Explain what the Greeks considered to be the three types of terrestrial motion .

Terrestrial Motion : That is

movements that the earth makes.In physics,motionis a change in position of an object with respect to
time.Motionis typically described in terms of displacement, distance, velocity, acceleration, time and
speed.
Three types of terrestrial motion :
Motion with respect to quality - Motion in respect of Quality let us call alteration, a generaldesignation
that is used to include both contraries: and by Quality I donot here mean a property of substance (in that
sense that which constitutesa specific distinction is a quality) but a passive quality in virtue ofwhich a
thing is said to be acted on or to be incapable of being actedon.
Motion with respect to quantity -Motion in respect of Quantity has no name that includes both
contraries,but it is called increase or decrease according as one or the other isdesignated: that is to say
motion in the direction of complete magnitudeis increase, motion in the contrary direction is decrease.
Motion with respect to place -Motion in respectof Place has no name either general or particular: but we
may designateit by the general name of locomotion, though strictly the term 'locomotion'is applicable to
things that change their place only when they have notthe power to come to a stand, and to things that
do not move themselveslocally.
Explain what is meant by diurnal motion, annual motion, precession of the equinoxes.Diurnal Motion :
Diurnal motion is the daily motion of stars and other celestial bodies across the sky. This motion is due to
the Earth's rotation from west to east, which causes celestial bodies to have an apparent motion from east
to west.

Motion with respect to quantity -Moton in respecT of QuantTy has no name ThaT includesboTh
conTraries,buT iT is called increase or decrease according as one or The oTher isdesignaTed:ThaT is To
say moton in The directon of compleTe magniTudeis increase, moton in The conTrarydirecton is
decrease.Motion with respect to place -Moton in respecTof Place has no name eiTher general orpartcular:
buT we may designaTeiT by The general name of locomoton, Though sTricTly The Term'locomoton'is
applicable To Things ThaT change Their place only when They have noTThe power Tocome To a sTand,
and To Things ThaT do noT move Themselveslocally.Explain what is meant by diurnal motion, annual
motion, precession of the equinoxes.Diurnal Motion : Diurnal motion is the daily motion of stars and
other celestial bodiesacross the sky. This motion is due to the Earth's rotation from west to east, which
causescelestial bodies to have an apparent motion from east to west.
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Lesson 6.2 Diurnal Motion, Annual Motion, and Precession of

the Equinoxes
MARCH 11, 2018 ∙ PUBLIC

The Earth in the Universe, Physical Science

Objective

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain diurnal motion, annual motion, and
precession of the equinoxes.

When you look at the night sky, you will notice that stars appear to be attached to an imaginary
spherical surface. This spherical surface is known as the celestial sphere whose center is the
Earth.
How do celestial bodies move in the celestial sphere?

Learn about it!

The movement of different celestial bodies can be described as diurnal motion, annual motion,
and precession of the equinoxes.

Diurnal Motion

Diurnal motion is the apparent daily revolution of the celestial sphere around the celestial poles
as a direct effect of the Earth’s rotation on its axis. In other words, it refers to the apparent
movement of stars and other celestial bodies around Earth. The circular path that the celestial
bodies take to complete the diurnal motion is called diurnal circle.

The apparent motion of celestial bodies viewed from Earth is east to west. If you observe the
night sky, the stars seem to move in a counter-clockwise direction (from east to west) with
respect to Polaris or North Star. Similarly, the apparent daily motion of the sun, which is the
closest star to Earth, is counter-clockwise. You can observe that the sun rises in the east and sets
in the west.

Some stars, called circumpolar stars, never seem to go away from the horizon, or never set or
rise. The closer you get to the poles, the larger the circle of circumpolar stars is. On the other
hand, the nearer you get to the equator, the circle of circumpolar stars decreases until it
vanishes at the celestial poles.

Learn about it!

Annual Motion

Annual motion is the apparent yearly movement of the stars as observed from Earth as a direct
effect of the Earth’s revolution around the sun.

The sun revolves 360 degrees a year around a path on the celestial sphere called the ecliptic.
The sun moves eastward with respect to the stars on the celestial sphere. It can be observed that
the sun’s altitude changes with season. Its altitude is at maximum during summer solstice and at
minimum during winter solstice. Also, sunrise and sunset points in the horizon changes with
season. The sun rises north of east in the summer, and south of east in the winter.
 As the sun revolves around the ecliptic, different stars and constellations appear on the horizon
throughout the year. These are known as the constellations of the Zodiac.

Learn about it!

Precession of the Equinoxes

As the sun revolves around the ecliptic, it intersects the celestial equator twice during a year at
two points. These points are called the equinoxes: vernal and autumnal. During an equinox, the
length of daytime is almost equal to the length of nighttime. Vernal or spring equinox happens
every March 20 while autumnal equinox occurs every September 22. The gravitational force of
the sun and the moon on Earth causes the cyclic precession or “wobbling” of the Earth’s axis of
rotation.

Precession of the equinoxes is the apparent motion of the equinoxes along the ecliptic as Earth
‘wobbles,’ and this motion happens about every 26 000 years. At present, Earth’s North Pole
points to Polaris. However, it will eventually point to another star, Vega, because of precession.

Explore!

Different stars and constellations appear on the horizon throughout the year. These are known
as the constellations of the Zodiac. Research what these constellations of the Zodiac are and how
they move as the Earth wobbles.

What do you think?

How did astronomers know that the Earth is spherical?

