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Complex-Analysis Madras University
Complex-Analysis Madras University
Complex-Analysis Madras University
COMPLEX ANALYSIS
Unit : I-V
TM
Unit-I SYLLABUS :
ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS
Complex valed functions
Limit and continuity
Differentiability
Necessary and sufficient condition for
differentiability
Analytic functions
Harmonic functions
Construction of analytic functions
Definition:
Let A and B be two non-empty subsets of ℂ. A
function f from A to B is a rule, which assigns each
z0 ∈ A to a unique element w0∈ B . The number w0
is called the value of f at z0 .
Example:
Let 𝑓𝑓: ℂ → ℂ by 𝑓𝑓(𝑧𝑧) = 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧
Theorems on Limits:
Theorem:
The limit of a function is unique. ie) If 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝑧𝑧→𝑧𝑧0 𝑓𝑓(𝑧𝑧) = 𝑙𝑙,
then 𝑙𝑙 should be unique.
Theorem:
Let 𝑓𝑓 and 𝑔𝑔 be defined in a neighborhood of 𝑧𝑧0 except
possibly at 𝑧𝑧0 . Given 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝑧𝑧→𝑧𝑧0 𝑓𝑓 (𝑧𝑧) = 𝑙𝑙 and
𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝑧𝑧→𝑧𝑧0 𝑔𝑔(𝑧𝑧) = 𝑚𝑚, then
(a) 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝑧𝑧→𝑧𝑧0 [𝑓𝑓(𝑧𝑧) + 𝑔𝑔(𝑧𝑧)] = 𝑙𝑙 + 𝑚𝑚
(b) 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝑧𝑧→𝑧𝑧0 [𝑓𝑓(𝑧𝑧)𝑔𝑔(𝑧𝑧)] = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝑓𝑓 (𝑧𝑧) 𝑙𝑙
(c) 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝑧𝑧→𝑧𝑧0 � �= if 𝑚𝑚 ≠ 0.
𝑔𝑔(𝑧𝑧) 𝑚𝑚
Continuity of a function:
Definition:
Suppose 𝒇𝒇(𝒛𝒛) is a function defined on 𝑫𝑫 and 𝒛𝒛𝟎𝟎 ∈ 𝑫𝑫.
If
i) lim𝑧𝑧→𝑧𝑧0 𝑓𝑓 (𝑧𝑧) exists and
ii) lim𝑧𝑧→𝑧𝑧0 𝑓𝑓 (𝑧𝑧) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑧𝑧0 )
Then 𝑓𝑓 is said to be continuous at 𝑧𝑧0 .
Definition:
A function 𝑓𝑓 is continuous on 𝐷𝐷 if it is continuous at
all points on 𝐷𝐷.
Example:
Let 𝑓𝑓: ℂ → ℂ defined by 𝑓𝑓 (𝑧𝑧) = 𝑧𝑧 2 .
Differentiability:
Definition:
A complex function f defined in a non-empty open
set D is said to be differentiable at z0 ∈ D if the limit
f (z) − f(z 0 )
lim
z → z0 z − z0
exists. It is denoted by f ′(z 0 ) .
Remarks:
• The function f is said to be differentiable on D
if it is differentiable at every point of D .
• The points at which f (z) is not differentiable are
called singular points of the function.
Analytic Functions:
Definition
Let 𝒇𝒇: 𝑫𝑫 → ℂ be a function. The function 𝒇𝒇 is said to
be analytic on 𝑫𝑫 if it is differentiable at every point in
𝑫𝑫.
Example
Let 𝒇𝒇: ℂ → ℂ by 𝒇𝒇(𝒛𝒛) = 𝒆𝒆𝒛𝒛 is an analytic function
Theorem
Suppose that 𝒇𝒇 is analytic in a domain 𝑫𝑫 and
𝒇𝒇′ (𝒛𝒛) = 𝟎𝟎 in 𝑫𝑫, then 𝒇𝒇 is constant.
