Common Reference Guide To Engineering PDF

COMMON REFERENCE GUIDE
TO
“ENGINEERING”
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Petrofac Engineering Services India Private Limited
DLF Infocity SEZ, Block 1C, 4th floor, 1/124,
Shivaji Gardens, Manapakkam, Chennai - 600089
COMMON REFERENCE GUIDE
TO
“ENGINEERING”
Compiled By
Archana.M.V (HSE)
Chaitanya.PVM (Process)
Koushik.S (Piping)
Praveen.A.R (Electrical)
Priyanka.K.C (Projects)
Rama Krishna.V (Piping)
Sahana.K.R (Instrumentation)
Sajitha John (Electrical)
Satya Deepti.P (Mechanical)
Siddharthini.U.M (Civil)
Under The Esteemed Guidance of

Senior Colleagues of PESIL
_________________________________________________________
Petrofac Engineering Services India Pvt. Ltd.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We, the graduate trainees of the first batch of PESIL, convey our heartfelt gratitude to the
PESIL Management for providing us with the opportunity and sufficient encouragement for
making this reference guide, which can benefit each and every employee working for the
Petrofac Organization. We also thank the Senior colleagues of all the disciplines for
providing necessary guidance and support for successfully completing this manual.
FOREWORD
The “Common Engineering Reference Guide” is prepared in order to provide a quick

reference for the engineers working in Proposals/FEED/Projects, under the various Petrofac
Engineering Divisions. It provides an overview of the works related to all the disciplines and
thereby helps in promoting better inter-discipline coordination and understanding. This
guide provides the most frequently used definitions and references and is subject to
periodical updates, whenever found necessary. Aiming at providing a gist of the basic and
most useful references, this reference guide helps all the discipline engineers to perform
their respective team work efficiently.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0 PROJECTS .............................................................................................................................................................. 3
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT DISCIPLINE.................................................................................................. 4
1.2 ABBREVIATIONS:................................................................................................................................................... 4
1.3 ABOUT PROJECT MANAGEMENT: .......................................................................................................................... 5
1.4 PROJECT STAGES FLOW CHART ................................................................................................................... 9
1.5 IDIT MATRIX ...................................................................................................................................................... 10
1.6 IDC/DISTRIBUTION MATRIX ............................................................................................................................... 17
2.0 PROCESS .............................................................................................................................................................. 20
2.1 INTRODUCTION TO PROCESS DEPARTMENT .......................................................................................... 21
2.2 PROCESS RESPONSIBILITIES ....................................................................................................................... 21
2.3 MAJOR EQUIPMENT HANDLED................................................................................................................... 23
2.4 SOFTWARES USED ......................................................................................................................................... 33
2.5 IMPORTANT CODES AND STANDARDS FOLLOWED .............................................................................. 34
2.6 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION................................................................................................................ 35
2.7 APPENDIX OF USEFUL CHARTS & TABLES .......................................................................................................... 36
3.0 HEALTH, SAFETY & ENVIRONMENT .......................................................................................................... 48
3.1 INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................................................. 49
3.2 CODES AND STANDARDS FOLLOWED ...................................................................................................... 51
3.3 SOFTWARES .................................................................................................................................................... 53
3.4 CLASSIFICATION OF FIRE ............................................................................................................................ 54
3.5 FIRE & GAS DETECTION SYSTEM ............................................................................................................... 55
3.6 FIRE PROTECTION.......................................................................................................................................... 57
3.7 HAZARDOUS AREA CLASSIFICATION....................................................................................................... 63
3.8 CLASSIFICATION OF HAZARDS .................................................................................................................. 65
3.9 HAZARD IDENTIFICATION........................................................................................................................... 65
3.10 CONSEQUENCE ANALYSIS .......................................................................................................................... 68
3.11 QUANTITATIVE RISK ASSESSMENT .......................................................................................................... 73
3.12 LOCATION, ORIENTATION AND LAYOUT ................................................................................................ 74
3.13 ESCAPE & EVACUATION ROUTES .............................................................................................................. 74
3.14 NOISE MAPPING.............................................................................................................................................. 75
3.15 SAFETY EQUIPMENT & SIGNS ..................................................................................................................... 75
4.0 MECHANICAL..................................................................................................................................................... 76
4.1 INTRODUCTION TO MECHANICAL DEPARTMENT ................................................................................. 77
4.2 FLOW CHART FOR MECHANICAL ACTIVITIES APPLICABLE FOR FEED/ DETAILED ENGINEERING ......................... 77
4.3 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT AND PACKAGES........................................................................................... 78
4.4 NDE (NON DESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION) INSPECTION....................................................................... 90
4.5 SUMMARY OF NDE TYPES ................................................................................................................................... 91
4.6 BASIC WELDING SYMBOLS ................................................................................................................................. 92
4.7 MATERIAL SELECTION ................................................................................................................................. 94
4.8 INSULATION.................................................................................................................................................... 97
4.9 SOFTWARE USED ......................................................................................................................................... 101
4.10 CODES AND STANDARDS........................................................................................................................... 101
5.0 PIPING................................................................................................................................................................. 103
5.1 INTRODUCTION TO PIPING ENGINEERING............................................................................................. 104
5.2 BASICS OF PIPING......................................................................................................................................... 104
5.3 SOFTWARE USED IN PIPING DEPARTMENT ........................................................................................... 115
5.4 IMPORTANT CODES AND STANDARDS ................................................................................................... 115
5.5 CALCULATIONS: .......................................................................................................................................... 117
5.6 PIPING MATERIAL SELECTION CHART: .................................................................................................. 123
5.7 STANDARD FORMAT USED FOR: .............................................................................................................. 124
5.8 SPECIALITY ITEMS ...................................................................................................................................... 127
5.9 GENERAL ABBREVATIONS AND DEFINITIONS ..................................................................................... 128
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6.0 CIVIL &STRUCTURAL.................................................................................................................................... 135
6.1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................................ 136
6.2 CIVIL RESPONSIBILITIES............................................................................................................................ 136
6.3 TYPICAL DETAILED ENGINEERING ACTIVITY CHART - CIVIL.......................................................... 137
6.4 LOADS ACTING ON STRUCTURES ............................................................................................................ 138
6.5 FOUNDATION................................................................................................................................................ 139
6.6 MAJOR CIVIL STRUCTURES....................................................................................................................... 141
6.7 INDIVIDUAL COMPONENTS OF STRUCTURES....................................................................................... 142
6.8 OFFSHORE PLATFORMS ............................................................................................................................. 146
6.9 SOFTWARE USED ......................................................................................................................................... 150
6.10 IMPORTANT CODES AND STANDARDS FOLLOWED ............................................................................ 150
6.11 APPENDIX ...................................................................................................................................................... 152
6.12 FREQUENTLY REFERRED CHARTS .......................................................................................................... 158
7.0 ELECTRICAL .................................................................................................................................................... 171
7.1 INTROCUCTION ............................................................................................................................................ 172
7.3 SOFTWARE USED ......................................................................................................................................... 176
7.4 MAJOR EQUIPMENTS /SYSTEMS/PACKAGES HANDLED..................................................................... 176
7.5 HAZARDOUS AREA CLASSIFICATION (IEC – 60079).............................................................................. 177
7.6 CATHODIC PROTECTION (NACE STANDARD) ........................................................................................... 178
7.7 HEAT TRACING............................................................................................................................................. 179
7.8 LIGHTING CALCULATION .......................................................................................................................... 182
7.9 LIGHTNING PROTECTION CALCULATIONS ........................................................................................... 183
7.10 CABLE SIZING ............................................................................................................................................... 186
7.11 PROTECTIVE RELAYS AND THEIR APPLICATION................................................................................. 190
7.12 CAPACITOR SIZING...................................................................................................................................... 192
7.13 TRANSFORMER SIZING............................................................................................................................... 192
7.14 SAMPLE BATTEY SIZING CALCULATIONS............................................................................................. 192
7.15 TABLES........................................................................................................................................................... 195
8.0 INSTRUMENTATION....................................................................................................................................... 197
8.1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................................ 198
8.2 TYPICAL DETAILED ENGINEERING ACTIVITY CHART ....................................................................... 199
8.3 INSTRUMENTATION EQUIPMENTS IN FIELD ......................................................................................... 200
8.4 INSTRUMENT DATA SHEETS ..................................................................................................................... 201
8.5 INSTRUMENT INDEX ................................................................................................................................... 201
8.6 CAUSE-AND-EFFECT DIAGRAM................................................................................................................ 201
8.7 INSTRUMENTATION INTERFACE WITH PIPING..................................................................................... 202
8.8 INSTRUMENTATION INTERFACE WITH ELECTRICAL ......................................................................... 203
8.9 TYPICAL HVAC LOAD LIST: ....................................................................................................................... 204
8.10 MAJOR SYSTEMS AND PACKAGES........................................................................................................... 205
8.11 DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM (DCS)................................................................................................. 211
8.12 CABLE CLASSIFICATION CHART.............................................................................................................. 212
8.13 PROTOCOLS USED FOR FIELD INSTRUMENT COMMUNICATIONS ................................................... 213
8.14 TELECOM IN BRIEF ...................................................................................................................................... 219
8.15 SOFTWARES USED ....................................................................................................................................... 223
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1.0 PROJECTS
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1.1 INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT DISCIPLINE
Projects department normally handles the following types of work
FEED
Proposal
Detailed Engineering
The types of deliverables vary for each type of project and from Client to Client. It is the responsibility
of Project Engineering Manager to clearly study/understand the Client documents before starting the
Project.
The Project Engineering Manager takes up the responsibility of generating the required data/calculation
for all deliverables for each project. By using the input data/document each department will deliver the
necessary output document called deliverables. The size of each project, and the progress & completion
are measured with the help of the deliverables (i.e. PFD, P&ID, PDS, etc.). The deliverable list and the
schedule are agreed and decided in the beginning of the project. Each project develops its own
Technical Document Register (TDR) to monitor the project status.
1.2 Abbreviations:
AFC - Approved for Construction

AFD - Approved for Design
BOQ - Bill of Quantities
DOS - Delivered to site
ICC - Issued for Client’s Comments
IDC - Inter Discipline Check
IDIT - Inter Discipline Information Transfer
IFA - Issued for Approval
IFC - Issued for Construction
IFR/I - Issued for Review/Information
ITB - Invitation to Bidder
LSTK - Lump sum Turnkey
MRR - Material Receipt Report
MTO - Material Take Off
MTR - Material Tracking Register
OS & D - Outstanding & Damaged Report
PCM - Project Controls Manager
PCS - Projects Control Secretary
PD - Project Director
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PEM - Planning Engineering Manager
PM - Project Manager
PMS - Progress measurement system/Project Management System
PR - Purchase Requisition, Procurement Register
PTR - Procurement Tracking Register
RFQ - Request for quotation
ROS - Required on site
SCD - Scheduler
SOQ - Schedule of Quantities
TBE - Technical Bid Evaluation
TDR - Technical Document Register
WBS - Work breakdown structure
1.3 About Project Management:
1.3.1 Objectives
Fulfill contractual obligations
Client satisfaction
Schedule / Budget control
1.3.2 Services and Responsibilities:
Planning and scheduling
Progress measurement / reporting
Cost control
Document control
1.3.3 Project Management & Execution

A. Execution Steps
− Proposals
− Project team nomination
− Initial mobilization & task force
− Project specific procedures
− Kick-off meetings
− Contract review / FEED verification / Design basis
− Risk review / mitigating plan
− Procurement engineering
− Detailed planning / Scheduling
− Identify critical activities
− Finalization of major sub-contracts
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− Design reviews / IDC’s
− Detailed engineering
− Procurement
− Construction mobilization
− Manufacturing / Expediting
− Start construction
− Inspection / Testing / Deliveries
− Multidiscipline / Erection / Installation / Supervision
− Pre-commissioning
− Commissioning
− Operation & Hand over
B. Projects Division:
Project Division
Project Management Project Services
I. Project Management
Project management deals interaction with clients. The team consists of a project manager,
engineer, coordinator, etc…
Project Manager
Responsibility includes:
◊ Maintain Client relationship

◊ Ensure safety and quality performance
◊ Overall schedule and budget control
◊ Attend meetings with Client
◊ Direct and supervise project activities
◊ Management reporting
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Project Engineering Manager /Project Engineer
◊ Interdisciplinary engineering co-ordination

◊ Interface with suppliers
◊ Ensure timely flow of engineering information
◊ Interface with site construction team
◊ Provide inputs to Project Manager’s report
II. Project services:
Project services deals with the interaction within the office. The team consists of project control
manager, control engineer, planner/scheduler, etc…
Project Control Manager
◊ Interdiscipline engineering co-ordination

◊ Interface with suppliers
◊ Ensure timely flow of engineering information
◊ Interface with site construction team
◊ Provide inputs to Project Manager’s report
C. Key Success Factors for on-time completion of project

− Management Lead Safety / Quality Culture
− Detailed Planning / Construction Driven Schedule
− Early Mobilization of Project Team
− One Team Approach
− Matrix Organization for Design Integrity / Verification
− Early Identification / Resolution of Problems
− Flexible Approach
− Effective Communication
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1.3.4 Scheduling:
The projects can be scheduled as four levels
Level 1
Level 2
Level 3
Level 4
In the level 1 plan, the project summary schedule is prepared at area level.
In the level 2 plan, the project summary schedule rolled at area level and discipline level.
In the level 3 plan, the project detailed schedule combining the activities and sequences, covering all the
phases of the project, from mobilization of the key activities till commissioning.
The level 4 schedule is the construction schedule/contractor schedule prepared by the contractor.
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1.4 PROJECT STAGES FLOW CHART
Detailed Project
Report by Client
New Project Proposal
Has the
contract been
awarded?
NO
YES
Front End
Engineering Design
(FEED)
Basic Engineering
Design
Engineering
Detailed Engineering
Temporary facility
design at site
Procurement
Mobilization to site
Construction
Mechanical
Completion
Pre Commissioning /
Performance test running
Commissioning
Report Submission
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1.5 IDIT Matrix
Owner
Doc ID Discipline Document Type Document Title Process HSE CIVIL MECH Piping ELE INST Telecom Remarks
PR0001 Process deliverable PID & PFD IDIT IDIT
PR0002 Process deliverable Line list IDIT IDIT
PR0003 Process deliverable Equipment list IDIT IDIT IDIT
PR0004 Process Non deliverable Winterization philosophy IDIT IDIT IDIT
PR0005 Process Non deliverable Process data for instruments IDIT
PR0006 Process Non deliverable Inputs for alarm and trip set points IDIT
Dimensions & details of underground
PR0007 Process Non deliverable drainpits,sulphur pits and burn pits IDIT
PR0008 Process Non deliverable Dimension & detail of oil-water separator IDIT
Dimension detail of retention pond for
PR0009 Process Non deliverable storing fire water run off IDIT
PR0010 Process Non deliverable Material selection report for mechanical IDIT
PR0011 Process Non deliverable Equipment isolation philosophy IDIT
ESD levels, ESD valves, vessel
inventory/level, flare load, process
description, process control philosophy,
PR0012 Process Non deliverable drain philosophy IDIT
CV0001 Civil Non deliverable Finished floor or grade level IDIT
Foundation details etc. cable trench
CV0002 Civil deliverable crossings IDIT
Interaction with electrical for preparing
CV0003 Civil deliverable foundation dwgs for steel tanks and vessels IDIT
Standard dwgs for platform, ladder, anchor
CV0004 Civil deliverable bolt IDIT
Philosophy of non contaminated surface
CV0005 Civil Non-deliverable drainage IDIT
PI0001 Piping Non deliverable Pipe rack details- piping loads, anchor loads IDIT
Location of pipe supports, sleepers,
PI0002 Piping Non deliverable crossover platforms, cleats including loads IDIT IDIT
Road crossing -RCC culvert/overhead
PI0003 Piping Non deliverable bridge details IDIT
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Owner
Identification of bays where diagonal/cross
bracings cannot be provided or can be
PI0004 Piping Non deliverable provided with certain limitations IDIT
PI0005 Piping Non deliverable Any transverse load due to guides etc IDIT
Platform extents and loadings thereon with
PI0006 Piping Non deliverable magnitudes and directions. IDIT
PI0007 Piping deliverable Any special type of loading IDIT
PI0008 Piping deliverable All underground piping network IDIT
PI0009 Piping Non deliverable Pipe lengths for heat tracing IDIT
PI0010 Piping Non deliverable Pipe lengths for cathodic protection IDIT
PI0011 Piping Non deliverable Nozzle orientation IDIT
PI0012 Piping Non deliverable Nozzle loads as per stress analysis IDIT
Location & Orientation of Substations, DG
Sets, and other electrical related inputs to
EL0001 Electrical Non deliverable prepare the plot plan IDIT IDIT
Number of cable trays with sizes on the
EL0002 Electrical Non deliverable pipe rack with loading details. IDIT
Preliminary Plot plan mark up showing the
routing of cable trenches with size details of
No of pipe sleeves, dia of pipe, rows and
EL0003 Electrical Non deliverable location for road crossings IDIT IDIT
Dimensions & Mounting details of
Electrical DBs to be located in the Control
EL0004 Electrical Non deliverable Room with tentative locations. IDIT IDIT
Number & Sizes of Cables entering the
EL0005 Electrical Non deliverable Control room. IDIT IDIT
Interface requirements with DCS, Heat
tracing, VSDS, DG/Gas generator sets, and
EL0006 Electrical Non deliverable switchgear. IDIT
Power cable sizes for AC UPS & Non UPS
EL0007 Electrical Non deliverable consumers and MOVs. IDIT
Termination details on Electrical side (Sw
EL0008 Electrical Non deliverable Gear side, UPS, DG panel, CP T/R etc) to IDIT
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Owner
interface with IRP / DCS /ESD system.
Interface details if protection signals are to