Key Points

 Diurnal motion is the apparent daily motion of the stars, including the Sun as seen
from the Earth due to the Earth’s rotation.

 Annual motion is the apparent yearly motion of the stars, including the Sun as seen
from the Earth due to the Earth’s revolution around the Sun.

 Precession of the equinoxes is the apparent motion of the equinoxes along the
ecliptic as the Earth wobbles.
 Test Question

1. Which of the following refers to the surface where stars appear to be attached?

A. ecliptic

B. celestial poles

C. celestial sphere

D. diurnal circle

2. Which of the following is the path that the stars take in completing diurnal motion?

 A. celestial sphere

 B. ecliptic

 C. diurnal circle

 D. celestial poles

3. Which of the following is the path taken by the sun as it moves around the celestial sphere?

 A. diurnal circle

 B. celestial sphere

 C. celestial poles

 D. ecliptic

4. Which of the following is a consequence of the Earth’s rotation around its axis?

 A. The constellations change their position with season.

 B. The equinoxes wobble.

 C. The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.

 D. The North Star changes from Polaris to Vega.

5. What happens to the circle of circumpolar stars as you get closer to the poles?

 A. increases
 B. decreases

 C. remains the same

 D. changes position

6. During which time is the sun’s altitude at its maximum?

 A. summer solstice

 B. winter solstice

 C. autumnal equinox

 D. vernal equinox

7. Which of the following can be observed due to the Earth’s revolution around the Sun?

 I. The sun’s altitude changes with season.

 II. Circumpolar stars can be observed.

 III. The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.

 IV. Different constellations appear in the horizon throughout the year.

 A. I and II

 B. II and III

 C. II and IV

 D. I and IV

8. Which of the following can be observed when the sun intersects the celestial equator as it
revolves around the ecliptic?

 A. The length of daytime is greater than the length of night time.

 B. The length of daytime is lesser than the length of night time.

 C. Solar flares are more frequent.

 D. The length of daytime is equal to the length of night time.

 9. Which of the following is the driving force that causes the Earth’s axis of rotation to wobble?

 A. gravitational force of the Sun and moon

 B. diurnal motion

 C. annual motion

 D. precession

Categorize the following observations or phenomena whether they are

consequences of diurnal motion, annual motion, or precession of the equinoxes.

10. Revolution of the stars around the celestial poles. The observation of stars that never seem to
rise or set.

 A. Diurnal Motion

 B. Annual Motion

 C. Precession of the Equinoxes

11. The sun’s sunrise and sunset points in the horizon changes with season.

 A. Diurnal Motion

 B. Precession of the Equinoxes

 C. Annual Motion

12. Autumnal and vernal points change every about 26 000 years.

 A. Diurnal Motion

 B. Precession of the Equinoxes

 C. Annual Motion

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Precession, Diurnal Motion and Annual Motion

Earth is not a perfect

sphere. It bulges a bit in the equator because of the pull of the moon and the
sun. As a result, Earth’s axis changes as its direction over a period of time.
Precession is a change in the orientation of the rotational axis of a rotating
body. Earth requires 26 000 years to complete one cycle of precession. Earth’s
precession was historically called precession of the equinoxes because of the
position of the equinoxes was slowly and gradually changing with respect to
some background stars. Hipparchus of Nicaea (known today as Turkey) was
credited for having discovered the precession of equinoxes. He is said to have
made a catalogue of stars in the sky noting their exact positions with their
latitudes and longitudes. He compared their positions with those measured by
Timocharis some 150 years ago. Hipparchus noted that there was a two-degree
shift in the positions of stars. Later on, Earth’s precession due to the
gravitational pull of the moon and the sun was called lunisolar precession.

It takes 24 hours for Earth to rotate about

its axis from west to east. Because of this, we view objects in the sky as if
they are the ones moving but in the opposite direction – from east to west. The
apparent daily motion of stars and other celestial bodies across the sky caused
by Earth’s rotation about its axis is termed as diurnal motion. Diurnal motion
is responsible for the daily rising and setting of the sun and the stars. Earth also revolves around the sun
once a
year. As a result, the sun also apparently changes position in the celestial
sphere, moving each day about one degree to the east relative to the stars.
This apparent motion of the sun caused by Earth’s revolution around it is
termed as annual motion. Annual motion accounts for the visibility of a zodiacal
constellation at a specific time of the year. Along with the tilt of Earth’s
axis, it is also responsible for our seasons. These diurnal and annual motions
are caused by our changing point of view as Earth rotates about its axis and
revolves around its orbit.

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If you're not familiar with the flat Earth movement, we're sorry to be the ones to deliver the
news: There's a small, vocal group of people who wholeheartedly believe that the Earth is
flat. Any satellite photos of our orb-shaped planet are deemed a "round Earth conspiracy"
orchestrated by the government, and the fact that the horizon doesn't appear to curve is used
as evidence of their claims. The strangest part? We've known the Earth was round for 2,000
years, and we didn't need satellites to find out.

Because the World Is Round

To be fair, the Greeks assumed the Earth was round before they had very good evidence. The
philosopher and mathematician Pythagoras is credited as the first to propose a spherical
Earth back in 500 B.C., though he did so on aesthetic grounds: He believed the sphere was
the most perfect shape. (We should note that Pythagoras was probably just the first Western
thinker to propose this — it's reasonable to think that seafaring societies like those of
the ancient Polynesians likely had some idea before that). A century later, the philosopher
Plato suggested the same thing, which boosted the idea's popularity.
Bernardo Strozzi / Wikimedia Commons

But when it comes to proving the Earth is round, Aristotle was the first Greek philosopher to
put his money where his mouth was. When writing his book "On the Heavens" in 350 B.C.,
he laid out several pieces of evidence for the Earth having a spherical shape. For one thing,
he pointed out, you can see the shadow of the Earth on the moon during a lunar eclipse —
and since that shadow is always round regardless of where the Earth is in its rotation, you
know the Earth is round.