Harmonic Function:
Definition:
Let 𝐷𝐷 ⊆ ℂ be a domain. A function 𝑢𝑢: 𝐷𝐷 → ℝ is said to
be harmonic function if
• 𝑢𝑢 has continuous second order partial derivatives
in 𝐷𝐷.
• 𝑢𝑢 satisfies the condition
𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 = 0 in 𝐷𝐷.
Example:
Every analytic function is harmonic.
Harmonic Functions:
Harmonic conjugate:
Definition:
If 𝑢𝑢 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 is analytic, then 𝑢𝑢 and 𝑣𝑣 are harmonic
functions and 𝑣𝑣 is said to be the harmonic conjugate
of 𝑢𝑢.
Remarks:
Suppose 𝑢𝑢 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 is analytic. Then 𝑣𝑣 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 need not be
analytic. For example 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑦𝑦 2 and 𝑣𝑣 = 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥..
If 𝑢𝑢 and 𝑣𝑣 are two harmonic functions, then 𝑢𝑢 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
need not be analytic. For example 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑦𝑦 2
and 𝑣𝑣 = 4𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥.
Construction of an analytic
function:
• Suppose a harmonic function 𝒖𝒖(𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚) is given, we
can find another harmonic function 𝒗𝒗(𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚) so that
𝒇𝒇(𝒛𝒛) = 𝒖𝒖 + 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 is analytic.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b5VUnapu-qs
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9QDFlyeQkwU
Unit-II Syllabus
Mappings:
Elementary Mappings
Linear fractional transformation
Exponential transformation
Transformation 𝑤𝑤 = 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝑧𝑧
Conformal mappings
Cross-ratio
Elementary Mappings:
Elementary mappings are mappings which
transforms a set of points of the complex plane
onto another set of points on the complex plane.
Elementary Mappings:
• Translation:
A map of the form 𝑧𝑧 ↦ 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑧𝑧 + 𝛼𝛼 , 𝛼𝛼 ∈ ℂ\{0}
If 𝛼𝛼 = 0, then it is an identity map.
Elementary Mappings
• Magnification:
A map of the form 𝑧𝑧 ↦ 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 , 𝑟𝑟 ∈ ℝ \{0}.
If 𝑟𝑟 = 0, it is a constant map.
If 𝑟𝑟 = 1, it is the identity map.
If 𝑟𝑟 > 1, it is a magnification.
If 0 < 𝑟𝑟 < 1, it is a contraction map.
• Rotation:
A map of the form 𝑧𝑧 ↦ 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑧𝑧, 𝜃𝜃 ∈ ℝ.
• Inversion:
1
A map of the form 𝑧𝑧 ↦ 𝑤𝑤 =
𝑧𝑧
Elementary Mappings:
Cross-ratio:
Definition:
If 𝑍𝑍1 , 𝑍𝑍2 , 𝑍𝑍3 , 𝑍𝑍4 are distinct points taken in the order
in which they have been given then the cross ratio of
these points is defined as
(𝑍𝑍 −𝑍𝑍2 )(𝑍𝑍3 −𝑍𝑍4 )
(𝑍𝑍1 , 𝑍𝑍2 , 𝑍𝑍3 , 𝑍𝑍4 ) = (𝑍𝑍1
2 −𝑍𝑍3 )(𝑍𝑍4 −𝑍𝑍1 )
Theorem:
Cross-ratio preserving property of bilinear
transformation.
Theorem:
Every bilinear transformation transforms circles or
straight lines into circles or straight lines.
Exponential Transformation:
Let 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 in Cartesian coordinates.
The image of 𝑧𝑧 under exponential transformation
𝑤𝑤 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 as 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 in polar coordinates.
Then
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥+𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 .