EL0009 Electrical Non deliverable be carried on the Telecom Network. IDIT
Floor slab cut out details with panel fixing
EL0010 Electrical Non deliverable and trench details, as required IDIT
Requirements for steel & hardware for
Electrical equipment fixing / mounting and
EL0011 Electrical Non deliverable supporting IDIT
Installation details of Lighting poles,
RCUs, SOs, CP T/Rs, Outdoor panels,
EL0012 Electrical Deliverable Earthing pits IDIT
GA drawings with dimensions, weight,
cutout/sleeve requirements, and other
details from vendors for items like DG sets,
EL0013 Electrical Non deliverable transformers etc IDIT
Requirement of cable protection tiles, cable
EL0014 Electrical Deliverable route markers IDIT
EL0015 Electrical Non deliverable Route and size of built up cable trench IDIT
Requirement of pipe sleeves in the retaining
walls and other u/g requirement (below the
EL0016 Electrical Non deliverable tank) for tank CP, if applicable IDIT
Electrical Requirements & Specifications
EL0017 Electrical Non deliverable for buildings. IDIT
Data sheets for motors & Specification for
Electrical content of package items with
EL0018 Electrical Non deliverable interface/entry details IDIT
Data Sheet for alternator and other
electrical equipment for the DG/Gas
Generator packages –where Rotating is the
EL0019 Electrical Non deliverable Originator. IDIT
Heat loads for electrical equipments for
EL0020 Electrical Non deliverable HVAC calculations IDIT
Instrument inputs on P &ID typical and
IN0001 Instrumentation Non deliverable other related information IDIT
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Owner
Inline instruments / control valves & ESD
IN0002 Instrumentation Deliverable valves sizes and relief valve sizes. IDIT IDIT
IN0003 Instrumentation Non deliverable Instrument piping interface drawings IDIT
Number of cable trays with sizes on the
IN0004 Instrumentation Non deliverable pipe rack with loading details. IDIT IDIT
Preliminary Plot plan mark up showing the
IN0005 Instrumentation Non deliverable routing of cable trenches with size IDIT IDIT
Field instrument and control system (local
panel, analyzer shelter, instrument skids)
IN0006 Instrumentation Non deliverable size and other details IDIT
Interface details for SCADA, DCS, F&G
IN0007 Instrumentation Non deliverable systems to telecom equipment. IDIT
IN0008 Instrumentation Non deliverable UPS & Non UPS consumer details IDIT
IN0009 Instrumentation Deliverable Instrument – Electrical interface drawing IDIT
Instrument main cable routing requirements
to be clubbed with electrical cable
IN0010 Instrumentation Deliverable routings(Where applicable) IDIT
IN0011 Instrumentation Non deliverable Heat tracing requirement for Instruments IDIT
Mark up of the Switchgear/Substation
equipment layout to show location of IRP,
F & G panel & Vesda panel where
IN0012 Instrumentation Non deliverable applicable IDIT
IN0013 Instrumentation Non deliverable BOQ for Earthing material IDIT
Control room layout with panel cutout,
IN0014 Instrumentation Deliverable cable entry, base frame and other details IDIT
Structural support requirements for Fire &
IN0015 Instrumentation Non deliverable Gas devices, local panel etc. IDIT
Instrument typical drawings (Hook up, loop
IN0016 Instrumentation Deliverable drawings, Termination drawings, etc) IDIT
IN0017 Instrumentation Non deliverable Package interface details IDIT
Specification for Allowable Nozzle loads
ME0001 Mechanical Non deliverable (for static & Rotating Equipment) IDIT
ME0002 Mechanical Non deliverable Vendor confirmation on Nozzle loads IDIT
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Owner
Plot plan (mark up) for Maintenance/space
ME0003 Mechanical Non deliverable requirement. IDIT
ME0004 Mechanical Non deliverable Preliminary Electrical Load List IDIT
ME0005 Mechanical Non deliverable Motor / Alternator Datasheet for packages IDIT
ME0006 Mechanical Non deliverable G.T. / Engine datasheet, specifications. IDIT
ME0007 Mechanical Non deliverable Civil Loading data for Equipment IDIT
ME0008 Mechanical Non deliverable Shelter requirement with dimensions IDIT
Lifting arrangement (Crane / Hoist details)
Preliminary information for Static
equipment with Extent of platform
supported on vessel, Cleat details, Loading
ME0009 Mechanical Non deliverable details on various platforms. IDIT
ME0010 Mechanical Non deliverable I/O List for packages IDIT
ME0011 Mechanical Non deliverable Power supply / consumption for packages IDIT
ME0012 Mechanical Non deliverable Radiation data for Flares / Burn pits IDIT
ME0013 Mechanical Non deliverable HSE / Safety related documents IDIT
ME0014 Mechanical Non deliverable Preliminary P&ID details for packages IDIT
Utility consumptions for packages (CW, IA,
ME0015 Mechanical Non deliverable Nitrogen, Steam) IDIT
Equipment Separation distances -
HS0001 HSE Non deliverable Consequence modeling study IDIT
Escape, Evacuation and Rescue study
HS0002 HSE Non deliverable report IDIT
Quantity of fire water flow for individual
areas which will flow into under-ground
HS0003 HSE Non deliverable drain system. IDIT
Fire proofing requirements on various
structures and extents specially for pipe
racks and some of equipment as well for
rated fire rating, ESD valve actuators and
HS0004 HSE Non deliverable any other specific requirements IDIT IDIT IDIT
Power consumers with details of kW for
HS0005 HSE Non deliverable HSE originated equipment IDIT
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Emission Norms; Environmental specs;
HS0006 HSE Non deliverable radiation levels; Noise datasheet IDIT
Equipment datasheets / P & I Drawing /
Equipment specification (e.g. fire water
HS0007 HSE Deliverable pump package) with cover sheet. IDIT
Pumps / Compressors requiring high
HS0008 HSE Non deliverable integrity seals IDIT
For HVAC specs, F & G inputs, type of
HS0009 HSE Deliverable Refrigerant ( CFC / non CFC ) IDIT
HS0010 HSE Deliverable Building Fire and gas detector locations. IDIT
Number of UPS & NON UPS power
consumers with details of kW, diversity,
redundancy requirements and back up time
TL0001 Telecom Non deliverable (if not provided in UPS specs) IDIT
TL0002 Telecom Non deliverable Solar power requirements if applicable IDIT
TL0003 Telecom Non deliverable Requirement of Tower earthing IDIT
Requirements of panels/equipment, if any,
to be located in S/S as a mark up on the
TL0004 Telecom Non deliverable Substation equipment layout IDIT
Detail of UPS / Normal power (required in
the form of Socket outlets) as a mark up on
TL0005 Telecom Deliverable the building arch drawing. IDIT
Furniture Requirements for Control Room
Building and space requirements on
TL0006 Telecom Non deliverable Console. IDIT
Cabinet details/dimensions of telecom
TL0007 Telecom Non deliverable equipment for base frame design IDIT
Interface details for Telecoms Alarms
TL0008 Telecom Non deliverable (Major/Minor, Logic). IDIT
Location of, antennae tower and telecom
TL0009 Telecom Non deliverable shelter IDIT
Structural requirements for Towers,
TL0010 Telecom Non deliverable Monopoles and Telecom buildings IDIT
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Conduit requirements of structural cabling
TL0011 Telecom Non deliverable for various buildings IDIT
Buried trenches including duct banks at
TL0012 Telecom Non deliverable road crossings marked up in plot plan IDIT
Trench cross-section, numbers and
diameters of pipe sleeves etc. in form of
TL0013 Telecom Non deliverable lay-out drawing. IDIT
Passive Cooled Shelter (If Any): Space and
TL0014 Telecom Non deliverable Heat Dissipation requirements for Telecom. IDIT
PJ0001 Projects Non deliverable Inspection classes for Procurement IDIT IDIT IDIT IDIT IDIT IDIT IDIT IDIT
PJ0002 Projects Non deliverable Site conditions / Meteorological data IDIT IDIT IDIT IDIT IDIT IDIT IDIT IDIT
PJ0003 Projects Non deliverable Site survey reports IDIT IDIT IDIT IDIT IDIT IDIT IDIT IDIT
PJ0004 Projects Non deliverable Soil resisitivity reports IDIT IDIT IDIT IDIT IDIT IDIT IDIT IDIT
PJ0005 Projects Non deliverable Document control procedure IDIT IDIT IDIT IDIT IDIT IDIT IDIT IDIT
PJ0006 Projects Non deliverable Project quality plan. IDIT IDIT IDIT IDIT IDIT IDIT IDIT IDIT
PJ0007 Projects Non deliverable IDC matrix (Project specific if required) IDIT IDIT IDIT IDIT IDIT IDIT IDIT IDIT
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1.6 IDC/Distribution Matrix
Owner Document
Doc ID Discipline Type Document Title Process HSE CIVIL MECH PIPING ELE INST TELE Remark
PR0001 Process Deliverable Process design basis IDC/DM DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM DM
PR0002 Process Deliverable PID IDC/DM DM DM IDC/DM DM IDC DM
PR0003 Process Deliverable control & operating phil. IDC/DM DM IDC/DM DM DM IDC/DM DM
PR0004 Process Deliverable Line list DM DM DM IDC/DM DM DM DM
PR0005 Process Deliverable Equipment list DM DM IDC/DM DM IDC/DM DM DM
PR0006 Process Deliverable Operating manual IDC/DM DM IDC/DM DM IDC/DM IDC/DM DM
PR0007 Process Deliverable Relief & Blowdown phil. DM DM IDC/DM IDC/DM DM IDC/DM DM
PR0008 Process Deliverable Cause & effect chart DM DM DM DM DM IDC/DM DM
PR0009 Process Deliverable Commissioning manual DM DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM DM
PR0010 Process Deliverable Maintenance manual DM DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM DM
PR0011 Process Deliverable ESD Philosophy IDC/DM DM DM DM DM IDC/DM DM
HSE design
philosophy/loss/prevention
HS0001 HSE Deliverable design IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM DM
Fire protection equipment
HS0002 HSE Deliverable layout DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM DM
HS0003 HSE Deliverable Fire protection system PID IDC/DM DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM DM
HS0004 HSE Deliverable Fire fighting equipment spec DM DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM DM
HS0005 HSE Deliverable Fire and gas layout IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM DM IDC/DM IDC/DM DM
HS0006 HSE Deliverable Safety equipment layout IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM DM
HS0007 HSE Deliverable Escape route layout DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM DM
HS0008 HSE Deliverable HAZID report IDC/DM DM IDC/DM DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM
ME0001 Mechanical Deliverable Mechanical design basis IDC/DM DM IDC/DM DM IDC/DM IDC/DM DM
Rotary equipment
ME0002 Mechanical Deliverable specification IDC/DM IDC/DM DM DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM
Static equipment
ME0003 Mechanical Deliverable specification IDC/DM IDC/DM DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM DM
ME0004 Mechanical Deliverable Packaged equipments specs IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM DM
HVAC Specs and
ME0005 Mechanical Deliverable philosophy DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM DM
ME0006 Mechanical Deliverable Vendor documentation IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM
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Owner Document
ME0007 Mechanical Deliverable Handling reports IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM DM
ME0008 Mechanical Deliverable Mechanical datasheets IDC/DM IDC/DM DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM DM
EL0001 Electrical Deliverable Electrical design basis IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM
EL0002 Electrical Deliverable Electrical loads IDC/DM DM DM IDC/DM DM DM DM
EL0003 Electrical Deliverable Substation layout DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM DM IDC/DM IDC/DM
EL0004 Electrical Deliverable Cable routing layout DM DM IDC/DM DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM
EL0005 Electrical Deliverable Earthing layout DM DM DM IDC/DM DM IDC/DM IDC/DM
EL0006 Electrical Deliverable Lighting layout DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM DM DM
Hazardous area
EL0007 Electrical Deliverable classification layout IDC/DM IDC/DM DM DM DM DM DM
EL0008 Electrical Deliverable Cable schedule DM DM DM DM DM IDC/DM DM
Power supply distribution
EL0009 Electrical Deliverable with UPS SLD DM DM DM DM DM IDC/DM DM
Vendor documents of
emergency
generators/transformers,
Heat tracing,cathodic
EL0010 Electrical Deliverable protection DM DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM DM
EL0011 Electrical Deliverable Motor control schemes DM DM DM DM DM IDC/DM DM
PI0001 Piping Deliverable Piping design basis IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM DM
PI0002 Piping Deliverable Overall plot plan IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM
PI0003 Piping Deliverable Equipment layout IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM DM
PI0004 Piping Deliverable Piping layout IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM DM
PI0005 Piping Deliverable Piping material specification IDC/DM IDC/DM DM IDC/DM DM IDC/DM DM
PI0006 Piping Deliverable Valve schedule IDC/DM DM DM DM DM DM DM
PI0007 Piping Deliverable Vessel trims DM DM DM IDC/DM DM IDC/DM DM
PI0008 Piping Deliverable Isometrics IDC/DM DM DM DM IDC/DM IDC/DM DM
IN0001 Instrumentation Deliverable Instrumentation design basis IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM
IN0002 Instrumentation Deliverable Alarm and Trip list IDC/DM IDC/DM DM DM DM DM DM
IN0003 Instrumentation Deliverable Main cable routing layout DM DM IDC/DM DM IDC/DM IDC/DM DM
IN0004 Instrumentation Deliverable Control room layout DM IDC/DM IDC/DM DM DM IDC/DM DM
IN0005 Instrumentation Deliverable Graphic displays IDC/DM DM DM DM DM DM DM
IN0006 Instrumentation Deliverable E & I interface DM DM DM DM DM IDC/DM DM
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Owner Document
IN0007 Instrumentation Deliverable Level sketches IDC/DM DM DM IDC/DM IDC/DM DM DM
IN0008 Instrumentation Deliverable Earthing philosophy DM DM DM DM DM IDC/DM DM
IN0009 Instrumentation Deliverable Cable termination drawings DM DM DM DM DM IDC/DM DM
Interposing relay cabinets
IN0010 Instrumentation Deliverable vendor drawings DM DM DM DM DM IDC/DM DM
Vendor dwgs for vessel &
IN0011 Instrumentation Deliverable inline mounted inst. DM DM DM IDC/DM IDC/DM DM DM
IN0012 Instrumentation Deliverable Control Narratives IDC/DM DM DM DM DM DM DM
CV0001 Civil Deliverable Civil design basis IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM
CV0002 Civil Deliverable Grading and paving plan DM IDC/DM DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM
CV0003 Civil Deliverable Road layout DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM
CV0004 Civil Deliverable Pits and trenches DM DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM DM
Drainage layout and
CV0005 Civil Deliverable underground facilities DM IDC/DM DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM
CV0006 Civil Deliverable Building foundation layout DM DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM
G.A & layout of equipment
CV0007 Civil Deliverable foundation DM DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM DM
CV0008 Civil Deliverable Pipe rack / sleeper / bridges DM IDC/DM DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM
CV0009 Civil Deliverable Bund walls IDC/DM IDC/DM DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM DM
Plant building(architectural
CV0010 Civil Deliverable dwgs) DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM DM
CV0011 Civil Deliverable Platform drawing DM DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM DM
TL0001 Telecom Deliverable Telecom design basis IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM
Indoor equipment & devices
TL0002 Telecom Deliverable layout DM DM IDC/DM IDC/DM DM IDC/DM IDC/DM
Outdoor equipment &
TL0003 Telecom Deliverable devices layout DM IDC/DM IDC/DM DM DM IDC/DM IDC/DM
TL0004 Telecom Deliverable Cable routing layout DM DM IDC/DM DM IDC/DM IDC/DM IDC/DM
TL0005 Telecom Deliverable Vendor documents DM DM IDC/DM DM DM IDC/DM IDC/DM
Equipment requiring
TL0006 Telecom Deliverable UPS/Normal power supplies DM DM DM DM DM IDC/DM IDC/DM
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2.0 PROCESS
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2.1 INTRODUCTION TO PROCESS DEPARTMENT
The Process department normally handles the following types of work
Basic engineering
Extended basic engineering
Detailed engineering
Pre-bid / FEED-endorsement / Proposal engineering for EPC bids
The types of deliverables vary for each type of project and from client to client. It is the
responsibility of Process Lead Engineer to clearly study/understand the deliverable list before
starting the project. This will be discussed with Projects Department & Client and mutually
agreed & recorded.
The Process Lead Engineer takes up the responsibility of generating the required data/calculations
for all deliverables for each project. By using the input data/document each department will
deliver the necessary output document called deliverables. The size of each project, and the
progress & completion are measured with the help of the deliverables (i.e. PFD, P&ID, HMBs
etc.). The deliverable list and the schedule are agreed and decided in the beginning of the project.
Each project develops its own Master Document/Deliverable Register (MDR) to monitor the
project status.
2.2 PROCESS RESPONSIBILITIES
The Process design engineer takes up the responsibility for doing the calculations and preparation
of the documents. The respective area engineer and lead engineer will check and approve the
documents. Item wise responsibilities will be as mentioned in the Project activity responsibility
matrix. Formats, data sheets, computer programs, design manuals, etc., as applicable are used as
tools by the process department to carry out its responsibilities.
2.2.1 Brief List of Deliverables for Each Type of Project
PFD
UFD
P&ID
Process simulation
process design basis
Process Datasheet (PDS) for equipment
Process Datasheet (PDS) for packages
Instrument Process Datasheet (IPDS) for control valves and safety valves
Instrument Process Datasheet (IPDS) for other instruments
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Process Datasheet (PDS) for utility / offsite items
Equipment List and equipment sizing calculation
Line List and Line sizing calculation
Utility summary
Cause and Effect Diagram (CED)
Flare report
Design reports / Adequacy check reports
The input supplied / required may vary for each type of project and for each client. It is the
responsibility of Process Lead Engineer to clearly define the input requirement before starting the
project. This shall be discussed with the Projects department and the clients, which will be
mutually agreed upon. Some projects may have to be carried out without much input data. This
shall be recorded in the project documents and in the deliverables.
2.2.2 Simple Activity Chart on Proposal/Feed/Detail Engineering
Tie-in List
Flow Assurance
Study
Line List
Heat and
Design Basis Mass PFD P&ID Equipment List
Balance
Cause and Effect
Client
Contract Philosophies
Document (Note -1)
Datasheet
HAZOP
s
Line
Operation and
Sizing Maintenance
Manual
Note-1: Process Control Philosophy Commissioning

ESD Philosophy Procedure
Relief and Blowdown Philosophy
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2.3 MAJOR EQUIPMENT HANDLED
2.3.1 Compressors
The compressor takes in gas/vapor, compresses it to the pressure desired, and pumps into supply
lines or into receivers, which act as short term accumulators. There are two major design
classifications of compressors:
Positive displacement
Dynamic
2.3.2 Compressors Classification
Compressors
Positive Displacement Dynamic
Reciprocating Rotary Centrifugal Axial
Single Double
Acting Acting
Helical Liquid Scroll Sliding Lobe
Screw Ring Vane
2.3.3 Pumps
The pump takes in liquid, pressurizes it to the pressure desired, and pumps into supply lines or
into receivers, which act as short term accumulators.
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2.3.4 Classification of Pumps
Pumps
Positive Kinetic Open Screw

Displacement
Centrifugal Peripheral
Reciprocating Rotary
Radial Flow Axial

Piston Diaphragm Mixed Flow Flow
Plunger
Single Rotor Multiple Rotors Fluid Ring
Vane Piston Screw

Gear Lobe Screw
2.3.5 Heat Exchangers
The process engineer is frequently required to analyze heat exchanger designs, specify heat
exchanger performance, and determine the feasibility of using heat exchangers in new services.
A heat exchanger is a device built for efficient heat transfer from one fluid or gas to another,
whether the fluids are separated by a solid wall so that they never mix, or the fluids are directly
contacted.
The heat exchangers can be classified based on the transfer process, surface compactness and
construction.
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A. Classification according to transfer process
Direct contact type indirect contact type
Direct transfer type Storage type
B. Classification according to surface compactness
Compact Non-Compact
(Surface area density >=700 m2/m3) (Surface area density <700 m2/m3)
C. Heat exchanger classification according to construction
Tubular Plate Extended surface Regenerative
Gasketed Spiral Lamella Fin type

Rotary Fixed-
Matrix
Double-pipe Shell and tube Spiral tube Disk-type Drum-type
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2.3.6 Separators
Three principles used to achieve physical separation of gas and liquids or solids are momentum,
gravity settling, and coalescing. Any separator may employ one or more of these principles, but
the fluid phases must be "immiscible" and have different densities for separation to occur.
Separators are usually characterized as vertical, horizontal, or spherical. Horizontal separators can
be single or double barrel and can be equipped with sumps or boots.
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2.3.7 Fractionation Column
Fractionation is a unit operation utilized to separate mixtures into individual products.

Fractionation involves separating components by relative volatility (a). The difficulty of a
separation is directly related to the relative volatility of the components and the required purity of
the product streams. Virtually all gas processing plants producing natural gas liquids require at
least one fractionator to produce a liquid product which will meet sales specifications.
The schematic of an example fractionator shown here depicts the various components of the
system.
2.3.8 Glycol Dehydration
The use of Glycol to dehydrate gas streams is an established method that has proven its
functionality and versatility over the years.
There are 3 common types of Glycol used for Gas Dehydration:
Mono-Ethylene Glycol (MEG)

Di-Ethylene Glycol (DEG)
Tri-Ethylene Glycol (TEG)
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The type of Glycol used and the package design depends on several factors, and the end-users
specific requirements and objectives for the gas stream being processed. Each package is
typically designed in close consultation with the client to ensure the best overall design is
achieved.
2.3.9 Sweetening
Sweetening refers to a group of processes that use aqueous solutions of various amines to remove
hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and carbon dioxide (CO2) from gases. It is a common unit process used
in refineries, petrochemical plants, natural gas processing plants and other industries. The process
is also known as Acid gas removal and Gas sweetening. Processes within oil refineries or natural
gas processing plants that remove hydrogen sulfide and/or mercaptans are commonly referred to
as sweetening processes because they results in products which no longer have the sour, foul
odors of mercaptans and hydrogen sulfide.
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There are many different amines used in gas treating:
Monoethanolamine (MEA)
Diethanolamine (DEA)
Methyldiethanolamine (MDEA)
Diisopropylamine (DIPA)
Diglycolamine (DGA)
The most commonly used amines in industrial plants are the alkanolamines MEA, DEA, and
MDEA.
2.3.10 Crude Stabilization Package
The crude oil or condensate must be stabilized by flashing to lower pressure or by the use of a
stabilization column. When the condensate is flashed to a lower pressure, light hydrocarbons are
liberated. The stabilization column can produce a higher quality and better controlled product.
The condensate stabilizer is usually a top feed column which runs at a reduced pressure from the
cold separator and has a reboiler to produce a specified vapor pressure product. The overhead
vapor is either sent to fuel as or recompressed and combined with the sales gas. The column
contains either trays or packing to provide necessary mass transfer for stabilization of the liquid
feed. After stabilization, the product is cooled and sent to storage.
Pig Launcher/Receiver Package
Pig launchers are used to launch

the pig into the pipeline, and pig
receivers are used to receive the
pigs after they have made a
successful run. The choice of
these pig traps will depend on
the type of pig to be run and
pipeline design conditions.
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2.3.11 Chiller Package
A liquid chilling system cools water, brine, or other secondary refrigerant liquid for air
conditioning or refrigeration purposes. The system may be either factory assembled and wired or
shipped in sections for erection in the field. The most frequent application is water chilling for air
conditioning, although both brine cooling for low temperature refrigeration and chilling of fluids
in industrial processes are also common uses. The basic components of a liquid chilling system
include a compressor, a liquid cooler (evaporator), a condenser, a compressor drive, a refrigerant
flow control device, and a control center, and may also include a receiver, an intercooler, or a sub
cooler.
2.3.12 Gas and Oil Metering Skid Package
Partners, authorities and customers all

calculate invoices, taxes and payments
based on the actual product shipped out.
Often custody transfer also takes place
at this point, means a transfer of
responsibility or title from the producer
to a customer, shuttle tanker operator or
pipeline operator.
Although some small installations are

still operated with dipstick and manual
records, larger installations have
analysis and metering equipment. To
make sure readings are accurate, a fixed
or movable prover loop for calibration
is also installed.
The figure below shows a full liquid

hydrocarbon (oil and condensate)
metering system. The analyzer
instrument on the left provides product
data such as density, viscosity and water
content.
Gas metering is similar, but instead,

analyzers will measure hydrocarbon content and energy value as well as pressure and
temperature.
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LNG is often metered with mass-flow meters that can operate at the required low temperature. At
various points in the movement of oil and gas, similar measurements are taken, usually in a more
simplified variant. Examples are Flare gas, Fuel Gas and Injected gas where required accuracy is
2-5% percent.
2.3.13 Flare Systems
Sizing and safety in designing a flare facility involve consideration of thermal radiation,
explosion hazards, liquid carryover, noise, and ground level concentration of toxic material.
Flares can be classified as:
A. Pipe Flares - Vertical or horizontal pipes with external ignition

pilot.
B. Smokeless Flares - Vertical, single, or multiple burners designed to
properly mix adequate oxygen from the air with
relieved vapors for complete combustion.
C. Endothermic Flares - Elevated incinerators for low heat content streams.
2.3.14 Chemical Injection Package
A wide range of chemical additives are used in the main process. A typical example is antifoam
where a concentration of about 150 ppm is used. The most common chemicals and their uses are:
2.3.14.1Scale inhibitor
The well flow contains several different contaminants such as salts, chalk, and traces of
radioactive materials. As pressure and temperature changes, these may precipitate and deposit in
pipes, heat exchangers, valves and tanks. As a result these may clog up or become stuck. The
scale inhibitor will prevent the contaminants from separating out. Scale or sediment inhibitor is
added on wellheads and production equipment.
2.3.14.2Emulsion breaker
Water and Oil cannot mix to form a solution. However small drops of oil will disperse in water
and small water drops will disperse in oil. These drops are held suspended by attractive and
repulsive electrostatic forces at the molecular level. This is called an emulsion and will form a
layer between the oil and water. Although the emulsion layer will eventually break down
naturally, it prevents full separation in reasonable time. An emulsion breaker is added to prevent
formation of, and break down of the emulsion layer by causing the droplets to merge and grow.
Sand and particles will normally be carried out by the water and be extracted in water treatment.
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However, the emulsion can trap these particles and sink to the bottom as a viscous sludge that is
difficult to remove during operation.
2.3.14.3Antifoam
The sloshing motion inside a separator will cause foaming. The foam will cover the fluid surface
and prevent gas to escape. Also, the foam reduces the gas space inside the separator, and worst
case it will pass the demister and escape to the gas outlet as mist and liquid drops. An antifoam
agent is introduced upstream of the separator to prevent or break down foam formation, by
reducing liquid surface tension.
2.3.14.4Polyelectrolyte
Polyelectrolyte is added before the hydro cyclones and causes oil droplets to merge. It works by
reducing surface tension and water polarity. This is also called flocculation and polyelectrolyte
flocculants and allows emissions to reach 40 ppm or less.
2.3.14.5Methanol (MEG)
Methanol or Mono Ethylene Glycol (MEG) is injected in flow lines to prevent Hydrate formation
and prevent corrosion. Hydrates are crystalline compounds that form in water crystalline
structures as a function of composition, temperature and pressure. Hydrates form and freeze to
hydrate ice that may damage equipment and pipelines. For normal risers, hydrates form only
when production stops and the temperature start to drop. Hydrate formation can be prevented by
depressurization which adds to startup time or by Methanol injection. On longer flow lines in cold
seawater or arctic climates, hydrates may form under normal operating conditions and require
continuous methanol injection. In this case the methanol can be separated and recycled. Hydrate
prediction model software can be used to determine when there is a risk for hydrate formation and
to reduce methanol injection or delay depressurization.
2.3.14.6Hypochlorite
Hypochlorite is added to seawater to prevent growth of algae and bacteria e.g. in seawater heat
exchangers. Hypochlorite is produced by electrolysis of seawater to chlorine. In one variant,
copper electrodes are used which adds copper salts to the solution which improves effectiveness.
2.3.14.7Biocides
Biocides are also preventive chemicals that are added to prevent microbiological activity in oil
production systems such as bacteria, fungus or algae growth. Particular problems arise from
growth of sulfate bacteria that produces hydrogen sulfide and clogs filters. Typical uses include
diesel tanks, produced water (after hydro cyclones), and slop and ballast tanks.
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2.3.14.8Corrosion Inhibitor
Corrosion Inhibitor is injected in the export pipelines and storage tanks. Exported oil could be
very corrosive and lead to corrosion of the inside of the pipeline or tank. The corrosion inhibitor
will protect by forming a thin film on the metal surface.
2.3.14.9Drag Reducers
Drag reducers improve flow in pipelines. Fluid near the pipe tries to stay stationary while fluid in
the center region of the pipe is moving quickly. This large difference in fluid causes turbulent
bursts to occur in the buffer region. Turbulent bursts propagate and form turbulent eddies, which
cause drag. Drag-reducing polymers are long-chain, ultra-high molecular weight polymers. With
only parts-per-million levels in the pipeline fluid, drag-reducing polymers suppress the formation
of turbulent bursts in the buffer region. The net result of using a drag-reducing polymer in
turbulent flow is a decrease in the frictional pressure drop in the pipeline by as much as 70%.
This can be used to lower pressure or improve throughput.
2.4 SOFTWARES USED
The following are the software’s used by the process department, described in brief.
2.4.1 HYSYS (2006)
Hysys is powerful software for simulation of chemical plants and oil refineries. It includes tools
for estimation of physical properties and liquid-vapor phase equilibria, heat and material
balances, and simulation of many types of chemical engineering equipment.
2.4.2 SMARTPLANT (4.03)
Smart plant creates intelligent P&IDs by populating the database with relevant plant data. With
quick access to supporting engineering data, Smart plant significantly cuts design and
modification time and increases accuracy with its exclusive data-centric approach and use of
design rules, automatic checks, and drag & drop capabilities. Smart plant P&ID features a
comprehensive, user- definable rule-based system that assists the engineer during the design
phase of the plant and subsequent life cycle phases. The open architecture of Smart plant P&ID
permits integration with other systems, such as Intergraph PDS, Smart plant instrumentation and
Aspen Zyqad, all of which allow user to share data with third party software
2.4.3 FLARENET
Flare net enables the engineer to perform steady-state design, rating or debottlenecking of single
or multiple flare and vent systems. The program can calculate minimum sizes for new flare
systems or evaluate alternatives to remove bottlenecks in existing relief networks. FLARENET
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can also be used to identify potentially dangerous relief scenarios during design phase or current
operational scenarios. The program can be used to demonstrate regulatory compliance of the flare
and vent systems in relation to over pressure and noise regulations. FLARENET is used in
Petrofac for the purpose of Flare Study.
2.5 IMPORTANT CODES AND STANDARDS FOLLOWED
The important codes and standards commonly followed in Petrofac are as tabulated below:
LIST OF CODES AND STANDARDS
S.No Standards Description
1 API 2000 Venting Atmospheric and Low pressure Storage tanks

Analysis,Design,Installation and Testing of basic surface
2 API RP 14C
safety system for offshore platforms
3 API 520 PART I Sizing and Selection of Pressure Relieving devices
4 API 520 PART II Sizing and Selection of Pressure Relieving devices
5 API 610 Centrifugal pumps
6 API 675 Positive Displacement pumps
7 API 676 Positive Displacement pumps(Rotary)
8 API 12 GDU Glycol Dehydration
9 API 521 Guide for Pressure relief and depressurization
10 API 14E Off shore piping
11 API 612 Steam turbines
12 API 12J Separators
13 API 681 Liquid ring Vacuum pumps and Compressors
14 API 617 Centrifugal pumps
15 ASME 31.3 B Process piping
16 ASME VIII Pressure Vessels
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2.6 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
Material Advantage Disadvantage

Low cost, easy to fabricate, abundant, most Very poor resistance to acids and
common material. Resists most alkaline stronger alkaline streams. More brittle
Carbon Steel
environments well. than other materials, especially at low
temperatures.
Relatively low cost, still easy to fabricate. No resistance to chlorides and
Resist a wider variety of environments than resistance decreases significantly at
Stainless Steel
carbon steel. Available is many different higher temperatures.
types.
Moderate cost, still easy to fabricate. Little resistance to chlorides and
254 SMO Resistance is better over a wider range of resistance at higher temperatures could
(Avesta) concentrations and temperatures compared to be improved.
stainless steel.
Very good resistance to chlorides (widely While the material is moderately
expensive, fabrication is difficult.
used in seawater applications). Strength
Titanium Much of cost will be in welding labor.
allows it to be fabricated at smaller
thicknesses.
Superior resistance to chlorides, even at Very expensive material and fabrication
Pd stabilized higher temperatures. Is often used on sea is again difficult and expensive.
Titanium water application where Titanium's resistance
may not be acceptable.
Very good resistance to high temperature Moderate to high expense. Difficult to
Nickel
caustic streams. weld.
Very wide range to choose from. Some have Fairly expensive alloys. Their use must
Hastelloy
been specifically developed for acid services be justified. Most are easy to weld.
Alloy
where other materials have failed.
One of the few materials capable of Brittle, very expensive, and very
withstanding weak HCL streams. difficult to fabricate. Some stream
Graphite components have been known to
diffusion through some types of
graphite.
Superior resistance to very harsh services Extremely expensive, must be
Tantalum
where no other material is acceptable. absolutely necessary.
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2.7 Appendix of Useful Charts & Tables
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3.0 HEALTH, SAFETY & ENVIRONMENT
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3.1 INTRODUCTION
The principal safety aim is to minimize the consequences of an incident, hazard or accident and to
ensure protection of personnel, minimization of potential pollution of the environment, protection
of the equipment and facility and maintenance of safe operation compatible with the production
requirements. Losses caused by lack of control of HSE risks can be devastating to people, assets,
reputation and the environment.
The various levels of Safety can be understood from following figure.
Safety Levels
Prevention Control Protection Mitigation

Mechanical Integrity, Automatic Process Alarms, operator Emergency response,
Predictive/Preventive Control Systems intervention, sprinkler, deluge,
maintenance, Manual control interlocks, trips, dike, trench, blast
Inspection, Testing Online spares emergency wall, barricade,
Operator training, Backup systems shutdowns, last water curtain,
human factors resort controls, personal protective
impact barriers emergency relief, equipment
ignition source
controls
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3.1.1 FLOW CHART OF HSE DESIGN DEPARTMENT ACTIVITIES
EIA / Other
Feasibility Studies Client Design Basis
HSE plan
HSE Design
Philosophy
Work Environment
Area limit spec HAZID
Consequence Analysis,
Flare Radiation Analysis, Reliability &
Occupational Health QRA* & other safety Maintainability
Risk Assessment
studies Study
Ergonomics study PHSER* Report