For another thing, the stars are in different positions depending on where you are on Earth:
There were stars in Egypt that couldn't be seen in Cyprus 600 miles (1,000 kilometers) away.
That proved, he wrote, "not only that the earth is circular in shape, but also that it is a sphere
of no great size: for otherwise the effect of so slight a change of place would not be quickly
apparent."

Later, another scholar did Aristotle one better: He didn't just prove the Earth was a sphere; he
actually measured its circumference. And he did it with only the sun and a stick.

A Man and His Stick

Eratosthenes was one of the most prominent scholars of his time, dabbling in almost all of
the sciences. In 240 B.C., he was appointed chief librarian of the library of Alexandria — a
universal reference center unparalleled in size that was pretty much the Google of its day.
One of his many ambitions was to make a map of the entire world, and to do that,
Eratosthenes knew he'd need to determine the size of the Earth.

He had heard stories about a well in the city of Syene that had a peculiar characteristic. At
noon on the summer solstice when the sun is directly overhead, sunlight illuminated the
entire bottom of the well without casting any shadows. To check if the same thing would
happen in Alexandria, Eratosthenes placed a stick upright in the ground at noon on the
summer solstice. The sun did cast a shadow, at an angle of 7.2 degrees.

Eratosthenes realized that he could just do some simple calculations with that measurement
and easily find the circumference of the Earth; he'd just need to know the distance between
Syene and Alexandria. Distance measurements were rough at the time, but he hired some
bematists — professional walkers, basically, who could precisely measure their steps — and
found that the distance between the cities was about 5,000 stadia. That's roughly between 500
and 600 miles (800 and 900 kilometers), depending on which version of that unit of
measurement scholars think he used.

With that, he could do a quick back-of-the-scroll calculation. Since the sun hit straight-on in
Syene and at a 7.2-degree angle in Alexandria, the distance between them should be a 7.2-
degree chunk of the 360-degree sphere that is the Earth. He also knew that that 7.2-degree
chunk was roughly 500 miles long. It turns out that 7.2 is to 360 what 500 is to 25,000 —
and that was his answer. The Earth was 25,000 miles (40,000 kilometers) around.
So, was Eratosthenes right? Even though some of his assumptions were faulty and his
distances were rough, he was only off by about 100 miles. Today, we know that the Earth
is 24,901 miles (40,075 kilometers) around at its equator, a little bit less if you measure pole-
to-pole. Not bad for a guy and his stick.

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email and subscribe to the Curiosity Daily podcast.

Read the whole story in "Circumference: Eratosthenes and the Ancient Quest to Measure
the Globe" by Nicholas Nicastro. We handpick reading recommendations we think you may
like. If you choose to make a purchase, Curiosity will get a share of the sale.

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In the mid-20th century, we began launching satellites into space that would help us
determine the exact circumference of the Earth: 40,030 km. But over 2000 years earlier, a
man in Ancient Greece came up with nearly the exact same figure using just a stick and his
brain. Following is a transcript of the video.
How an ancient Greek mathematician calculated the Earth's circumference. In the mid-
20th century, we began launching satellites into space that would help us determine the
exact circumference of the Earth, 40,030 km.

But over 2,000 years earlier in ancient Greece, a man arrived at nearly that exact same
figure by putting a stick in the ground. That man was Eratosthenes. A Greek
mathematician and the head of the library at Alexandria.

TOP ARTICLES1/5READ MOREHeroin addict jailed for accidentally starting£5.6m fire

at Nottingham train station
Eratosthenes had heard that in Syene, a city south of Alexandria, no vertical shadows
were cast at noon on the summer solstice. The sun was directly overhead. He wondered if
this were also true in Alexandria.

So, on June 21 he planted a stick directly in the ground and waited to see if a shadow
would be cast at noon. It turns out there was one. And it measured about 7 degrees.

Now, if the sun's rays are coming in at the same angle at the same time of day, and a stick
in Alexandria is casting a shadow while a stick in Syene is not, it must mean that the
Earth's surface is curved. And Eratosthenes probably already knew that.

The idea of a spherical Earth was floated around by Pythagoras around 500 BC and
validated by Aristotle a couple centuries later. If the Earth really was a sphere,
Eratosthenes could use his observations to estimate the circumference of the entire planet.

Since the difference in shadow length is 7 degrees in Alexandria and Syene, that means
the two cities are 7 degrees apart on Earth's 360-degrees surface. Eratosthenes hired a
man to pace the distance between the two cities and learned they were 5,000 stadia apart,
which is about 800 kilometres.

He could then use simple proportions to find the Earth's circumference — 7.2 degrees is
1/50 of 360 degrees, so 800 times 50 equals 40,000 kilometers. And just like that, a man
2200 years ago found the circumference of our entire planet with just a stick and his
brain.

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Eudoxos was the first to “save the appearances” using a series of 27
concentric spheres on which the sun, the moon, and the planets moved in perfect
circular motion. The breakdown of the 27 spheres is as follows: one sphere for
fixed stars, three planets for the sun, three spheres for the moon, and four
spheres for each of five known planets at the time which were Jupiter, Saturn,
Mars, Venus, and Mercury.

