To increase the down-jarring, force slack off mere weight, For most hydraulic as, the waiting fime between cocking and rip- ping usually ranges from | to2 mimutes. This time generally shortens after the jas heat up. tn hot 10 aBaker Hughes company Cmhholes and when the jars heat up from ex- tended jarring, the viscosity of the hy- raulic oil is reduced. This results in a eduction of the force required to trip the jars. Pumps used with hydraulic jars will increase the upward hitting force and de- crease the downward hitting force. The Jar King hydraulic drilling jar Eastman Teleco’s Jar-King can jar up- ward in the hydraulic mode and downward in the mechanical mode. Jarring impact in either direction can be controlled simply from the rig floor by adjusting overpull. ‘The Jar-King has an oil-lubricated torque transmission system with splines de- signed for long life under continuous ap- plication of drilling torque. The jr’s hydraulic system provides a time-con- stant valve for building-up jarring force in the upward direction. The Jar-King ‘also employs a check valve that allows quick resetting when jarring down. A unique mechanical locking system keeps the tool in its closed position ‘when jarring is not requited. This sys- tem also prevents accidental jarring during trips. The Jar-King can be run in either tension or compression. To jar up, the drill string is raised until weight increases to the desired jarring load where the brake is set. In two to five minutes, the tool will jar. To jar down, the jar is first unlocked by applying overpull toa predetermined level. The drill string is then raised until overpull increases. Then the brake is released causing the drill string to drop. Both upward and downward jarring can be continued as long as necessary to free the drill string, Hydromechanical jars Hydromechanical jars are designed tojar upward in the hydraulic mode and downward in the mechanical mode. Jar- ring impact in either direction can be con- trolled simply from the rig floor by adjusting overpull. Hydromechanical jars consist of two separate sections, the Up-jar and the dowrar sections, con- Bumping nut Male spline Spline inserts Mandrel + Temperature - time compensating valve Mandrel 2 Ball cage Locking system Disc springs ‘Adjusting shells (ring) Ea Compensating piston Mandrel 3 SLOT f Figure 8-8 The EssIman Tolco JarKing hyeautc dling jr.nected by a tool joint. The up-jar section operates hydraulically and is capable of striking blows of Verlable ytensity, which are obtained by changing the speed in upward pull by the drawworks. ‘The down. jar section has a mechanical trip that is set at a predetermined downward jarring inten sity. These jars may be broken apart and positioned separately in the drill string if desired to elimi- nate stiffness caused by the 30-ftlong tool. 8.2.4 Jar Boosters or Accelerators Accelerators or boosters are used to increase the impact force exerted by mechanical or hy- raulic jars. The consist of a slip joint that, as. extension of the tool occurs, causes further compression of an inert gas (nitrogen) in a chamber at high pressure. Ifthe too! is re- leased the gas under pressure forces the tool back to its original length. Ina fishing string or drilling assembly, particularly in high an- Ble holes where the dril string is in contact ‘with the side of the hole and large amounts of friction may be developed, much ofthe jar- ring force may be lost when the jar trips, due to the whole drill string dragging and not pro- ducing so great an impact force. By placing a jar booster in the string and exerting an up- ward force cm it 1 trip the jar, the nitsogen in the chamber under compression allows the rill collars below the booster to move rap- idly up the hote when itis released as the jar trips and the nitrogen on the booster returns tits normal volume. Figure 8-7 Jarbooaty or accelerate. 8.2.5 Placement of Jars There is no set formula for the placement of drilling jars. Hole conditions and local hole problems can radically change the “best” position. There are a few general rules about jar placement with re- gard to preventing fatigue and premature faifure of the jar. G_Donot run jars in the transition zone. Depending on the other considerations involved (see later), jars should be run in tension, but most modern jars can be run in compression. When calculating the position of the transition zone, allow for a 20% safety factor in the calculation. Ifthe BH.A. has only drill collars (.e. no HWDP), nun at least 3 collars above the jar. QD naBHA with hevi-wate,runatleast5 joints of HWDP above the ars. Do not run jars next toa stabiliser -keep one Dc. between them and a stabiliser. If the drill string gets stuck above the jars then they will be useless. Ina hole section where the gest problem is differential sticking or keyseating, jars that are run in the collars will probably not operate because the collars above the jars have a good chance of becoming stuck. In this case, there- fore, the best solution is to nun the jars in the HWDP. — aioe(On the other hand, ifthe problem is stabilisers “balling up” and “hole swelling” then jars posi- tioned high up in the BHA will not be able to deliver the blow where itis needed. Flexible HWDP between the jars and the collars will not transmit a blow downwards as well as collars. In this case the jars should be positioned in the collars above the top stabiliser and with one or two collars be- tween the jars and the top stabiliser. ‘When drilling in a new area where common hale problems have not yet been identified, a good ‘compromise is to run a tapered string with a number of smaller O.D. spiral collars above the jars. 8.2.5.1 Some practical examples Example 1 12" hole. BHA to drill vertically through soft t0 medium formation. 12M" bit / bit sub / 8" NMDC / 8°D.C. / 1244" string stab / 8"D.C. / 1244" stab / 3x8" D.C. / 12 stab /3x8" DC. / XO. / 64" D.C. / 842" stab / 6¥2" DIC. / JARS /2x614" D.C. /15 HWDP ‘The above pendulum assembly should keep the well fairly vertical and it would be OK to run up 045,000 lb WOB. The top two undergauge stablizers are to prevent the collars from lying against the side of the hole and there is sufficient weight above the jars fr jarring downwards. Example 2 17%" hole. Tangent section of a directional well. No differential sticking or keyseating problems, but stabiliser balling problems. 17 bit / 1712" NB. stab / 10 pony D.C. / 17" stab / 9¥2" NMC / 1744"NM stab / 912" NMDC 1 17¥e"NM stab / 919" NMDC / X.0. / 2x8" D.C. / 124" stab / 3 x8" D.C. / 1214" stab / 8" D.C. ZJARS / 2x 8" D.C. / X.0. / 2x 6¥%" D.C. / 15 HWDP ‘The jars are sufficiently low in the BHA to ensure that enough jarring force can be transmitted downwards to any of the full gauge stabilisers which might become stuck. Example 3 1714" hole. Tangent section of a directional well. Similar situation to Example 2: severe stabilizer “palling” problems or severe torque problem. 1714" bit / 17%" N.B. stab / 912" NMDC / 172" NM stab / 9¥2NMDC / 17% NM stab / 912" NMDC / 2 x 914" D.C. / 17" stab / 2 x 9¥%D.C. / X.0. / 8" DC 7 12M" stab / 8" D.C. / JARS / 8" D.C. / X.0. / 3 x 6%" D.C. / 15 HWDP. This is also an angle-holding type of assembly. It has one less stabiliser than the previous assembly which would help to reduce torque. As before, the jars are placed among the top collars so that the jarring impact force will be better transmitted down to the stabilisers. Example 4 £814" hole. Dropping angle then drilling vertically through a depleted pay zone with danger of differential sticking. 812" bit / bit sub / 614" NMDC / 814" NM stab / 613" NMDC / 812" NM stab / 6¥2" NMDC / 2 x 612" DC / 8" stab / 3 x 6¥2" DC / 8" stab / 3 x 612" DC /1 HWDP / JARS / 15 HWDP (N.B. all stee! collars are spiral type)‘This BHA would drop from low angles to vertical using 30,000Ibs WOB. However, it would prob- ably drop too rapidly if used at high angle. Since the main potential problem is diffenental stick- ing, the jars are placed up among the hevi-wate drill pipe. Example 5 1714" hole. Tangent section of a directional well. In this example the jars are placed so as to give the clear option of running them in tension using low WOB or running them in compression using high WOB. 174" bit / 1792" NB stab / 1 DC / 17" stab / 9¥2"NMDC / 1714"NM stab / 9¥2"NMDC / 1712°NM stab /9¥"NMDC / XO. /8"DC / 1214" stab / 8°DC / JARS /3x8"DC /XO./21 HWDP This isa standard “holding” assembly for drilling the tangent section of a directional well ‘This BHA could be run with the jars either in tension or in compression. Assuming the inclination {s approximately 45 and 121b/gal mud is used, a rough calculation will show that the jars will be in tension provided the W.O8B. i less than 18,000 Ibs., but in compression provided the WOB. is ‘gTeater than 25,000 Ib. The choice would depend on whether a PDC bit or a roller cone bit was be- ing used. This jar placement would be very effective with hole swelling, stabiliser “balling” or packing off problems. ‘The main thing that all these examples illustrate is that, when deciding on jar placement, each individual case must be considered on its own merits. 6.2.6 Using jars ‘When using jars the following points should be considered: O Jars must be cocked before they will go off. This is the most common problem when jars will not trip. With hole drag and friction, not enough weight has been set down to cock the jar. Therefore before using ajar, go through a cocking procedure. Slack off on the drill string to below the weight of the string above the jar and the jar should cock, The weight indicator will sometime “bobble” when the jar completes its free travel and recocks. With increasing hole drag, it will take more released weight to cock the jar. Some mechanical jars will cock very quickly once the tension is reduced from them. Hydraulic jars will occasionally take a short period to settle into the cocked position. Once cocked, however, a hydraulic jar will eventually fire, even with minimal tension or compression. This gives hydraulic jars an ad- ‘vantage in high inclination wells and horizontal wells. In these applications, excess drag may prevent the driller from applying sufficient tension or compression to trip a mechanical jar. Hydraulic jars will become “hot” after some use. As the jars are used, the fluid inside be- comes warm and the viscosity is reduced. This allows the fluid to flow easily through the re- strictions inside, thus reducing jarring action. It may become necessary to stop and let the jars “cool” before continuing jarring D Mechanical jars which can vary the hitting power by torque may be prevented from tripping if enough right torque is held (or trapped) in the string. If there is any doubt, work some left hhand torque down (1/2 turn at a time, max 3 turns left hand turns) and this should release any torque trapped in