Layout & Spacing Review
based on safety studies
Waste Management Safety critical
Plan element listing
Update Plot Plan

Fire & Gas F&G cause and
Emissions Inventory detection layout effect
Fire water system PFD
Noise Mapping
Fire proofing study Fire exposed
report envelope
Inquiry, TBE*, PO*, Fire Zone Classification
Inspection and Hazardous area
Testing schedule,
Fire protection system Hazardous area
layout, Hydraulics, Fire classification
fighting system P&ID
Fire water Safety equipment
requirement, layout
Fire water tank data, FIREPRAN* Inquiry, TBE*,
Fire water pump data PO*, Inspection
and Testing
Conduct HAZOP & SIL Safety Signs layout
Studies
Escape and
Track & close HAZOP & Evacuation layout
SIL* recommendations
Review Safety &

Maintainability in 3D
Model Review
*QRA – Quantitative Risk Assessment *SIL – Safety Integrity Level

*FIREPRAN – Fire Protection Analysis Report *TBE – Technical Bid Evaluation
*PHSER – Project Health, Safety & Environmental Review *PO – Purchase Order
NOTE: Due to space constraints, interfaces / sequential flow between various HSE engineering activities are not shown exactly
in this flowchart.
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3.2 CODES AND STANDARDS FOLLOWED
3.2.1 NATIONAL FIRE PROTECTION ASSOCIATION (NFPA)
NFPA 10 Standard for Portable Fire Extinguishers
NFPA 11 Standard for Low Expansion Foam
NFPA 12 Standard on Carbon Dioxide Extinguishing Systems
NFPA 13 Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems 2007 Edition
NFPA 13D Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems in One- and Two-Family
Dwellings and Manufactured Homes 2007 Edition
NFPA 14 Standard for the Installation of Standpipe and Hose Systems 2007 Edition
NFPA 15 Standard for Water Spray Fixed Systems for Fire Protection
NFPA 16 Standard for the Installation of Foam-Sprinkler and Foam-Water Spray

Systems
NFPA 17 Standard for Dry Chemical Extinguishing Systems 2002 Edition
NFPA 20 Standard for Installation of Stationary Pumps for Fire protection
NFPA 30 Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code
NFPA 58 Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code 2004 Edition
NFPA 59A Standard for the Production, Storage, and Handling of Liquefied Natural Gas
(LNG) 2006 Edition
NFPA 72 National Fire Alarm Code
NFPA 80A Building Fire Protection
NFPA 750 Standard for Water Mist Fire Protection Systems
NFPA 101 Life Safety Code
NFPA 2001 Standard on Clean Agent Fire Extinguishing System
3.2.2 AMERICAN PETROLEUM INSTITUTE (API)
API RP 2004 Inspection for Fire Protection
API RP 55 Recommended Practice for oil and gas processing plant operations involving
hydrogen sulfide 1995 edition
API 342 Fugitive emissions from equipment leaks 1: Monitoring Manual 1998 edition
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API 505 Recommended Practice for Classification of Locations for Electrical
Installations at Petroleum Facilities Classified as Class 1, Zone 0, Zone 1
and Zone 2 1997 edition
API 520 Sizing, selection and installation of pressure-relieving devices in refineries

part1 and 2 2000 edition
API 2000 Venting atmospheric and low-pressure storage tanks 1998 edition
API 2001 Fire Protection in refineries 1998 edition
API 2030 Application of Fixed Water Spray systems for fire protection in the
petroleum industry 1998 edition
API 4589 Fugitive Hydrocarbon emissions from oil and gas production operations
1993 edition
API RP 521 Guides for Pressure Relieving and Depressuring Systems
API RP 2218 Fireproofing Practices in Petroleum and Petrochemical Processing plants
API RP 14C Recommended Practices for Analysis, Design, Installation and Testing of
Basic Surface Safety Systems on Offshore Production Platforms
API RP 520 Design and Construction of Pressure-Relieving Systems in Refineries
3.2.3 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION (BS)
BS 4422 Fire Protection Equipment
BS 476 Fire Tests on Building Materials and Structures
BS 6266 Fire Protection for Electronic Data Processing
BS 5499 Part 1 Fire Safety Signs, Notices and Graphic Symbols
BS 476 Fire tests on building materials and structures
BS 669 Flexible hoses, end fittings and sockets for gas burning appliances
BS 671 2000 Fixed Fire Fighting systems – Hose Systems
BS 5306: 2000 Fire Extinguishing installations and equipment on premises
BS 336 Fire Hose Couplings and Ancillary Equipment
BS 5445 (Part Components of Automatic Fire Detection Systems

1/5/7/8/9)
BS 5839 (Parts Fire Detection and Alarm Systems in Buildings
1 – 5)
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BS 5908 Code of Practice for Fire Precautions in Chemical Plant
3.2.4 INSTITUTE OF PETROLEUM (IP) MODEL CODE OF SAFE PRACTICE IN THE

PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
IP Part 3 Refining (1981)
IP Part 4 Drilling and Production Safety Code for Onshore Operations
IP Part 15 Area Classification Code for Installations Handling Flammable Liquids
3.2.5 SHELL DEP
DEP Fireproofing of steel structures

34.19.20.11
DEP Assessment of the Fire Safety of Onshore Installations
80.47.10.30
DEP Active Fire Protection Systems and Equipment for Onshore Facilities
80.47.10.31
DEP Fire Fighting Agents and Movable Fire Fighting Equipment for Onshore
80.47.10.32 Applications.
DEP Noise Control

31.10.00.31
DEP Combustion Gas Turbines
31.29.70.31
DEP Fire, Gas, and Smoke Detection Systems
32.30.20.11
DEP Electrical Engineering Guidelines
33.64.10.10
DEP Drainage and Primary Treatment Facilities
34.14.20.31
DEP Area Classification
80.00.10.10
DEP Pressure Relief, Emergency Depressurizing
80.45.10.10 Flare and Vent System
3.3 SOFTWARES
SHELL FRED
DNV PHAST
DNV SAFETI
PIPENET
SOUND PLAN
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3.3.1 SHELL FRED
This software can be used for modeling dispersion from a release, radiation from pool fires, jet
fires, assessment of BLEVE, Vapor Cloud Explosion etc.
3.3.2 DNV PHAST

This has an additional benefit of performing multiple scenarios simultaneously when compared
with Shell FRED. This software has a dynamic simulation for the dispersion assessment which is
not in the FRED.
3.3.3 DNV SAFETI

This software is used for assessing the risk levels in a plant.
3.3.4 PIPENET
The PIPENET software is used to enable the accurate simulation of the flow of fluid through a
network of pipes and other components.
3.3.5 SOUND PLAN

Sound plan is used for noise mapping.
3.4 CLASSIFICATION OF FIRE

3.4.1 BS CLASSIFICATION
Class A : Fires involving Solid material
Class B : Fires involving liquids or liquefiable solids
Class C : Fires involving gases
Class D : Fires involving metals
3.4.2 NFPA CLASSIFICATION

Class A : Fires in ordinary combustible materials, such as wood, cloth, paper,
rubber, and many plastics.
Class B : Fires in flammable liquids, combustible liquids, petroleum greases, tars,
oils, oil-based paints, solvents, lacquers, alcohols, and flammable gases.
Class C : Fires which involve energized electrical equipment where the electrical
conductivity of extinguishing media is of importance
Class D : Fires in combustible metals, such as magnesium, titanium, zirconium,
sodium, lithium, and potassium.
Class K : Fires in cooking appliances that involve combustible cooking media
(vegetable or animal oils and fats)
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3.5 FIRE & GAS DETECTION SYSTEM
The objective of the fire and gas detection is to provide an early warning to personnel of a
potentially dangerous situation such as flammable / toxic gas releases or hydrocarbon fires. The
system shall be fed from the emergency power systems to enable operation for a period of 24
hours. The electrical supply shall be completely stand-alone from the other systems.
Classification of fire & gas detectors

DETECTION DEVICE
FIRE DETECTOR GAS DETECTOR DUST DETECTOR
SMOKE HEAT FLAME FLAMMABLE TOXIC COMBUSTIBLE
3.5.1 FIRE DETECTORS

Fire detectors are designed to detect one or more of the three characteristics of a fire i.e. smoke,
heat or flame.
Smoke Detectors
Ionization
Photoelectric
Dual Chamber (Combinations of photoelectric and ionization detectors)
Very Early Smoke Detection and Alarm (VESDA) or High sensitivity Smoke Detection
(HSSD)
Thermal or Heat Detectors

Flexible plastic tubing (pneumatic)
Fusible optical fiber
Bi-metallic wire or strip
Fusible plug (pneumatic pressure release)
Quartzoid bulb (pneumatic pressure release)
Fusible link (under spring tension)
Fixed temperature detector
Rate of rise detector
Rate compensated
Combination rate of rise and fixed temperature
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Optical (Flame) Detectors
Ultraviolet (UV)
Single frequency infrared (IR)
Dual frequency infrared (IR/IR)
Ultraviolet/infrared - simple voting (UV/IR)
Ultraviolet/infrared - ratio measurement (UV/IR)
Multi-band
3.5.2 GAS DETECTORS

Flammable / Combustible Gas detectors
Toxic gas detectors

Comparison of Fire Detectors
Type of detection Detector type Speed

Smoke Ionization Fast
Photoelectric Fast
Very Early Smoke Detection Apparatus Very fast
(VESDA)
Heat Fusible link Low to moderate
Fusible plug Low to moderate
Quartzoid bulb Low to moderate
Optical Fiber Low to moderate
Bi-metallic Wire Low to moderate
Rate of Rise (ROR) Low to moderate
Optical Infra Red (IR) Very fast
Ultra Violet (UV) Very fast
IRIR Very fast
UVIR Very fast
Multi band Very fast
Video camera Fast
Application of Fixed Fire Detection Devices
Location / Facility Hazard Fixed Reference

detector
types
Office Ordinary combustibles MPS, Heat, NFPA 101, Section 26-3.4.1
Electrical fire Smoke
Accommodation Ordinary combustibles MPS, Smoke NFPA 101, Section 18-3.4.1

Electrical fire & Section 20-3.4.1
Kitchens & Cooking MPS, Heat NFPA 101, Section 8-3.4.1
Cafeterias Electrical fire NFPA 96, Section 7-3.1.4
Control Rooms Electrical Fire MPS, Smoke NFPA 75, Section 6.2
Switch gear rooms Electrical Fire MPS, Smoke NFPA 850
Turbine package Electrical Fire Heat, Optical NFPA 30, Section 5-5. 5.1
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Hydrocarbon Fire
Process units Hydrocarbon Fire MPS, Heat, NFPA 30, Section 5-5. 5.1
Optical
Pump Stations Hydrocarbon Fire MPS, Heat, NFPA 30, Section 5-5. 5.1
Optical
Loading facilities Hydrocarbon Fire MPS, Heat, NFPA 30, Section 5-5. 5.1
Optical
Tank or Vessel Hydrocarbon Fire MPS, Heat, NFPA 30, Section 5-5. 5.1
Storage Optical
Offshore drilling or Hydrocarbon Fire MPS, Smoke, NFPA 30, Section 5-5. 5.1
production facility Heat, Optical API RP 14 G
Laboratories Hydrocarbon Fire MPS, Heat NFPA 45, Section 4-1.1 &
4.5
Note: MPS – Manual pull station
3.6 FIRE PROTECTION

The objectives of fire protection systems are to provide cooling, control the fire (i.e., prevent it
from spreading) and provide extinguishment of the fire incident. Two types of fixed fire
protection exist, active and passive.
3.6.1 ACTIVE FIRE PROTECTION

An active fire protection system requires some action to occur before it functions per its design
intent. This action may be taken by either a person or control system. Examples of active fire
protection systems are monitors, water spray systems, foam systems, emergency isolation valves,
and ESD systems.
Elements of active fire protection system are as follows:
Fire warning systems

Fire detection systems
Fire fighting agents
Fire water supply system
Fixed fire fighting systems
Mobile fire fighting systems
Active fire protection systems can be classified as following:
Based on extinguishing media

− Water based extinguishing systems
− Gas based extinguishing systems
− Chemical extinguishing systems
Based on the arrangement
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− Portable / mobile system
− Fixed system
3.6.1.1 Water based extinguishing systems

Water is the most useful and vital fire suppression medium. It has enormous heat absorption
properties. Approximately 3.8 liters (1.0 gal.) of water absorbs about 1,512 k cal (6,000 Btu),
when vaporized to steam. Steam created by water evaporation expands to about 17,000 times its
volume in open atmospheres, thereby limiting combustion processes by displacing oxygen in the
area. The objective of water suppression systems is to provide exposure cooling, fire control,
suppression of fire incidents and may assist in the dispersion of flammable or toxic vapors.
Hydrant System
Hydrant system (hose reel system or stand pipe & hose system) provides means for manual
application of water to fires. A hydrant is a quick opening valve connected to pipelines charged
with water. This ensures the availability of water with adequate pressure at any point.
Monitors
Monitor is a device, normally either portable, fixed, trailer-mounted or truck installed, to which a
large throughput nozzle is attached to allow the operator to direct the fire fighting agent as
required. It should be installed at strategic points around and inside areas where fire hazards have
been identified. Accessibility and prevailing wind directions shall be taken into account to arrive
at the optimum positions.
Monitors should be provided at all rotating equipment and large liquid holdup vessels. They
should also be located to provide cooling water spray to the process equipment preferably from
an upwind location. A minimum of two remotely located firewater monitors are usually provided
at sources of potential large hydrocarbon release, i.e., rotating equipment such as pumps,
compressors, storage vessels and tanks.
Sprinkler System:
A sprinkler system, for fire protection purposes, is an integrated system
of underground and overhead piping. The portion of the sprinkler system
above ground is a network for specially sized or hydraulically designed
piping installed generally overhead and to which sprinklers are attached
in a systematic pattern. The system is usually activated by heat or smoke
detector or manually and discharge water over the fire affected area.
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Wet and dry pipe sprinkler systems are commonly provided to indoor occupancies, such as
warehouses, offices, etc.
Blow Out Suppression System

The "Blowout Suppression System" (BOSS) consists of finely atomized water injected to the
fluid stream of a gas and oil mixture before it exits a release point. The added water lowers the
flame temperature and flame velocities thereby reducing the flame stability.
Water Spray System:

Water spray system is a fixed pipe system connected to a reliable source of
water supply and equipped with water spray nozzles for specific water
discharge and distribution over the surface of area to be protected. The
highest application is the utilization for cooling process vessels. The
important surfaces for process vessels to protect are the vapor spaces and
hemispherical ends. Electrical transformers are provided with water spray coverage where their
value or criticality is considered high.
Design of Water Spray System

The following details are required for the design of spray system:
Equipments to be protected
Dimension of the equipment
Type of fuel handled in the equipment
Equipment Location
The density of discharge which is specified by

standards for various equipments is given
below:
Gas compressors/LPG bullets/pumps

– 20.2 lpm/ m2
Un-insulated vessels tanks - 10.2 lpm/ m2
The water required for the spray system is calculated by multiplying the density of discharge with
the surface area of the equipment.
3.6.1.2 Foam water suppression systems

It is a system consisting of water and foam supply, proportion ting equipment, foam makers,
discharge devices and other allied equipment for the purpose of adequately distributing foam over
a hazard.
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Foam water systems are provided wherever there are
large quantities of liquid hydrocarbons that pose a high
fire risk. They are used primarily to provide a cohesive
floating blanket on the liquid surface of the liquid
material it is protecting.
Systems
In the oil and gas industry there are generally five foam fire protection systems commonly
encountered:
General area coverage with foam water monitors, hoses or portable towers.
Fixed foam water deluge spray systems for general area or specific equipment.
Atmospheric or low pressure storage tank protection by overhead Foam Chambers.
Atmospheric or low pressure storage tank protection by subsurface injection systems.
High expansion foam applied to special hazards such as warehouses or confined spaces.
Design of Foam System

The following details are required for the design of foam system:
Pumps handling hazardous fluids

Oil storage tanks
The density of foam discharge which is specified by standards over various equipments is given
below:
Cone roof tanks Pumps – 4.1 lpm/ m2

Floating roof tanks (Seal area only) - 12.2 lpm/ m2
The foam solution required for the foam system is calculated from the liquid surface area of the
equipment
3.6.1.3 Gaseous systems

Carbon dioxide, Inergen & Argonite are the popular gases used in fire protection system. Carbon
dioxide (CO2) is a non-combustible gas that can penetrate and spread to all parts of a fire,
diluting the available oxygen to a concentration that will not support combustion and it is used for
fires in unmanned areas such as gas turbine enclosures, ship machinery spaces, unmanned sub-
stations etc. Inergen & Argonite are called as ‘clean agents’ since they are cleaner & friendly to
the environment. They are used for fires in all electronic / electrical rooms such as control rooms,
computer server rooms, UPS rooms, sub-stations etc.
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A gas extinguishing system comprises of gas stored cylinders, actuation valves & devices,
network of pipelines, discharge nozzles and control panels.
3.6.1.4 Chemical systems

Wet Chemical
Wet chemical systems have a slightly advantage over dry chemicals in that they can coat the
liquid surface of the fire and can absorb the heat of a heat, thereby preventing re-ignition. Wet
chemical systems are primarily provided for kitchen cooking appliances - grills, fryers, etc. They
provide a fixed fire suppression application of liquid fire suppressant through fixed nozzles
Dry Chemical
Dry chemical agents currently used are a mixture of powders, primarily sodium bicarbonate
(ordinary), potassium bicarbonate (Purple K), and mono ammonium phosphate (multipurpose).
When applied to a fire they cause extinguishment by smothering the fire process. They will not
provide securement of a flammable liquid spill or pool fire and it can re-flash after it is initially
suppressed if an ignition source is present (i.e., a hot surface).
3.6.1.5 Dual agent systems

Dual agent suppression systems are a combination of simultaneous application of foam water and
dry chemical to provide for greater fire fighting capabilities. Usually aqueous film forming foam
(AFFF) and potassium bicarbonates are used. They are provided in separate vessels on a self
contained skid.
3.6.1.6 Portable fire extinguishers

The objective for providing portable fire extinguishers is to have an available supply of plentiful
extinguishers that can be easily used in the early stages of a fire growth. Portable extinguishers
are classified by expected application on a specific type of fire (i.e., A, B, C, or D) and the
expected area of suppression.
Fire extinguisher types

Carbon dioxide extinguishers
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Dry chemical extinguishers
Pressurized water extinguishers
AFFF and FFFP
Wet chemical extinguisher
Water mist extinguisher
Wheeled extinguishers
3.6.2 PASSIVE FIRE PROTECTION

Passive fire protection inherently provides protection against fires and does not require any
electrical, mechanical or manual action to function. The types of passive fire protection which are
commonly employed include the following:
Fire barriers
Fireproofing and fire-resistant construction
Thermal insulation
Separation distances
Drainage/spill control systems
3.6.2.1 Fire Barriers

The purpose of fire barriers is to minimize fire damage by limiting the spread of fire. Fire barriers
are typically constructed of non-combustible materials such as masonry, concrete, or gypsum-
board. Fire barriers are most often provided inside buildings but are occasionally used outside to
separate process units or other hazardous operations. There are two basic types of fire barriers,
fire "walls" and fire "partitions."
3.6.2.2 Fire proofing

Structural steel which is exposed to a fire can lose its tensile strength and eventually fail,
depending on the quantity of heat generated and the duration of the fire. If steel failure occurs,
equipment and piping could rupture or fall, potentially releasing additional fuel and other
hazardous materials. It is desirable therefore to protect structural steel where the potential exists
for the release of large quantities of flammable or combustible materials.
There are three basic types of fireproofing systems:
Spray-on/Coated Systems
Wrap Systems
Box Systems
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It is important that the interface between the fireproofing and the steel at the flange edge be
properly sealed with caulk or other materials to prevent water and chemicals from penetrating
beneath the fireproofing.
3.6.2.3 Thermal Insulation

Insulation is sometimes used to protect vessels or equipment from heat during a fire. This can be
particularly useful with respect to design of emergency relief systems as use of thermal insulation
may allow a reduction in the vent size.
3.6.2.4 Separation Distances

Fires, particularly those involving hydrocarbons, can generate significant amounts of both radiant
and convective heat. While protection against radiant heat can be provided by the passive fire
protection methods discussed previously or by active fire protection systems such as sprinklers,
physical separation is a frequently used method and the most desirable since it also provides
protection from explosions in adjacent areas.
3.6.2.5 Drainage/Spill control system

Large quantities of water may be used to fight fires in facilities handling chemicals. Since most
flammable materials float on water, there is the potential for fire protection water to spread the
fire. As a result of all these factors, there is a need for drainage systems to control water runoff &
there by control flammable liquid spills.
3.7 HAZARDOUS AREA CLASSIFICATION
Area Classification is an assessment of the probability of a flammable mixture being present. The
assessment results are division of a facility into hazardous and non hazardous area and the sub-
division of the hazardous area into zones. The object of area classification is to permit the safe
use of the electrical equipment by balancing the risk of flammable atmosphere being present with
precaution being taken.
Data required
Process Flow Diagram showing flows, temperatures and pressures.

Hazardous properties of fluid handled.
P & ID diagrams
Plant layout with typical plans and layout
Knowledge of equipment features and the mode of operation
Consideration of ventilation
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Fluid Categories
Based on potential for rapid production of flammable vapor on release to environment
Category A A flammable liquid that, on release, would vaporize rapidly and

substantially.
Category B A flammable liquid, not in Category A, but at temperature sufficient for
boiling to occur on release
Category C A flammable liquid, not in Category A or B, but which case, on release, be
at a temperature above its flash point or form a flammable mist
Category G Fluid in Gas / Vapor state
G(i) – A typical methane – rich natural gas
G(ii) – Refinery Hydrogen
Classification of Hazardous Area into various Zones
Based on the likelihood of occurrence and duration of flammable atmospheres
That part of hazardous area in which a flammable atmosphere is continuously

Zone 0
present or present for long periods.
That part of hazardous area in which a flammable atmosphere is likely to
Zone 1
occur in normal operation.
That part of hazardous area in which a flammable atmosphere is not likely to
Zone 2
occur in normal operation and if it occurs, it exist only for a short period.
Non-hazardous
Area Areas which do not fall into any of the above are non-hazardous area
(Safe Area)
Grades of Release
A release that is continuous or nearly so, or that occurs frequently and for
Continuous
grade release short periods
A release that is likely to occur periodically or occasionally in normal
Primary grade operation i.e. a release which, in operating procedures is anticipated to
release
occur.
A release that is unlikely to occur in normal operation and, in any event, will
Secondary grade
do so only infrequently and for short periods i.e. a release which, in
release
operating procedure is not anticipated to occur.
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3.8 CLASSIFICATION OF HAZARDS
Light (Low) Hazard: Light hazard occupancies are locations where the total amount of Class A
combustible materials, including furnishings, decorations, and contents, is of minor quantity.
Ordinary (Moderate) Hazard: Ordinary hazard occupancies are locations where the total
amount of Class A combustibles and Class B flammables are present in greater amounts than
expected under light (low) hazard occupancies. These occupancies could consist of dining areas,
mercantile shops and allied storage, light manufacturing, research operations, auto showrooms,
parking garages.
Extra (High) Hazard: Extra hazard occupancies are locations where the total amount of Class A
combustibles and Class B flammables present, in storage, production, use, finished product, or
combination thereof, is over and above those expected in occupancies classed as ordinary
(moderate) hazard. These occupancies could consist of woodworking; vehicle repair; aircraft and
boat servicing; cooking areas; individual product display showrooms.
3.9 HAZARD IDENTIFICATION
Hazard identification is the systematic procedure for understanding the conditions under which
various hazards arise. It is to understand what can go wrong, and how.
Hazard Identification Techniques:
Checklist Analysis
What if Analysis
Failure Mode Effect Analysis
Fault Tree Analysis
Event Tree Analysis
Bow Tie Analysis
Fire & Explosion Index
HAZOP
3.9.1 CHECK LIST ANALYSIS

A checklist analysis uses a written list of items or procedures to verify the status of a system.
Checklists may vary widely in level of detail, depending on the process being analyzed.
3.9.2 WHAT IF ANALYSIS

What-if analysis involves the examination of possible deviations from the design, construction,
modification, or operating intent of a process. It can be used to examine virtually any aspect of
facility design or operation.
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3.9.3 FAILURE MODE EFFECT ANALYSIS
An FMEA is used to examine each potential failure mode of a process to determine the effects of
the failure on the system. A failure mode is the symptom, condition, or fashion in which hardware
fails.
3.9.4 FAULT TREE ANALYSIS

FTA is a systematic, deductive failure analysis that focuses on a particular accident or undesired
event called the "top event" and develops the underlying sequence of events leading to the top
event. A separate FTA must be performed for each top event.
3.9.5 EVENT TREE ANALYSIS

Event Tree Analysis evaluates the potential for an accident resulting from equipment failure or
process upset (called initiating event). Event tree indicates how the undesirable event (initiating
event) develops into different accident sequences, accounting for both the success and the failure
of safety functions as the accident progresses.
3.9.6 BOW TIE ANALYSIS

Bow tie analysis presents the elements of both fault tree and event tree for a selected top event in
a graphic manner.
3.9.7 FIRE & EXPLOSION INDEX

The Fire & Explosion Index (F&EI) is to serve as a guide for evaluating the hazard potential for
separate major units of chemical process plants, is to aid in determining the consequences of a
fire or an explosion and is to help determine appropriate loss prevention features to be used. It is
based on the quantity of Hazardous chemicals involved, Temperature and pressure in the system
Type of process operation & handling and Protective system such as fire protection, inert gas
blanketing etc.
3.9.8 HAZARD AND OPERABILITY STUDY (HAZOP)

HAZOP study is the most commonly used method for hazard identification. It is a systematic
method in which process hazards and potential operating problems are identified using a series of
guide words to investigate process deviations so that they may be eliminated or mitigated.
Documents required:
O&M Manuals (Process Description, Start-up/ Shut-down / Emergency Procedures)