Around 140 AD, Ptolemy devised a more complex epicycle model. He defined
a point on the other side of the center of the deferent and called this as
equant. The equant and the center of the earth are equidistant from the center
of the deferent. When viewed at the equant, the epicycle orbited Earth at a
constant rate. Each planet has its own epicycle and deferent.

Aristarchus in 300 BCE proposed the first heliocentric model of the

universe by considering this “central fire” as the sun. He also placed the
other known planets at that time based on their distances from the sun.
However, Aristarchus’s theory did not last because of the general satisfaction
for the Ptolemaic model.

Nicholas Copernicus asserted that Earth spins on its axis every day and
revolves around the sun just like the other planets. Only the moon orbits
Earth. He still maintained the concept of uniform circular motion and the epicycles
of Ptolemy. He gave reasonable explanations for the variation of brightness of
planets and their retrograde motions. However, his model had two major
scientific problems: (1) the absence of stellar parallax and (2) the lack of
perceived motion of Earth. Stellar parallax is the apparent displacement of a
star because of a change in the observer’s point of view. The Copernican Model
was not initially accepted because of its inconsistencies with Aristotelian
mechanics and ability to explain stellar parallax.

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The Models of the Universe: Eudoxus, Aristotle, Aristarchus, Ptolemy,
and Copernicus

Eudoxus’ Model

Eudoxus of Cnidus (born c. 395 – 390 B.C.), a Greek astronomer and mathematician, was the
first to propose a model of the universe based on geometry. His model composed of 27
concentric spheres with Earth as the center. The Sun, the Moon, the planets, and the fixed stars
have spheres. Each sphere is attached to a larger sphere through a pole. The rotation of the
spheres on their poles once every 24 hours accounts for the daily rotation of the heavens. It is
unclear whether Eudoxus regarded these spheres as physical entities or just mathematical
constructions.
Aristotle’s Model

Aristotle (born c. 384 B.C.), a Greek philosopher and astronomer, considered the model
proposed by Eudoxus, but he considered these spheres as physical entities. He thought that
these spheres were filled with the divine and eternal “ether” that caused the spheres to move. He
introduced the Prime Mover, as the cause of the movement of the spheres. His model
composed of 56 spheres that guided the motion of the Sun, the Moon, and five known planets.
As the spheres move, they maintained the same distance from the Earth. Also, they moved at
constant speeds.

Aristarchus’ Model

Aristarchus of Samos (born c. 310 B.C.), a Greek astronomer and mathematician, was the first to
hypothesize that the Sun is the center of the universe. He visualized that the Moon orbits around
a spherical Earth which then revolves around the Sun. He believed that the stars are very far
away from the Earth as evidenced by the absence of stellar parallax – that is, the stars do not
change positions relative to each other as the Earth revolves around the Sun.

Through geometrical models and mathematical computations, he concluded that the Sun is 20
times farther from the Earth than the Moon is to the Earth; the Earth is about three times larger
than the Moon; and the Sun is 20 times larger than the Moon. He also reasoned out that smaller
spheres orbit around larger ones. Thus, the Moon orbits around the Earth, and the Earth orbits
around the Sun.

Ptolemy’s Model

The Sun, Moon, stars, and planets were believed to move in a uniform circular motion – the
“perfect” motion assigned to celestial bodies by the ancient Greeks. However, observations
showed otherwise. The paths of the celestial bodies are not circular, and they vary in distances.
Babylonians even showed that some planets exhibit a retrograde motion – a motion opposite to
that of other planets.

To explain “imperfect motions” of heavenly bodies, Claudius Ptolemy(born c. 90 A.D.), a

Greco-Egyptian astronomer and mathematician, proposed his own geocentric (Earth-centered)
model of the universe. He accounted for the apparent motions of the planets around the Earth
by assuming that each planet moved around a sphere called an epicycle. The center of the
epicycle then moved on a larger sphere called a deferent.
 The Ptolemaic System

1. A planet moves counter-clockwise around the epicycle.

2. The epicycle’s center also moves counter-clockwise around the center of the deferent
(indicated by the + sign in the image).

3. The center of the epicycle moves around the equant with a uniform speed.

4. The Earth is not exactly at the center of the deferent, or it is eccentric (off the center).
This explains why, as observed from the Earth, the Sun or a planet moves slowest when it is
farthest from the Earth and moves fastest when it is nearest the Earth.

5. The motion of the planet can be described by points 1-7 in the figure below. At point 4,
the planet moves in a retrograde (clockwise) motion. The planet is brightest at this point
because it is closest to the Earth.

Copernicus’ Model

In 1543, Nicolaus Copernicus, a Renaissance mathematician and astronomer born in Poland,

ended the geocentric astronomy era by publishing his work On the Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres wherein he explained that the Sun, not the Earth, is the center of the universe.

In his work, he reiterated the ancient Greek concept that the motion of spherical heavenly
bodies is uniform, eternal, and circular. He then reasoned that because Earth is spherical, then
its motion is circular. He added that the Earth has three different motions: daily rotation on its
axis, yearly motion around the Sun, and the precession, or change in orientation, of its axis
every 26 000 years.

He also proposed that the fixed stars are immovable. Their apparent movement is a
consequence of the Earth’s rotation. These stars are at immeasurable distances from the Earth,
so there is no observable parallax.