∴ 𝑅𝑅 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 , 𝜑𝜑 = 𝑦𝑦
i.e) |𝑤𝑤| = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 , 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑦𝑦
Exponential Transformation:
Transformations:
Conformal Mapping:
Definition:
• An analytic mapping 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑧𝑧) in a domain 𝐷𝐷 is
called conformal at 𝑧𝑧0 if it preserves the angle
(both in size and in sense).
• If 𝑓𝑓 is conformal at each point of 𝐷𝐷, then 𝑓𝑓 is
conformal in 𝐷𝐷.
Theorem:
Let 𝑓𝑓 be an analytic function on 𝐷𝐷 and 𝑧𝑧0 ∈ 𝐷𝐷 such
that 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑧𝑧0 ) ≠ 0. Then 𝑓𝑓 is conformal at 𝑧𝑧0 .
1+𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
3) Prove that 𝑤𝑤 = maps the line segment
𝑖𝑖+𝑧𝑧
joining -1 and 1 onto a semicircle in the 𝑤𝑤 plane.
Unit-III Syllabus
Complex Integration:
Curves
Complex integration
Contour integrals
Simply –connected domain
Cauchy’s fundamental theorem
Cauchy integral formula
Liouville’s theorem
Fundamental Theorem of algebra
Maximum modulus theorem
Curves:
Definitions:
Simple curve:
If a continuous curve which does not have a point of
intersection is called a simple curve. Simple curves
are called Jordan curves.
Simple closed curve:
A simple curve which does not have end points is
called a simple closed curve.
Positively-oriented simple closed curve:
A simple closed curve 𝐶𝐶 encloses a region. If the
region lies to the left of a person when he travels
along 𝐶𝐶, then the curve 𝐶𝐶 is called a positively-
oriented simple closed curve.
Complex Integration:
Definition:
Let 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑧𝑧) be a continuous function of the complex
variable 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖. Let 𝐶𝐶 be any simple curve of finite
length. Then the integral of 𝑓𝑓(𝑧𝑧) on 𝐶𝐶 is denoted by
∫ f ( z)dz
C
∫ f ( z)dz
C
=
∫ (udx − vdy) + i ∫ (vdx + udy)
C C
∫ af ( z )dz = a ∫ f ( z )dz
C C
C+D
∫ f ( z ) dz =
∫ f ( z )dz + ∫ f ( z )dz
C D
∫ f ( z )dz = − ∫ f ( z )dz
C −C
Contour Integrals:
Contour Integral:
An integral along a simple closed curve is called a
contour integral.
Remark:
If 𝑓𝑓 (𝑧𝑧) is analytic in a simply connected domain, then
the values of the integrals of 𝑓𝑓(𝑧𝑧) along all paths in
the region joining two fixed points are the same.
Theorem:
If 𝐶𝐶 is a positively-oriented circle whose radius is 𝑟𝑟
and centre is 𝑎𝑎, then
∫
1
dz = 2πi
z−a
C
∫ f ( z)dz = 0
C
Cauchy-Goursat theorem:
If 𝒇𝒇(𝒛𝒛) is a function analytic on and inside a simple
closed curve 𝑪𝑪, then
∫ f ( z)dz = 0
C
∫
1 f ( z)
f (a) = dz
2πi z−a
C
∫ ∫
1 f ( z) 1 f ( z)
f (a) = dz + dz
2πi z−a 2πi z−a
C C1
∫ ( z − a)
1 f ( z)
f '( a ) = dz
2π i 2
C
Remark:
The integral formulas for higher derivatives are
∫ ( z − a)
n! f ( z)
f n (a) = dz
2π i n +1
C
dz
∫ (z 2 + 1)(z 2 − 4)
3
1) where C is the circle |𝑧𝑧| = 2
2
2) Evaluate ∫ | z | dz around the square with vertices at
C
(0,0), (1,0), (1,1), (0,1).
Unit-IV Syllabus
Sequences and Series:
Convergence of sequences and series
Taylor’s series
Laurent’s series
Convergence of Sequences
and Series :
Sequence of complex numbers:
A complex sequence is a function 𝑓𝑓: ℕ → ℂ by 𝑛𝑛 ↦ 𝑧𝑧𝑛𝑛 .