Process Flow / P&ID / C&E Diagrams
Equipment Specifications
Layout Diagrams
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Safety Manual / MSDS
All Documents Current & Up-dated (with Details of Modifications)
Node:
Line or Equipment taken one at a time for the HAZOP study
Example:
Inlet Line to Reactor

Overhead Separator
Naphtha Tank
Parameter:
Parameter is an aspect of the process that describes it -
Physically,
Chemically, or
In terms of what is happening.
Specific Parameters:
Pressure, Temperature, Flow, Level, Composition, Phase, ...
General Parameters:
Maintenance, Start-up, Reaction Step, ...
Design Intent:
Design Intent refers to the limits of the parameter within which the system is intended to operate
safely.
Example:
Pressure: Min. (-) 5 mm WG; Max. 2 bar
Temperature: Min. (-) 10 °C; Max. 120 °C
Level: Min. 10 %; Max. 70 %
Deviation:
Parameter + Guide Word ⇒ Deviation
Guidewords:
No = Negation
More = Quantitative Increase
Less = Quantitative Decrease
As Well As = Something Additional
Part Of = Incomplete
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Reverse = Opposite
Other Than = Something Else
Causes:
All possible causes for the Deviation are to be listed by the HAZOP Team
Consequences:
List the Consequences of each of the Causes (assuming there are no Safeguards).
3.10 CONSEQUENCE ANALYSIS
Consequence analysis is the estimation of the injury and loss that could result if an accidental
event occurred, such as a vessel rupture explosion due to over pressurization.
Consequence analysis generally consists of the following three activities in sequence:
Development of reactive chemical accident scenarios

Estimation of the extent of toxic/corrosive effects, heat effects, explosion blast effects,
and/or any other significant effects with the potential for injury or loss, as consequences
of the identified accident scenarios.
Estimation of the potential impact of each accident scenario;
Various models considered are:
Source rate model

Discharge rate model
Liquid discharge
Gas discharge
Two phase discharge
Flash and evaporation
Vapor cloud explosion
Flash fire
BLEVE and Fireball
Pool fire
Jet fire
Source Models
Source models are used to quantitatively define the release scenario by estimating
discharge rates, total quantity released (or total release duration), extent of flash and
evaporation from a liquid pool, and aerosol formation
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Discharge rate models
This may be from a crack or fracture of process vessel or pipe work, from an open valve,
or from an emergency vent.
Typical Release Outcomes
Liquid discharges
Hole in atmospheric storage tank or other atmospheric pressure vessel or pipe under
liquid head.
Hole in vessel or pipe containing pressurized liquid below its normal boiling point
Gas discharges
Hole in equipment (pipe, vessel) containing gas under pressure

Relief valve discharge (of vapor only)
Boiling-off evaporation from liquid pool
Relief valve discharge from top of pressurized storage tank generation of toxic
combustion products as a result of fire
Two phase discharges
Hole in pressurized storage tank or pipe containing a liquid above its normal boiling point
relief valve discharges (e.g. runaway reaction of foaming liquid)
Fundamental Equation:
Discharge rate models are based on a mechanical energy balance. A typical form of this balance
is
Where,
P is the pressure (force/area)
p is the density (mass/volume)
g is the acceleration due to gravity (length/time2)
gc is the gravitational constant (force/mass-acceleration)
z is the vertical height from some datum (length)
v is the fluid velocity (length/time)
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f is a factional loss term (Iength2/time2)
Ws is the shaft work (mechanical energy/time)
m is the mass flow rate (mass/time)
Definitions & formulae
Liquid Discharges:
For liquid discharges, the driving force for the discharge is normally pressure, with the pressure
energy being converted to kinetic energy. During the discharge the pressure integral in the
mechanical energy balance, can be integrated directly to result in the following simplified
equation:
Gas Discharge:
Fundamental equation of discharge rate model is
Where,
m is mass flow rate of gas through the hole (mass/time)
CD is the discharge coefficient (dimensionless)
A is the area of the hole (length2)
P1 is the pressure upstream of the hole (force/area)
M is the molecular weight of the gas (mass/mole)
k is the heat capacity ratio, CP/CV (unit less)
Rg is the ideal gas constant (pressure-volume/mole-deg)
T1 is the initial upstream temperature of the gas (deg)
P2 is the downstream pressure (force/area)
Two-Phase Discharge: When released to atmospheric pressure, any pressurized liquid above its
normal boiling point will start to flash and two-phase flow will result. Both of these situations are
accounted for by the following expression
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Where,
M is the two-phase mass discharge rate (mass/time)
A is the area of the discharge (length2)
GSUB is the sub cooled mass flux (mass/area time)
GERM is the equilibrium mass flux (mass/area time)
N is a non equilibrium parameter (dimensionless).
Flash and Evaporation
The purpose of flash and evaporation models is to estimate the total vapor or vapor rate that
forms a cloud, for use as input to dispersion models. If the liquid is stored under pressure at a
temperature above its normal boiling point (superheated), it will flash partially to vapor when
released to atmospheric pressure
Equation for the flash fraction:
Where,
Cf is the heat capacity of the liquid, averaged over T to Tb (energy/mass deg)
T is the initial temperature of the liquid (deg)
Tb is the atmospheric boiling point of the liquid (deg)
hfg is the latent heat of vaporization of the liquid at Tb (energy/mass)
Fv is the mass fraction of released liquid vaporized (unit less)
Evaporation:
Land spills are better defined as many spills occur into a dike or other retention system that
allows the pool size to be well estimated. Spills onto water are unbounded and calculations are
more empirical.
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Where,
m is the mass of the pool (mass)
Cp is the heat capacity of the liquid (energy/mass deg)
T is the temperature of the liquid in the pool (deg)
t is the time (time)
H is the total heat flux into the pool (energy/time)
L is the heat of vaporization of the liquid (energy/ mass)
m is the evaporation rate (mass/time)
Consequence modeling
Heat Radiation Acceptance Criteria
The effect of thermal radiation on people is a function of:
Intensity of radiation (heat flux) and

Exposure time
Thermal
Radiation
Damage to equipment Damage to people
Intensity
(kw/m2)
Intensity just tolerable to a clothed man
1.5 Solar heat at noon
Intensity after which pain is felt after 1 min
2.1 PVC insulated cables damaged
4.7 -- Intensity in areas where emergency action
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with protective clothing could last for a few
minutes
-- Intensity which could cause death within
8
minutes
-- Intensity at design flare release where
9.5 people have access and expos is limited to

a few seconds for escape
10-12 -- Intensity at which vegetation ignites

Minimum energy to ignite wood Mortality rate is 1% after 2 minutes
12.5
with a flame; Melts plastic tubing. exposure
Intensity for building should be designed to
14-16 --
withstand
Minimum energy to ignite wood
Intensity at which non-piloted ignition of
25 at indefinitely long exposure
wood occurs
without a flame.
Intensity at which damage is caused to
37.5 Severe damage to plant process equipment, also Immediate

mortality rate is considered to be100%
3.11 QUANTITATIVE RISK ASSESSMENT
Quantitative risk assessment (QRA) involves the determination of event consequences and
frequencies using detailed engineering calculations and estimates.
The QRA involves the following steps:
Hazard identification and screening
Consequence analysis
Hazard frequency assessment
Event tree analysis
Quantification of risks using output from frequency and consequence analysis
Assessment of risks against acceptability criteria
Investigation of potential risk reducing measures
ALARP demonstration
Development of recommendations
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3.12 LOCATION, ORIENTATION AND LAYOUT
Where new facilities are required the locations shall be selected and the layouts developed with
an emphasis on achieving a high level of inherent safety and minimal impact on the environment.
The main features the design shall take care of during the location, orientation and development
of site layout are:
Account for the prevailing environmental conditions (e.g. locating the process facilities
downwind of the main safety facilities, ensuring escaping flammable gas are not carried
towards sources of ignition).
Ensure that emergency services (e.g. fire and ambulance services) have a clear approach
to the installations.
Minimize escalation potential by appropriate equipment separation and Orientation
Ensure that safety critical systems and equipment shall be protected, primarily by
separation.
Ensure that distance requirements shall be allowed for in the separation of process
equipment from potential sources of ignition.
Ensure that personnel areas are either at a sufficient distance from sources of hazard or,
where this is not possible, are adequately protected against gas ingress, blast
overpressures and heat radiation.
Account for potential future expansions and any requirements for temporary
systems/equipment.
Ensure that arrangements for equipment access allow for personnel to escape to a safe
location and the means of that escape.
Ensure that access, space and lay down areas shall allow efficient operation/maintenance.
3.13 ESCAPE & EVACUATION ROUTES
There shall be two means of escape to safety from any normal working areas of the site.
Emergency entrances/exits will be located in perimeter fencing as needed to ensure the minimum
two routes to safety. Escape routes will be directed away from possible hazards and will terminate
at a designated muster area that will be in a safe location by the site entrance. Escape routes in
hydrocarbon handling areas shall have a minimum width of 1.2m and a minimum height of 2.2m.
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Any enclosed area, building or room where more than 5 people may be grouped or which is larger
than 5m in length or 25m2 in area shall be provided with at least two independent exits and
different escape routes. These will be located as far away from each other as possible.
3.14 NOISE MAPPING
Design and organizational measures

shall ensure that personnel exposure to
noise during regular operation and
maintenance are as low as reasonably
practicable (ALARP), and do not
exceed the maximum noise exposure
limits. Selection and installation of low-
noise machinery and technical
appliances shall be the primary noise
control measure. The use of individual
ear protection is sometimes necessary,
but it should be the last resort when all
other means of reducing noise have
failed. Plant noise and emission limits/noise mapping
3.15 SAFETY EQUIPMENT & SIGNS
The provision of Safety Equipment & signs are important features of personnel safety. Safety
equipments and signs has to be placed strategically considering specific hazards identified
related to plant/process units as immediate access to these items are vital in case of
emergencies.
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4.0 MECHANICAL
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4.1 INTRODUCTION TO MECHANICAL DEPARTMENT
Inside most of the process plants, a number of mechanical equipments are integrated together to
execute the process operations. Mechanical equipment/packages contribute to any process plant
for achieving the desired products and production. To sum up, mechanical department
encompasses all the activities that are required to materialize process design into reality in the
form of mechanical equipment and packages.
4.2 Flow chart for mechanical activities applicable for FEED/ Detailed Engineering
Client Documents
Mechanical Design Basis/Studies
Specification of Equipment
Mechanical Data Sheets & Calculations Process Data Sheets/Equipment list
IDC
Comments Compiling comments
Project Approval
Back Checking
Issued for Client Comments
Comments Compiling comments
Issued for Design

Back Checking
- Site Support Prepare Requisition
- Erection &
Commissioning Floating Inquiries to Vendor
Specification.
- Operating & Receive Vendor Documents
Maintenance
Manual. Technical Queries Vendor
- As built
Drawings & Preparation of TBE
Documents
IDC
Comments Compiling Comments

Package/Equipment
Transport
IFC (Vendor)
Back Checking
Inspection/Test
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4.3 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT AND PACKAGES
Mechanical equipment can be broadly classified as Static &. Rotating equipment based on
whether a relative motion of the parts that they are made up of exists or not. Further,
Mechanical packages are a combination of this Static & Rotary Equipment.
MECHANICAL
STATIC ROTATING PACKAGES HVAC

EQUIPMENT EQUIPMENT
Pressure vessel: Pumps 1. Instrument air Condenser

1. Column 1.Centrifugal Pumps 2. Utility air compressor
2. Drum 2.Positive dis placement 3. Water treatment Evaporator
Pumps
3. Separators 4. Steam generator
Expansion
4. Reactors 5. Flare stack & flare
Devices
5. Vessel ignition package
Compressors :
6. Chemical injection
1.Positive dis
7. Corrosion inhibitor
Heat exchangers placement
8. Nitrogen package
1. Contact type 2.Dynamic
9. Effluent treatment
2. Non-contact type
Turbines
Storage tanks
1.Steam turbines
1. Cone roof
2.Gas turbines
2. Dome roof
3. Floating roof
Blowers
Heaters
Fans
Steam generators
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4.3.1 PRESSURE VESSELS
Pressure vessel is a closed container designed to hold gases or liquids at pressures different from
ambient pressure. It generally has a cylindrical body called as shell and two end closures called as
flat/dished ends. For fewer
applications a pressure
vessel can have completely
spherical body, known as
Horton Sphere.
The dish end can have

various shapes depending
upon the pressure and
temperature to which the
vessel is subjected to, viz-
ellipsoidal, tori-spherical,
hemispherical, conical and
flat heads.
Most of the pressure or

storage vessels in service
have been designed and
constructed in accordance
with one of the following
two pressure vessel design
codes: Types of dish end
1 The ASME code Section VIII (with other relevant codes and standards referenced in the same)
“Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code."
2. The API Standard 620 or the American Petroleum Institute Code which provides rules for
lower pressure vessels not covered by the ASME Code
Different types of supports are used for pressure vessels based on whether they are installed in
horizontal or vertical condition, as follows
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I. Horizontal vessels
a) Saddle support
II. Vertical vessels
a) Skirt support b) Leg support c) Lug Support
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4.3.2 HEAT EXCHANGERS
Heat Exchangers are used to transfer or exchange heat between two fluids, which are flowing at
two different temperature levels. Heat exchangers are widely used in petroleum refineries,
chemical plants, petrochemical plants, natural gas processing, refrigeration, power plants, air
conditioning and space heating.
Heat exchangers are broadly classified based on their method of heat transfer as:
I. Contact type: where the hot and cold fluids get mixed
II. Non-contact type: where there is no physical contact between the two fluids
Contact type Non-contact type

Cooling tower Shell and tube
Scrubbers Double pipe
Deaerator Plate/ compact
Air cooled
SHELL AND TUBE EXCHANGER
Shell and tube heat exchanger is usually used for higher-pressure applications. A typical shell
and tube heat exchanger consists of a series of tubes, through which one of the fluids flow and
these set of tubes is called tube bundle, and may be composed of several types of tubes: plain,
longitudinally finned, etc. The second fluid to be heated or cooled flows over an outer tube called
SHELL.
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Shell and Tube heat exchangers are classified as based on the configuration of flow and
arrangement of tube sheet/tubes.
Tube arrangement Tube sheet Fluid flow

- Straight tube
- Fixed tube sheet - Counter-current flow
- Plain tube
- Floating tube sheet - Parallel flow
- U-tube
- High fin
- Low fin
4.3.3 HEATERS
Process Heaters are used to heat the process fluid as needed by the application requirement. The
applications can vary such as, to attain a certain temperature as demanded by the process, for
heating the fluid to avoid freezing while transmission or transportation due to low ambient
temperature, etc.
4.3.4 BOILERS
Boilers are a type of fired
heaters, but the fluids
involve only steam and
water. Boiler types differ
based on the fuels fired,
steaming capacity, pressure
& temperatures involved,
fluid flowing in the tubes
etc.
Fire Tube Boiler Water Tube Boiler
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TYPES OF BOILERS
based on firing method

− fired
coal / solid fuel fired
− pulverized coal
− cyclone burners
− fluidized bed combustion (fbc)
» atmospheric / bubbling fbc
» circulating fbc
» pressurized fbc
− grate type firing
» traveling grate
» fixed grate
» dumping grate
oil fired
gas fired
incinerator boilers
chemical recovery boilers
municipal waste boilers
− unfired
heat recovery steam generators
engine exhaust gas boilers
kiln recovery boilers
based on water circulation methods
− natural circulation
− forced circulation
− controlled circulation
− once through
based on steaming capacity
− low capacity - upto 10 tph
− medium capacity – above 10 tph upto 100 tph
− high capacity above 100 tph
based on steam pressure
− low pressure - upto 10 bar
− medium pressure – above 10 bar upto 50 bar
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− high pressure above 50 bar
based on fluid flowing in the tubes
− water tube boilers, water flowing through the tubes
− fire tube boilers, flue gas flowing through the tubes
4.3.5 STORAGE TANKS

A storage tank is basically a container used for holding
liquids, sometimes for gases. Storage tanks can be of
many shapes, but large tanks tend to be cylindrical,
with rounded corners, to withstand hydraulic pressure
of contained liquid.
4.3.5.1 Atmospheric storage tank

Cone roof Floating roof Dome roof
4.3.5.2 Cryogenic storage tanks

Single containment tank
Either a single tank or a tank comprising

an inner tank and an outer container
designed and constructed so that only the
inner tank is required to meet the low
temperature ductility requirements for
storage of the refrigerated products.
The outer container of the single
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containment storage tank is primarily for retention and protection of insulation and to constrain
the product vapour but it is not designed to contain refrigerated product in the event of leakage
from the inner tank
Double Containment Tank
A double containment tank is

designed and constructed so that
the inner self supporting
primary container and
secondary container are capable
of independently containing the
refrigerated liquid stored. To
minimize the pool of escaping
liquid, the outer tank or wall is
located at a distance not exceeding 6m from the primary container. The primary container
contains the refrigerated liquid under normal operating conditions. The secondary container is
intended to contain leakage of the refrigerated liquid, but it is not intended to contain any vapour
resulting from the leakage
4.3.6 PUMPS
Pump moves an incompressible fluid (liquid) by increasing the energy level. The volume of the
liquid does not change with pressure & temp. Pumps are broadly classified as follows
Pumps
Centrifugal pumps Positive displacement pumps
Impeller Stages Casing Construction Reciprocating Rotary
1. Open 1. Single 1. Single volute 1. horizontal 1. Piston 1. Vane

2. Closed 2. Multi 2. Plunger 2. Screw
2. Double volute split
3. Semi open 3. Diaphragm 3. Gear
3. Diffuse 2. vertical split
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4.3.7 COMPRESSORS,FANS AND BLOWERS
The equipment which operate on compressible gaseous fluids are called fans, blowers
and compressors.
Devices that develop less than5.0 psig pressure increase or that effect a 7% density
increase from inlet to discharge are classified as fans or blowers. Above this level the
devices are referred as compressors.
COMPRESSORS:
Some fans are called compressors if they turn at sufficient speed to materially compress the air
they are moving.
TYPES OF FANS:
Basically there are two types of fans

Axial Axial –High Flow – Low Shaft power
i.e. Warehouse, Limited duct work
Centrifugal – High Shaft power & Low Flow
i.e. Car Wash Fan, Schools
Centrifugal Fans produce less noise than Axial Fans of same size and same performance.
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BLOWERS:
When the fan is integrated with housing and a motor, it is called a blower. Blowers are usually
small centrifugal fans. A blower is the complete assembly of the fan, a housing to direct the air,
and the drive motor.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FAN AND BLOWER
S.No FANS BLOWERS

1 deliver air in an overall direction that is deliver air in a direction that is perpendicular to
parallel to the fan blade axis the blower axis
2 deliver a high flow rate, working against deliver a relatively low flow rate against high
low pressure pressure
4.3.8 COOLING TOWERS
Cooling towers are evaporative coolers used for cooling water or other working medium close to
the ambient wet-bulb air temperature. Cooling towers use evaporation of water to reject heat from
processes such as cooling the circulating water used in oil refineries, chemical plants, power
plants and building cooling, for example.
Cooling towers are classified based on their mode of operation:
Natural draft Mechanical draft (fan assisted)
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4.3.9 HVAC
Various types of Air conditioning system are being followed in industries as follows
I. Non Ducted Products
Window air conditioning

split air conditioning
− floor mounted
− wall mounted
− ceiling mounted
» exposed type
» hide away type
» cassette type
II. Ductable Systems - Chilled Water System & Direct Expansion Systems
vapor compression system

− air or water cooled system
» reciprocating units
» screw type units
» centrifugal units
vapor absorption system
− hot water fired
− direct fired
− steam fired
III. Ductable Systems - Packaged Air Conditioning Systems
floor standing packaged air conditioning

− air cooled
− water cooled
air cooled duct able splits
IV. variable refrigerant volume system
V. thermal storage system
VI. district cooling system
VII. radiant heating, low temperature and low pressure hot water
VIII. system
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4.3.10 PACKAGES:
Packages are an assembly of Different types of Process equipment such as Pressure
Vessels, Heat exchangers, Pumps, Filters, Compressors etc connected through piping,
valves, controls and instrumentation.
Normally these come as skid mounted, either in single skid or multiple skids, depending
upon the size and the plant requirements.
PACKAGED EQUIPMENT SYSTEMS:
Instrument air package

Utility air compressor package
Water treatment package
Steam generator package
Flare stack & flare ignition package
Chemical injection package
Corrosion inhibitor package
Nitrogen package
Effluent treatment package
INSTRUMENT AIR PACKAGE:
This package basically comprises of the following
Air compressors (Reciprocating / Centrifugal)

Main air receiver (Optional)
Pre-filters / coalescing filters
Drying units
Final filters
Instrument air receivers
Interconnecting piping, valves, instruments & fitting
The atmospheric air gets compressed in the air compressors and enters the main air receiver. Air
from the air receiver enters the pre-filters / coalescing filters for preliminary removal of dust, oil
etc. After pre-filtration, the air enters the dying unit, where moisture in the air gets removed.
Finally, the air enters the final filter and after filtration gets stored in the instrument air receiver.
This air is now free from oil and moisture.
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INSTRUMENT AIR PACKAGE BLOCK DIAGRAM:
4.4 NDE (NON DESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION) INSPECTION
The presence of defects reduces. The strength of the weld, reduces the overall strength of the
fabrication, and increases the risk of failure. Weld inspection must be performed in a manner that
will detect unacceptable defects while not damaging the vessel material. This type of inspection is
called Non Destructive Examination, or NDE. NDE examination is conducted on raw materials
and other areas also, where the characteristics are to be ascertained.
The primary weld NDE methods are as follows:
Radiographic examination (RT)

Visual Inspection (VT)
Liquid penetrant examination (PT)
Magnetic particle test (MT)
Ultrasonic examination (UT)
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4.5 Summary of NDE types
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4.6 Basic Welding Symbols
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4.7 MATERIAL SELECTION
Assurance of structural integrity requires three inputs viz.
Stress (applied as well as residual),

Flaw characteristics (type, location, size, shape & orientation) and
Material properties (strength and toughness).
Deficiencies in material properties and processing can lead to premature failures.
CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF MATERIALS
Conventional:
Mechanical properties
Corrosion properties
Fabric abilities (forming , welding, heat treatment)
Cost
SELECTION OF THE MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION FOR A GIVEN SERVICE
Pressure
Temperature
Operating fluid (Corrosion characteristics)
Expected Minimum life
Fabricability
Availability
Economics
COMMONLY USED MATERIALS
Low Carbon steel (used for High / moderate temperature services)

Low temperature Carbon steel (used for Low temperature services)
Low Alloy steel
Stainless steel
Cast iron & Ductile iron
Plastic materials (PVC, GRP, HDPE, LDPE).
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EFFECTS OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS (AE) IN STEELS(Carbon and Low Alloy Steels)
Type. Ranges
Alloying Elements General Effects
As percentage
Manganese (Mn) 0.3 – 2.0 Increases strength and hardness/act as a Deoxidiser/Desulpurizer
Silicon (Si) 2.5%(Max) Increases Hardenabilty, Improves oxidation resistance and Strength
Increases corrosion and oxidation resistance, high temperature strength

Chromium (Cr) 0.3 – 4
and Increases hardenability.
Nickel (Ni) 0.3 - 5 Improves resistance to fatigue, Increases hardenability & toughenss
Tungsten (W) Very small %age Promotes red hardness & hot strength, Raises the softening temp.
Molybdenum (Mo) 0.1 – 0.5 Improves high temperature creep resistance
Vanadium (V) 0.1 – 0.3 Increases strength while retaining ductility
Cobalt (Co) Very small %age Increases strength and decreases hardenability
Copper (Cu) 0.2 – 0.5 Increases corrosion resistance to some extent and strength
However elements like Ni, Cr & Mo could be higher than the above values in case of Stainless
steel
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MATERIAL SELECTION GUIDE
Design Temperature, °F Material Plate Pipe Forgings Fittings Bolting

SA-240-
SA-312-304, SA-182-304, SA-403-304,
Stainless 304, 304L,
-425 to -321 304L, 347, 304L, 347, 304L, 347, SA-320-
Steel 347, 316,
316, 316L 316, 316L 316, 316L B8 with
316L
Cryogenic
SA-194-8
SA-420-
-320 to -151 9 Nickel SA-353 SA-333-8 SA-522-I
WPL8
-150 to -76 3½ Nickel SA-203-D SA-420-
SA -333-3 SA-350-LF63
-75 to -51 2½ Nickel SA-203-A WPL3 SA-320-
SA-516-55, L7 with
-50 to -21 60 SA-333-6 SA-194-4
SA-420-
Low Temperature
to SA-20 SA-350-LF2
WPL6
SA-333-1or
-20 to 4 SA-516-All
Carbon Steel 6
5 to 32 SA-285-C
SA-516-All SA-53-B SA-105 SA-193-
Intermediat
33 to 60 SA-234-WPB
SA-515-All SA-106-B SA-181-60, 70 B7
61 to 775
SA-455-II with
e
776 to 875 C-½Mo SA-204-B SA-335-P1 SA-182-F1 SA-234-WP1 SA-194-

SA-387-12- SA-234- 2H
1Cr-½Mo SA-335-P12 SA-182-F12
1 WP12
876 to 1000
SA-387-11- SA-234-
1¼Cr-1Mo SA-335-P11 SA-182-F11
2 WP11
SA-193-
SA-387-22- SA-234- B5
1001 to 1100 2¼Cr-½Mo SA-335-P22 SA-182-F22
1 WP22 with
Elevated Temperature
SA-194-3
Stainless SA-240- SA-312- SA-193-
SA-182-347H SA-403-347H
1101 to 1500 Steel 347H 347H B8
Incoloy SB-424 SB-423 SB-425 SB-366 with
Above 1500 Inconel SB-443 SB-444 SB-446 SB-366 SA-194-8
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4.8 INSULATION
Insulation, based upon the heat conditions, is basically classified as
Hot Insulation – Heat needed to be prevented from losing from the containment
Cold insulations – Heat needed to be prevented from entering into the containment.
Considering the functional requirements, insulation can be classified as
Insulation for Heat Conservation – Required for the functional / process requirements
Insulation for Personnel Protection – Required only for the purpose of protection of the
personnel while operation
THICKNESS TABLE FOR COLD INSULATION
I. Ambient Temperature
(Anti-condensation case) : 30 °C
(Heat gain case) : 38 °C
II. Relative Humidity : 90 %
III. Wind Velocity
(Anti-condensation case) : 1 m/sec
(Heat gain case) : 5.5 m/sec
IV. Emissivity : 0.8
V. Cold Insulation Materials : PIR
VI. Max. Allowable heat gain : 30 W/m2
NOMINAL OPERATION TEMPERATURE (°C)