By placing the Sun at the center of the universe and the orbits of Mercury and Venus in between
the Sun and the Earth, Copernicus’ model was able to account for the changes in the
appearances of these planets and their retrograde motions. The need for epicycles in explaining
motions was eliminated.

Key Points
 Eudoxus’, Aristotle’s, and Ptolemy’s models have the Earth as the center of the universe
while Aristarchus’ and Copernicus’ models have the Sun as the center.
 Eudoxus’ model has 27 concentric spheres for the Sun, Moon, planets, and the stars
whose common center is the Earth.

 Aristotle’s model of the universe is composed of 56 spheres guiding the motion of Sun,
Moon and the five known planets.
 Aristarchus said that smaller celestial bodies must orbit the larger ones and since the
Sun is much larger than the Earth, then the Earth must orbit around the Sun.

 Ptolemaic model introduced the concepts of epicycle, deferent, and equant to explain the
observed “imperfect” motions of the planets.

 Copernicus’ model recognized that the Earth rotates on its axis, revolves around the Sun,
and undergoes precession.

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Astronomical Phenomena Known to Astronomers before the Advent
of Telescopes

Which planets are easily seen in the sky without the aid of telescopes?

Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn are easily seen in the sky without the aid of
telescopes. These planets can be easily confused with stars and are only seen at specific times of
the day. The best time to look for these planets would be before sunrise and after sunset.

Even before the invention of the telescope, ancient people have already observed different
astronomical phenomena. The most observable objects in the sky are the sun and moon.

Babylonian and Egyptian civilizations used a primitive version of a sundial, called gnomon, in
systematically observing the motion of the sun. By looking at the shadows that the gnomon
casts, they were able to observe that the sun rises in the eastern part of the sky, reaches its
highest point in midday, and sets in the western part of the sky.

Also, they recorded that the points where the sun rises and sets on the horizon varies over a year
and these variations happen periodically. They observed that these variations are related to
weather and so concluded that seasonal changes in climate happen during a course of one year.

Phases of the Moon

Ancient people have observed that the moon changes its path and its appearance within a period
of 29.5 days. They observed that the moon changes its appearance from thin semi-circular disk
to full circular disk. These phases of the moon is the basis of ancient calendars.

Lunar Eclipse

Besides their observation in the different phases of the moon, they also noticed that there are
times when the moon or part of it seemed to be covered by a shadow for a brief moment. A lunar
eclipse occurs when the Earth casts its shadow on the moon when the Earth is between the Sun
and the Moon.
A phenomenon such as this is known as a lunar eclipse wherein the moon changes into a dark or
blood red color.
 Solar Eclipse

Aside from lunar eclipse, the occurrence of a solar eclipse was also observed. Solar eclipse occurs
when the Moon is in between the Sun and the Earth and the moon partially or completely blocks
out the sun.

The Motion of the Stars

It was also observed that the stars appear to be attached to a celestial sphere that rotates around
an axis in one day. This axis intersects the celestial sphere at a point in the northern sky and is
presently close to the northern star, Polaris. Also, the constellations’ positions in the night sky
vary depending on the time of the year.

Visibility of Planets

Astronomers have discovered that Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn are planets
because they have noticed that the stars are in a fixed position with respect to each other (like
how constellations are always grouped). But there are very bright stars that change positions
periodically. These “stars” do not belong to any group of constellations in the sky. Thus, they are
called “wanderers” or planetes in Greek terms.

Key Points
Even before the advent of the telescopes, ancient astronomers were able to observe the:

 rising and setting of the Sun in the east and the west, respectively,
 point where the Sun rises and sets in the horizon varies in a year,

 phases of the moon,

 lunar eclipse,

 solar eclipse,

 daily and annual motion of the stars, and

 planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn.

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Astronomy & Telescopes: A
Brief History
Modern scopes have been a long time in the making. Astronomy is one of the oldest natural
sciences, its origins dating back before prehistoric times. It is the study and observation of
objects in the sky, such as planets, stars, comets, asteroids and nebulae. In the past, there
was not a distinction between astronomy and astrology (fortune telling by putting forward
the notion of a relationship between astronomical peculiarities, such as Halley’s Comet, and
human events); however, in the present era, astronomy and physics have become a closely
linked discipline, whereas the reputation of astrology has arguably declined in prestige due
to its inaccuracy and lack of reliability.

Since prehistoric times, humans have been

fascinated with the wonders of the night sky; the first documentation of astronomy was in
Babylon (modern day Iraq) in 1645 BC. Halley’s Comet is perhaps one of the best examples
of objects being observed throughout the length and breadth of history; it was first seen by
various ancient kingdoms such as the Chinese around 240 BCE and the Greeks between
467-466 BCE. Its sighting often preceded great events, such as the Norman Conquest of
Britain in 1066, and can be clearly seen in the Bayeux Tapestry. It was later found in 1758-
1759 by Edward Halley, to which the comet is now named after. Another classic example of
early astronomy is the famous stone structure of Stonehenge, essentially a giant ‘machine’
which calculated the position of the Sun and planets in the Solar System in relation to each
other, as well as predicting the times of eclipses.
 Finally, the modern-day Gregorian calendar was
based upon the solar calendar which measured the duration of one complete orbit of planet
Earth around the Sun. Previous calendars, such as the Chinese calendar, relied on the
complete orbit of the Moon around Earth, which was approximately 30 days. When ancient
kingdoms and empires rose up, they worshipped deities who represented the sky, the
universe or the cosmos. Such examples include Nut of Ancient Egypt, who ruled the skies
and heavens and Chang’e, the Chinese deity of the moon. The mysteries of what was out
there and the desire to discover more about the velvety night sky and what it held
continued into the middle ages.
With the tide of the Renaissance period in the 15th Century came ‘modern’ forms of
astronomy with never before seen technology like the telescope. Nicolaus Copernicus
changed the dominant Western way of viewing the Earth in relation to the Sun by proving
that the Earth moved around the Sun, not the other way round; he rewrote the heliocentric
theory which argues that the Earth and other planets revolve round the Sun. The art of
astronomy became a fundamental aspect of European and Chinese exchanges throughout
the 17th Century where Western ways of astronomy slowly seeped into China through Jesuit
missionaries, where it was also undergoing major discovery and change itself. However, it
was not until the 19th Century when the Copernicus philosophy became mainstream thinking
in China. In comparison, the heliocentric principle was fully accepted in Japan when Jesuits
visited the islands in the 17th Century. Telescopes were received with much appraise and
enthusiasm at the royal courts in Beijing.
 The telescope, a fundamental tool in being able to purvey the
skies, was invented in the 17 Century in the Netherlands, but Galileo Galilei is often
th