the string. Too much left hand torque will also prevent jars from trip- ing. The jars will simply stroke in and out without jarring, ata BC egImproper jarring direction can be counterproductive. Jarring is usually most effective when it is in the opposite direction to that in which the drillstring was traveling when the pipe got stuck. For example, jarring up into a key seat may work the pipe farther into the key seat. . Maximum jarring force is based on allowable overpull. I the mechanical jar release is set too high, the driller may not be able to pull enough on the jar to cause it to fire. The limiting fac- tor is the yield strength of the uppermost drillpipe. If the mechanical jar release is too low, the jar may fire from pipe movement alone. Q. Commo practice has been to run jars in tension rather than in compression, althogh both ae feasible options. In tension, jar placement is higher, minimizing the possibility of getting stuck above the jar. Also, higher jar placement (in tension) also means less accelerated mass above the jar and therefore greater velocity of pipe above the jar and a greater peak force, However, running the jar too high can result ina short impulse and ineffective jarring. A drawback of running jars in tension is the increase in BHA length, since the weight above the neutral point is nat available for use as weight on bit. Dyspnea" 2Shock subs ‘Shock subs are placed in the drill string ideally directly above the bit tn absorb vibrations and shock loads developed whilst drilling hard rock, broken formations or intermittent hard and soft streaks. Drilling these formations at shallow depth may produce kelly bouncing to the extent that the rotary table must be stopped and drill- ing recommenced at reduced weight on bit or ro- tary RPM. By using a shock sub the optimum, ‘weight on bit and rotary RPM may be run, The effect in deeper wells is not so readily apparent as the vibration is absorbed by the drill pipe but the end result may be damaged bit teeth and bearings, drill collar connection damage, stress cracking etc. Male spline Spline inserts Female spline Depending on the tool design some shock tools provide torsional shock absorption. These tools house either a large helical spring or rubber ‘bushing which transmits the weight and torque te the bit. These tools can normally be identified by the dog clutch at the bottom end. Tools that do not absorb torsional shocks transmit torque to the bit viaa spline mandrel, These tools ab- sorb axial shock load only and generally do this through sprung steel washers or rings. The Eastman Teleco Shock-Eze shock absorber eect aae springs ET's Shock-Eze shock absorber absorbs axial shock loads keeping the bit running smoothly con bottom while cushioning drill string, bounce. Because it dampens and even elimi- nates vibrations caused by driffing with rock bits in hard or broken formations it allows longer-toothed bits to be used for increases ROP. Italso saves wear on drill string tools. Mande! 2 Compensating istor ‘The tool features a spline assembly that trans- 7 ris high torque loads to the bit through its ‘outer tube while the inner assembly absorbs vi- bration through a series of steel-dise springs. ‘The spring system works in both tension and compression. The high shock-absorbing capabilt- ties of this tool are attained by compression of the stack of springs within a stroke of five inches. The alternating action ofthe patented spring arrangement provides a wide working, range under all possible conditions of thrust, Fa peels Figure 84 The Eastman Teleco Shock Exe shock ee‘The sealed internal assembly is lubricated by an oil reservoir system. This system is pressure compensated for increased seal life by a floating compensating piston. Drilling fluid flows through an inner mandrel bypassing the mechanical parts of the tool. Shock-Eze shock absorb- ers are manufactured from high quality AISI 4140/4145 steel. Threads are API standard, phos- phate surface coated and Magna-Flux inspected with cold worked roots upon request. 8.3.2 Float valves and subs Float valves and subs are designed to prevent the flow of mud into the drill string. The poppet type will close when ever there is back flow into the drill string. If required, the flapper type may ‘be held open by opening the spring loaded valve cap and latching it open with the catch. The valve will then permit mud to enter the drill string whilst running into hole and as soon as pump. ing begins the catch will drop allowing the valve to close when the pumps are stopped, preventing backflow. These valves are particularly useful when running downhole motors, oriented assem- blies and measurement while drilling tools in the upper sections of holes or where hole condition ‘or hole cleaning is a problem. Care should be taken to ensure that they are placed below the sub in which a survey instrument is to be landed (baffle plate or orienting sub). ‘Sub or near bit stabilizer bored out for float. er Flapper type float valve. Poppet type r Float sub Figure 69 Foatvaveee Notes overSection®) BHA weight and weight on bit Objectives Upon completion of this section, the trainee should be able to: List and explain the general considerations involved in selecting the length and total weight (in ait) of the bottomhole assembly. Calculate the effective weight of BHA components allowing for the buoyancy effect of drilling mud. Resolve the weight of a BHA element into along-hole and normal components. Calculate the required air weight of BHA to avoid running drill pipe in compression, given the maximum desired WOB, the hole inclination and the mud weight. Explain the circumstances under which drill pipe may be run in compression. Explain what is meant by “critical buckling load” and calculate values of critical buckling force for drill pipe, given the necessary data. Calculate the required air weight of the BHA when some drill pipe is run in compression. Explain in general terms the effect of drillstring friction on BHA weight requirements. List the input data required by the Eastman Teleco Torque and Drag program and the output data which it calculates. continued overleat.10. Objectives for Section 9 Describe briefly and simply how the Torque and Drag program could be used in evaluating BHA weight requirements. ed 06/92Section g BHA weight and weight on bit Introduction An important consideration in designing the bottomhole assembly is the total number of drill col- larsand heavy weight dril pipe required to provide the desired weight on bit. In drilling vertical ‘wells, it has long been standard practice to avoid running ordinary drill pipe in compression. (This was recommended by Lubinski in 1950). This is achieved by making sure that the buoyed ‘weight of drill collars and heavy weight pipe exceeds the maximum weight on bit. This practice was also adopted on low-angle directional wells. In directional wells it has to be remembered that, since gravity acts vertically downwards, only the along-hole component of the weight of BHA elements contributes to the weight on bit. The prob- lem this creates is that if high WOB is required when drilling a high-angle well, then a long and ex- pensive BHA would be needed in order to avoid having any drill pipe in compression. It is, however, common practice to use about the same BHA weight as would be wsed on a low-angle well. Various "cowboy" formulae have been used to calculate required BHA weight in high angle wells. These have no scientific basis whatsoever and merely seek to justify what has been com- ‘mon practice. The suggestion that the BHA somehow screws itself into the ground like a cork- screw does not stand ap to logical examination. on ‘The real answer is that on highly deviated wells, operators have been running drill pipe in com- pression. Analysis of drillpipe buckling in inclined holes by a number of researchers, notably Dawson and Paslay, has shown that drillpipe can tolerate significant levels of compression in small-diameter high-angle holes because of the support provided by the low side of the hole. Drill pipe is commonly run in compression in drilling horizontal wells, without apparently causing damage to the pipe. = -9.41 Along-hole components of force Consider a short element of a BHA which has a weight W. Effective weight in drilling mud = W(BF) where BF = buoyancy factor of the mud. Component of weight acting along borehole = W(BF) cos@ where @ is the borehole inclina- tion. Note: In this chapter, is used for inclination whereas | is used for axial moment of inertia. Ifthe BHA is not rotated, the force of friction, Fs acting up the borehole on the BHA elementis given by Frr=pN where 1 is the coefficient of friction, ‘Nis the normal reaction force between the BHA element and the borehole wall. If this normal re- Action fs due only to the weight of the BHA element itself, then N = W(BF) sin@ and hence Fin = HWOBF) sin® ‘The net contribution to the WOB from this BHA element is therefore. Warr = WOBF\(cos © - sin @) N=W (BF) sin@ Force = W (BF) cos @ Buoyed weight = W(BF) Figure 9-4 Bec cid9.2 Required BHA weight for rotary assemblies ‘When two contacting surfaces ere in relative motion, the direction of the force of sliding friction on each surface acts along the line of relative motion and in the opposite direction to its motion. ‘Therefore, when a BHA is rotated, the friction forces mainly act circumferentially to oppose rota- tion (torque) with only a very small component acting along the borehole (drag). ‘Measurements of downhole WOB by MWD tools confirm that when the BHA is rotated there is only a small reduction in weight on bit due to drag. This can be allowed for simplistically by us- ing a safety factor. Neglecting drag, and extending the discussion on the previous page to the whole BHA, Wor = Weua(BF) cos @ where Wax is the total air weight of the BHA and Wer is the weighton-bit. Therefore, if no drill pipe is to be run in compression maximum WOB x safety factor buoyancy factorx cos @ Required weight of BHA (in ain cos @ is the cosine of the borehole inclination Safety factor = 1 + PeTsentagesnfety margin For example, to allow a 10% safety margin the safety factor in the formula would be 1.1. ‘Example Drilling 17%" hole with a roller cone bit, we want to use 45,000 Ibs WOB in the tangent sec- tion at 30° inclination. What air weight of BHA is required to avoid running any drill pipe in compression? The mud weight is 10ppg. Use a 10% safety margin. ‘i = 45,000 x 1.1 Required weight of BHA = 5 1>.0 aps required air weight = 67500 Ibs (approximately). ‘Suppose we have 180’ of 912” tubulars weighing 220 Ibs per foot, a 912" MWD tool weighing 3400 Ibs > and 90’ of 8 tubulars weighing 154 Ibs per foot. How many joints of 5" HWDP would be required? Total weight of drill collar section = (180 x 220)+3400+(90x1.54)lbs = 56860 Ibs. Required air weight of HWDP = 67 500Ibs - 56,860 Ibs = 10,640 Ibs. Weight of 1 joint of 5" HWDP = 1480 Tbs Therefore, numberof joints of HWP required = OE «7.2 Therefore a minimum of 8 joints of HWDP are required. “ Di reeren™9.2.1 Exercises on Calculation of BHA Weight Inall the following examples, assume that no drill pipe isto be run in compression and ignore drag inthe calculation. |. Find the air weight needed to get the desired weight on the bit. T [Desires woo | mud Weight | Hoteangle | Safetymargin | Arwelght 1.