PIPE SIZE
20 0 -20 -40 -60 -80 -100 -120 -140 -160 -170
(DN)
25 30 30 30 40 50 60 60 70 80 80 90
40 30 30 30 40 60 60 70 80 90 90 100
50 30 30 40 50 60 60 70 80 90 100 100
80 30 30 40 60 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
100 30 30 40 60 60 80 90 100 110 120 120
150 30 30 50 60 70 90 100 110 120 130 140
200 30 30 60 60 80 90 110 120 130 140 150
250 30 30 60 70 80 100 110 130 140 150 160
300 30 30 60 70 90 100 120 130 150 160 170
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NOMINAL OPERATION TEMPERATURE (°C)
PIPE SIZE
20 0 -20 -40 -60 -80 -100 -120 -140 -160 -170
(DN)
350 30 40 60 70 90 100 120 140 150 160 170
400 30 40 60 70 90 110 130 140 160 170 180
450 30 40 60 70 90 110 130 150 160 180 180
500 30 40 60 80 90 110 130 150 170 180 190
600 30 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 170 190 190
750 30 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 210
1,000 30 50 70 90 110 130 150 180 190 210 220
2,000 30 60 70 100 120 150 170 200 220 240 250
FLAT 30 60 90 120 140 170 210 240 260 290 300
THICKNESS TABLE FOR COLD INSULATION (FIRE EXPOSED ENVELOP)
I. Ambient Temperature
(Anti-condensation case) : 30 °C
(Heat gain case) : 38 °C
II. Relative Humidity : 90 %
III. Cold Insulation Materials
Single Layer : Cellular Glass
Multi-Layers
Inner and Intermediate Layer : PIR
Outer Layer : Cellular Glass
IV. Wind Velocity
(Anti-condensation case) : 1 m/sec
(Heat gain case) : 5.5 m/sec
V. Emissivity : 0.8 -
VI. Max. Allowable heat gain : 30 W/m2
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OPERATION TEMPERATURE (°C)
NOMINAL
PIPE SIZE 20 0 -20 -40 -60 -80 -100 -120 -140 -160 -170
(DN)
25 50 50 50 60 70 80 80 90 100 100 110
40 50 50 50 60 80 80 90 100 110 110 120
50 50 50 60 70 80 80 90 100 110 120 120
80 50 50 60 80 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
100 50 50 60 80 80 100 110 120 130 140 140
150 50 50 70 80 90 110 120 130 140 150 160
200 50 50 80 80 100 110 130 140 150 160 170
250 50 50 80 90 100 120 130 150 160 170 180
300 50 50 80 90 110 120 140 150 170 180 190
350 50 60 80 90 110 120 140 160 170 180 190
400 50 60 80 90 110 130 150 160 180 190 200
450 50 60 80 90 110 130 150 170 180 200 200
500 50 60 80 100 110 130 150 170 190 200 210
600 50 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 190 200 210
750 50 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 230
1,000 50 70 90 110 130 150 170 200 210 230 240
2,000 50 80 90 120 140 170 190 220 240 260 270
FLAT 50 80 110 140 160 190 230 260 280 310 320
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THICKNESS REQUIREMENTS (HOT)
For pipes
OPERATING TEMPERATURE NOMINAL PIPE SIZE

RANGE DEG. F. <1½ 2-3 4 6 8 10-18
Up to 299 1½ 1½ 1½ 1½ 1½ 1½
300 to 399 1½ 1½ 1½ 1½ 1½ 2½
400 to 499 1½ 1½ 1½ 1½ 2 2
500 to 599 1½ 1½ 2 2 2 2½
600 to 699 2 2 2 2½ 2½ 3
700 to 799 2 2½ 2½ 2½ 3 3
800 to 899 2 3 3 3 3 3½
900 to 999 2½ 3 3 3½ 3½ 3½
1000 to 1099 3 3 3½ 3½ 4 4
NOTE: Nominal pipe size 20" and larger shall use thicknesses specified under the "Heavy"
column
FOR VESSELS AND HEAT EXCHANGERS
OPERATING TEMPERATURE INSULATION THICKNESS (INCHES)

RANGE DEG. F. HEAVY MEDIUM LIGHT
Up to 299 1½ 1½ 1½
300 to 399 2 1½ 1½
400 to 499 2 2 1½
500 to 599 2½ 2 1½
600 to 699 3 2½ 2
700 to 799 3½ 2½ 2
800 to 899 3½ 3 3
900 to 999 4 3½ 3
1000 to 1099 4½ 4 3½
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4.9 SOFTWARE USED
4.9.1 For Pressure Vessels, Heat Exchangers and Columns.
PVElite 2007:
PVElite is a graphical based, easy-to-use software program that provides engineers, designers,
estimators, fabricators and inspectors with complete design capabilities of tall towers, horizontal
vessels, heat exchangers (mechanical design), individual vessel and heat exchanger components.
PVElite has a component analysis module, CodeCalc, which is also available as a separate
program.
The program can be used to design, bid or re-rate a wide variety of vessels and vessel components
in accordance with ASME Code Section VIII Division 1, Division 2, ASME UHX, TEMA,
PD5500 (British) and EN-13445 (European) rules. Fitness for Service (FFS) per API-579 can be
performed for the in-service equipment.
4.10 CODES AND STANDARDS
Static Equipments
ASME Section I - Rules for construction of Power Boilers
ASME Section VIII Div 1 - Rules for construction of Pressure vessels
ASME Section VIII Div 2 - Rules for construction of Pressure vessels- Alternative
rules
ASME Section VIII Div 3 - Design of High Pressure vessels
ASME Section II - Material
API 620 - Design & Construction of large, Welded, Low pressure

storage tanks
API 650 - Welded steel tanks for oil storage
API 1660 - Shell & Tube Heat Exchangers for general refinery
services
API661 - Air Cooled Heat Exchangers for General Refinery

Service
API662 - Plate Heat Exchangers for General Refinery Services
API560 - Fired heaters
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API RP651 - Cathodic protection of above ground petroleum storage
tanks.
Rotating Equipment
API 610 - Centrifugal Pumps for Petroleum, Heavy duty chemical

& Gas Industry Services
API - Centrifugal Compressor for Petroleum, Chemical & Gas

Industry Services
API 618 - Reciprocating Compressor for Petroleum, Chemical &

Gas Industry Services
API 612 - Special purpose Steam Turbine for Petroleum, Chemical

API 611 - General purpose Steam Turbine for Petroleum, Chemical

API 616 - Gas Turbine for Petroleum, Chemical&Gas Industry

Services
API680 - Packaged Reciprocating Plant/Instrument Air

Compressor
HVAC
ASHRAE Handbook - Application, Fundamental, System & Equipment
ASHRAE Guidelines 1-89 - Guidelines for commissioning of HVAC system
SMACNA - Sheet Manufacturer & Contractor Association
BS:5588 Part 9 - Code of Practice for Ventilation & Air conditioning
NFPA-90A - Installation of Air conditioning & Ventilating System
NFPA-90B - Installation of Warm Air Heating & Air conditioning

system
ARI - American Refrigeration institute
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5.0 Piping
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5.1 INTRODUCTION TO PIPING ENGINEERING
Piping is a major contributory in the Design and Construction of
Refinery,
Petrochemical,
Oil & gas plants
5.2 BASICS OF PIPING
PIPING:
Piping is system of pipes which along with the inline components such as flanges, valves, fittings,
bolts, gaskets and supports used to convey the fluids from one location to another.
PIPE SIZE:
Pipes are usually specified by the standard pipe size designations such as Nominal Pipe size and
wall thickness.
Nominal pipe size (NPS): It is dimensional designator of pipe size. It indicates standard pipe size
when followed by the specific size designation number without an inch symbol.
Diameter nominal (DN): is also a dimensionless designator of pipe size in the metric unit
system, developed by the International Standards Organization (ISO). It indicates standard pipe
size when followed by the specific size designation number without a millimeter symbol.
Pipe wall thickness (Schedule) is expressed in numbers. A schedule number indicates the
approximate value of the expression 1000 P/S, where P is the service pressure and S is the
allowable stress, both expressed in pounds per square inch (psi).
The higher the schedule number, the thicker the pipe. The outside diameter of each pipe size is
standardized. Therefore, a particular nominal pipe size will have a different inside diameter
depending upon the schedule number specified.
Carbon steel(ANSI B16.10) 5,10,20,30,40,60,80,100,120,160

Schedule
Stainless steel(ANSI B16.19) 5S, 10S, 20S, 30S, 40S, 60S, 80S
Std Standard
Weight series XS Extra strong
XXS Extra Extra Strong
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5.2.1 PIPING CLASSIFICATION
It is usual industry practice to classify the pipe in accordance with the pressure temperature rating
system used for classifying flanges. However, it is not essential that piping be classified as Class
150, 300, 400, 600, 900, 1500, and 2500. The piping rating must be governed by the pressure
temperature rating of the weakest pressure containing item in the piping. The weakest item in a
piping system may be a fitting made of weaker material or rated lower due to design and other
considerations.
Piping Class Ratings Based on ASME B16.5 and Corresponding PN
In addition, the piping may be classified by class ratings covered by other ASME standards, such
as ASME B16.1, B16.3, B16.24, and B16.42. A piping system may be rated for a unique set of
pressures and temperatures not covered by any standard.
Nominal Pressure (PN) is the rating designator followed by a designation number, which
indicates the approximate pressure rating in bars. The bar is the unit of pressure, and 1 bar is
equal to 14.732 psi or 100 kilopascals (kPa).
5.2.2 PIPING MATERIALS:
Piping material selection is mainly based on their strength to withstand stress, corrosion
resistance, weldability, etc. Broad classifications of the piping materials are metallic, non-metallic
and lined.
Sl. Tolerable Temperature

Material Service
No. range
Non corrosive fluid services

1 Carbon Steel -29 0C to 427 0C
where impurities are accepted
Non corrosive fluid services

2 Alloy Steel -29 0C to 600 0C
where impurities are accepted
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Stainless Corrosive fluid services
0 0
3 Steel/ -29 C to 800 C where impurities are not
Duplex SS accepted
Low Non corrosive & low temp
4 Temperature -48 0C to 400 0C fluid services where impurities
carbon Steel are accepted.
Galvanized Drinking water, instrument air
5
steel & nitrogen (LP)
For Acidic Fluid Service
6 PVC Max 600 C
Conditions.
7 GRP Corrosive fluid / Water
Selection of the material based on temperature and pressure shall comply with some codes and
standards.
5.2.3 PIPE FITTINGS:
Fittings are used in pipe systems to connect straight pipe sections to adapt to different sizes or
shapes to regulate the flow of fluid. Different types of pipe fittings used are:
Cap Tee Reducer Coupling Olets Elbow Cross Y-Bend
Different types
reducer elbow olets tee
0
fittings concentric 90 weldolet Reducer tee
0
eccentric 45 sockolet
Olets are used when there is a sudden reduction in the pipe size from large bore to small bore in
case of instrument tapping.
The above fittings are connected to the pipe by the following methods:
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Butt welding
Socket welding
Threaded/Seal weld
Flanges
Spectacle Blind/Spacer & Blind
This is used in between two flanges to completely stop or allow the flow of the fluid in the
pipeline.In a process plant, blanks are usually required to isolate individual pieces of equipment at
shutdown and to positively block off selected process lines at the
process unit limits. They are also needed during operation wherever
positive shutoff is required to prevent leakage of one fluid into another.
Blanks, especially for larger size flanges, are typically provided with a
companion spacer which has a full-size opening consistent with the inside bore diameter of the
flange.
In the piping or at the nozzle of all process and utility connections to vessels where
necessary to provide safe entry for inspection and maintenance personnel
In the suction and discharge lines of all turbines and compressors, except atmospheric
suction of air fans
At the inlets and outlets of process piping to fired heaters
All fuel and pilot gas headers to each fired heater
Spared equipment capable of being bypassed for maintenance
Safety valve bypass lines
Process battery limits
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Blanks should be made from a plate or forging specification, approved for use by ASME
B31.3, of essentially the same chemical composition as the mating flanges and piping
involved.
Pipe Fittings & Connections
Butt welded connections shall normally be used for all alloy/carbon steel piping of 2” &
larger.
Alloy/carbon steel piping of 1.5” NB and below shall be socket welded.
Threaded connections shall be avoided except in galvanized piping.
Flanged joints shall be minimized as it is a point of potential leakage. Flanges are used
when the joints need dismantling. It may be used to connect piping to equipment or
valves, to connect pipe lines of dissimilar materials, where spool pieces are required to
permit removal or servicing of equipments and where pipes and fittings are with flanged
ends.
Notes:
All pipe lines carrying toxic/inflammable fluids shall be seamless.

Utility piping can be ERW or seam welded.
Steam pipe lines shall be preferably seamless.
Hose & Hose couplings
Where temporary connections are required, there this type of fitting is provided
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5.2.4 VALVES:
Valves are used in the pipe lines to regulate the flow of fluids. Different types of valves are used
to meet the flow requirement
CLASSIFICATION OF VALVES
1. Based on functions
Isolation Regulation Non-Return Special Purpose
Gate Valve Globe Valve Multi-port Valve
Check Valve
Ball Valve Needle Valve Flush Bottom Valves
Float valves
Plug Valve Butterfly Valve
Foot Valves
Piston Valve Diaphragm Valve
Line Blind valves
Diaphragm Valve Piston Valve
Pinch Valve
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Based on operation Based on End Connection
Self Operated Valves

Screwed Ends
Check Valves Flanged Ends
Butt Weld Ends
Wafer Type
Buttress Ends
Butterfly valve: these have quick opening and closing, quarter turn
mechanism to control the flow of fluid through the pipe line.
Gate valve: is a valve that opens by lifting a round or rectangular

gate/ wedge out of the path of the fluid. These are commonly used
to close or open the valve completely, sometimes may be used to
regulate the flow
Globe valve: Globe valves are spherical in shape. The two halves
of the valve body are separated by an internal baffle which has an
opening forming a seat onto which a movable disc can be screwed in
to close (or shut) the valve. In globe valves, the disc is connected to a
stem which is operated by screw action. Globe valves are used for
applications requiring throttling and frequent operation.
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Ball valve: These are used for tight shutoff operations. A ball valve (like the
butterfly valve, is one of a family of valves called quarter turn valves) is a
valve that opens by turning a handle attached to a ball inside the valve. The
ball has a hole, or port, through the middle so that when the port is in line
with both ends of the valve, flow will occur. When the valve is closed, the
hole is perpendicular to the ends of the valve, and flow is blocked. Cannot be used for regulating/
throttling applications.
Check valves: Check valves, also referred to as "non-return"

or "one-way directional" valves, are very simple valves that
allow fluid, air or gas to flow in only one direction. When the
fluid moves in the pre-determined direction, the valve opens.
Any backflow is prevented by the moveable portion of the
valve.
Solenoid Valves: Solenoid valves are electrically operated devices

that control the flow of liquids. Solenoid valves are electro-
mechanical devices that use a wire coil and a movable plunger,
called a solenoid, to control a particular valve. The solenoid
controls the valve during either the open or closed positions. Thus,
these kinds of valves do not regulate flow. They are used for
the remote control of valves for directional control of liquids.
5.2.5 PIPE STRESS ANALYSIS:
Piping Stress analysis addresses to the static and dynamic loading calculations which result from
the effect of gravity, temperature changes, internal and external pressures, change in the fluid
flow rate, and seismic activity.
One way to reduce stress in pipe lines is by making them more flexible to stress which otherwise
results in the failure of the pipe, leakage at the joints/flanges or detrimental distortion of
connected equipments. We accomplish this by performing Stress Analysis of critical sections
(i.e., critical lines) of the piping system. Stress Engineer identifies the Critical Lines based on the
changes in the operating conditions such as temperature, pressure and vibrations in the piping
system.
Stress of a material is defined as the internal resistance per unit area to the deformation caused by
the unit load. Different types of stresses that occur in the piping system are:
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Secondary
Primary stresses Local Stresses
Stresses
Direct shear and bending in Bending in

1 Localized bending and shear in
nature nature
nature
Caused due to dead weight of
Caused due to
pipe, piping components, internal Caused due to local load like
2 thermal
pressure, Occasional loads like load of welded lug on pipe
expansion
wind, seismic load
Pipes can be made flexible to thermal expansion by providing them with expansion
loops/expansion joints or bellows. Another way is to give supports at appropriate points to avoid
failure by bending/sagging.
The purpose of the pipe stress analysis is to ensure the:
Safety of the piping and piping components.

Safety of the connected equipment and supporting structure
and also to ensure that the piping deflections are within the limit
STRESS ANALYSIS I/O TABLE
Inputs Outputs
Geometric layout of pipe Stress in piping system for different loading conditions
Expansion of piping system in different operating
Pipe support configuration
temperatures
Pipe diameter and thickness

Deflection of piping system under occasional loading
Pressure inside the pipe Correctness of the selection f load
Cold and hot temperature of pipe Load at various supports and restrains
Weight of pipe and insulation Movement of pipe at support locations
Weight of carrying fluid Pipe terminal point loading
Pipe material property Allowable limit for the nozzle loads
Occasional loads (seismic, snow, …)
Corrosion allowance of pipe
Bend radius,
Any transient load like steam hammer
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5.2.6 PIPE SUPPORTS:
Supports are provided to the pipe mainly for the following reasons:
To Support dead weight of Piping system

To minimize Pipe Sagging
To take Expansion load in the Piping system
To absorb wind load and Seismic load
To absorb Vibration in the Piping system
To absorb Hydraulic Thrust in the Piping system
To absorb the Pressure Thrust of Bellow
To Support the system during Shut down/ Maintenance Conditions.
Various types of supports available are:
Guide Support:
This type of support is used to restrict lateral movement of pipe. This is used in
combination with rest support. This type of support also can be used to restrict
vertically upward movement of pipe.
Restraints Support:
This type of support is used to restraint movement of pipes in specific direction based on job need
.This type is used in combination with rest and guide support.
Anchor Support:
This type of support is usually used for segmenting the piping

network to restrict the movements of pipe of reasonable
amount within the defined piping network. This type of
support does not allow movement in any direction. i.e. it
ceases all axial, lateral, and torsional movements offered by
piping network. It can be achieved by welding the support
component to pipe and supporting structures or by using a combination of rest, guide and restraint
support.
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Rest Support:
This type of support is used to transfer the static load of pipe, content, insulation and piping
components to control the sagging phenomenon i.e; deflection of piping network within
allowable limits. Rest support allows movements of pipe in all directions except vertically
downward movements. Rest support means pipe resting directly on supporting structure on a
saddle plate or pipe shoe.
Rigid hangers & supports:
Rigid hangers are used at suspension points where there is no

vertical pipe movement. Where as rigid support is given from the
bottom &usually rests on the floor. E.g.: Pipe shoe,, U –clamp,
Variable effort hangers/ supports and Constant effort hangers/ supports:
These two come under flexible support using helical coil

compression spring. Variable pipe support is used to support
the weight of the pipe work while allowing a degree of
movement relative to the supporting structure. Constant pipe
support is used to support the pipe work in the case of large
vertical movement.
Spring loaded sway braces

Dynamic restraints/ rigid struts
Snubbers /shock absorber
Based on the construction Based on the functions

1 Rigid support: Welded type, Bolted type Loose/ resting support
2 Adjustable support Longitudinal guide support
Elastic/ flexible support : Constant Snubber,

3 Transverse guide support
Variable Snubber
Anchor support: welded type

4 As required
Non-welded type
5 As required Limit stop
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INPUTS REQUIRED FOR THE SELECTION OF PIPE SUPPORTS
Piping general arrangement drawing.

Steel and structural drawing.
Equipment foundation drawing.
Location of ventilating ducts, electrical trays, pumps, tanks, etc.,
Piping specifications and line list.
Insulation specification.
Valves and special fittings list.
Determination of support location
Determination of thermal movement of the piping at each support location
Calculation of load at each support location.
Selection of the type of support i.e., anchor, guide, rest, constant or variable spring, etc.,
Checking the physical interference of the support with structures, trays, ducts &
equipment, etc.,
5.3 SOFTWARE USED IN PIPING DEPARTMENT
PDS 7.02/8
PDMS 11.5
ISOGEN 7.0
ORTHOGEN 8.000.19
Navis works 5.3/5.5 for 3D Model review package
ACAD 2007/2008 for 2D Drawing preparation
Micro station 7.01/8 for 2D / 3D drawing preparation
CEASER II Ver5.007 – Stress Analysis Package
5.4 IMPORTANT CODES AND STANDARDS
ANSI - American National Standards Institute

API - American Petroleum Institute
ASME - American Society of Mechanical Engineers
ASTM - American Society for Testing and Materials
AWWA - American water works association.
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Pipe Standard
Pipes shall conform to
API 5L,
ANSI B36.10 for Carbon steel
ANSI B36.19 for Stainless steel
Based on chemical and material composition several codes applied
AMERICAN STANDARDS
API STANDARDS
API 5L Specification for Seamless and Welded Steel Line Pipes

API 6D Specification for Pipeline Valves, Gate, Plug, Ball and Check
API 600 Steel Gate Valves, Flange and Butt Welding Ends
API 601 Metallic gasket for refinery piping
API 609 Lug- and Wafer-Type butterfly Valves
API RP 14E Design & Installation of Offshore platform piping systems
API RP 521 Guide for Pressure Relieving systems
ASME STANDARDS
ASME B16.5 Steel Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings

ASME B16.9 Factory Made Wrought Steel Butt Welding Fittings
ASME B16.10 Face to Face and End to End Dimensions of Valves
ASME B16.11 Forged Fittings, Socket-Welding and Threaded
ASME B16.20 Metallic Gaskets for Pipe Flanges
ASME B36.10 Welded and Seamless Wrought Steel Pipe
ASME B36.19 Stainless steel Pipe
ASME B31.3 Process Piping
ASME B16.5 Pipe flanges and fittings (≤24”)
ASME B16.47 Large diameter flanges (>24”)
ASME B31.4 Pipeline Transportation Systems for Liquid Hydrocarbons & other
liquids
ASME B31.8 Gas Transmission & Distribution Piping Systems
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ASTM STANDARDS
ASTM A 53 Welded and seamless pipe

ASTM A 106 Seamless CS pipe for high temperature services
ASTM A 312 Seamless and welded austenitic stainless steel pipes
ASTM A 333 Seamless and welded steel pipe for low temperature service
ASTM A 335 Seamless ferritic alloy steel for high temperature service
ASTM B 423 Incoloy piping material
AWWA STANDARDS
AWWA C207 Steel Pipe Flanges for Waterworks Service examination of welded joints
AWWA C950 Fibreglass Pressure Pipe
5.5 CALCULATIONS:
5.5.1 Design of pipe wall thickness
The piping wall thickness is one of the most important calculations of the piping system design
process. In arriving at the final specification of the piping wall thickness, the designer must
consider a number of important factors:
Pressure integrity
Allowances for mechanical strength, corrosion, erosion, wear, threading, grooving, or
other joining processes
Manufacturing variations (tolerance) in the wall thickness of commercial pipe
Wall thickness reduction due to butt-welding of end preparation (counterboring)
While a number of different pipe wall thickness design formulas have been proposed over the
years, the ASME piping codes have adopted one or the other of the following formulas for
pressure-integrity design:
Thickness (tm) = (PD / 2(SE+PY)) + A
Where,
tm = Minimum thickness
P = Internal design gauge pressure
D = Outside diameter as per standard
S = Stress value for material
E = Joint Efficiency factor

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Y = Coefficient of material for that design temperature
5.5.2 Stress Analysis Case Study for Combined Cycle Power Plant
Piping stress analyses is a term applied to calculations which address the static and dynamic
loading resulting from the effects of gravity, temperature changes, internal and external pressures,
changes in fluid flow rate, seismic activity, fire, and other environmental conditions. Codes and
standards establish the minimum scope of stress analyses. Some codes prescribe loading
combinations with not-to-exceed stress limits.
The High Pressure (HP) steam system is designed per ASME-B31.1(Power Piping Code) to
convey HP superheated steam, from the HP superheater outlet to the high pressure section of the
steam turbine. HP steam line is provided with a bypass line, with a combined pressure reducing
and steam desuperheating valve and is connected to the Condenser.
Normal Operation
Start-Up/Shutdown Operation
5.5.2.1 Input Data:

Pipe Size = 8 inches for Main Steam Pipe
Pipe Thickness = 160 Sch
Insulation Thickness = 7.5 inches
Pipe size = 24 inches for Bypass connection
Pipe Thickness = STD
Insulation Thickness = 2.5 inches
Design Temperature = 955.4 ° F
Design Pressure = 1450 psi
Pipe Material = ASTM A335 P22
Insulation Material = Calcium silicate per ASTM C533 for heat retention
Pipe Construction = Seamless
Flange type = Not Allowed
Fittings Greater than 2 inch
ASTM Spec. = B16.9, B16.28
Type = Butt Weld
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Fittings Less than 2 inch
ASTM Spec. = A182 F22
ASME STD. Type = B16.11
Rating = 9000 Class
Type = Socket Weld
Attemperator weight = 1322.5 lbs per 7.87ft
5.5.2.2 Pipe Behaviour in Thermal Condition - Iteration –I
Maximum stressed Node - Iteration I
NODE NODE STRESS ALLOWABLE RATIO
TYPE (PSI) STRESS (PSI)
95 8 144000 29180. 4.935
320 1 60800. 29028. 2.095
50 1 42200. 28083. 1.503
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5 7 33000. 28619. 1.153
55 8 31400. 28639. 1.096
Ratio is more than 1, means that the stresses are exceeding the allowable stress limits and
thus the nodes get fails.
Equipment Nozzle reaction
HRSG
LOAD CASE ORCES (LBS) MOMENTS (FT-LBS)
HOT & WEIGHT FR = 4082 MR = 60244.
COLD & WEIGHT FR = 3516 MR = 72069
Turbine
HOT & WEIGHT FR = 6068 MR = 36673.
COLD & WEIGHT FR = 6679 MR = 44044.
Condenser
HOT & WEIGHT FR = 1102 MR = 6646.
COLD & WEIGHT FR = 1734 MR = 9026.
Pipe Behaviour In Thermal Condition - Iteration –II
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Maximum stressed Node - Iteration II
NODE NODE (TYPE ) STRESS (PSI) ALLOWABLE RATIO