associated and credited, being the first pioneer in astronomy as well as the first person to
use a telescope in 1609. He is also the namesake of the Galilean moons, four satellites
located near Jupiter called Io, Ganymede, Europa and Callisto. Isaac Newton is also credited
within the annals of astronomical history as the pioneer of the Law of universal gravitation
from that famous incident when he observed an apple fall, and deduced the Moon was
drawn towards the Earth because of its gravitational pull. Newton is also credited with
making the first reflecting telescope which used either single or a number of reflected
mirrors. Throughout the 18thand 19th centuries, more and more was being discovered, like
the gas giant planet Uranus in 1781 by Sir William Herschel and the asteroid belt between
Mars and Jupiter in 1801.
The rise of technology in the 20th century brought this intricate art to the general public, and
allowed an unprecedented number of people to purchase telescopes investigate the skyline
and pursue their fantasies of never-ending space. Physical cosmology has also taken great
strides and advances in its works; research into redshift (electromagnetic radiation
wavelength increase) as well as microwave radiation have been shown to prove the
existence of the Big Bang. And in 1990, the Hubble telescope was the first telescope to be
launched into space, taking never seen before images of far-flung planets, nebulae and
solar systems with picture-perfect clarity. The advent of modern technology has also
allowed further discoveries of planets not only in our Solar System, but in others too. It has
also led to an unprecedented number of journals and further research- around 9000
journals have been published thanks to the ground-breaking work that the telescope has
been able to conduct. The Hubble Telescope has also been fundamental in measuring the
distances to ‘Cepheid’ stars; prior to the launch, this was often measured with 50%
inaccuracy, but now there is around ten per cent leeway. Black holes have also been proven
to exist, thanks to the photographs sent by the telescope. Furthermore, the telescope was
used to discover a new moon which orbits Pluto (now not considered a planet, but rather a
large icy object in the Kuiper Belt beyond Neptune). It is hoped with the launch of the James
Webb Space Telescope in 2018 that much older galaxies will be seen with its ability to
penetrate dust, and to discover more and more distant objects like quasars and galaxy
clusters. It will orbit the Earth, much in the same manner as the Hubble Space Telescope.
CategoriesAstronomy
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Galileo’s Astronomical Discoveries
Galileo Galilei, a Renaissance Italian astronomer, used the telescope to observe
the cosmos and his discoveries provided evidence to prove or disprove existing
Greek beliefs and models of the universe

Galileo’s Astronomical Discoveries and Observations

The Ptolemaic Model of the Universe proposed by a Greco-Egyptian

astronomer Claudius Ptolemy posed that the Earth is stationary and is the center
of the universe and that the stars, planets, and the Sun revolve around it.
Phases of Venus

The Ptolemaic model believed that the Earth was stationary and all the others
including the stars, planets, and the Sun are revolving around it.

Galileo observed that the brightest planet, Venus, as seen from Earth, behaved
similarly like the Moon. He noticed that Venus has a systematic change in shadows
and lighting, just like the lunar phases.

Galileo observed that Venus is in its “new phase” when it is in between the Earth and
the Sun and waxes as it moves in its orbit. During this phase, we cannot see Venus
because no light from the Sun is reflected towards us. Venus is in its “full phase”
when the Sun is in between Venus and Earth. It is still not visible from Earth because
the Sun is blocking it. Through these observations, Galileo disproved that the other
planets revolve around the Earth.

Moons of Jupiter

Prior to the use of telescopes, the satellites or moons of Jupiter were unknown.
When Galileo observed Jupiter, he noticed that there were planet-like bodies close to
it. He first noted that there were four bodies moving around Jupiter. After some
time, one of them disappeared and “hid” behind Jupiter. He later named the bodies
or satellites as Io, Callisto, Ganymede, and Europa.

The discovery of the moons of Jupiter disproved Ptolemaic Model by showing that
not everything revolves around the Earth.
Supernovas

Before Galileo concretized the concept of supernovas, scientists have already

observed new stars appearing in the sky. These stars are called stellar nova or new
stars. In 1604, Johannes Kepler, a German astronomer, observed a nova in
Prague. This nova was called a supernova because the nova exuded an enormous
amount of light in just a short period indicating that it was exploding. It was also
labeled as Kepler’s nova.