It is denoted by {𝑧𝑧𝑛𝑛 }.
Convergence sequence:
A sequence {𝑧𝑧𝑛𝑛 } is said to converge to a point 𝑧𝑧0 , if
for every 𝜖𝜖 > 0 there exists an 𝑁𝑁(𝜖𝜖) ∈ ℕ such that
|𝑧𝑧𝑛𝑛 − 𝑧𝑧0 | < 𝜖𝜖, for all 𝑛𝑛 > 𝑁𝑁(𝜖𝜖).
It is denoted by 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝑛𝑛 →∞ 𝑧𝑧𝑛𝑛 = 𝑧𝑧0 .
Cauchy’s criterion:
The sequence {𝒛𝒛𝒏𝒏 } is convergent if and only if, for any
𝝐𝝐 > 0, there exists a positive integer 𝒏𝒏𝟎𝟎 , depending on
𝝐𝝐, such that
�𝑧𝑧𝑛𝑛+𝑝𝑝 − 𝑧𝑧𝑛𝑛 � < 𝜖𝜖, for all 𝑛𝑛 > 𝑛𝑛0 and 𝑝𝑝 > 0
Series:
Consider the infinite series of complex numbers
Series:
Remark:
If the sequence {𝑺𝑺𝒏𝒏 } converges to 𝑺𝑺, then 𝑺𝑺 is said to
be the sum of the series. It is given by
𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝑺𝑺𝒏𝒏 = 𝑺𝑺
𝒏𝒏→∞
Divergence of a series:
If {𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 } does not converge to a limit, then the series is
said to be divergent.
Theorem:
If the series ∑ 𝑧𝑧𝑛𝑛 is convergent, then
𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒛𝒛𝒏𝒏 = 𝟎𝟎
𝒏𝒏→∞
Series:
Remark:
The condition
𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒛𝒛𝒏𝒏 = 𝟎𝟎
𝒏𝒏→∞
Power Series:
Definition:
Consider a series of functions 0f the form
∑𝒏𝒏≥𝟎𝟎 𝒂𝒂𝒏𝒏 (𝒛𝒛 − 𝒛𝒛𝟎𝟎 )𝒏𝒏 , where 𝒛𝒛 is a complex variable and
𝒛𝒛𝟎𝟎 , 𝒂𝒂𝒏𝒏 , 𝒏𝒏 = 𝟎𝟎, 𝟏𝟏, 𝟐𝟐, … are fixed constants. Such a
series will be called a power series with center 𝒛𝒛𝟎𝟎 and
coefficients 𝒂𝒂𝒏𝒏.
Theorem:
The power series ∑𝒏𝒏≥𝟎𝟎 𝒂𝒂𝒏𝒏 𝑧𝑧 𝒏𝒏 converges absolutely in
the open disk |𝑧𝑧| < 𝑅𝑅 where 𝑅𝑅 is given by
1
1
𝑅𝑅 = , 𝑈𝑈 = lim𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑛𝑛 →∞ |𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 |
𝑛𝑛
𝑈𝑈
Power Series:
Remarks:
The series is absolutely convergent in |𝑧𝑧| < 𝑅𝑅 ,
then it is also convergent in |𝑧𝑧| < 𝑅𝑅.
When = ∞ , the series is absolutely convergent in
the entire plane.
Theorem:
The power series ∑𝒏𝒏≥𝟎𝟎 𝒂𝒂𝒏𝒏 𝒛𝒛𝒏𝒏 converges absolutely in
the open disk |𝒛𝒛| < 𝑹𝑹 where 𝑹𝑹 is given by
𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝒂𝒏𝒏+𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏
𝑹𝑹 = , 𝑼𝑼 = 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒏𝒏→∞ | |𝒏𝒏
𝑼𝑼 𝒂𝒂𝒏𝒏
Abel’s theorem:
Theorem:
If a power series in 𝑧𝑧 is convergent at 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧1 , then it
converges absolutely in the open disk
|𝑧𝑧| < |𝑧𝑧1 |
Example:
• The geometric series ∑𝑛𝑛 ≥0 𝑧𝑧 𝑛𝑛 converges
absolutely in |𝑧𝑧| < 1 since 𝑅𝑅 = 1.