STRESS (PSI)
325 11 24500 29443 0.832
305 8 21700 29332 0.740
5 7 19800 28606 0.692
330 7 18600 29494 0.631
55 8 16000 28651 0.558
95 8 14400 29015 0.496
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Equipment Nozzle reaction
HRSG
LOAD CASE FORCES (LBS) MOMENTS (FT-LBS)
HOT & WEIGHT FR = 3924 MR = 56488.
Turbine
HOT & WEIGHT FR = 5983 MR = 33526.
Condenser
HOT & WEIGHT FR = 1109 MR = 9508.
Final Iteration
As the same Lot of trail and error iteration has been done to keep the pipe within permissible limit
in dead weight, minimum stresses at all nodes and all the three equipment nozzles within the
allowable limits as specified by the manufacturer of the same.
Finally by doing lot of iteration the best solution has arrived which gives Minimum stresses in
Piping, Meets the code limits, Meets the Equipment forces and moments.
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5.6 PIPING MATERIAL SELECTION CHART:
This chart tells the material to be used for plates, pipes, flanges, fittings, bolting for different
range of temperature.
MATERIAL SELECTION GUIDE

Design Temperature, °FMaterial Plate Pipe Forgings Fittings Bolting
SA-312-
SA-240-304, SA-182-304, SA-403-304,
Cryogenic
304, 304L,
-425 to -321 Stainless Steel 304L, 347, 304L, 347, 304L, SA-320-B8 with
347,316,
316, 316L 316, 316L 347,316, 316L SA-194-8
316L
-320 to -151 9 Nickel SA-353 SA-333-8 SA-522-I SA-420-WPL8
-150 to -76 3½ Nickel SA-203-D SA-350-
Low Temperature
SA -333-3 SA-420-WPL3 SA-320-L7

-75 to -51 2½ Nickel SA-203-A LF63
with
SA-516-55, 60
-50 to -21 SA-333-6 SA-194-4
to SA-20
SA-350-LF2 SA-420-WPL6
SA-333-1
-20 to 4 SA-516-All
or 6
Carbon Steel
5 to 32 SA-285-C
Intermediate
SA-516-All SA-53-B SA-105 SA-

33 to 60 SA-234-WPB
SA-515-All SA-106-B 181-60, 70 SA-193-B7
61 to 775
SA-455-II with
776 to 875 C-½Mo SA-204-B SA-335-P1 SA-182-F1 SA-234-WP1 SA-194-2H
SA-335-
1Cr-½Mo SA-387-12-1 SA-182-F12 SA-234-WP12
P12
876 to 1000
Elevated Temperature
SA-335-
1¼Cr-1Mo SA-387-11-2 SA-182-F11 SA-234-WP11
P11
SA-193-B5
SA-335-
1001 to 1100 2¼Cr-½Mo SA-387-22-1 SA-182-F22 SA-234-WP22 with
P22
SA-194-3
Stainless SA-312- SA-182-
SA-240-347H SA-403-347H
1101 to 1500 Steel 347H 347H SA-193-B8
Incoloy SB-424 SB-423 SB-425 SB-366 with
Inconel100 SA-194-8
1500 SB-443 SB-444 SB-446 SB-366
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5.7 STANDARD FORMAT USED FOR:
5.7.1 PIPING MATERIAL SPECIFICATION
PIPING CLASS DESIGNATION KEY
Flange Class :( in pounds)
150
300
600
900
1500
2500
PN160 BAR.
PN 200/325/500 BAR (IG STANDARD).
Piping Material:
C.S, ASTM A 106, GR.B / API 5L, GR.B

C.S, ASTM A333, GR.6 (LOW TEMP).
C.S, ASTM A335, GR.P11 (HIGH TEMP).
S.S, ASTM A312, GR.TP316L
S.S, ASTM A312
S.S, SMo (AVESTA 254 SMo ).
S.S, ASTM A312
C.S, ASTM A335, GR.P91 / P22
GRP
Duplex
Safurex
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PRODUCT CODE:
AC - Compressed Process Air
AL - Ammonia Liquid
AM - Ammonia Vapour
AP - Process Air (Uncompressed)
AQ - Aqueous Ammonia
AF - Flash Gas
BH - Boiler Blow Down
CD - Carbon Dioxide
CL - Steam Condensate LP 6,9 / 7/ 6 barg
CT - Purified Process Condensate
CX - Steam Condensate HP 125 barg
CY - Steam Condensate MP 55 barg
GM - Methanated Gas
GV - Convert Gas
GN - Natural Gas
SV - Vapor (Contaminated Steam)
NI - Nitrogen
DR - Drains (Compr. House)
RW - Recirculation Cooling Water
WF - Boiler Feed Water
SM - Steam MP 26 barg (Sat. & Superh.)
SL - SteamLP 6.9 / 7 / 6 barg (Sat. & Superh.)
SX - Steam HP 125 barg (Sat. & Superh.)
The first letter in the pipe class represents the flange class, second letter represents the piping
material and third letter represents the serial number
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Piping Material Specifications summary table:
MINIMUM
PIPE PRESSURE
CORROSION FLUIDS MATERIAL
CLASS RATING
ALLOWANCE
AB2 1.6 mm AL,AM A333, Gr.6 # 150
BB2 1.6 mm AL, AM A333, Gr.6 # 300
FB1 1.6 mm AL A333, Gr.6 #1500
AC, AF, AP, AQ, AT,

BH, CD, CL, CT, CX, A106, Gr.B/
AA4 1.6 mm # 150
CY, GM, GV, NI, SL, API 5L, Gr.B
SV,SY,WA,WF, SM
A106, Gr.B/
AA5 1.6 mm AM,GB, GN # 150
API 5L,Gr.B
A106, Gr.B/
AA6 1.6 mm CW, DR, RW # 150
API 5L,Gr.B
AA7 1.6 mm MS A106, Gr.B # 150
AA8 1.6 mm MS A106, Gr.B # 150
AF,AP,AQ,CD,CL,CP
DR,GI,GM,GV,HY,NI, A106,Gr.B/
BA4 1.6 mm # 300
RW, SM,SL,SX,SY,WF, API 5L,Gr.B
CM
5.7.2 VALVE SCHEDULE:
Valve schedule is a document containing the database of valves which are used in a project. This
is prepared during the detailed engineering for reference
Valve schedule contains:
Valve tag no
Operation mode of the valve
Type of the valve
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Seat material
Body material
Process connection
Line no, datasheet no, model no, P&ID reference no
Name of the supplier and manufacturer
Bore type-full/ reduced
Application
The valve schedule is developed taking data from line P&ID, line list, data sheet.
5.8 SPECIALITY ITEMS
5.8.1 STRAINERS:
It is a screen installed in the pipe lines to allow the liquid to flow and to restrict the solid particles.
These solid / larger items fall to the bottom or are collected in a basket for later clean out. The se
strainers come in different styles based on the needs.
Two common types of strainers are:
Plate Strainer is the one in which liquid flows through a perforated plate. Often this plate is
corrugated to increase the surface area.
Basket strainer is the one in which strainer is shaped like a basket and usually installed in a
vertical cylinder. The basket strainer is easier to clean and also offers more straining surface area
than a plate strainer improves the flow rate or decreases the pressure loss through the strainer.
5.8.2 STEAM TRAP:
The duty of the steam trap is to discharge the condensate and non-condensable gases while not
permitting the escape of live steam. Almost all steam traps are automated valves which open,
close or modulate automatically.
Steam traps are broadly classified based on their applications:
Mechanical traps: they have a float that rises and falls with respect to condensate level ands have
a mechanical linkage attached which opens and closes the valve. E.g. inverted bucket, float type.
Temperature traps: they have a valve that is driven on/ off either by expansion/ contraction
caused by temperature change.
Thermo-dynamic Traps: they work on the difference in dynamic response to velocity change in
the flow of compressible and incompressible fluids. As steam enters, static pressure above the
disk forces the disk against valve seat. The static pressure over a large area overcomes the high
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inlet pressure of the steam. As the steam starts to condense, the pressures against the disk lessens
and trap cycles.
5.8.3 EXPANSION BELLOWS:
Expansion bellows are used to accommodate expansion in piping due to temperature changes if
such movements cannot be taken by expansion loops, cold springing, re routing and re spacing of
pipe.
5.9 GENERAL ABBREVATIONS AND DEFINITIONS
5.9.1 GENERAL ABBREVIATIONS:
ABS Absolute
ANSI American National Standards Institute
API American Petroleum Institute
ASTM American Society of Testing and Materials
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers
AWWA American Waterworks Association
AWS American Welding Society
BS British Standards
BW Butt-Welding ends
CI Cast Iron
CS Carbon Steel
DN Nominal Diameter
ERW Electric Resistance Welded
FB Full Bore
FF Flat Face
F/F Face to Face
ID Inside Diameter
ND Nominal Diameter
NB Nominal Bore
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NPS Nominal Pipe Size
OD Outside Diameter
PE Plain Ends
PN Nominal Pressure
RB Reduced Bore
RF Raised Face
RTJ Ring-Type Joint
Sch Schedule (wall thickness)
SS Stainless Steel
SW Socket Weld
5.9.2 GENERAL DEFINITIONS:
Alloy Steel: A steel which owes its distinctive properties to elements other than carbon. Steel is
considered to be alloy steel when the maximum of the range given for the content of alloying
elements exceeds one or more of the following limits:
Manganese 1.65 percent
Silicon 0.60 percent
Copper 0.60 percent
or a definite range or a definite minimum quantity of any of the following elements is specified or
required within the limits of the recognized field of constructional alloy steels:
Aluminum Nickel
Boron Titanium
Chromium (up to 3.99 percent)
Tungsten
Cobalt Vanadium
Columbium Zirconium
Molybdenum
or any other alloying element added to obtain a desired alloying effect. Small quantities of certain
elements are unavoidably present in alloy steels. In many applications, these are not considered to
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be important and are not specified or required. When not specified or required, they should not
exceed the following amounts:
Copper 0.35 percent
Chromium 0.20 percent
Nickel 0.25 percent
Molybdenum 0.06 percent
Anchor: A rigid restraint providing substantially full fixation, permitting neither translatory nor
rotational displacement of the pipe.
Blind Flange: A flange used to close the end of a pipe. It produces a blind end which is also
known as a dead end.
Branch Connection: The attachment of a branch pipe to the run of a main pipe with or without
the use of fittings.
Carbon Steel: A steel which owes its distinctive properties chiefly to the carbon (as
distinguished from the other elements) which it contains. Steel is considered to be carbon steel
when no minimum content is specified or required for aluminum, boron, chromium, cobalt,
columbium, molybdenum, nickel, titanium, tungsten, vanadium, or zirconium or for any other
element added to obtain a desired alloying effect; when the specified minimum for copper does
not exceed 0.40 percent; or when the maximum content specified for any of the following
elements does not exceed the percentages noted: manganese, 1.65 percent; silicon, 0.60 percent;
copper, 0.60 percent.2
Cast Iron: A generic term for the family of high carbon-silicon-iron casting alloys including
gray, white, malleable, and ductile iron.
Cold Bending: The bending of pipe to a predetermined radius at any temperature below some
specified phase change or transformation temperature but especially at or near room temperature.
Frequently, pipe is bent to a radius of 5 times the nominal pipe diameter.
Companion Flange: A pipe flange suited to connect with another flange or with a flanged valve
or fitting. A loose flange which is attached to a pipe by threading, van stoning, welding, or similar
method as distinguished from a flange which is cast integrally with a fitting or pipe.
Continuous-Welded Pipe: Furnace weldedpipe produced in continuous lengths from coiled

skelp and subsequently cut into individual lengths, having its longitudinal butt joint forge welded
by the mechanical pressure developed in rolling the hot-formed skelp through a set of round pass
welding rolls.
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Control Piping: All piping, valves, and fittings used to interconnect air, gas, or hydraulically
operated control apparatus or instrument transmitters and receivers.
Coupling: A threaded sleeve used to connect two pipes. Commercial couplings have internal
threads to fit external threads on pipe..
Ductile Iron: A cast ferrous material in which the free graphite is in a spheroidal form rather than
a fluke form. The desirable properties of ductile iron are achieved by means of chemistry and a
ferritizing heat treatment of the castings.
Electric Flash-Welded Pipe: Pipe having a longitudinal butt joint in which coalescence is
produced simultaneously Edge preparation. Over the entire area of abutting surfaces by the heat
obtained from resistance to the flow of electric current between the two surfaces and by the
application of pressure after heating is substantially completed. Flashing and upsetting are
accompanied by expulsion of metal from the joint.
Electric Fusion-Welded Pipe: Pipe having a longitudinal or spiral butt joint in which
coalescence is produced in the preformed tube by manual or automatic Electric arc welding. The
weld may be single or double and may be made with or without the use of filler metal.
Electric Resistance-Welded Pipe: Pipe produced in individual lengths or in continuous lengths

from coiled skelp and subsequently cut into individual lengths having a longitudinal butt joint in
which coalescence is produced by the heat obtained from resistance of the pipe to the flow of
electric current in a circuit of which the pipe is a part and by the application of pressure.
Extruded Pipe: Pipe produced from hollow or solid round forgings, usually in a hydraulic
extrusion press. In this process the forging is contained in a cylindrical die. Initially a punch at the
end of the extrusion plunger pierces the forging. The extrusion plunger then forces the contained
billet between the cylindrical die and the punch to form the pipe, the latter acting as a
mandrel.One variation of this process utilizes autofrettage (hydraulic expansion) and heat
treatment, above the recrystallization temperature of the material, to produce a wrought structure.
Forged and Bored Pipe: Pipe produced by boring or trepanning of a forged billet.
Hangers and Supports: Hangers and supports include elements which transfer the load from the
pipe or structural attachment to the supporting structure or equipment. They include hanging-type
fixtures such as hanger rods, spring hangers, sway braces, counterweights, turnbuckles, struts,
chains, guides, and anchors and bearing-type fixtures such as saddles, bases, rollers, brackets, and
sliding supports.
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Header: A pipe or fitting to which a number of branch pipes are connected.
Hot Bending: Bending of piping to a predetermined radius after heating to a suitably high
temperature for hot working. On many pipe sizes, the pipe is firmly packed with sand to avoid
wrinkling and excessive out-of-roundness.
Instrument Piping: All piping, valves, and fittings used to connect instruments to main piping,
to other instruments and apparatus, or to measuring equipment.2
Kinematic Viscosity: The ratio of the absolute viscosity to the mass density. In the metric
system, kinematic viscosity is measured in strokes or square centimeters per second.
Lapped Joint: A type of pipe joint made by using loose flanges on lengths of pipe whose ends
are lapped over to give a bearing surface for a gasket or metal-to-metal joint.
Nipple: A piece of pipe less than 12 in (0.3 m) long that may be threaded on both ends or on one
end and provided with ends suitable for welding or a mechanical joint. Pipe over 12 in (0.3 m)
long is regarded as cut pipe. Common types of nipples are close nipple, about twice the length of
a standard pipe thread and without any shoulder; shoulder nipple, of any length and having a
shoulder between the pipe threads; short nipple, a shoulder nipple slightly longer than a close
nipple and of a definite length for each pipe size which conforms to manufacturer’ standard; long
nipple, a shoulder nipple longer than a short nipple which is cut to a specific length.
Pipe Alignment Guide: A restraint in the form of a sleeve or frame that permits the pipeline to
move freely only along the axis of the pipe.
Pipe Supporting Fixtures: Elements that transfer the load from the pipe or structural attachment
to the support structure or equipment.
Pipeline or Transmission Line: A pipe installed for the purpose of transmitting gases, liquids,
slurries, etc., from a source or sources of supply to one or more distribution centers or to one or
more large-volume customers; a pipe installed to interconnect source or sources of supply to one
or more distribution centers or to one or more large-volume customers; or a pipe installed to
interconnect sources of supply.
Piping System: Interconnected piping subject to the same set or sets of design conditions.
Purging: The displacement during welding, by an inert or neutral gas, of the air inside the piping
underneath the weld area in order to avoid oxidation or contamination of the underside of the
weld. Gases most commonly used are argon, helium, and nitrogen (the last is principally limited
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to austenitic stainless steel). Purging can be done within a complete pipe section or by means of
purging fixtures of a small area underneath the pipe weld.
Saddle Flange: Also known as tank flange or boiler flange. A curved flange shaped to fit a
boiler, tank, or other vessel and to receive a threaded pipe. A saddle flange is usually riveted or
welded to the vessel.
Schedule Numbers: Approximate values of the expression 1000P/S, where P is the service
pressure and S is the allowable stress, both expressed in pounds per square inch.
Seamless Pipe: A wrought tubular product made without a welded seam. It is manufactured by
hot-working steel or, if necessary, by subsequently cold-finishing the hot-worked tubular product
to produce the desired shape, dimensions, and properties.
Socket Weld: Fillet-type seal weld used to join pipe to valves and fittings or to other sections of
pipe. Generally used for piping whose nominal diameter is NPS 2 (DN 50) or smaller.
Source Nipple: A short length of heavy-walled pipe between high-pressure mains and the first
valve of bypass, drain, or instrument connections.
Spiral-Welded Pipe: Pipe made by the electric-fusion-welded process with a butt joint, a lap
joint, or a lock-seam joint.
Stainless Steel: An alloy steel having unusual corrosion-resisting properties, usually imparted by
nickel and chromium.
Swivel Joint: A joint which permits single-plane rotational movement in a piping system.
Tack Weld: A small weld made to hold parts of a weldment in proper alignment until the final
welds are made.
Tee Joint: A welded joint between two members located approximately at right angles to each
other in the form of a T.
Tube: A hollow product of round or any other cross section having a continuous periphery.
Round tube size may be specified with respect to any two, but not all three, of the following:
outside diameter, inside diameter, and wall thickness. Dimensions and permissible variations
(tolerances) are specified in the appropriate ASTM or ASME specifications.
Welding Fittings: Wrought- or forged-steel elbows, tees, reducers, and similar pieces for
connection by welding to one another or to pipe. In small sizes, these fittings are available with
counter bored ends for connection to pipe by fillet welding and are known as socket-weld fittings.
In large sizes, the fittings are supplied with ends chamfered for connection to pipe by means of
butt welding and are known as butt-welding fittings.
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Wrought Pipe: The term wrought pipe refers to both wrought steel and wrought iron. Wrought in
this sense means ‘‘worked,’’ as in the process of forming furnace welded pipe from skelp or
seamless pipe from plates or billets. The expression wrought pipe is thus used as a distinction
from cast pipe. Wrought pipe in this sense should not be confused with wrought-iron pipe, which
is only one variety of wrought pipe. When wrought-iron pipe is referred to, it should be
designated by its complete name.
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6.0 Civil &Structural
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6.1 INTRODUCTION
Civil Engineering, being the mother branch of Engineering, has a special status in Engineering
Design & Construction, involves planning, designing, and executing Civil & structural works.
The profession deals with a wide variety of engineering tasks including designing, supervision
and construction or erection activities.
The major specializations within civil engineering are structural, water resources, environmental,
construction, transportation, geo-technical engineering, fire protection engineering, hydraulic
engineering, material science and surveying.
6.2 CIVIL RESPONSIBILITIES
Civil engineering construction in an EPC is the first activity to commence at site though the
development of design is entirely dependent on the other disciplines. The function of the Civil
department in an EPC organization for O & G Projects is to design all civil structures inside the
plant. It includes:
Foundations
Steel and concrete structures for supporting equipments
Access-ways like platforms, ladders, gratings, etc.,
All plant and non plant buildings like
Control rooms
Substations
Workshops
Warehouses
Administrative buildings
Canteen
Township
All roads
Drains
Culverts
Compound walls
Road crossings
Railway sidings
Jetties
Large water reservoirs
Under Ground Works
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6.3 TYPICAL DETAILED ENGINEERING ACTIVITY CHART - CIVIL
Client’s Contract Document
& Scope of work
Sub contractor’s TDR

scope of work
Civil Design Basis &

Design philosophy IDC
TBE
Specifications
IDC
PR / PO
Client’s
Approval Design calculations
Soil data,
Vendor input &
Vendor Documents Data from other
/ Drawings Review BOQ disciplines
Inspection of All relevant IDC

Procured Material drawings developed
Note:
Release of AFC
Drawings & Road,Grading & Paving
Documents to site GA of Buildings
Equipment foundations
Structural Drawings for pipe
racks, platforms, supports
Site Construction
U/G system Layout
Technical Support
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6.4 LOADS ACTING ON STRUCTURES
S.No Loads
1 Dead Loads (DL)
2 Live Loads (LL)
3 Impact (I)
4 Wind Load (WL)
5 Horizontal forces due to water current (WC)
6 Longitudinal forces due to tractive effort or braking of vehicles (TF or BF)
7 Centrifugal Force (CF)
8 Water Pressure and Buoyancy (B)
9 Earth Pressure (EP)
10 Temperature Stresses (TS)
11 Deformation Stresses (DS)
12 Secondary Stresses (SS)
13 Erection Loads and Stresses (ES)
14 Seismic forces or Earthquake Loads (EL)
15 Snow Load (SL)
16 Blast Load (BL)
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UDL
Uniformly Distributed Loads are uniformly distributed static loads per square meter of plan area.
Point Load / Concentrated Load
These are assumed to act points on the member to give the greatest moment, shear, etc.
Concentrated loads should be applied to individual members and assumed to act o them unless
there is evidence that adequate interaction exists to ensure that the load can be spread or shared.
6.5 FOUNDATION
Foundation is the lowest part of a structure that provides base for superstructure, which transfers
the load from the super structure to the soil on which it rests. Foundation can be built with
materials like brick, stone, concrete, steel, etc.The various types of foundations are classified as
follows:
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FOUNDATIONS
Strip and Pad Surface Spread Pile Foundations Miscellaneous Forms

Foundations Foundations
Pad Strip
Bases Footing Crust Blanket Cellular Beam Jacking Raft Suspended Ground Grillage
Raft Raft Raft Strip Floor Slabs Foundations
Slip Raft
Nominal Plane Lidded Buoyancy
Crust Raft Raft Cellular Raft Raft
Masonry Stone Inverted T

Strips Trench Beam Strips Stone/gravel Timber Piles Pile caps and
Piles Anchor Piles Ground Beams
Fill
Concrete Concrete Rectangular Concrete Piles Anchor Blocks
Strips Trench Beam Strips Steel Piles
Fill
Driven Precast Bored Augered Driven Cast in

Shallow Deep Mass Piles Piles Situ Piles
Piles
Mass Concrete
Concrete Deep Reinforced Balanced Pad
Concrete
Shallow
Reinforced
Concrete
Rectangular Holed
Balanced Pad Balanced Pad
Trapezoidal Cantilever 140 of 226
Balanced Pad Balanced Pad
The Functions of foundations are as follows:
To distribute the weight of the structure over larger areas so as to avoid overloading of the
soil beneath.
To load the sub-structure evenly and thus prevents unequal settlement.
To provide a level surface for building operations.
To take the sub-structure deep into the ground and thus increase its stability, preventing
overturning.
Load Bearing capacity:
The load bearing capacity of foundation soil or rock which enables it to bear and transmit load from
the structure.
Ultimate bearing capacity:
The ultimate bearing capacity of the soil is defined as the load carrying capacity of the soil without
the occurrence of shear failure.
Safe Bearing Capacity
The safe bearing capacity of the soil is determined by dividing the ultimate bearing capacity of soil by
suitable factor of safety.
Safe Bearing Capacity = Ultimate Bearing Capacity / Factor of Safety
Factors Affecting Bearing Capacity:
Type of soil and its physical properties such as density, shear strength etc.
Almost of allowable total and differential settlement.
Position of water-table.
Physical features of the foundation.
Grouting:
The process of injecting grouts under pressure in order to seal of the cracks or fissures. Grout is made
up of Ordinary Portland Cement and water. Sand ,fillers and admixtures are also sometimes used.
6.6 MAJOR CIVIL STRUCTURES
6.6.1 Piperack structures
Piperack can be either in precast or cast-in-situ or structural steel. In case of precast pipe rack the
footings are cast with a socket for placing the precast columns and precast longitudinal / transverse
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beams are connected to the column by different types of connection. The bottleneck in most of the
project is the pipe rack. Precast construction reduces the cost of construction and helps in avoiding
fireproofing. In case of steel pipe rack the footings are once again cast-in-situ and the pedestals are
precast with an anchor bolts for taking up the structural columns. In this case fireproofing upto a
certain height as spelt in the design criteria becomes an additional job, which also takes time to do it.
6.6.2 Process structures
Process structures can be either in precast or cast-in-situ or of steel. Apart from the above the process
structures have to support a number of equipments and platforms. Always there would a connecting
platform from each process structure to the pipe rack.
6.6.3 Heaters/Furnace/Boiler structures
The foundations and pedestals are generally cast-in-situ and the superstructure would be in structural
steel, which would be in vendor scope of supply.
6.6.4 Basins
The basin bottom slab, retaining wall & toe are in cast-in-situ. Sometimes the basin is held in
position with the help of cover slab. Mostly they are free cantilever retaining walls. The structures
which are constructed for retaining earth on the back, are called retaining walls.
6.6.5 Package skids
Package skid requires only a concrete slab to for seating. The loads due to the equipment and piping
on the package are finally transferred to the leg of the skid. Skids foundation is designed based on this
load.
6.6.6 Buildings (Substation, MNC, Administration, Canteen, Firestation etc.)
All the buildings are found on cast-in-situ concrete footings/piles and concrete pedestals. The
superstructure is either prefabricated steel panels or conventional materials.
6.7 INDIVIDUAL COMPONENTS OF STRUCTURES
6.7.1 Slabs
The horizontal load carrying member which covers the building top or each floor of a building is
called slab. Hence the slab may be roof slab or floor slab.
One way Slab
A slab supported at two opposite sides is called as one way slab. When the ratio of the length of a
room to its breadth is greater than 2, the slab is called one way slab.
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Two way Slab
A slab supported along all the four sides is called as two way slab. When the ratio of the length of the
room to its breadth is less than 2, the slab is designed as two way slab.
6.7.2 Beam
Beams are the horizontal parts of a structure which transfer all the loads including its self weight to
the vertical members of the structures.
Structural idealization of beams
Simply supported beam