At the time, Kepler was working as a mathematician at Imperial court and as Galileo
was also a mathematician, they were able to compare their data of their observations
of the said nova all over Europe. They measured the parallax of the nova from
different locations.
A parallax is an angle that can be measured when an observer looks at the same
object from different locations. The greater the distance between the two locations,
the greater the parallax and the closer the object is to the observer, the greater the
parallax. Galileo and Kepler’s sets of data showed that there was no measurable
parallax for the Nova and the fixed stars which means that they were at
immeasurable distances from the Earth even farther than the moon. These
observations were able to show that the sky is changing.
Sizes of the Stars

Ancient Greek philosophers, led by Aristotle, believed that the sky was perfect and
unchanging. Also, the Ptolemaic model states that since everything revolves around
the Earth, the stars’ distance from the Earth would not change and they should be
located at specific positions as seen from the Earth.

Given that the Earth is moving, the stars should appear to vary in sizes. However,
Galileo noticed that “fixed stars” did not change in size when observed with the
naked eye and observed through a telescope. He then postulated that if the stars
have significant and immeasurable distances from the Earth, then their size as
observed from the Earth should remain constant. He was able to prove this through
his observations of the supernova in 1604.

Lunar Craters

Ancient Greeks assumed that the moon had a smooth surface.

Galileo discovered that the surface of the moon was uneven and rough. He also
observed that it had high points (mountains and hills) and low points (trenches and
ditches).
Sunspots

Greek philosophers have expressed the Sun as a source of light, but no other
information about it is available at the time.

Observers back then just thought that the spots found on the Sun are planets. Galileo
clarified this idea. He observed the movement of the sunspots and noticed that one
spot took approximately 14 days to travel from one side to the other while
maintaining its constant speed. From these observations, he was able to deduce that
the Sun also rotates on an axis.

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Johannes Kepler: The
Laws of Planetary Motion

In the interplay between quantitative observation and theoretical construction

that characterizes the development of modern science, we have seen that Brahe
was the master of the first but was deficient in the second. The next great
development in the history of astronomy was the theoretical intuition of
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630), a German who went to Prague to become Brahe's
assistant.
Brahe's Data and Kepler
Kepler and Brahe did not get along well. Brahe apparently
mistrusted Kepler, fearing that his bright young assistant might
eclipse him as the premiere astonomer of his day. He therefore let
Kepler see only part of his voluminous data.

He set Kepler the task of understanding the orbit of the planet

Mars, which was particularly troublesome. It is believed that part of the
motivation for giving the Mars problem to Kepler was that it was difficult, and
Brahe hoped it would occupy Kepler while Brahe worked on his theory of the
Solar System. In a supreme irony, it was precisely the Martian data that allowed
Kepler to formulate the correct laws of planetary motion, thus eventually
achieving a place in the development of astronomy far surpassing that of Brahe.

Kepler and the Elliptical Orbits

Unlike Brahe, Kepler believed firmly in the Copernican system. In retrospect, the
reason that the orbit of Mars was particularly difficult was that Copernicus had
correctly placed the Sun at the center of the Solar System, but had erred in
assuming the orbits of the planets to be circles. Thus, in the Copernican theory
epicycles were still required to explain the details of planetary motion.

It fell to Kepler to provide the final piece of the

puzzle: after a long struggle, in which he tried
mightily to avoid his eventual conclusion, Kepler
was forced finally to the realization that the orbits of
the planets were not the circles demanded by
Aristotle and assumed implicitly by Copernicus, but
were instead the "flattened circles" that geometers call ellipses (See adjacent
figure; the planetary orbits are only slightly elliptical and are not as flattened as
in this example.)

The irony noted above lies in the realization that the difficulties with the Martian
orbit derive precisely from the fact that the orbit of Mars was the most elliptical
of the planets for which Brahe had extensive data. Thus Brahe had unwittingly
given Kepler the very part of his data that would allow Kepler to eventually
formulate the correct theory of the Solar System and thereby to banish Brahe's
own theory!
Some Properties of Ellipses
Since the orbits of the planets are ellipses, let us review a few basic properties of
ellipses.

1. For an ellipse there are two points called foci

(singular: focus) such that the sum of the distances
to the foci from any point on the ellipse is a constant.
In terms of the diagram shown to the left, with "x"
marking the location of the foci, we have the
equation

a + b = constant

that defines the ellipse in terms of the distances a and b.

2. The amount of "flattening" of the ellipse is termed the eccentricity. Thus, in the
following figure the ellipses become more eccentric from left to right. A circle
may be viewed as a special case of an ellipse with zero eccentricity, while as the
ellipse becomes more flattened the eccentricity approaches one.

Mathematically it is defined as the distance between foci divided by the major

axis length. Thus, all ellipses have eccentricities lying between zero and one.

The orbits of the planets are ellipses but the eccentricities are so small for most of
the planets that they look circular at first glance. For most of the planets one must
measure the geometry carefully to determine that they are not circles, but ellipses
of small eccentricity. Pluto and Mercury are exceptions: their orbits are sufficiently
eccentric that they can be seen by inspection to not be circles.
 3. The long axis of the ellipse is called the major axis,
while the short axis is called the minor axis (adjacent
figure). Half of the major axis is termed a semimajor
axis. The length of a semimajor axis is often termed
the size of the ellipse. It can be shown that the
average separation of a planet from the Sun as it
goes around its elliptical orbit is equal to the length of the semimajor axis. Thus,
by the "radius" of a planet's orbit one usually means the length of the semimajor
axis. For a more detailed investigation of the properties of ellipses, see this ellipse
applet

The Laws of Planetary Motion

Kepler obtained Brahe's data after his death despite the attempts by Brahe's family
to keep the data from him in the hope of monetary gain. There is some evidence
that Kepler obtained the data by less than legal means; it is fortunate for the
development of modern astronomy that he was successful. Utilizing the
voluminous and precise data of Brahe, Kepler was eventually able to build on the
realization that the orbits of the planets were ellipses to formulate his Three Laws
of Planetary Motion.