| 40,000 Ibs. 13 ppg 20" 10% ~~ | 2.[ 40.0001: | 16 pba 2) tom | 3. | 40,000 Ibs 13 ppg ae | 10% 40,0005 | 13ppg 20" 15% 20,000 ibs 13 pag Ee a b. Find the number of joints needed to get the air weight 1. 62,000 lbs air weight needed; 6x7" OD, 2"ID drill collars are available. How many joints of 45° heavy weightare needed? 2. 62,000 Ibs air weight needed; 30 joints of 4.5" heavy weight are tobe used. How many 7¥4" OD, 212" ID drill collars are needed? ‘3. 35,000 Ibs air weight needed; 2 x 7¥2" OD, 2" ID drill collars, 3 x6" OD, 2/2" ID drill collars are available, How many joints of 372” heavy weight are needed? PEO e ey9.3 Running drill pipe in compression Consider the following example. Weare drilling a 1244" tangent section in hard formation using an insert bit. We want to use 50,000 Ibs WOB. The hole inclination is 60" and the mud weight s 11 ppg. What air weight of BHA is required if we are to avoid running any drill pipe in compression ? Usea 15% safety margin. 50,000 x 1.15 Required BHA weight= 5595-0. an 138200 Ibs. This is roughly the weight often stands of 8" drill collars, or alternatively, six stands of 8" collars plus 44 joints of HWDP ! This is just not practical ! It would be a long, stiff and expensive BHA. 9.3.1 Critical buckling force Dawson and Paslay developed the following formula for critical buckling force in drill pipe. Fa=2 ae sin e) r ‘Where Bs Young's modulus, Tis axial moment of inertia. Wis buoyed weight per unit length. @is borehole inclination. ris radial clearance between the pipe and the borehole wall. 1f the compressive load reaches the value Fo, then sinusoidal Buckling ocr. ‘The sinusoidal buckling formula given above can be used to develop graphs and tables of values, such as those on pages 9-12 to 9-15. If the compressive load at a given inclinativn lies below the graph, then the drill pipe will not buckle. The reason that pipe in an inclined hole is so resistant to ‘buckling is that the hole is supporting and constraining the pipe throughout its length. The low side of the hole forms trough that resists even a slight displacement of the pipe from its initial straight configuration.9.3.4.4 Calculating critical buckling force “The graphs and tables on pages 9-12 to 9-15 are for specific hole sizes, a specific size of $135 drill pipe and for a specific mud weight. The following example illustrates how to calculate the critical ‘buckling load. ‘Suppose we have 4%" drill pipe with a nominal weight of 166 Ib/ft (approximate weight 17.98 1b/ft) in 812" hole at 50” inclination, Suppose the mud weight is 14ppg. 1. Young’s modulus, E, for steel is 29 x 10° Pst opti. 2. 12 Gcop*- ‘The ID of the drill pipe is 3.6". This information is found on page 6 of APTRP7G (August 1990 edition) ees “ aa Fy AS' = 3826") 9.61 in 3. The weights for different sizes of drill pipe can be found on pages 13-17 of APT RP7G in the column headed “Approx We” In the formula, W is buoyed weight in Ib/in air weight = 17:98 Ib/ft = 1.498 Ib/in Buoyancy factor for M4ppg mud = 0.786 ce We 1.498%0,786 = 1.178 Ibvin 4. sin50°=0.766 5. Radial clearance = 4 (HOLE OD - PIPE OD) 1 radial clearance = ¥28.5"-45°)=2" ‘The values obtained in steps 1-5 may now be substituted in our formula. For=2V J eritical buckling force = 22,400 Ibs Bar eeu ead ose9.3.1.2 Exercises on calculating critical buckling force ‘Calculate the critical buckling load for the drill pipe in the following cases. 1. Hole size = 814" 4%" grade E drill pipe with an approximate weight of 18.37 Ib/ft Hole inclination = 60° Mud weight = 115 ppg. 2. Hole size = 6" V8" high strength drill pipe with an approximate weight of 14.7 Ib/ft Hole inclination = 60° Mud weight = 12 ppg 9808 PEST MN a Dy rereca™9.4 Calculating BHA weight with drill pipe in compression ‘This means that on high-angle wells in small hole sizes, a fraction of the weight on bit can safely be provided by having drill pipe in compression. It is suggested that 90% of the critical buckling force be used as the maximum contribution to the weight on bit from ordinary drill pipe. Denoting the tota! air weight of the BHA by Wau, the weight on bit by War and the critical buck- ling load by Fx we have Warr (SF) = Wana (BF) c056 +09 Fe, _Werr GF) - 0.9 Fy + Wana=""" BF) cos Note that this formula does not take account of drag, Continuing the example on page 9-7, let us recalculate the weight of the BHA required assuming some drill pipe is to be run in compression. ‘Suppose we are using 5” drill pipe. Referring to the table for 5" drill pipe in 1214" hole on page 9-12, we sce that the critical buckling toad at 60" inclination is 26,000 Ibs. Qur formula then gives + Wau = 82,000 Ibs (approx). ‘Thus a total air weight of 82,000 Ibs is required. This is much more feasible than the value of 138,000 Ibs calculated on page 9-7. ‘The graphs and tables on pages 9-12 to 9-15 are for the particular mud weight of 10.7 ppg. How- ever, Variations in mud weight have only a minor effect on the value of critica) buckling {oad and so the graphs could be used for mud weights of up to 14 ppg without introducing a significant er- ror. For mud weights above 14 ppg, the value of critical buckling load should be re-calculated. Becca dacdeaalk eae9.4.1 Exercises on BHA weight calculation {In the following examples, assume that drill pipe may be run in compression but the compressive force must not exceed 90% of the critical buckling force. In all cases assume 5” $135 drill pipe is be- ing used. Use the graphs on pages 9-12 to 9-15 to find the critical buckling load. Find che air weight of BHA required. 1. Desired maximum WOB = 50,000 Ibs; borehole inclination = 50°; mud weight = 12ppg: hole size = 12M". Usea safety factor of 10%. 2. Desired maximum WOB = 60,000 Ibs; borehole inclination = 1244". Use a safety factor of 10%. =45%; mud weight = 11ppg; hole size 3. Desired maximum WOB = 45,000 Ibs; borehole inclination = 65°; mud weight = 14ppg; hole size = BY". Use a safety factor of 15%, ‘Suppose you have 200 of 6¥2" tubulars (including stabilisers, etc) weighing 96 lbs foot. How many joints of 5" HWDP are required? 4. Desired maximum WOB = 50,000 Ibs; borehole inclination = 55° mud weight = 13ppg; hole size = 1214", Use a safety factor of 10%. ‘Suppose you have 100’ of 8" tubulars weighing 150Ibs /foot and 93’ of 6¥2" tubulars weighing 99 Tbs/foot. How many joints of 5° HWDP are required?Buckling Analysis ‘DP in 12-1/4" hole . DRILL PIPE OD: 5.00 INCH 127.00 MM DRILL PIPE ID: 4.21 INCH 104.93 MM DRILL PIPE WEIGHT: 21.92 LBS/FT 32.26 KGIM CALC. DRILL PIPE ID: 4.1025 INCH 104.20 MM MUD WEIGHT: 1.28 KG/L, 10,68 PPG HOLE DIAMETER: 12.25 INCH 301.15 MM HOLE ANGLE: 90.00 DEG CRITICAL BUCKLING LOAD: 124.92 KN ‘ANGLE INCREMENTS: 0 5 10 15 BUCKLING LOAD (KN) B71 349 521636 BUCKLING LOAD (KLBS): | 1.96 8.3117 14.3 - "ANGLE INCREMENTS: 35 40 45 BUCKLING LOAD (KN) 94.6 1002 105.0 BUCKLING LOAD (KLBS): 213 ‘ANGLE INCREMENTS: 65 70 BUCKLING LOAD (KN) 1189 121.1 BUCKLING LOAD (KLBS): 267 27.2 & (| L CRITICAL BUCKLING LOAD 8 + L 12 ed keaneul wo osn2Buckling Analysis 5" HWOP in 12-1/8" hole 0... 000 ORILL PIPE OD: 5.00 INCH 127.00 MM DRILL PIPE ID: 3.00 INCH 76.20 MM DRILL PIPE WEIGHT: 49,30 LBS/FT 73.57 KG/M CALC. DRILL PIPE ID: 2.57 INCH 65.38 MM MUD WEIGHT: 1.28 KG/L 10.68 PPG HOLE DIAMETER: 12.25 INCH 317.15 MM HOLE ANGLE: 90.00 DEG CRITICAL BUCKLING LOAD: 247.82 KN ‘ANGLE INCREMENTS: 0 5 - BUCKLING LOAD (KN): 1801 73.2 BUCKLING LOAD (KLBS): 4.05 16.4 ‘ANGLE INCREMENTS: 35 BUCKLING LOAD (KN): 187.7 BUCKLING LOAD (KLBS): 42.2 ‘ANGLE INCREMENTS: 65 BUCKLING LOAD (KN): 235.9 BUCKLING LOAD (KLBS): -~ ss a sn = —t —+ a z —T co jez = Sw ° «a o aoe —T 9 a a Ci a RELATION (ves) ee /TELEEO5" DP in 8-1/2" hole . Buckling Analysis DRILL PIPE OO: 5.00 INCH 127.00 MM DRILL PIPE ID: 4.21 INCH 104.93 MM DRILL PIPE WEIGHT: 21,92 LBS/FT 42.26 KG/M CALC. DRILL PIPE !D: 4.1025 INCH 04.20 MM MUD WEIGHT: 1.28 KG/L_ 10.68 PPG ae HOLE DIAMETER: ‘8.5 INCH 215.90 MM HOLE ANGLE: 7 90.00 DEG CRITICAL BUCKLING LOAD: 124,92 KN ANGLE INCREMENTS: 10 15 BUCKLING LOAD (KN): 49 O15 BUCKLING LOAD (KLBS): 168 206 ~ ANGLE INCREMENTS: 40 45 BUCKLING LOAD (KN): 1444 1512 SUCKLING LOAD (KLBS):_ ANGLE INCREMENTS: 75 BUCKLING LOAD (KN): 174.3 176.7 BUCKLING LOAD (KLBS): 39.2 39.7 » zw —o 3 Lol - Tt o@ T_ zt I Zw = 8 f = f LBS. = wo —|_ ew . += ° 0 2 o ° % INCL TION (DES) — s PO toc) ew feeb5" HWDP in 8-1/2" hole .. DRILL PIPE OD: DRILL PIPE 1D: DRILL PIPE WEIGHT: CALC. DRILL PIPE ID: MUD WEIGHT: HOLE DIAMETER: HOLE ANGLE: Buckling Analysis 5.00 INCH 3.00 INCH 49.3 LBS/FT 2.57 INCH 1.28 KG/L ‘B.5INCH 90.00 DEG 127.00 MM 76.20 MM 73.37 KG/M. 65.38 MM 10.68 PPG 215.90 MM CRITICAL BUCKLING LOAD: ‘ANGLE INCREMENTS: BUCKLING LOAD (KNy: BUCKLING LOAD (KLBS): ‘ANGLE INCREMENTS: BUCKLING LOAD (KN): BUCKLING LOAD (KLBS): 356.68 KN ‘ANGLE INGREMENTS: BUCKLING LOAD (KN): BUCKLING LOAD (KLBS): aL = 3” cS 2m 20 zm 2 ‘LBS. 50 50- ' a wo INCLINATION (DES)9.4.2 Summary of running drill pipe in compression GQ. When drilling vertical wells, ordinary drill pipe must NEVER be rrun in compression in any hole size. Therefore sufficient BHA ‘weight must be used to provide all the desired weight on bit with an appropriate safety margin. @ In large hole sizes (16" or greater) drill pipe should not be run in compression. In smaller hole sizes on high-angle wells (over 45°), drill pipe may ‘be run in compression to contribute to the weight on bit provided the maximum compressive load is less than the critical buckling force, This critical buckling force is the minimum compressive force which will cause sinusoidal buckling of the drill pipe. DA safety margin of at least 10% should be used in the calculation to allow for some drag (friction) in the hole. However, axial drag is not ~ ‘a major factor when assemblies are rotated. D The preceding discussion concemed rotary assemblies. However, it ‘would also apply to steerable motor systems used in the rotary mode. Provided the Navigation System was to be used mainly in the rotary mode, with only minimal oriented drilling anticipated, then the required BHA weight could be calculated on the same basis. If significant amount of oriented driling was likely, then the drag in the hole should be evaluated using the Torque and Drag computer program. In this type of situation, a proper engineering, analysis of BHA weight requirements is advised. Pee eT Cocke95 BHA requirements when the drillstring is not rotated ‘As stated earlier, wher the drllstring is rotated the along-hole component of sliding friction (drag) is small and may be allowed for simply by using a safety factor in BHA weight calculations, Drill- string friction for rotary assemblies will mainly affect torque values. When the drilistrng is not ro- tated, as when a steerable motor system is used in the oriented mode, axial drag can become very significant and drillstring friction should be evaluated. A simplified formula was given on page 9-4 which took account of sliding friction. A proper analysis of drillstring friction is, of course, mote complex and must take account of a number of factors including wellbore curvature. 