The beams which simply rest on the walls or on the columns are called as simply supported
beams.
Cantilever beam
One end of the beam is fixed and the other end is free.
Over hanging beam

The beam extends more than the support is called as over hanging beam. Overhanging may be on
one side or both sides.
Continuous beam
Beam with more than two supports is called as a continuous beam.
Fixed beam
In this type both the ends of the beams are fixed or embedded in wall.
Here bending is constraint at the supports.
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6.7.3 Columns
Column is a vertical structure member used to support compressive load or compressive load and
bending moment. It transmits the load coming from the slab and beam including its self weight to the
foundation. Reinforced concrete columns may be square, rectangular, circular, hexagonal and
octagonal.
Types of Columns
Based on the effective length columns are classified as
Short columns: The ratio of the least lateral dimension is less than or equal to 12, the column
is known as short column.
Long Column: The ratio of the effective length to the least lateral dimension is greater than
12, is known as long column.
6.7.4 Bundwalls
Bund walls shall be designed as a liquid-tight earthen structure with a slope not steeper than 1 vertical
to 1.5 horizontal. The crest of the earthen bund wall shall have minimum breadth of 0.60 m. The
height of the bund wall above the bund floor shall be determined from the required net capacity of the
bund plus a freeboard of 0.30 m.Factors of safety should not be less then 1.3.
Bund floors shall slope away from the tank pad towards a drainage trench located adjacent to the
bund wall. The slope shall be minimum 1 vertical to 100 horizontal.
6.7.5 Tank Pads
Foundations to vertical (atmospheric) storage tanks generally take the form of a tank pad, constructed
from durable, inert, granular materials, covered by an erosion protection layer.
A stability analysis of the shoulder and tank pad shall take into account aspects such as initial height
above adjacent ground level, highest possible ground water level, angle of slope to the shoulder,
geotechnical properties of the tank foundation materials and subsoil, load provided by the tank and its
contents and operational and maintenance requirements. A suitable factor of safety shall be selected
and should not be less than 1.5 under normal and 1.1 under earthquake conditions.
6.7.6 Paving
In Process and Utilities units paving shall be provided to give sufficient access and operating space
around the equipment. Concrete paving should be limited to spill, or heavy crane areas. Areas
designated for access only should be asphalt-paved.
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Paved contaminated Process Units are provided with trapped catch basins connected to the oily water
sewer. The catch basins are located so that the paving slopes away from process equipment and pipe
racks.
In-Situ Concrete Paving -The paving will normally be 150 mm thick, reinforced with mesh fabric as
defined on the standard drawings.
In drop-out and areas accessible to maintenance vehicles, the paving shall be 150 mm thick,
reinforced with mesh fabric as defined on the standard drawings.
Pre-Cast Concrete Paving Slabs - Pre-cast concrete paving slabs shall be used for walkways.
6.7.7 Drainage
Drainage systems can be either non-pressurized ‘open drain’ systems or closed pressurized systems
conveying chemical, hydrocarbon, produced water and the like. The closed drainage system is
covered by Piping design discipline and treated as pressurized piping system.
TYPICAL UNDER GROUND DRAINAGE
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6.8 OFFSHORE PLATFORMS
Offshore platforms are used for exploration of oil and gas from under seabed and processing.
Offshore platforms are broadly classified into two categories:
Fixed Structures that extend to the seabed

− Steel Jacket
− Concrete Gravity Structure
− Complaint Tower
Structures that float near water surface
− Tension Leg Platform
− Semi-submersible
− Spar
− Ship Shaped Vessel(FPSO)
6.8.1 Platform Foundation
The loads generated by environmental conditions plus by onboard equipment must be resisted by the
piles at the seabed and below. The soil investigation is vital to the design of any offshore structure.
Geotech report is developed by doing soil borings at the desired location and performing in-situ and
laboratory tests. Pile penetration depends on the platform size and loads, and soil characteristics, but
normally range from 30m to about 100m.
6.8.2 Platform Loads
Offshore structures shall be designed for the following types of loads:
Permanent(Dead) Loads
Operating(Live) Loads
Environmental Loads
− Wind Load
− Wave Load
− Earthquake Load
Construction-Installation Loads
Accidental Loads
The design of offshore structures is dominated by environmental loads especially wave load.
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6.8.3 Permanent Loads
Weight of the structure in air, including the weight of ballast. It includes weight of equipments, and
structures permanently mounted on the platform.
6.8.4 Operating Loads
Operating loads include the weight of all non-permanent equipment or material, as well as forces
generated during the operation of the equipment. Following Live load values are recommended in
BS6235:
Crew quarters and passage ways – 3.2 kN/m2
Working area – 8.5 kN/m2
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Wind Load
Wind load acts on portion of platform above the water level as well as on any equipment, housing,
derrick, etc. When the ratio of the height to the least horizontal dimension of the structure is greater
than 5, then API-RP2A requires the dynamic effects of the wind to be taken into account.
Wave Load
The wave loading of an offshore structure is usually the most important of all environmental loading.
The forces on the structure are caused by the motion of the water due to waves. Structures exposed to
waves experience forces much higher than wind loadings.
Earthquake Load
Offshore structures are designed for two levels of earthquake intensity:
Strength level: Earthquake defined as having a reasonable likelihood of not being exceeded
during the platform’s life( recurrence interval appox 200-500 years), the structure is designed
to respond elastically.
Ductility level: Earthquake defined as close to the maximum credible earthquake at the site,
the structure is designed for inelastic response and to have adequate strength to avoid
collapse.
Installation Load
These are temporary loads and arise during fabrication and installation of the platform or its
components. During fabrication, erection lifts of various structural components lifting forces, while in
installation phase forces are generated during platform load out, transportation to the site, launching
and upending, as well as during lifts relating to installation.
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Typical Loading Conditions for Offshore Foundation Systems:
V- Applied Vertical Load M-Reaction Force

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6.9 SOFTWARE USED
Some of the software used in the Civil &Structural Department are as given below:
6.9.1 Softwares for Design / Analysis
STAAD PRO 2006

GT Strudl 27
X-Steel 12.1
CADD RC V9
MathCAD 14.0
PDS 7.02/8
PDMS 11.5
Navis works 5.3/5.5 for 3D Model review package
ACAD 2007/2008 for 2D Drawing preparation
Micro station 7.01/8 for 2D / 3D drawing preparation
6.10 IMPORTANT CODES AND STANDARDS FOLLOWED
Building code requirements for structural concrete

1 ACI 318
Code requirements for Environmental

2 ACI 350 Engineering concrete Structures and commentary
3 AISC Manual for steel construction
4 API 650 Welded steel tanks for oil storage
5 BS4 Structural Steel Sections
Use of Structural Steel in Buildings
6 BS 449 Weight of Building Materials
Welding terms and symbols
9 BS 5395 Stairs, ladders and walkways
Lifts and Service Lifts

10 BS5655
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11 BS5950 Structural Use of steel work in buildings
Loadings for Buildings

12 BS 6399
13 BS 7419 Specification for holding down bolts
14 BS8004 Code of practice for Foundation
Design of Concrete Structures for Retaining

15 BS8007 Aqueous Liquids
16 BS 8110 Structural use of Concrete
17 UBC 1997 Uniform building code
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6.11 APPENDIX
6.11.1 LEGEND IN CIVIL / STRUCTURAL DRAWINGS
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6.11.2 RELATED DRAWINGS
TYPICAL STRIP FOOTING REINFORCED STRIP FOOTING
CONCRETE TRENCH FILL STONE TRENCH FILL
TYPICAL BEAM STRIP INVERTED BEAM STRIP
SHALLOW MASS CONCRETE PAD DEEP MASS
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SHALLOW REINFORCED DEEP REINFORCED
CONCRETE PAD CONCRETE PAD
RECTANGULAR BALANCED TRAPEZOIDAL BALANCED

PAD FOUNDATION PAD FOUNDATION
HOLED BALANCED PAD CANTILEVER BALANCED FOUNDATION
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NOMINAL CONCRETE RAFT BLANKET RAFT
BUOYANCY RAFT JACKING RAFT
TYPICAL PILE FOUNDATION STONE PILE
STONE / GRAVEL TYPICAL CONCRETE PILE
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UNDER-REAMED AUGERED PILE ANCHOR PILE
DRIVEN PRECAST PILES DRIVEN CAST IN-SITU PILES BORED PILES
AUGERED PILES BORED PILE CANTILEVER FOUNDATION
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TENSION PILES
TIE BEAM & ANCHOR BLOCK PILE CAP BEAM RESTRAINT
FLOATING GROUND FLOOR SLAB SUSPENDED GROUND FLOOR SLABS
PIER & BEAM FOUNDATION BEAM RETAINING WALL
GRILLAGE FOUNDATION GRILLAGE FOUNDATION

(Temporary Works) (Permanent Works)
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6.12 FREQUENTLY REFERRED CHARTS
6.12.1 Typical value of Live Loads to be considered:
Loads including Personnel, Portable, portable machinery, tools and equipment, pipe.
S.No Classification Live Load
1 General and Maintenance areas of equipment, 5.0 kN/m2

structures, operating floors and platforms
2 Access area of equipment, structures, walk-ways, etc., 2.5 kN/m2 or a Point Lo
3.0Kn
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S.No Classification Live Load
3 Access platforms serving towers and vessels 2.5 kN/m2
4 Storage Areas 7.5KN/m2
5 Handrails 1.0KN
6 Stairs and Landings 2.5KN/m2 OR 3.0kN
6.12.2 Typical Building Floors and Roofs – Live Loads:
1. Cable Basement 5 Kn/m2
2. Switch Gear Room 10 Kn/m2
3. Battery Room 12 Kn/m2
4. Transformer Room 12 Kn/m2
5. Instrument Auxiliary Room 8 Kn/m2
6. Control Room 5 Kn/m2
7. Corridors 10 Kn/m2
8. Landing Platforms 8 Kn/m2
9. Roofs with HVAC equipment 8 Kn/m2
10. Roofs without HVAC equipment 1.5 Kn/m2
Loading for flat roofs sloping less than 10° and accessible for inspection and repair only shall be 1.0
kN/m2. In addition all roof members shall be checked for a single point load of 2.0 kN.
Note: The values of loads, deflection limits, etc., are for indirected purposes only and may vary
depending upon the specification and design basis.
Wind Loads
For overhead pipe racks of 4m or less wide the wind load on three largest pipes shall be taken into
account. For overhead pipe racks over 4m wide the wind load on the four largest pipes shall be taken
into account. A shape factor of 0.7 shall be used.
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For vertical vessels the effect of all projections, the projected area shall normally be increased by
intensification factor which includes the shape factor.
S.No Vessel Diameter(mm) Wind Load Intensification Factor
1. 750 or less 1.50
2. 751 to 1350 1.40
3. 1351 to 1950 1.30
4. 1951 to 2550 1.20
5. 2551 and greater 1.18
Intensification factors are applied to a basic diameter to determine effective diameter for wind.
Basic diameter = vessel (l.d) + 2 x shell thickness + 2 x insulation thickness
Effective projected area = Total height of vessel including head x intensification factor x Basic
diameter
Sand Loads
A uniformly distributed load of 0.5 kN/m2 shall be considered for structural design.
Thermal Load
Thermal load shall be the load acting upon a structure due to change in temperature of pipes,
machinery or process equipment.
The longitudinal thermal load on a pipe way shall be taken as 15% of the operating load or 30 % of
any one or more lines known to act simultaneously in the same direction, whichever is the greater.
These forces shall not be distributed to the foundation.
S.No Surfaces Friction Factor
1 Steel to steel 0.33
2 Lubrite or equivalent to steel 0.15
3 Teflon to Teflon 0.10
4 Steel to Grout 0.40
5 Graphite to Graphite 0.15
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The frictional force at the ‘free end’ of vessel is applied at both ‘fixed’ and free end. Any external
thermal force is applied directly to the ‘fixed’ end.
Earth Quake Loads
For design the load is to be taken to be taken as per of the Uniform Building Code(1997).
Pipe Loads
Vertical test load on structure supporting up to four pipes(in addition to dead load) shall be taken as
the weight of water in full pipes.
Minimum vertical loading = 1.70 Kn/m2 on plan area
Horizontal load on the anchor bays shall be taken as the greatest of
Anchor force from pipe stress analysis
(Or)
15% of piping vertical loads from 4bays length
(Or)
40 KN applied uniformly
Pipe anchors shall be designed for the forces developed from the line stressing. When more than one
anchor is supported on one support due to account shall be taken of the direction of thrust, but in ant
case members shall be designed to resist any one anchor thrust as a minimum.
Machinery Loads
Design of structures supporting machines shall be carried out on the basis of manufacturer’s
information on loads, their mode of action and vibration characteristics.
Foundations shall be designed so that the natural frequency of the foundation/soil system is either less
than half or greater than twice the operation frequency of the machine.
6.12.3 Maintenance Hoisting Equipment
The calculations and design details for all lifting and runway beams shall be in accordance with BS
2853.
All gantry cranes shall have maintenance access platforms and ladders. The cranes rails shall have
sufficient vertical adjustment to overcome any settlement in the supporting structure.
The safe working load shall be clearly painted on all runway beams.
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Analysis
S.No Structure Orientation Vertical
1. Roll Acceleration 0.5 g at base, increasing 0.15g for each meter above the
base of the module
2. Pitch Acceleration 0.2g at base, increasing 0.01g for each
3. Heave Acceleration 1.3g maximum, 0.6g minimum
Design to account for combinations of:
Heave + Roll
Heave + Pitch
Allowable Stresses: Basic for Stillwater condition

Basic x 1.33 for barge motions
Permissible Deflection for Pipe Supports
Concrete and steel stresses and soil pressures may exceed the permissible stresses by up to 25%
provided this increase is due solely to wind or seismic effect.
Permissible Deflection for Pipe Supports
The maximum horizontal and vertical deflection for all pipe supports shall be height/200.
Deflections
Cantilevered Beams max 1/180 of the overhang.
Maximum total horizontal displacement of portal frames shall not exceed 1/200th of the height.
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6.12.4 Pressure Due To Surcharge
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6.12.5 Two Way Slabs: Rectangular Panels: Uniform Load: BS 8110 Requirements
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6.12.6 Two Way Slabs: Triangularly Distributed Loads: Elastic Analysis
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6.12.7 LOADING COMBINATIONS
The following table defines the basic load cases to be considered and the coefficients to be applied to
basic load cases for all pipe-supporting structures.
Partial safety factor for

Basic Load case Description Coefficient (X)
load
1.05 or 1.2 Partial safety factors are
1 DSW Self-Weight of Structure
(Refer cl 3.1) different for different load
2 DFP Fire-proofing Concrete Weight (If any) 1.00 combinations. Reference
3 PLE Pipe Load-Empty condition 1.00 shall be made to the MS
4 PLO Pipe contents Load-Operating condition 1.00 EXCEL standard spread
5 PLT Pipe contents Load-Test condition 1.00 sheet for Pipe racks, Pipe
6 FT Transverse Frictional Load of Pipe 1.00 supports and sleepers.
7 FL Longitudinal Frictional Load of Pipe 1.00 Refer Civil & Structural
8 AT Transverse Anchor Load of Pipe (If any) 1.00 Design Manual, JI-180-
9 AL Longitudinal Anchor Load of Pipe (If any) 1.00 000-ECV-SPE-004
10 WL Transverse Wind Load 1.00

11 WT Longitudinal Wind Load 1.00
Load due to Temperature Increase (Self-straining 1.00
12 TI forces caused by the restrained thermal expansion of
structural steel in pipe racks)
Load due to Temperature decrease (Self-straining 1.00
13 TD forces caused by the restrained thermal contraction
of structural steel in pipe racks)
14 ST Transverse Seismic Force 1.00
15 SL Longitudinal Seismic Force 1.00
16 Er Erection Load (If any) 1.00
17 L Platform Live Load (if any) 1.00
Following basic load combinations with appropriate load factors as per BS 5950 shall be used for
design of pipe rack and other pipe supporting structures.
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Load Combination 1: Dead Load + Live Load + Operating Load + Friction Load Longitudinal
+ Anchor Load + Temperature Load in structure TI or TD
Load Combination 2: Dead Load + Live Load + Operating Load + Friction Load Transverse +
Anchor Load + Temperature Load in structure TI or TD
Load Combination 3: Dead Load + Live Load + Operating Load + Wind Load Longitudinal +
Load Combination 4: Dead Load + Live Load + Operating Load + Wind Load Transverse +
Load Combination 5: Dead Load + Live Load + Operating Load + Seismic Load Longitudinal
+ Anchor Load + Temperature Load in structure TI or TD
Load Combination 6: Dead Load + Live Load + Operating Load + Seismic Load Transverse +
Load Combination 7: Dead Load + Live Load + Test Load + Wind Load Longitudinal (50%)
Load Combination 8: Dead Load + Live Load + Test Load + Wind Load Transverse (50%)
Load Combination 9: Dead Load + Live Load + Shut down Load + Wind Load Longitudinal +
Temperature Load in structure TI or TD
Load Combination 10: Dead Load + Live Load + Shut down Load + Wind Load Transverse +
Temperature Load in structure TI or TD
6.12.8 Limits for calculated deflections
a) Vertical deflection of beams due to imposed load

Cantilevers Length/180
Beams carrying plaster or other brittle finish Span/360
Other beams (except purlins and sheeting rails) Span/200
b) Horizontal deflection of columns due to imposed load and wind load
Tops of columns in single-storey buildings. except portal frames Height/300
Columns in portal frame buildings, not supporting crane runways To suit cladding
Columns supporting crane runways To suit crane runway
In each storey of a building with more than one storey Height of that storey/300
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c) Crane girders
Vertical deflection due to static vertical wheel loads from Span/600
overhead traveling cranes
Horizontal deflection (calculated on the top flange properties Span/500
alone) due to horizontal crane loads
6.12.9 Nominal Effective Length LE for a Compression Member
a)Non-sway mode
Restraint (in the plane under consideration) by other parts of the structure LE
Effectively restrained in direction at both ends 0.7L

Effectively held in position at
Partially restrained in direction at both ends 0.85L
both ends
Restrained in direction at one end 0.85L
Not restrained in direction at either end 0.1L
b)Sway mode
One end Other end LE

Effectively held in Not held in position Effectively restrained in 1.2L
position and restrained in direction
direction Partially restrained in direction 1.5 L
Not restrained in direction 2.0L
6.12.10 Cranes & Lifting Appliances
S.No Electric Hand

Operation Operation
1 Vertical Loads-increase static wheel loads 25% 10%
2 Horizontal force transverse to rails taken as 10% 5%
percentage of(Load + Crab weight)
3 Horizontal force along rails taken as percentage of 5% 5%

(Load + Crab weight) of Structure Self Weight
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Slenderness
The ratio of effective length to the appropriate radius of gyration shall not exceed 200 for
Compression members and 300 for Tension members.
6.12.11 Effective Length of Columns for internal platform floors
Case Differential restraint at Directional Restraint at head of column
a) Braced the base of column Effectively Partially Nominally Truly

Column Restrained Restrained Pinned Pinned
Effectively restrained 0.70L 0.80L 0.85L 0.90L
Partially Restrained 0.80L 0.85L 0.90L 0.95
Nominally Pinned 0.85L 0.90L 0.95L 1.00
Truly Pinned 0.90L 0.95L 1.00L Avoid
b)Unbraced Effectively Restrained 1.50L 2.00L 2.50L 3.00

column Partially Restrained 2.00L 2.50L 3.00L 4.00
Nominally Pinned 2.50L 3.00L Avoid Avoid
Truly Pinned 3.00L Avoid Avoid Avoid
c)Unbraced Effectively Restrained 1.20L 1.50L 2.00L 2.50

column Partially Restrained 2.00L 2.50L 3.00
1.50L
Five or more
Nominally Pinned 2.00L 2.50L Avoid Avoid
columns tied
Truly Pinned Avoid Avoid Avoid
together
2.50L
No storage loads
6.12.12 Anchor Bolts
Projection = Bolt Projection above T.O.C
Projection shall be calculated as below:
P = Grip + Grout +Z1 + Z2
Grip – Thickness of base plate or height of anchor chair
For combined shear and tension. Bolts shall be checked for ultimate strength (Limit state) as below:
Fs + Fs < 1.4
Ps Pt
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Fs < 1.0 Fs < 1.0
Ps Pt
where,
F = Applied factored shear
P = Ultimate Shear Capacity (Limit State)
F = Applied Factored Tension
P = Ultimate Tension Capacity (Limit state)
For Combined shear and tension, bolts shall be checked for working stress as below:
Fs + Fs < 1.0
Ps Pt
where,
F = Applied factored shear

P = Allowable Working Shear Capacity
F = Applied Factored Tension
P = Allowable Working Tension Capacity
6.12.13 Nominal Cover to Reinforcement
Beam - 30mm
Column - 30mm
Slabs - 25mm
Walls - 25mm
Basin walls - 40mm
Basin floors - 40mm
Grade Beams - 40mm
Paving - 25mm
Foundation - 70mm
6.12.14 Strength and Elongation of Welds
Class Yield Strength Ye Tensile Strength Ue Minimum

elongation(%)
35 355 440 22
42 420 500 20
50 500 560 18
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7.0 ELECTRICAL
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7.1 INTROCUCTION
Electrical Power System can be divided into four categories.
Generation
Transmission
Distribution
Utilization.
GENERATION
Generation of electrical power is done normally at 11KV/22KV and stepped up to 33KV / 66KV/132
KV/220KV/400KV/AC transmission. Above 400 KV DC transmission is preferable.
The types of generation are
Hydro electric
Thermal Power
Nuclear power
Wind power
TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION
Power transmission is usually between power plant and a substation .Transmission of energy is
divided into two parts, first is transmission over long distances at high voltages, which is supported
by power transformers. The second part is distribution of energy from substations to various users.
Substations generally contain one or more transformers, and have switching, protection and control
equipment. In a large substation, circuits breakers are used to interrupt any short-circuit or overload
currents that may occur on the network.
Electrical Power System can be clearly understood from the figure below.
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7.1.1 FLOW CHART OF ELECTRICAL DEPARTMENT ACTIVITIES
Client Inputs IDIT
ITB Review
IDC Design Basis
Design Calculation Detailed Engineering IDC

(See Note)
Specifications&
Datasheets
RFQ Client Approval
Offer Drawing Issued for

Review,TBE&PO Construction
Vendor Document
Review
Inspection
Equipment Receipt Testing&

Installation
at Site Commissioning
Note :The activity includes:Load List, Single Line Diagrams,

Electrical Equipments Layouts, Cable Routing Layouts, Lighting
Layouts,Earthing and Lightning Protection Layout, Control
Schemes, Cable Schedule,MTO,Inter-connection Schedules,etc
ITB - Invitation to Bid

IDC - Inter Discipline Check
IDIT - Inter Department Information Transfer
TBE - Technical Bid Evaluation
PO - Purchase Order
RFQ - Requisition for Quotation
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7.2.1 IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission)
Sl. No STANDARD SUBJECT
1 IEC 60034 Rotating electrical machines - Rating and performance
2 IEC 60076 Power Transformers
3 IEC 60079 Electrical apparatus for explosive atmosphere
4 IEC 60287 Electrical Cables
5 IEC 60439 Low voltage switchgear and control gear assemblies
6 IEC 60947 Low voltage switchgear and control gear
7 IEC 60529 Degrees of protection provided by enclosure(IP)
8 IEC 62271 High voltage switchgear and control gear
9 IEC 60086 Primary Batteries- General
10 IEC 60044 Instrument Transformers- Current/ Inductive Voltage transformers
11 IEC 60085 Thermal evaluation and classification of electrical insulation.
12 IEC 60038 IEC Standard voltages.
13 IEC 60909 Short circuit current in Three phase ac circuits
14 IEC 60050-195 Earthing and protection against electric shocks
15 IEC 60686 Uninterrupted Power Supplies
16 IEC 60095 Lead acid starter battery.
17 IEC 60364 Electrical Insulation of electrical buildings
18 IEC 60143 Series Capacitors for power systems
7.2.2 IEEE
19 IEEE 80 Guide for Safety in AC substation grounding.
20 IEEE 141 Recommended practice for electrical power distribution for industrial plants
21 IEEE 1184 Guide for the selection and sizing of batteries for uninterruptible power systems
22 IEEE 1187 Recommended practice for installation design and installation of valve-
regulated Lead-Acid storage batteries for stationary applications
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7.3 SOFTWARE USED
7.3.1 ETAP – Electrical Transient Analyzer Program
ETAP is an advanced electrical analysis software tool used to design, maintain and operation of
generation, transmission, distribution and utilization of electrical power system.
The major studies performed using this software is
Load flow analysis.