𝑧𝑧 𝑛𝑛
• The series ∑𝑛𝑛 ≥0 is absolutely convergent in
𝑛𝑛 !
the entire finite plane since 𝑅𝑅 = ∞..
Power series:
Theorem:
i) The sum of a convergent power series in 𝑧𝑧 is
analytic in the interior of its circle of
convergence.
ii) A power series can be differentiated term by
term in the interior of its circle of convergence.
i.e) the derived series converges to the
derivative of the sum of the series.
Uniqueness Theorem:
If a power series in 𝑧𝑧 converges to a function 𝑓𝑓(𝑧𝑧) in
the interior of the circle of convergence, |𝑧𝑧|<R, then
no other power series converges to the same function
𝑓𝑓(𝑧𝑧) in |𝑧𝑧| < 𝑅𝑅.
Taylor’s series:
Taylor’s theorem:
Given a function 𝒇𝒇(𝒛𝒛) and a point 𝒛𝒛 = 𝒂𝒂, if 𝑪𝑪 is the
largest circle with center at 𝒛𝒛 = 𝒂𝒂 such that 𝒇𝒇(𝒛𝒛) is
analytic in the interior of 𝑪𝑪 , then
𝒇𝒇′ (𝒂𝒂) 𝒇𝒇"(𝒂𝒂)
𝒇𝒇(𝒛𝒛) = 𝒇𝒇(𝒂𝒂) + (𝒛𝒛 − 𝒂𝒂) + (𝒛𝒛 − 𝒂𝒂)𝟐𝟐 + ⋯
𝟏𝟏! 𝟐𝟐!
Laurent’s series:
Laurent’s series:
Given a point 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑎𝑎 and a function 𝑓𝑓(𝑧𝑧), suppose 𝑓𝑓(𝑧𝑧)
is analytic in the annular domain 𝐷𝐷 in between the
largest and smallest concentric circles 𝐶𝐶1 and 𝐶𝐶2
having their centres at 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑎𝑎. Then for any 𝑧𝑧 in 𝐷𝐷,
∞
𝑓𝑓 𝑛𝑛 (𝑎𝑎)
𝑓𝑓(𝑧𝑧) = � (𝑧𝑧 − 𝑎𝑎)𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛!
𝑛𝑛=−∞
Where
∫
n! f ( z)
f n (a) = +
dz
2π i ( z − a ) n 1
C
Unit-V Syllabus
Calculus of Residues:
Isolated and non-isolated singular points
Residues
Residue theorem
Meromorphic Function
Residues:
Singular points:
A singular point or singularity of a function is a point
at which the function ceases to be analytic.
The point 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑎𝑎 is a singular point of 𝑓𝑓(𝑧𝑧)
i) If 𝑓𝑓 (𝑎𝑎) = ∞ or
ii) If 𝑓𝑓(𝑧𝑧) is not defined at 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑎𝑎
iii) If 𝑓𝑓(𝑧𝑧) is not differentiable at 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑎𝑎
Remarks:
The point 𝑧𝑧 = ∞ is a singular point of all the
trigonometric functions and hyperbolic functions.