9.5.1 Computer models of driltstring friction Proper evaluation of drillstring friction requires the use of a computer program. These programs will analyse drllstring friction for rotary drilling as well as drilling with no drillstring rotation. The engineering foundation for virtually all drillstring friction simulation software is the so- called “soft string” model, first discussed in the titerature by Johancsik et al. This model makes 2 number of simplifying assumptions and considers the drillstring as composed of discrete ele- ‘ments. Using the model, itis possible to solve equations of equilibrium for the normal force of drillstring /wellbore contact at the bottom of each drilistring element, the friction force deriv- ing from that normal contact force and the load condition at the upper end of the drilstring element. Such a solution method is repeated progressively for each drillstring element over the length of the drillstring, yielding the following useful information: 1 Surface hookload and rotary torque Q_ Normal forces of drilstring wellbore contact at each drillstring element. O._ Average torsional and tensile load acting on each drillstring element.9.5.2 The Eastman Teleco Torque and Drag Module This program, developed by the ET Drilling Research Group, is used to calculate torque and drag ‘when a friction factor (coefficient of sliding friction) is known or estimated. It will also calculate friction factor when either torque or hookload are known. Calculations are performed using a con- ventional softstring model or with bending of drillstring components included. Software accuracy has been verified against actual field data. Inputs and outputs are handled in US. or metric units and are user selected. General Uses ‘The program may be used to: Q_ Optimize wellpath design for minimum torque and drag Q. Analyze problems either current or post-well ~ Determine drillstring design limitations Inputs Required 1. Drillstring component data (OD, ID, tool joint, and material composition). 2. Survey data (actual or planned). 3. Friction factor(s) or actual hookload or torque values (for friction factor calculation). Outputs Given ‘Values of the following loads and torques are calculated for discrete points in the drillstring from rotary table to the bit. These values are output in both tabular (summary or detailed) and graphi- cal formats, + Drag load (on-bottom; oriented drilling) Pick up load Slack off load Rotating off bottom load Drilling load (on-bottom: rotating) Rotating off bottom torque oooood Drilling torque1 Typical drifistring - wellbore friction factors Weltbore environment Mud type, Waterbase | Oilbase Casing 017-026 | 0.10-0.16 ‘Open hote 023-044 | 0.13-0,26 9.5.2.2 Use of the torque and drag module in BHA weight evaluation ‘The Torque and Drag program hasa wide range of applications, but has mainly been used to evaluate drilistring design integrity and compare alternative wellplans for horizontal wells or com- plex, unusual directional wells. However, the program couid be used ta check BHA weight caleu- lations for norma) directional wells. The program will calculate axial drag for a non-rotated assembly and also calculates the position of the neutral point in the drillstring. In addition, the program calculates the forces on the drill pipe and will “Rag” any values of compressive load ‘which exceed the critical buckling force for the drilipipe. 9.5.3 BHA weight for steerable motor assemblies In practice, BHA weight for steerable assemblies on typical directional wells is not a problem for two reasons. 1. The WOB is usually fairly low, especially when a PDC bit is used. 2. When the drillstring is not rotated the drillpipe is not subjected to the cyclical stresses which occur during rotary drilling, Therefore, sinusoidal buckling can be tolerated when there is no ro- tation of the drillstring. Helical buckling must, however, be avoided. Helical buckling occurs at 1.41 F.,, where Fox is the compressive force at which sinusoidal buckling occurs. “Therefore, if BHA weight requirements are evaluated as for rotary driling, the results will be valid for steerable systems in the oriented mode except for unusual well paths which create exception- ally high values of axial drag, ‘The standard practice of minimising BHA fength and weight for steerable assemblies has not cre. ated any noticeable increase in the incidence of drillstring failure, even when long sections are drilled in the oriented mode.3.6 Additional Exercises on BHA Weight Calculation » 920 a Baker Hughes company oneSection 10 Projecting ahead Objectives Upon compietion of this section, the trainee should be able to: Explain the importance of projecting current directional trends ahead to predict the future course of the borehole. Perform simple calculations by hand to project ahead in two dimen- sions either in the vertical plane or on the horizontal plane. Perform simple projection measurements on the well plan using a pro- tractor and string. Perform simple calculations to project along a circular arc in the vertical plane.rrr Be kal Objectives for Section 10Section LO Projecting ahead Introduction . ‘Avery important aspect of a directional drillers job is to project ahead as the wellis being drilled. In other words, he must not only calculate the present bottom hole location of the well, but also {look at the rates of change of inclination and azimuth obtained with each assembly and extrapo- late these forward to see whether the well is on course to hit the target. Ifhe decides the well is off ‘course, a correction run may be necessary. In order to project ahead accurately in three dimensions, a computer or programmable calculator is required. Computer programs for projecting ahead generally use calculations based on the mini- mum curvature model and iterative techniques. There are various options in the EC-TRAK soft- ‘ware which may be used to project ahead. These are explained in the EC*TRAK manuals. ‘When a computer is not available, a simplified approach can be used if the problem is mainly con- fined either to the vertical projection or to the horizontal projection. In other words, this approach is basically two- dimensional. It must be emphasised that the simple calculations outlined in the re- mainder of this section will give very inaccurate results for any problems which involve three-di- ‘mensional turns.10.4 Projecting Ahead in the Horizontal Plane In this approach we start with the current well co-ordinates and azimuth, and the “walk” rate or rate of azimuth change being obtained with the rotary assembly currently in hole. We can easily calculate the rate of azimuth change or “walk” as follows jotal azimuth change x 100 course length drilled ‘Current Walk Rate (°/200 ‘where the values of total azimuth change and course length drilled would be for the current assembly. Analternative expression for the “Current Walk Rate" is the “Current Lateral Drift’. Present location Figure 10-1 TOTAL WALK NEEDED = 2Z where Z is the difference (in degrees) between the present direction and the direction to the target from the present bottom hole location, ad EO sytotal walk needed x 100 M.D. left to drill Walk rate required (°/100’) An alternative expression for the “Walk Rate Required” is the “Lateral Drift Required”. MD. is measured depth, i. along the hole depth. The M.D. left to drill will be only a rough esti- ‘ate. It could be the estimated M.D. to the next casing point or to the ultimate target. If the tan- gent section is being drilled, this value can easily be calculated approximately by calculating the horizontal displacement and vertical depth to the target and then solving the right angled triangle to obtain the length of the hypotenuse. ‘Total walk anticipated (in degrees) = Curent Walk us es M.D. Left to Drill ‘The directional driller must compare the total walk anticipated with the total walk needed and decide whether he can continue drilling with the same assembly or if a change of BHA is re- quired. Ifthe wel is in danger of missing the target, then he will decide on a correction run. If he has a steerable system in hole, then it will simply mean an interval of oriented drilling. If the well is being drilled with traditional assemblies, then a correction run with a motor and bent sub will be required. Provided that the length of the required correction run is small compared to the distance to be drilled to the target, the following formula gives the approximate amount of “turn” (azimuth change) required from the correction run: ny o oy ici Required turn with motor (in degrees) = z+ ak Anticipated where Z is the difference (in degrees) between the current direction and the direction to the target from the present bottom hole location. If the walk anticipated is in the same direction as the required turn (i.e. rightor left) then the term ¥4 Walk Anticipateds subtracted from Z in the formula. However, if the anticipated walk {sin the opposite direction to the required tum, then the terms are added.Example We have just run a packed assembly from 2475’ MD tn 4255’ MD. Over this interval the azimuth changed from 62° to 68°. The direction to the target from the present bottom hole location is 56°. On the vertical projection, the wel is on course to hit the target if the present inclination is main- tained. The estimated measured depth of the target is 9000’. Calculate : a. Current Walk Rete. b. Total Walk Needed to Hit Target. . Rate of Walk Required. @. Expected Walk with packed assembly. @. Turn Required in the correction run. total azimuth change x 100 @. Current Walk Rate — aa (68-62) x 100 + cuerent walkrate = SESE 034°/100 RIGHT , Tota! Walk Needed to hit target = 22, + total walk needed = 2x (68"-56 = 24° LEFT ©. Rate of walk required = *0t2! walk needed x 100 MD left to drilt J walkrate required = gd *100— = 051109 Ler oo _ Current Walk Bate x MD left to Drill, f expected walk — = S34 (9990-4255 = 16 RIGHT. eTurn Raqured in he correction n= 24 Male anipated “acarequied = ved uery - wr ee 08%10.1.1 Exercises For examples with depths in metres, walk rates will be expressed in °/30m and 30 should be substituted for 100 in the appropriate formulae. 