Kepler's First Law:

I. The orbits of the planets are ellipses, with the Sun

at one focus of the ellipse.

Kepler's First Law is illustrated in the image shown above. The Sun is not at the
center of the ellipse, but is instead at one focus (generally there is nothing at the
other focus of the ellipse). The planet then follows the ellipse in its orbit, which
means that the Earth-Sun distance is constantly changing as the planet goes
around its orbit. For purpose of illustration we have shown the orbit as rather
eccentric; remember that the actual orbits are much less eccentric than this.

Kepler's Second Law:

II. The line joining the planet to the Sun sweeps out
equal areas in equal times as the planet travels
around the ellipse.

Kepler's second law is illustrated in the preceding figure. The line joining the Sun
and planet sweeps out equal areas in equal times, so the planet moves faster when
it is nearer the Sun. Thus, a planet executes elliptical motion with constantly
changing angular speed as it moves about its orbit. The point of nearest approach
of the planet to the Sun is termed perihelion; the point of greatest separation is
termed aphelion. Hence, by Kepler's second law, the planet moves fastest when it
is near perihelion and slowest when it is near aphelion.

Kepler's Third Law:

III. The ratio of the squares of the revolutionary

periods for two planets is equal to the ratio of the
 cubes of their semimajor axes:

In this equation P represents the period of revolution (orbit) for a planet around
the sun and R represents the length of its semimajor axis. The subscripts "1" and
"2" distinguish quantities for planet 1 and 2 respectively. The periods for the two
planets are assumed to be in the same time units and the lengths of the
semimajor axes for the two planets are assumed to be in the same distance units.

Kepler's Third Law implies that the period for a planet to orbit the Sun increases
rapidly with the radius of its orbit. Thus, we find that Mercury, the innermost
planet, takes only 88 days to orbit the Sun but the outermost planet (Pluto)
requires 248 years to do the same.

Here is a java applet allowing you to investigate Kepler's Laws, and Here is
an animation illustrating the actual relative periods of the inner planets.

Calculations Using Kepler's Third Law

A convenient unit of measurement for periods is in Earth years, and a convenient
unit of measurement for distances is the average separation of the Earth from the
Sun, which is termed an astronomical unit and is abbreviated as AU. If these units
are used in Kepler's 3rd Law, the denominators in the preceding equation are
numerically equal to unity and it may be written in the simple form

This equation may then be solved for the period P of the planet, given the length of
the semimajor axis,
 or for the length of the semimajor axis, given the period of the planet,

As an example of using Kepler's 3rd Law, let's calculate the "radius" of the orbit of
Mars (that is, the length of the semimajor axis of the orbit) from the orbital period.
The time for Mars to orbit the Sun is observed to be 1.88 Earth years. Thus, by
Kepler's 3rd Law the length of the semimajor axis for the Martian orbit is

which is exactly the measured average distance of Mars from the Sun. As a second
example, let us calculate the orbital period for Pluto, given that its observed
average separation from the Sun is 39.44 astronomical units. From Kepler's 3rd Law

which is indeed the observed orbital period for the planet Pluto.

Supplementary References
 Astronomy Picture of the Day Archive
 A Short Biography of Kepler

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Aristotle's Theory of Motion had 2 basic principles:-

1. No motion without a mover in contact with moving body.

2. Distinction between: (a) Natural motion: mover is internal to moving body (b) Forced motion: mover is
external to moving body

Aristotle believed that the initial motive force transfers to the medium initially surrounding the object a
"power" to act as a motive force. and the Medium then forces the object into a new region, which is
then imparted with the "power" to act.
Aristotle's concept of different types of motion was destroyed when he described the projectile motion
as a combination of horizontal and vertical motion and in the same terms and with the same
relationships.

An Aristotelian proposal that heavier objects fall at the same rate was proved false by the only plausible
Galilean explanation that all objects fall at the same rate. Galileo correctly measured motion in two
independent directions (horizontal and vertical) and deduced that the “rate of fall” is better measured in
terms of downward acceleration.

According to Galileo, a projectile which is carried by a uniform horizontal motion compounded with a
naturally accelerated vertical motion describes a path which is a semi-parabola.

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jastine102289p2qpp5 Ambitious

Vertical Motion & Horizontal Motion

Aristotle's Theory of Motion
Forced Motion is non-natural ( result in removal ob object from its
natural place. Is influenced by two factors: motive
force (F), and resistance of medium ( R)
Aristotle's "Law of Motion" V is proportional to F/R
Galileo's Theory of Motion
Distance traversed is proportional to time of travel because Uniform
Motion is undetectable under certain conditions.

Projectile Motion:
Aristotle: What maintains motion of projectile after it's left the thrower's
hand is that initial motive force transfers to the medium
initially surrounding the object a "power" to act as a motive
force. Medium then forces object into new region, which is
then imparted with the "power" to act.
Galileo: A projectile which is carried by a uniform horizontal motion
compounded with a naturally accelerated vertical motion
describes a path which is a semi-parabola.

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