Classification of isolated
singularities:
Types of isolated singularities:
• A removable singularity
• A pole
• An essential singularity
According as the Laurent’s series about 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑎𝑎 of 𝑓𝑓(𝑧𝑧),
valid in a deleted neighborhood of 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑎𝑎 has
• No negative powers
• A finite number of negative powers
• An infinite number of negative powers
Residues:
Definition:
If 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑎𝑎 is an isolated singularity of 𝑓𝑓(𝑧𝑧) and if the
Laurent’s expansion for 𝑓𝑓 (𝑧𝑧) about 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑎𝑎 is
∞
Residue at a removable
singularity:
If 𝒛𝒛 = 𝒂𝒂 is a removable singularity of 𝒇𝒇(𝒛𝒛), then the
Laurent’s series about 𝒛𝒛 = 𝒂𝒂 has no negative powers
of 𝒛𝒛 − 𝒂𝒂. So the residue of 𝒇𝒇(𝒛𝒛) at 𝒛𝒛 = 𝒂𝒂 is 0.
Residue at a pole:
The following are methods of calculation of residues:
Method 1:
Evaluation of integral
1
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 ∫ f ( z)dz
C
Residues:
Method-2:
Expansion of 𝑓𝑓(𝑧𝑧) about 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑎𝑎 in Laurent’s series to
1
find the coefficient of .
𝑧𝑧−𝑎𝑎
Theorem:
If 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑎𝑎 is a simple pole, then
Residue of 𝑓𝑓(𝑧𝑧) at 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑎𝑎 =lim𝑧𝑧→𝑎𝑎 [(𝑧𝑧 − 𝑎𝑎)𝑓𝑓(𝑧𝑧)]
Example:
The residue of cot 𝑧𝑧 at the simple pole 𝑧𝑧 = 0 is 1.
Residues:
Theorem:
If 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑎𝑎 is a simple pole and if 𝑓𝑓(𝑧𝑧) is of the form
ℎ(𝑧𝑧)
𝑓𝑓 (𝑧𝑧) = ,
𝑔𝑔(𝑧𝑧)
Where ℎ(𝑎𝑎) ≠ 0 and 𝑔𝑔(𝑎𝑎) ≠ 0, then
ℎ(𝑎𝑎)
Res. Of 𝑓𝑓(𝑧𝑧) at 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑎𝑎 = .
𝑔𝑔 ′ (𝑎𝑎)
Theorem:
The residue of the function 𝑓𝑓(𝑧𝑧) at a pole 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑎𝑎 of
order 𝑚𝑚 is
1 𝑑𝑑 𝑚𝑚 −1
[ (𝑧𝑧 − 𝑎𝑎)𝑚𝑚 𝑓𝑓(𝑧𝑧)] at 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑎𝑎.
(𝑚𝑚 −1)! 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑚𝑚 −1
Residue Theorem:
Suppose 𝑓𝑓(𝑧𝑧) is a function
i) Analytic on a simple closed curve 𝐶𝐶 and
ii) Analytic in the interior of 𝐶𝐶 except at the
singularities in the interior of 𝐶𝐶 which are finite
in number.
Then
∫ f ( z)=
C
dz 2π i × N
2𝜋𝜋 1
ii) ∫0 𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃
2+cos 𝜃𝜃
2)Evaluate
2𝜋𝜋 1
𝐼𝐼 = ∫0 𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃, 𝑎𝑎 > |𝑏𝑏| > 0
𝑎𝑎+𝑏𝑏 cos 𝜃𝜃
3) Evaluate
2𝜋𝜋 1
𝐼𝐼 = ∫0 𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃
5−4 sin 𝜃𝜃
Meromorphic Functions:
Definition:
Meromorphic Function:
A function which has no singularities in a region other
than a finite number of poles is said to be
meromorphic in that region.
Theorem:
Suppose
i) 𝐷𝐷 is a simply connected domain
ii) 𝑓𝑓(𝑧𝑧) is a meromorphic function in 𝐷𝐷.
iii) 𝐶𝐶 is a simple positively oriented curve in 𝐷𝐷, not
passing through a pole or zero of 𝑓𝑓(𝑧𝑧).
∫
f '( z )
Then = dz 2π i[n( Z , f ) − n( P, f )]
f ( z)
C
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