1. Present MD is 76507. The last survey gave 47° inclination and 020.5° azimuth. The direction from the present location to the target is N30°E. TD of the target is estimated at 13785’ MD The direc- tional driller plans to run packed rotary assemblies for the remainder of the well. He has esti- mated the expected walk rate at 0.084°/100 to the right. Calculate : Total walk needed = Rate of walk required = - Walk anticipated with rotary assemblies = ‘Required turn with motor and bent sul 2. The well has been drilled to 2450 metres M.D. the 1214" hole section is being drilled. Our present azimuth is 124.5°, but the direction from the present bottom hole location to the desired location of the 9-5/8" casing point is 115°, We wish to runa mild dropping assembly which walked to the right at 0.2 °/30 metres on the previous well in the same area and in the same formation. A cor- rection run with a motor and bent sub is therefore necessary for left turn. The measured depth of the 9-5/8" casing point is estimated as 3,250m. Calculate: Total walk needed = Rate of walk needed. Walk anticipated with rotary assembly = Required turn with motor and bent sub = 3. The latest survey, at 5600’ MD, gave 235° inclination, 225.0° azimuth. The rotary assembly is walking right at 0.5°/100', a. Whats the total walk anticipated in drilling on with the same BHA to 8200’ MD? Measurement with a protractor on the horizontal plan shows the direction to the target is 239.5°. b. How many degrees should the hole be turned in the correction run? Ss ose2 a A10.2 Projecting Ahead in the Vertical Plane We can also project ahead in the vertical plane in a similar fashion. This approach will give reason- ably accurate results when the well is on course on the horizontal plan and the azimuth is constant ‘or changing only slowiy. in other words, itis basically a two-dimensional approach once again. ‘The inclination required to hit the target from the current location may be simply found by meas- ‘urement with a protractor on the vertical plan. Whert you project onto the vertical wellplan, re- ‘member you are profecting onto a plane which in general is not parallel to the vertical plane of the well over any particular section. This means that for measuring with a protractor and projecting on the well plan, the inclination angle should, strictly speaking, be recalculated using the formula, Projected inclination = arc tan [ tan (Actual Inclination) x cos(DD) } ‘Where DD is the directional difference, which is the difference between the hole azimuth and the a vertical section azimuth, Provided the directional difference is less than 10", which is usually the case, the projected inclina- tion will be approximately the same as the actual inclination. Alternatively, the required inclination to hit the target may be calculated as follows. eee ‘Horizontal distance to target) Required inclination = arctan Gm a Horizontal distance to target = [N/S Target—N/S Location )" + (E/ W Target — E/ W Location) ATVD = Target TVD - current TVD. eeeCurrent bottom hole location ! i : Total Bulld/Drop needed = 2 (12-11) Figure 10-2 ; Change in inclination x 100 Current Build/Drop Rate = “Toc lensth drilled noo) ‘Note: A negative value indicates drop. : _ 2(h-1)x100 Build/Drop Rate Needed = 3.55 oft fo drill Cn Inclination at target = 1, +2 (I:—11) ‘where I, is the present inclination and I, {s the inclination to the target from the current bottom hole location. : ' Total Drop Anticipated = Hert Prop Rate xMP Left to Drill (in degrees)10-10 Example ‘The latest survey at 7340’ MD is 445° inclination, 137.3° azimuth. The well is lined up on target on the horizontal plan, but the inclination to target from the present location is 365°, The assembly in hole dropped from 465° t044.5° over the last 800” MD. The estimated MD of the tanget is 9500” MD. = = Ghangein inclination x 100 Current Drop Rate = SPREE eee . a __ 20° x10" current drop rate = ——a55 = 0.25°N0Y current te x. z} Tota! Drop Anticipated = STEN Sop tex MD Left Del 0.25" (9500-7340) 100 +. drop anticipated = 54° Total Drop Required = 2x(44.5°-365°) 218 Rate of drop required (°/100) Sure 6x1 sectdmproiied «glen = o7«°nor ‘Therefore it would be necessary to change the BHA to one which would drop at approx. 347/100. Alternatively, if you were drilling on rotary mode with a sterrable system, then you would drill a short section oriented for drop. Antic Drop required in oriented made = (jy-1,)~Anteated Prop where I, is present inclination and fis incfination to target. <1. drop required in oriented mode = ($4.5°— 365.) ~ =53" ‘This last calculation isa rough approximation which is valid if the distance to be drilled oriented is small compared to the total distance left to drill. pe ee10.2.1 Exercise ‘We have just taken a survey and the results are: iE ‘Survey Mo. wee, | aziMuTH wo | nonm | east ° a5? seoe | er [aos 10,450" a3 ‘The target coordinates are: f To | (NORTH EAST soon | «620 a Weare using a NorTrak steerable motor and drilling in rotary mode, The inclination dropped from 475° to 44.3° between 8783' MD and 10,450’ MD. Calculate @. Horizontal distance to target Db. Inclination to target from current location ©, Total build or drop required to hit target 4G. Rate of build or drop required to hit target ©. Number of degrees build or drop to be achieved by an immediate run in oriented mode,10.3 Projecting along a circular arc in the vertical plane If Navigation System, Fixed Angle Build System or even a Motor and Bent Sub Assembly is used to build or drop angle in one vertical plane (ie. constant azimuth), then the formulae below may bbe used to project ahead along the curve. The curve drilled is assumed tobe a circular arc. Displacement, 4 Displacement Figure 10-9 ‘where BUR is the build or drop rate expressed either in °/100' or °/30m measured depth. Depths in Feet 5730 (sin I,~sin h) BUR 3730 { cost; ~ cos :) ‘BUR ATvD= A Displacement = Depths in Metres 1719 (sin k~siny) BUR 3719 (cosl;~cos Is) A Displacement «= E 30( 30(1:-1,) AMD == BUR where I; and J, are the inclinations in degrees. Note that the above formulae may be re-arranged to solve for I; after a specified AMD, aTVDor ADisplacement. ea cg10.3.1 Additional exercises on projecting ahead 1. A packed assembly has been run from 2040 metres M.D. to 3440 metres M.D. Over this interval, the azimuth has changed from 1265° to 131.1°. At 3440 m M.D. the survey information is as follows: MD. INCL. AZIMUTH T.D ‘SOUTH EAST 3440 35.0" Bi 2844 874 1055 ‘The target coordinates are: SOUTH EAST 3950 1374 1431 ‘The estimated T.D. is 4790 m. ~~ Calculate: 8, The direction to the target from the present bottom hole location; . The inclination required to hit the target; ©. The current lateral drift (Le, the walk rate obtained from 2040m to 3440m M.D); a d. The total walk needed to hit the target; @. The lateral drift ie. the RATE of walk, required to hit the target; f. The total walk ANTICIPATED, and g. The number of degrees of turn required from the correction run.Additional exercises on projecting ahead Hughes companySection Il Overview of surveying Objectives Upon completion of this section, the trainee should be able to: 1. State and explain three reasons why surveys are taken. 2. State at least four reasons why accurate knowledge of the course of a borehole is necessary. 3. State and define the quantities which survey tools measure. 4. List the main survey systems available and explain the particular range of applications of each. 5, List the main advantages and limitations of each of the available survey systems. = - -Pg ei cu Objectives for Section 11Section Zl Overview of surveying 114 Reasons for Taking Surveys Surveys are taken: a to permit calculation of well coordinates ata series of measured depths, thereby accurately specifying the well path and the current bottomhole location, ‘to measure the inclination and direction at the bottom of the hole and hence determine where the well is heading, to determine the orientation of tool face of deflection tools or steerable systems, and to locate dog legs and allow calculation of dogleg severity values. Accurate knowledge of the course of a borehole is necessary: a a ose Hy Ee tohit geological target areas, to avoid collision with other wells, especially during platform drilling, todefine the target ofa relief well in the event of a blowout, to provide a better definition of geological and reservoir data to allow for optimisation of production, to fulfil the requirements of local legislation. fee ne11.2 11.3 What do Survey Instruments Measure? Most survey tools measure the inclination and azimuth of the borehole at a particular depth. Figure 11-1 Definitions Q_The inclination of a borehole at a point is the angle between the borehole axis and the vertical. The azimuth of a borehole at a point is the direction of the borehole on the horizontal plane, measured as a clockwise angle (0° - 359.9") from the North reference, ‘The exceptions to the above are Inertial Navigation Systems. This type of survey tool measures components of acceleration along three axes when the tool is moving. These measured accelera- tions are integrated twice with respect to time to give first velocities and then displacements. ‘These displacements are the borehole coordinates. Survey Tools used in Borehole Surveying 1. The Drift Indicator is a survey instrument which measures only the inclination from verti- ‘al. Therefore drift indicator surveys are only run on vertical wells, €. exploration wells. 2. A magnetic single shot is a survey instrument which records simultaneously the magnetic direction and inclination of an uncased well bore on a single film disc. Formerly, magnetic single shots were taken at regular intervals while the well was drilled to monitor the course of the well. Nowadays, they are mainly used to check MWD readings. 3. A gyroscopic single shot simultaneously records the direction and inclination on a single film disc, and is not adversely affected by casing or other magnetic influence. There are slim sur- face readout gyro tools which can be used instead of gyro single shots. Gyro single shots are pri- marily used t0 orientate deflection tools during kickoffs where magnetic interference would affect MWD readings. Teen!-~ 4. A wireline steering tool is a survey tool used to give continuous surface readout of survey data while drilling with a downhole motor and bent sub assembly. The downhole tool comprises a solid-statv electronics probe plus spacer bars and a muleshoe. The raw data from the probe is transmitted to surface via the conducting wireline, A surface computer decodes the signals and calculates the survey data. In order to have the wireline running in hole while mud is circulated, itis necessary (0 use either a special circulating head or a side entry sub. 5. An MWD tool isa survey tool which measures survey data and other hole parameters while drilling. MwD tools are made up as part of the bottom hole assembly. They measure survey data in the same way as wireline steering tools using magnetometers, which measure components of the earth’s magnetic field, and accelerometers which measure components of the force of gravity ‘The raw data is transmitted to surface as pressure pules through the drilling mud. These pres- sure putes represent binary ones and zeroes. MWD tools are used not only to orientate deflection tools but also to take directional surveys at regular intervals while the well is being drilled 6. A magnetic multishot is a survey instrument which records simultaneously the magnetic di- rection and inclination of an uncased hole on a film strip at multiple stations. Magnetic mul- tishots are run when the BHA is being tripped out of the hole. The downhole tool is positioned in a non-magnetic drill collar so that the magnetic compass is spaced as far as possible from any magnetised steel. ‘The electronic magnetic multishot (EMS) uses a sensor array of accelerometers and magnetome- ters housed in a rugged electronics probe. The data is recotded downhole on a memory chip and. then transferred to computer disc for processing when the tool is retrieved at surface. 7. A gyroscopic multishot isa survey instrument which is not adversely affected by casing or “other magnetic influences. The gyro muultishot tool is lowered into the well on a wireline. At fixed depth intervals the tool is stopped and surveys recorded. There are three different systems available. The first is the original photo-mechanical system in which 2 multishot camera photo- sph he gyro compass and gyro ange unit readings at each survey depth There ae also Sur- face readout systems with electronic sensors but which are still based on the level rotor Finally, the latest development is.a suriace readout system based on rate integrat- fig gyroscopes (eg, serxen) which has many advantages over conventional GMS. All hese systems are described and explained in Appendix 4. 8. An inertial navigation system measures components of acceleration when the system is moving. These measurements are made by a set of three accelerometers, arranged at right angles to each other on a platform. The accelerations are integrated twice with respect to time to give first velocities and then displacements. ‘There are two commercial INS survey tools in the oil business, both operated by Eastman Teleco. ‘The FINDS tool has a fully gimballed inertial platform, which is maintained stationary by torque motors. These torque motors are controlled by the outputs of rate gyros attached to the inertial platform. The RIGS tool uses a strapdown INS which has the accelerometer array attached to the tool body. A strapdown INS uses the outputs of rate gyros attached to the tool body to measure rotations of the tool body about the reference axes. The accelerometer outputs are mathematically transformed into a focally evel coordinate system before the integrations are performed. A strapdown system does mathematically what a gimbaled system does mechanically. The rate gyros used in the RIGS tool are ring laser gyros. ee isNotes a 6aSection Z Magnetic single shot surveys Objectives Upon completion of this section, the trainee should be able to: List the basic components of a magnetic single shot instrument and ex- plain the function of each component. List the available angle units and tin-dng devices for both R and E sin- gle shots. Use the instruments to take survey pictures. Identify all items of running gear, including heat shields, and assemble the tools correctly. State and explain the procedures to be followed in running magnetic single shot surveys. Read single shot discs correctly.Objectives for Section 12 06/92Section IB Magnetic single shot surveys 12.1 The basic components ‘There are four basic components which make a magnetic single shot instrument: OD Compass/angle unit Q Camera OD Timing device QO Battery pack ‘The compass angle unit is the sensor and gives a reading of inclination, hole direction and in some circumstances tool face. Eastman Teleco has two complete ranges of single shot instrument, E type and R type. These two sets of instruments are different in size but otherwise fairly similar. ‘The E type instruments are smaller and fit inside a 134" (1.375") pressure barrel, whereas the R regular”? instruments fit inside a 1%" (1.75") pressure barrel. The heat shield available for the E instruments has an OD of 1%” whereas the heat shield for the R instruments has an OD of 2 ‘The R instruments are used normally for regular surveys while drilling or for orientation of deflec- tion tools using a mule shoe sleeve when there are no adjacent cased wells or othet sources of mag- netic interference. The E instruments are only Tun when the minimum ID of the BHA is too small for the R pressure barrel or wohen a heat shield is required. 12.2 R Single Shot Instruments ‘The R type instruments fit inside a 1.75" O.D. non-magnetic pressure barrel. 12.2.1. Battery Pack ‘The R battery pack takes 3 C size batteries or 3 AA batteries i an insert is used. Batteries are always loaded “tip towards timer”. A special bottery pack is used with the Nomad Collar Sensor.12.2.2. Camera ‘The R single shot camera does not have a lens or a shutter. The lens is incorpotated into the glass of the angle unit. The camera is always screwed onto the angle unit before the film disc is loaded, ‘The film discs are loaded into the camera using a film disc “injector” (disc loader) which permits Joading in davtight without the use of a black bag. 12.2.3 Timing Devices Timers avaitable for & single shot instruments are: Q. 33 minute and 66 minute mechanicai timers’ Q_ 99 minute electronic timer ‘There are also availablea motion sensor and a non-mag collar sensor. ‘The motion sensor can be used in place of the electronic timer to activate the single shot camera. It eliminates the guesswork in estimating the time till the tool is on the bottom. When switched ON, itis inactive for 4 minutes; thereafter, ifthe instrument is stationary for 30 seconds then the camera will take a picture, ‘The nom -mag coliar sensor (NOMAD) can also be used instead of the electronic timer. It will cause the single shot camera to take a survey picture after the instrument has been in 2 non-mag- netic drill coliar for 60 seconds, It eliminates the need to “guesstimate’ the time for the tool to reach bottom. Its not sensitive to downhole vibration which can prevent the motion sensor from taking a picture. A special 4 cell battery pack is used with the non-mag colfar sensor. 12.2.4 Compass/Angle Units Angle units are available for the R single shot system with the following inclination ranges: Don Q 0-4" D 0-10" G 0-20" 2 18-90" 2 18-120" ‘The O- 1 ‘and 0- 4° units, which are combined camera/plumb bob assemblies, are not in wide- spread use but are available in some areas. The 15 - 120° unit is available by special order only. All ehese angle units contain a magnetic compass card which aligns itself to magnetic North and provides the direction reference. The low ranges (viz. -1",0-4",0- 10" and 0-20") havea plumb ‘bob unit which hangs above the compass card from a single suspension point as illustrated in Fig- ure 5-1. The plumb bob will always hang vertically regardless of the inclination angle to which the instrument is tilted. ‘When the instruments are vertical, the point of intersection of the cross hairs on the plum bob is directly above the centre of the compass card. Ifthe angle unit i tilted over at an angle, the inter- section of the cross hairs will be vertically above some point displaced outwards from the centre of the compass card. The compass card is calibrated with concentric rings which represent incre- ments in inclination. a Baker Hughes companySince the plumb bob always hangs vertically, a straight line through the centre of the compass card and the point of intersection of the cross hairs will indicate hole direction on the compass scale. Of course, strictly speaking the plumb bob hangs to “low side” and indicates the direction 180" from hole direction. However, the scale on the compass card is 180° “out”, ie., the point which aligns to magnetic North is actually marked South, etc, which compensates for the plumb bob indicating low side. Therefore, the only correction which has to be applied to the single shot reading is the magnetic declination correction. ‘Transporent gata cover Compass fhid Figure 12-1tnciination scale inner gimbal axi: ‘The high range units (15 -90° and 15 - 120") have a drift arc inclinometer with two gimbals as shown in the figure above, ‘The inclination scale is a circular arc mounted on the inner gimbal. The inner gimbal is counterbal- anced by weight A (see Figure 12-2) and suspended so that the base remains horizontal. The incli- nation is shown by a cross hair mounted on the outer gimbal; the cross hair lies over the inclination scale. When the angle unit tilts to different inclinations, the outer gimbal pivots about the inner gimbal bearings and the cross hair moves round the inclination scale in a circular arc. ‘The outer gimbal is aligned perpendicular to the hole direction by the low-side weight (weight B) ‘which is mounted on the outer gimbal axis. This has the effect of aligning the cross hair mounted ‘on the inner gimbal with the axis of the angle unit and hence with hole direction. This line will be superimposed on the compass card scale in the single shot picture and will indicate hole direction bbecause the compass card is again calibrated 180" out, as in the low range angle units. A very important point to note is that the compass card stays horizontal whatever the inclination ot the wellbore. ‘The lens of an R single shot is incorporated into the glass of the angle unit. Note the R type angle Units cannot be used with standard multishot instruments. Note For a more detailed account of the instrument, surface checks, procedure for taking sur- vveys and trouble-shooting, refer to the magnetic single shot manual Cindi12.2.5 Running Gear The standard R-type pressure barrel is 175" OD. The complete tool normally consists of ‘Spear-point (or rope socket and wireline sub if run on a wireline) ‘Swivel (if too] rum on wireline) Rubber pin stabiliser with rubber pins Pressure barrel containing the instruments (with bull plugs) ‘Spacer bars (or sinker bars) Bottom landing shock assembly Aithough rarely used for this purpase nowadays, a single shot can be used to obtain the tool face orientation of a deflection tool. When used for that purpose, the lower part ofthe tool (below the instrument barrel) consists of a mule shoe bar (see lower diagram on Page 21 of Magnetic Single Shot Manual). 12.3 E Single Shot Instruments These fit inside a 1-3/8" (1.375") OD. pressure barrel. cooouo 12.3.1 Battery Pack The E battery pack takes 3 AA cells. 12.3.2. Camera ‘This differs from the R type camera in that it has a lens as well as being smaller. 12.3.3. Timing Devices 33 and 66 minute mechanical timers exist but are being phased out. There is a 99 minute electronic timer which isa “scaled down” version of the & type timer. There is a NOMAD COLLAR SENSOR for the E type system which again requires a special battery pack. This has not been widely used in Europe. Note that there is not a motion sensor for the E system. 12.3.4 Compass/Angle Units ‘The angle units available for the E system are the 0- 10" and 0- 20"ranges which have a plumb bob, and the 15-90" unit which has a drift arc inclinometer. 2 co Ener12.3.5 Running Gear for E single shot ‘The E type running pear is similar to the R type except forthe smuller OD and different thread connections 12.4 Heat Shields ‘The film discs are rated to 200°F for one hour. However, there are heat shields available for both systems. These consist of a double-walled flask which houses the instruments and an outer pressure harrel into which the flask fits. The heat shield barre! for the 8 type instruments 15 2.15" OL waiue «nat for the F s, "stem is 1.75 OD ine Zhess siucld is ‘more commonly used for this reason. Use of a heat shield raises the temperature limit ofthe tool to 500°F for 4 hours. Important note: Kodak has stopped manufacturing the inograph drift survey film which has ‘been used for many years. Currently, the exact temperature rating of both single shot and ‘multishot film has not been definitely determined. ose a Baker Hughes company12.5 Running Procedures 12.5.1 Electronic single shot timer Selectable time delay of 1 to 99 minutes (1 min increments). Battery pack requires 3 x’C” cell batter- ies, tip ends (+) loaded into battery pack towards timer. Test procedures Endcap —+ Q Y Screw battery pack onto electronic timer. Place camera into timer and hold firmly in Place. Batteries Putboth switches on timer to zero. Depress start button on timer. ‘Camera lights should come on and red LED. should flash for 7.5 seconds and then tum off. ooo oo Running procedures Reset timer by setting both switches to zero and depress start button - wait 15 seconds. Q_ Make up camera and angle unit, load disk {nto camera. Do not load disk into camera before it is connected to the angle unit or disk will be exposed. Connect to battery pack/ timer assembly. Just before loading instruments into pressure barrel set the required delay time ‘on the switches. Press the start button and start your stop watch simultaneously. Observe the timers LED, it should flash for the first minute indicating correct operation. Electronic timer ‘Angle unit Figure 12:3 Components, ose wm — | ELEEO12.5.2. Running gear assembly 2. The pressure barrel assembly contains the timer, battery pack, camera and angie unit, ina water tight, pressure proof, non-magnetic barrel. The barrels protect, survey instruments from drilling mud and ‘hydrostatic pressures to 26,000 PSI. D. Verify that the correct baffle plate is installed, and what its position is in the bottom hole assembly. ‘Check that the minimum drill string LD. is large enough to allow the survey tool to [pass through to the bottom. Ifthe survey instrument will be subjected to temperatures over 200 degrees F., heatshields must be used. If the tool is to be dropped inside the dit? string then a spearpoint must be placed at the top of the tool. Ensure that the correct over-shot is available and is operating correctly. Running gear should be assembled! as per the drawing, Tandem surveys will always be run. The box-box cross-over is supplied in the instrament box. 2. Ensure bull plug “o” rings are in good condition. If there is any doubt, change them. D Sinker bars must not be used on tools which are to be dropped inside the drill string, Use the correct amount of spacer bars to censute the instruments are correctly spaced inside the non-magnetic drill collars. D. The instrument package can be suspended from the upper bull plug on the rubber shock absorber or seated on the rubber shock absorber attached to the lower bull plug, An adaptor is provided in the instrament box for this option. Which ever method is used the angle unit must be at the bottom of the instrument iedowr-hole. Asa general rule of thumb, in low angle holes with 12-15 ppg mud, the too! will free sal! a¢ approximately 1000 feet per minute. Free fall speed will decrease with .sed hole inclination and heavier mud oO weights __Donot pump a tool to bottom in a vertical well, Figure 12-4 Se A adhguliie Rope socket —__ Spear point tl swivel upper pin stabilizer body = Pressure barre! ] bul plug | —/ O-Ring, \ Pressure barret i bull pg fl | g O-Ring Pressure barrel Pressure barre! | Pressure barrei ey bull pug | Sinker bars) or spacer bars} Pressure barrel bat plug O-Ring. Bottom landing ! shock assembiy Box/Box X-Over12.5.3 Unloading and developing the film D_ Recover the instruments and unscrew the camera /angle unit assembly from the timer. DO NOT seperate the camera from the angle unit at this stage or the film will be exposed. Pull the bottom of the developing tank off. Make sure the tanks light trap operates freely (normally firm), Fil the bottom of the tank with 1/2’ of developing fluid. Push the top of the tank completely into its bottom cup. Place the tank on a firm surface and open the light trap. Place the camera /angie unit over the tank and mate the lips of the tank with the film gate notch in the camera. Press the camera's film gate release button. Shut the tanks light gate. Allow the film todevelop for four minutes, agitating the tank ‘occasionally. Ifthe fluid in cold (below 68 deg.F.) develop the film = for 8 to 10 minutes. Reading the film oo Q 0:10.and 0-20 disks- Line up the reatiers cross hair so that it intersects the center of the disk and the center of the plumb bob ‘ross hait. Where the readers cross hair intersects with the compass ‘ard read the direction. Read inclination from where plumb bob cross hair intersects concentric inclination circles. 15-90 disks - Read the inclination at the intersection of disk’s center horizontal cross hair and the vertical scale. Read the direction pointed to by the bottom of vertical lubber line Nowadays, magnotic single shots are mainly used to check MWD tool readings so the normal pro- cedure is to drop the tool to “free fall” through the mud to bottom prior to a bit trip. The tool is ‘usually recovered with an overshot after al the drill pipe has been tripped out. Magnetic single shot instruments date back to the late 1920s, They represent proven, reliable technology. The main disadvantage is the rig time used to run single shot. EIR 0-20" Disk °F 0-10" Disk A“ ‘Single shot reader crosshair Inclination 5.0" Inclination 12.0" Direction NESW Direction N60°W Inctination 33.9" Direction $ 35°E Inclination line ‘Lubber line gure t25 ~ e692 One = ee12.6 Exercises Write down the survey readings shown on the single shot discs pictured below 0- 10° angle unit 0- 20° angle unit Inclination Direction Tool Face 0- 90° angle unit HOLE DIRECTION abitl » Zp uit Se. See — ~ \ [— w& 's, SHOT 7 DISC READER 180 _ Inclination Direction Tool Face inclination Direction Too! Face 0 - 20° angle unit Inclination Direction Tool FaceSection lS Measurement while drilling Objectives Upon completion of this section, the trainee should be able List the essential components of a basic MWD system. Explain the differences between three broad categories of downhole pa- rameters monitored by MWD systems: Directional data Formation evaluation data Engineering data Describe the most common method of data transmission, mud pressure pulse telemetry, and explain the fundamental differences between posi- tive and negative pulse systems. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of two existing methods of providing power downhole; lithium battery versus turbine generated power, Describe advantages and disadvantages of retrievable probe MWD sys- tems versus collar mounted systems. Compile a partial list of operational parameters that may need to be con- sidered prior to using an MWD system.Objectives for Section 13 0692 Pd eden end edSection HB Measurement while drilling 13.1 Measurement while drilling “MWD” or Measurement While Drilling systems or have been primarily designed and utilized as ‘a means of improving the efficiency of the drilling operation by minimizing last time due to time consuming activities such as borehole surveying and wireline logging. An MWD system can be used to transmit a variety of measurement data from downhole to surface without the complexi- ties of an electric wireline. All MWD systems use sensors located in the bottom hole assembly to ‘monitor drilling parameters and /or formation characteristics. Information is collected downhole during drilling operations and is either processed and transmitted to the surface on a real-time ba- sis or recorded for ater use. ‘A basic MWD system contains these essential components: Downhole sensor package OD Downhole power source Surface computer to receive data and 1 Method to transmit data from downhole to convert it to a usable format ‘surface and/or to record data OD Uphole or surface sensors (for Downhole computer (microprocessor and reception of data signals from electronics for controlling and monitoring downhole) the downhole system) MWD systems were first commercialized in the late 1970's. Initially, the primary function of the tool was to provide directional information. As development, reliability and acceptance pro- _gressed, the variety of information that can be measured by MWD systems has increased. Differ- cent systems now avaliable offer drilling operators a growing selection of downhole sensor packages able to monitor various downhole parameters. These parameters can be sorted into three broad categories of information - directional, formation evaiuation and engineering data. Direc- tional information comprises wellbore inclination, azimuth and deflection tool face orientation. Formation evaluation MWD initially included only gamma ray and resistivity. More recently, neu- tron and density measurements are possible. Engineering information can include true downhole ‘weight on bit, torque at the bit, annular temperature and pressure. ate 08? EST MAN Teco13.2 Telemetry Many different ways of transmitting data to surface have been developed, but at present, only the following methods are available commercially. Mud pressure pulse telemetry - information encoded in a binary format is transmitted to the surface by either a positive or negative pressure pulse generated in the drilling fluid. Positive pulse systems use some type of internal restriction to produce a pressure pulse above ambient pressure. Negative pulse systems use a bypass valve to vent flow from the inside of the foo! into the annulus, thereby creating a pressure pulse below ambient pressute. Frequency Modulation (mud siren) ~ information is sent to surface ina sinusoidal wave form using a modulator to generate a continuous, fixed- frequency pressure wave. By phase shifting the rotational speed of the modulator, a change is produced in the phase relationship of the resulting pressure wave form. Q Etectro-magnetic transmission - radio waves are transmitted from downhole to surface at high data rates. Systems currently available are limited to shallow depths. ‘Advantages which apply to all techniques utilizing mud pressure pulse telemetry include the abil- ity to transmit continuously while drilling without interrupting the normal productive drilling pro- ‘gram, Interfacing to the rig’s mud circulating system is simple - no modifications to the existing equipment is required. Obviously, the faster the tool transmits information to the surface, the more information can be sent; however there isa trade off between data rate, resolution of data and signal detection. A higher data rate such as that attained by mud sirens is more susceptible to interference, but allows for faster display of information. Higher resolution of data, eg. increments of 0.1 in 360 rather than 1 in 360, requires more data bits and therefore takes more time to transmit, When transmit- ting formation evaluation information, where measurements must be related to given depths, transmission becomes more complex as the correlation required between sensor detection speed, penetration rate, data rate and resolution of data required all interact. This has Ted to the develop- ment of downhole memory capabilities where formation evaluation data is not transmitted, but stored for downloading at surface. 4 The most common method of data transmission used to date has been positive pulse telemetry. It has the advantage of better signal reception or “edge detection” over negative pulse and mud option of float sub utilization 2 MWD collar size selection procedures for orienting to deflection I. lostcirculation material pumping toot procedures recommendations for drilling out of casing condition of drill pipe (scale, cement, clean, etc.) bottom hole assembly planning magnetic spacing requirements mud screen requirements D typeof downhole motor to be used 2 proposed rate of build D risk of stick pipe rate of penetration (faster ROP requires J lostin hole costs faster transmission rates) = 06s ke ey © ee :13.9 Research and development R&D should continue as long as demands for increasing drilling efficiency remain high. One area of concentration is improvements in real-time communication with greater amounts of informa- tion transmitted. The standard approach, mud pulse telemetry, has a limited data transmission rate. Developments such as the use of electro-magnetic waves (radio waves) have been used with limited success due to degradation of the signal strength as the radio waves are transmitted through the earth and particularly salt water. At greater depths, repeater subs must be placed in the drill string assembly, resulting in reduced reliability because of the additional hardware in the downhole environment. Increased power requirements are another obstacle. “Near Bit” MWD technology is highly desirable for both directional drilling and formation evalu- ation operations. Developmental trends include placing sensors in a near bit sub. Measurement data from these near bit sensors could be transmitted using electro-magnetic waves to a second part of the system positioned further up the BHA, which would include means for receiving the signal, microprocessors and a mud pressure pulse system to transmit data to surface. Other re- search includes placing some sensors in the rotor of positive displacement motors. Emphasis on modular systems that can be “tailored” to a customers needs by adding or removing. sensor modules at the rigsite has led to “wet-connect” development, which is the utilization of downhole retrievable hardware with the ability tomake or break electrical connections in a pres- surized, fluid-filled environment while maintaining continuity and insulation. In summary, the potential for MWD technology is enormous. Future growth and development will bbe dictated by the drilling operators needs and the ability of manufacturers to meet those needs." 1 cc /eamman Carers Ca: Rep 1 ee orm aasrer Wien” aon Capt egy rar a 2%, 198 AOD Sr en poner ge "ByMWD Systems Comparison Tables testa, ‘Arad Schiumberg og SMW To eaten Tana ImCDe 7A Take waa a wana age opto soon.an 2 ” ms ‘ens oercOR ensan > (oe mmc iommioeng ———aghein Su Rae ta aa a prone eld ‘ast ‘encom Hanami Maerz ies ao varie maeseaa Tatami Tau ses inst ia tori ABA earae wri tuning eannzetos ‘eas once ware Maha Toone wee me we eee ze eer be eH Br = = =F ry ered Teanga y Tg oat m, ‘oun Raper Bi-mtneecnt Canam getng wD oon sn scope Vamos ame ‘mam ory == am ae ae soon : — Midtown Sei a mings) erties 2 Te ‘miscon Grin — @izouse zeman Boley) ergo ema ery ‘enc a ‘since ony Toate rteroey ing Trotminning Wena raat Crooeagia ka noe tenes Soa me ed Re Temes! Tm ee Rt eed Penrod — ‘rough gel byte? @ Bogen » oy eaten * > = * @ 500 ga = wom neaconecon = © = « 2 \aspanin zm econ con ‘2 mm ~ ‘Reishee: eens Reh Rh Pe Gupems __Swpems dee SepenN__dupeitges supe depeitees ‘Saree nae Sear Serneee. Son oer. pot Cetawes Comme — i = somny em be pres nn mn sm one near sr 10 00 ea erry oy dc maaan re eh i eae Eames sare an hy pve COkemgreae ay mao Gan ttt OG ty sarge OOM carer ay O Rantunr om aanoonieinem 5S innate name OE aramnacem eras Oot fesnche sey SRORGTEN cantar ope nite reeieaind Reprinted from Petroleum Engineer International, May 1997 Pe nlMWD Systems Comparison Tables iourton Osada ‘Speny-Sun Delting Services “Kop _nGD_Smhnoewsni_eT ALL DWODGWDFED__Teinco Wester Ate cerry ‘Sena oe Con om me tae ers Tante ey ete SACO Sy Rawedumnine RIE) ASSIA Aetna oe oom skormensst Baal ‘Sore mashacre net ‘som tora nase Ngte madre Furibewatt ~e ‘sate ste yam seam weer “eanan Sane asa Gene Gane erase | Tasean oa) sane Tamim “T7etaa te citamew “wane scan eee Cengd erste tren Segetaoeme Od tan sean Tastee Seni reo 1tedat Oy ‘sane Sateen rrinaly sezat a om rt Wee wer wee wer me me we teat mee i Be Ei ar mer tary Tepes ay Cy ty Teepe emer Ree ae oon Bone nan oo = oon ee etn Tae pew eovene ete ey iy raves. 70 Bae "Rae woe ae m8 aa eae = mim Sa ha ae me eae ry s2Khs tte moan zecowney — smisajamnes xa Srom pio 10 solace sosmeuen ame poke sismeuae Frond ake maa seeing ee me gin ee ssleeme oe tiger ‘out Seaton Tandon eC © © oe ee Re ce Sacra et mao, » « Me emanzsm MOM RLW AD ® Pi an © 19 om maa Tee oR AD a wes sham 1 = me Tew won zee si = emo a Meee Cee Reed Ree cepesnne sweet ‘cent aes Supeee_oupees__ deweetewe ‘Senne, Cake Spameteerany Seana Oarieanhag Seopmnawtace Sontytateeey Semen “mn, ‘on ‘atime, orpsccat namaaanat mtethansny mutbomewe” atoms ro on ee) i = mong emma soenartg = © © © © © ~ . en ne ca a ere — oe — 1 oi ve Te v= te cy = > -tenan aa dont Sar ven mt Ty tae K-on un econ C l rter Taeey Mmapae (Grose taOC rapa ot ke: PF pec toe Rl asain Seve ga TF ee pne Koay pce ca ch eae oan Sieloneny ic mip tte MOC sap oa obs EF femme REAL nts a pg oF eat mm Lae - Reprinted from Petroieum Engineer international, May 1991MWD System Comparison Tables Barer Hughes inc. nade Schhombarger sninay Yous Trios cai uw TH aaatanr_aceutrac ——_Oa ATVGTF ewtehicg, ‘Gare mcg Com te vests ry er ‘Opera memcatie Obert ect saree * . conn Seman Teron aoe aie rea 7 7 eS . come sire a ae eee ee fons oe = = os Orato mee ® oe ve ote @ 33, Ww = nenty atone tmtanaat tbr minted foie ‘cman = Taree as) a ori 7 = ‘Sarees ce ‘Sars le ‘eteopenie are) ORT ml 2005 te) Same ne) cn a od _ sBorta a z aa a a = Siem sate tn sn seatin ~ MRR GR we Sanit E men . ‘ ve meen = = = M emer = rs = - seem = = See ace (Change in Sout coordinate - 100 cos 40°— cos 42") sin 62"— sin 60°) 22 i.e, 1879.38 (sin 62° - sin 60°) (The value 1879.38 should be stored as it will be needed for calculating AE.) 4S~=31.89, (compared with 31.81’ from the Average Angle method). Here we have used 4 S for “change in South coordinate.” However, if B,-1 and By are expressed in AZIMUTH, then the formula will give AN, which will be negative for a well going South (180°° AMD (costy ~ cosl) (cosB, ~ cosa) (| 2-1) @.-BD Now the only difference in the formulae for & S and 4 Eis thatthe factor (sinB2 ~ sinB,) in equa- tion ® is replaced by (cosB; ~ cosB2) in equation @ Hence, A E = 1879.38 (cos 60° ~ cos 62°) "BE 7.37" (compared to 57.38" by Average Angle method). 80 ‘The value of |= = } 3282.81’ is worth noting as itis a constant factor in equations ® and ®.Appendix 2 a 2.3 Derivation of dogleg formula Let LL and ¥ be unit vectors which are tangents to the wellpath at two adjacent survey stations, Let the inclinations at the two survey stations be I; and J and the azimuths be A, and Ag, Each vector may be resolved into North, East and vertical components as follows: @ Un=sinh cos Ar O Wwesinlz cos Ao O Uessinh sin Ay Q Ve=sinlz sin Az Q Uz=cosh OD vz=coslz (These relationships were proved in the Average Angle method.) By definition, the angle between the vectors LJ and ¥ is the dogleg angle. Taking the scalar product of Land ¥ gives U * V = UV cos(DL ). But since LJ and V are unit vectors, -1 U+V=cos DL) ‘But the scalar product ofthe two vectors can also be expressed in terms oftheir components a follows: UtY=Uy Vw +Ur Ve +Uz Vr = €08 (DL)=Un Vn +Uc Ve +Uz Vz +. cos (DL)= sink cosy sink, cosAz + sink sinA, sink, sinAy + cosh cost *. €0s(DL)=sinh; sink; [cosy cosA2 +SinAy sinAg) + cosh; cost + eos(DL)=[ sink; sinly c0s (Ay — Az) + cosh; coslz ] Provided |Ay~ Azl <90° , cos(A1- A2)= ¢os(Az—A1) We therefore have: DL =arceos [sink sinl, cos (Az ~ A1) + c0SI, cosla] , which is the formula given on page A29. °° I a eeAppendix 2 TS 24 Derivation of minimum curvature formulae ‘The position of Station 2 reative to Station 1 is defined by the position vector ras shown in figure below. From Figure A2-11, it can be seen that the vector ris determined by adding vectors #1 and fy: repty ce eee en) but by convention wees w& een) and by geometrical congruence InlsIm! ----+--2--5--- Be aie) ‘The modulus (length) of 111! is calculated as follows (see Figure A2-11) ee ee wi ‘Station 1 Figuee A 2-11 Tee rate positons atthe consscutve suey stators eeBy combining (v) and (vi) we obtain: (ul 80 2MD ax DL By substituting (i), (i), Gv) and (vii in (j), we obtain: 180 AMD eae DL sry naan era factor REM (F) we obtain: 1-8 eysne sim T, cos Ay +sin pcos Az = SMD) sin Jy sin Ay +sin sin A (RF 2 0s 1, + €08 Fy Spliting the vector into its AN, AE and AV components gives: an = int, cos A; +sinly cos As) RF 4E —q (sinh sinA: + sinl, sinAs) RF (cosh: + coslz) RFNotes Bae oe -