Short Circuit analysis.
Motor starting analysis.
Transient stability analysis.
Harmonic Analysis.
Cable sizing based on short circuit.
Transformer Sizing.
Battery discharge and sizing.
Protective Device Co ordination.
Ground Grid Design
CHALMLITE Software is used for calculating indoor, outdoor and street lighting calculation
7.4 MAJOR EQUIPMENTS /SYSTEMS/PACKAGES HANDLED.
132 kV, 66kV GIS( Gas Insulated Switchgear) and switchyard package
Transformers
33 kV, 11kV, 6.6kV SF6 / VCB – High voltage switchgears.
L.V Switchboard
Motor Control Centre
AC UPS, DC UPS
AC Variable Speed Drive.
Power Distribution control system (PDCS).
Parameter Sizing
Arc Flashing
Earthing and lightning System
Lighting System
Cable routing
Heat Tracing
Cathodic Protection
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7.5 HAZARDOUS AREA CLASSIFICATION (IEC – 60079)
Area Classification is an assessment of the probability of a flammable mixture being present at

different locations in a process industry.
The assessment results are division of a facility into hazardous and non hazardous area and the sub-
division of the hazardous area into zones.
ZONE 0 ZONE 1 ZONE2
Explosive atmosphere is Explosive atmosphere is often Explosive atmosphere may

continuously present present accidentally be present
7.5.1 UNDERSTANDING IEC MARKINGS
Ex d II C T6
Ex –Explosion Protected (meets IEC standards)
EEx- meets CENELEC standards
AEx- Equipment conforms to NE
d - Type of protection(d-flameproof)
II - Surface work ( I-Underground work)
C- Gas sub-division (C-Hydrogen)
T6 - Temperature class (T6-Max 85oC)
7.5.2 TYPES OF PROTECTION
Flame Proof d
Increased safety e
Flame proof+ Increased safety De(typical example is that of floodlight, the principal
protection method is flameproof(d) for luminaries and
the secondary protection method is increased safety(e)
for junction box
Non-sparking n
Pressurized apparatus p
Intrinsic safety ia for zone0
ib for zone1
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7.6 CATHODIC PROTECTION (NACE Standard)
Corrosion may be defined as the deterioration of a substance (usually a metal) or its properties due to
its reaction with its environment. For the corrosion process to occur, areas with different electrical
potentials must exist on the metal surface. These areas must be electrically connected and shall be in
contact with an electrolyte.
7.6.1 CATHODIC PROTECTION METHODS
Sacrificial Anode System
Sacrificial anode system uses a metal more active than the structure to be protected , to supply the
current required to stop the corrosion. The more active metal is called a sacrificial anode and is
connected electrically to structure to be protected . Sacrificial anode supplies the protective current
and prevents the flow of corrosion current from metal surface.
Materials / Metals used:

− High potential magnesium alloys
− Standard magnesium alloy
− Zinc alloy
− Aluminum alloy
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Impressed Current System
An electrical current supplied by a device employing a power source that is external to the electrode
system is called impressed current. This dc current flows to the buried impressed current anode
through soil electrolyte and onto buried pipes /vessel /tank bottom.
Materials / Metals used:

− Graphite
− Hi silicon cast iron
− Lead silver alloy
− Mixed Metal Oxide
− Titanium base
7.6.2 SYSTEMCHARACTERISTICS
Galvanic Impressed
No external power required External power required
Fixed driving voltage Voltage can be varied
Limited current Current can be varied
Small current requirements High current requirements
Used in lower resistivity environment Used in almost any resistivity environment
Usually negligible interference Must consider interference with other structure
7.7 HEAT TRACING
Heat tracing, or surface heating, is the method of heating and/or maintaining temperatures in
pipelines, tanks and vessels. In cold climates, water or chemical pipe work often needs to be heat
traced to prevent freezing. Thermal insulation alone is incapable of preventing freezing. A 25mm
bore pipe at 5°c having 25mm thick insulation will reach freezing point within one hour in an ambient
temperature of -10°c.
7.7.1 PURPOSE OF HEAT TRACING
Freeze protection of pipes/tanks.

Temperature maintenance of hot water maintenance pipes.
Under floor heating.
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Roof and gutter heating for snow/ice prevention.
Heating of residential fuel oil storage tanks.
Solidification Prevention
Viscosity Maintenance
Process Heating
Condensation Prevention
Re-melting solidify fluids
7.7.2 TYPES OF HEAT TRACERS
Tracer Type Operating Temperature(oC) Length(m)
Self Limiting Self 65-150 <225

Regulating(SLSR)
Power Limiting Constant Watt 150-230 <225

(Parallel)
Power Limiting Constant Watt 230-300 250-2500

(Series)
Mineral Insulated Series >300 50-2500
Skin Effect 2500-25000
7.7.3 INPUTS REQUIRED FOR HEAT TRACING DESIGN
S.No Inputs Discipline
Line List
Line Number & Line Size
Line material
Length of Pipeline
1 Number of Valves
Type of Valve
Process & Piping
Number of Supports
Support Type
Number of Flange
Type of Flange
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S.No Inputs Discipline
Insulation Details
2
Thickness Piping
Type
Temperatures
Maintenance Temperature
Minimum Ambient Temperature
Maximum Ambient Temperature
Maximum Heater Exposure temperature
3
Maximum Pipe Operating Temperature
Maximum Allowable Temperature Process
Power Supply Available
Single Phase (L-N)

4 Single Phase (L-L)
3PH Star Y Electrical
3PH delta
7.7.4 HEAT LOAD ESTIMATION
Following values shall be used for estimation of Heat Load of Electrical Equipments
S.No Equipment Heat load in Watts
1 Control /Relay panel 200

40W Tube 50
80W Tube 100
2
250W Tube 280
400W Tube 460
3 Indicating meter 3
4 Indicating lamp 3
5 Power contactor 10
6 PF Correction capacitors per kVAR 2
Indoor transformer
up to 25Kva 30
7 26 to 50 Kva 30
51 to 100 Kva 24
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7.8 LIGHTING CALCULATION
Normal lighting should provide approximately 75% of the total illumination area of a plant that is
densely filled with processing equipments. Sparsely filled areas such as roadways and perimeter
fences can be fully illuminated with normal lighting.
Emergency lighting should therefore provide between 25 and 30% of the illumination in processing
areas. Emergency lighting should be supplied by power from emergency diesel generator, except for
the lighting that illuminates escape routes. Escape route lighting requires a source of battery power
that should last for at least one hour from a loss of all power sources.
( L * B)
Room Index =
H ( L + B)
( L * B * E av )
No of fittings =
(CU * MF * LPL * n)
Where,
L - Length of room
B - Breadth of room
H - Height of room
CU - Coefficient of Utilization
Eav - Average level of illumination (lux)
LPL - Lumens per lamp
MF - Maintenance Factor
n - No of lamps
7.8.1 ROAD LIGHTING CALCULATION
The distance between two street lighting poles is given by the formula:
( Lu min ous.Output * No.of .lu min aire * MF * UF )

Spacing (s) = =
(Width.of .road * illu min anc.level )
Where,
No. of luminaries = 1 for single sided pole
MF = Maintenance Factor(0.7 for outdoor)
UF = Utilization Factor(0.3 for outdoor)
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7.8.2 REQUIRED ILLUMINATION LEVELS (DEP – 33.64.10.10-Gen)
LOCATION LUX Level

CONTROL ROOMS
General, including front of panel 300/500 *
Rear of panels 150
Auxiliary 150/300 *
Outside, near entrances 150
PLANT AREAS
Operating areas requiring regular operator 150

intervention(pumps, compressors, generators,
drivers, valves, manifolds, loading arms, etc)
Local control and monitoring points(including 75
instruments, gauges and control devices)
Access ways ( walkways, platforms, stairways, 25
ladders, module roofs(offshore)
Plant and jetty approaches and road 5
intersections
Non-operational areas with limited 0.5
attendance(tank farms without equipment
requiring regular operator intervention)
Loading gantries 150
Road tanker parking area 25
NON-PLANT AREAS
Switch rooms, including relay and auxiliary 150

rooms
Workshops and garages:
Indoor general 250
Outdoor storage and handling areas 50
* - LUX level required during Night/day
7.9 LIGHTNING PROTECTION CALCULATIONS
Lightning protective conductor shall be capable of attracting all lightning strokes and conducting the
charge by shortest route to ground, without causing damage to equipment within their protective
zone.
7.9.1 ESTIMATION OF EXPOSURE RISK (SHELL DEP 33.64.10.10-Gen)
It can be defined as probable number of strikes(risk) to the structure per year and can be calculated as
follows:
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P = AC xN g x10 −6
Where,
P = Probable number of strikes
AC = Collection area, m2
Ng = Lightning flash density( No. of flashes to ground) per Km2 per year
AC = (LxW) + 2(LxH) + 2(WxH) + πH2
(L, W, H is length, width and height of structure.
If the value of P exceeds 1 in 100000 then the protection is considered necessary.
7.9.2 EARTHING
System grounding or the intentional connection of a phase or neutral conductor to earth, is for the
purpose of controlling the voltage to earth or ground, within predictable limits.
Necessity for system earthing:

− Detection of earth fault in electrical equipment.
− Reduce insulation of electrical equipment.
− To avoid arcing earth and transient over voltage in electrical system.
− To avoid step and touch potential.
Earthing System
The main components of earthing system are
− Earth Bars
− Earth conductors
− Earthing pits with earth pipe /rod / plate
Resistivity of soils
Type of soil Soil Resistivity
Clay 20
Sandy 20-500
Lime stone 300-1000
Granite/Rocky More than 1000
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Earthing conductor materials generally used are
Galvanized steel - Suitable in most soils, alkaline atmosphere and is

economical
Copper - Suitable in most soils, especially sea side corrosive soils and
to carry high fault currents.
Aluminum - Suitable for environment containing Nitric acid, Ammonia,
Sulphur.
7.9.3 DESIGN METHOD
The cross-section of earth electrodes and conductors shall be such that the material strength isn’t
reduced in the event of fault current.
Earth Bar
The minimum cross sectional area of the earth bars in mm2 (IEEE-80) is:
Ik t
S=
⎛ TCAPx10 − 4 ⎞ ⎛ K 0 + Tm ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ α R xρ r ⎠ ⎝ K 0 + Ta ⎠
Where,
Ik is the fault current in kA = 80kA
t is the fault current withstand duration in second
Tm is the maximum allowable temperature in °C
Ta is the ambient temperature in °C
αr is the thermal coefficient of resistivity at reference temperature Tr (20°C) in 1/°C
ρr is the resistivity of the ground conductor at reference temperature Tr in µΩ-cm
TCAP is the thermal capacity per unit volume in J/(cm3·°C)
Ko = (1/ αr) – Tr in °C
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Earth conductor
The minimum cross sectional area for the earth conductor in mm2 is,
Ik t
S=
K
Where,
Ik is the fault current in kA
T is the fault current withstand duration in second
K is the factor for copper conductor PVC insulated earthing cable
Resistance
The effective grid resistance to earth with one electrode is,
ρ ⎛ ⎛ 8L ⎞ ⎞
R= ⎜⎜ Log e ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎟⎟
2πL ⎝ ⎝D⎠ ⎠
Where,
R – Effective grid resistance to earth with one electrode in Ω
L – Length of earth rod in meters
d – Diameter of earth rod in meters
ρ – Average soil resistivity in Ω-m
Number of earth electrodes
The minimum number of electrodes that will be required in the substation and plant is,
N = R/R(gmax)
Where,
N – Minimum number of electrodes required in parallel
R(gmax) – Max. allowed earth grid resistance in ohms
7.10 CABLE SIZING
The primary function of a cable is to carry transfer energy between source and utility equipment. In
carrying this energy, there are heat losses generated in the cable that must be dissipated. The ability to
dissipate these losses depends on how the cables are installed, and this affects their ratings.
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Cables intended for transmission and distribution of electrical energy are mainly used in power plants,
in distribution systems and substations of power supply utilities, and in industry. They are preferably
used where overhead lines are not suitable e.g. in densely built up areas, in cities(pedestrian zones),
industrial installations and buildings.
7.10.1 FACTORS AFFECTING CABLE SIZE:
Short circuit current withstand capability(only for feeders controlled by circuit breakers)
Continuous current rating (ampacity) of cables is affected by site conditions and laying
methods.
For cables laid over ground
Air temperature.
Grouping- number of cables in each cable tray, number of cable tray tiers and spacing
between tiers.
For cables laid underground
Ground temperature
Soil thermal resistivity
Depth of laying
Grouping of cables- number of cables in the buried cable trench, spacing between the cables
Criteria for the selection of HV Cables is based on
Short circuit current

Full load current and derating factor
Voltage drop
7.10.2 CABLE SIZING CALCULATIONS
Cable sizing for Short Circuit
Fault current,
SxK
I sc =
t
Where
Isc = Fault current in kA
t= Fault clearance in second
k = Copper cable heating constant
S = Cable cross section
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Calculation of Derating Factors
Cables laid on directly buried in ground
K1 = Derating factor for ground soil temperature
K2 = Derating factor due to variation of soil resistivity
K3 = Derating factor for depth of laying
K4 = Derating factor max.3 multi core cables laid flat with touching each
other
Overall derating factor (K) for directly buried cable
K = K1 * K2 * K3 * K4
Cables laid in air on overhead trays
K1 = Derating factor for ambient temperature
K2 = Derating factor 3 nos. Multi core cables laid touching each other
Overall derating factor (K) for cables laid in air on cable trays
K = K1 * K2
7.10.3 Voltage drop during motor starting
Voltage drop = 3 xISt xLx(R cos φ + X sin φ)

Where
L = Length of Cable
ISt = Starting current = 5.9 times full load current
R = Resistance of cable
X = Reactance of cable
This % Voltage drop should be within the limits of 15 to 20%
7.10.4 Voltage drop at rated load
Voltage drop = 3 xI FL xLx(R cos φ + X sin φ )
Where
IFL= Full Load Current
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This % Voltage drop should be within the limits of 5%.Based on the above criteria, cables with
minimum size will be selected.
7.10.5 LV CABLE SIZING
Criteria for the selection of LV cables is based on
Full load current and derating factor

Voltage drop
The derating factor for LV cabling will be same as the HV cabling
Voltage drop during motor starting
3 xI St xLx(R cos φ + X sin φ )

Voltage drop =
Where
ISt = Starting current = 5.9 times full load current
This % Voltage drop should be within the limits of 2%
Voltage drop at running condition of motor
Voltage drop = 3 xI FL xLx(R cos φ + X sin φ )
Where
IFL= Full Load Current
L = Length of Cable
This % Voltage drop should be within the limits of 4%
Based on the above criteria, cables with minimum size will be selected
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7.11 PROTECTIVE RELAYS AND THEIR APPLICATION
Protective relay refers to a complete protection system , which involves various equipment used in
detecting the fault, locating the fault and initiating the isolation of fault from the electrical system
selectively and quickly. This way consequences of fault are limited.
7.11.1 TYPES OF PROTECTION
Primary protection.
Primary protection is the one which is supposed to to take care of the fault first
Back up Protection
Back up protection is a protection which initiates the action for removal of fault in case of
failure of primary protection.
7.11.2 INPUTS REQUIRED FOR THE DESIGN OF PROTECTIVE GEAR
System network (SLD indicating power flow and interconnections with grid.
Normal load currents for various circuits
Maximum & minimum fault magnitudes at all breaking points
In general for any voltage system,
Maximum fault MVA = (Transformer MVA * 100) MVA

% Impedance
Faults withstand capability of various equipments,
For eg,
11 kV Switchgear is designed to withstand 500MVA (25 kA ) for 3 sec.
11 kV O/G cable is designed to withstand 25 kA for 0.5 sec.
Types of electrical faults which may occur in various equipments
Transformers
− Earth fault
− Phase to phase fault
− Core fault (insulation faults ) Bucholz operation
− Tank faults – such as oil , winding high temp, oil level low
− Over load/ over current.
Motors
− Over load.
− Over heating due to –ve phase sequence current.
− Earth fault.
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− Locked rotor
− Short Circuit.
In switchgear, phase to earth or phase to phase short circuits may occur.In cables, insulation failure
may cause phase to earth or phase to phase shortcircuits.
7.11.3 RELAY COORDINATION
If a symmetrical 3 phase fault

occurs at Bus 3, the sequence of
operation of the protecting
relays and circuit breakers will
be as following. For eg, CB2
will operate at 70ms
immediately after the fault has
occurred.
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7.12 CAPACITOR SIZING
FORMULAE
Capacitor KVA to be added for bulk correction =
(kW / Efficiency )x (tan(cos −1 (PF 1) − tan(cos −1 (PF 2)))
7.13 TRANSFORMER SIZING
DATA REQUIRED
− List of connected loads and kW rating
− Listing of operating load categorized into continuous, intermittent and rarely operated
− Standby loads
7.14 SAMPLE BATTEY SIZING CALCULATIONS
Nominal system voltage - 125 V
Permissible Voltage variation - +/- 10%
Maximum System Voltage - 137.5 V
Minimum System Voltage - 112.5 V
End cell Voltage of the battery - 1.1 Volts/ cell
Nominal Voltage of each Ni-Cd battery cell - 1.2 Volts/ cell
Float Charging Voltage of N-Ca battery - 1.43 Volts/cell
Number of battery cells based on nominal system voltage 125 / 1.2 = 104 Nos
Number of battery cells based on minimum end cell voltage criteria 125 / 1.2 = 103 Nos
Number of battery cells based on maximum float charging criteria 125 / 1.2 = 97 Nos
Selecting Ni-Cd battery bank consisting of 103 Nos cells of 1.2 Veach.
7.14.1 DC LOAD DATA SUMMARY
SR DESCRIPTION CONTINOUS MOMENTARY LOAD

NO LOAD BEGINNING END OF LOAD
OF LOAD CYCLE (Watts)
CYCLE (Watts)
1 6.9 kV Switchgear 1185 3700 2640
2 480V LV Switchgear 350 1950 2280
TOTAL 1535 5650 4920
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7.14.2 LOAD CURRENT CALCULATIONS
Description Continous Momentary Load at Momentary Load at end of

load(478 min ) beginning of load cycle load cycle (1 min)
(1 min)
Total Load 1535 5650 2460
Load Current 1535/125=12.28 5650/125=45.2A 2460/125=19..68A
A
7.14.3 DUTY CYCLE BASED ON ABOVE CALCULATIONS
57.48 A
31.96A
12.28A
1MIN 478 MIN IMIN
7.14.4 SUMMARY:
PERIOD DURATION CURRENT

A1 1 MIN 57.48 A
A2 478 MIN 12.28 A
A3 1 MIN 31.96 A
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7.14.5 CALCULATION
Period Load Change Duration Time Capacitor Temperatur Required

(Amperes) in load or period to rating e derating section size
amperes end factor at factor at ‘t’ rated AH=
of ‘t‘ Min min (Load
secti (Kt) (Tt) Amperes x
on Kt x Tt)
Section 1
,1st period
only ( if A1- T=M
A1= 57.48 M1=1 0.92 1.24
A1>A2, 0=57.48 1=1 65.57
go to
section 2)
Section 2
First two period only(if A3 is greater than A2 go to section 3
Section 3
First two period only(if A4 is greater than A3 go to section 3
1 A1=57.48 A1-0= M1=1 T1=M1+ 8.28 1.1 523.53
57.48 M2+M3=
480
2 A2=12.28 A2-A1= M2=478 T2= 8.27 1.1 -411.18
-45.20 M2+M3=
119
3 A3=31.96 A3-A2= M3=1 T3=M3=1 0.92 1.24 22.45
19.68
TOTAL 134.80
Maximum section size (Uncorrect size)= 134.80

Corrected size = Maximum section size x Design margin x Aging factor
= 134.80 x 1.25 x 1 = 168.50 AH
Nearest Battery Size Available = 170AH
Hence battery selected for this application = 170 AH
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7.15 TABLES
7.15.1 INGRESS PROTECTION – IEC 60529
Meaning for the protection of the Meaning for the

equipment protection of the persons
Code Letters IP
Against ingress of solid foreign Against access to
objects hazardous parts with
0 (non-protected) (non-protected)
1 ≥ 50 mm diameter back of hand
2 ≥ 12.5 mm diameter finger
First Characteristic
3 ≥ 2.5 mm diameter tool
numeral
4 ≥ 1.0 mm diameter wire
5 dust-protected wire
6 dust tight wire
Against ingress of water with
harmful effects
0 (non-protected)
1 vertically dripping
Second 2 dripping(15o vertical)
characteristic 3 spraying -
numeral 4 splashing
5 jetting
6 powerful jetting
7 temporary immersion
8 continuous immersion
A back of hand
Additional letter B finger
-
(optional) C tool
D wire
supplementary information specific
to
Supplementary H high voltage apparatus
-
letter(optional) M motion during water test
S stationary during water test
W weather conditions
7.15.2 TYPICAL TRANSFORMER WEIGHT AND DIMENSIONS
Rating(KVA) Length(mm) Width(mm) Height(mm) Weight(kg)

50 860 660 1210 340
100 1090 660 1275 500
160 1140 710 1350 620
200 1190 680 1450 720
250 1300 810 1450 830
315 1440 820 1655 980
400 1470 930 1700 1180
500 1500 840 1710 1410
630 1680 880 1755 1660
800 1780 1000 1905 1990
1000 1790 1000 2095 2450
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Rating(KVA) Length(mm) Width(mm) Height(mm) Weight(kg)
1250 1930 1260 2110 2900
1600 1970 1220 2315 3450
2000 2100 1330 2555 4390
2500 2115 1345 2685 5200
7.15.3 THERMAL CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTRICAL INSULATION (IEC 60085-1984)
Thermal Class Temperature(oC)

Y 90
A 105
E 120
B 130
F 155
H 180
200 200
220 220
250 250
Temperatures over 250 deg C should increase by 25 deg C intervals and classes designated
accordingly.
Note: The old class C which was used in IEC publication 85(1957) for all temperatures above 180
deg C is replaced by above thermal classes.
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8.0 INSTRUMENTATION
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8.1 INTRODUCTION
Instrumentation primarily deals with Measurement and Control of process variables. Typically the
process variables are measured by sensors/transducers and transmit the signal proportional to the
measured variables to the control system for monitoring and control of the process variables.
The various process variables are:
Humidity
Pressure
Flow Viscosity
Temperature Mass
Level Volume
Vibration Speed/velocity
Density
Power
Liquid/Gas Composition
Current
Moisture
Voltage
Position
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8.2 TYPICAL DETAILED ENGINEERING ACTIVITY CHART
Client’s Tender Document

Review
Instrumentation Design IDC

Basis
Client’s Instrumentation
Approval Specifications
Client’s Instrument Index P & IDs

Approval
Client’s Field Instrument Data Process Data

Approval Sheets
#
Client’s Approval All relevant drawings IDC
(if required) developed
Technical RFQ
TBE
Client’s
Approval (if PR / PO
required)
Note:
Vendor Documents /
Drawings Review
# Instrument Layouts
System Architectural Drawings
F & G Layouts
Inspection of Procured Termination, Hook-Up & Loop
Material Drawings
Cable Schedules
Junction Box Schedules
Release for Construction Functional Logic Diagram
Issue of Documents &
Drawings to Site 199 of 226
8.3 INSTRUMENTATION EQUIPMENTS IN FIELD
S.NO PROCESS PARAMETER MAJOR CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS INSTRUMENT TYPES

Bourdon tube, Bellows, Diaphragm
1 Gauges/Indicators Diaphragm seal, Capillary filled, Differential
Pressure
pressure gauge, Blind and impulse transmitters
Transmitters
2 Temperature Thermometer, RTD, Thermocouple, Pyrometer.
Variable head flow Orifice, Venturi, Flow nozzle, Pitot tube
Variable Area flow Rota meter

Flow
Special types Electromagnetic, Ultrasonic, Corolis Mass flow,
3 Open channel Vortex Shedding, Turbine Flow
Weir,Flume,Open Nozzle
PD type
Level Gauges Tape & Float Type

4
Transmitters Displacer Type, DP Type, Servo Gauge, Radar,
Capacitance
Proximity Composition and Gas analyzers

5 Vibration
Chromatograph CO2, CO, O2 etc,.
6 LVDT
Position
7 Humidity Hygrometer
8 Gas detectors Flammable H2S Toxic Gas detectors
9 Fire detectors UV/IR detectors

Scattered light type
10 Smoke detectors
Ionization Type
11 Heat detectors Fusible Plug, Quartzoid bulbs, Heat sensitive cable
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8.4 INSTRUMENT DATA SHEETS
Data Sheets are documents that are compiled with all the details & requirements pertaining to a
particular instrument that was sized or designed by a design engineer. Basically the data sheets are
developed to specify the instrument design requirements to the vendor, for supplying the instrument
by fulfilling all the design requirements. A typical instrument data sheet contains: Tag number, P&ID
number, Design conditions, Process conditions and all the other relevant information for floating an
enquiry to the prospective vendor.
8.5 INSTRUMENT INDEX
Instrument index is a comprehensive database that contains all instrumentation data for a given plant.
It is developed from Piping & Instrument diagrams. It contains:
Instrument Tag Number
Instrument Type
Location of the Instrument
P&ID Number
Line/equipment number
Service
System type
Drawing reference
Signal type – I/O type
Manufacturer
Other relevant information.
8.6 CAUSE-AND-EFFECT DIAGRAM
A Cause-and-Effect Diagram is a tool that helps to identify, sort, and display possible causes of a
specific problem or quality characteristic. It graphically illustrates the relationship between a given
outcome and all the factors that influence the outcome.
Usage
Identify the possible root causes, the basic reasons, for a specific effect, problem, or
condition.
Sort out and relate some of the interactions among the factors affecting a particular process or
effect.
Analyze existing problems so that corrective action can be taken.
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Benefits
Helps determine root causes

Encourages group participation
Uses an orderly, easy-to-read format
Indicates possible causes of variation
Increases process knowledge
Identifies areas for collecting data
8.7 INSTRUMENTATION INTERFACE WITH PIPING
P&I interface defines battery limit scope to be taken care in engineering between Piping and
Instrumentation. This enables avoiding of clash, duplication in procurement and avoiding mismatch.
Typically, a P&I interface defines type of root valves to be provided for instrument tapping, type of
instrument mounting arrangements to be provided on piping, equipment like process connection
flanges etc. Other details include drain and vent connections of instruments, if any, to be taken care
by piping. The typical interfacing sketch is shown below:
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8.8 INSTRUMENTATION INTERFACE WITH ELECTRICAL
E&I interface defines the signal flow, exchange of information between Electrical systems and instrumentation systems. Typical examples are
status information such as start, stop, run, local/remote, selection of rotating machineries.
Some of the interfaces are given below:
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8.9 TYPICAL HVAC LOAD LIST:
LOAD PER TOTAL

SYSTEM TYPE DESCRIPTION QTY. LOCATION
ITEM(kW) LOAD(kW)
SYSTEM CABINET DCS 2 0.700 0.700 IAR/CR
SYSTEM CABINET ESD 1 0.700 0.700 IAR/CR
SYSTEM CABINET FGSD 1 0.700 0.700 IAR/CR
IAR/CR
SYSTEM CABINET UCP Machinery packages 3 0.700 0.700
IAR/CR
SYSTEM CABINET Tank Gauging 1 0.700 0.700
IAR/CR
SYSTEM CABINET Metering Systems / Flow Computers 3 0.700 2.100
ICR
PC OWS 3 0.700 0.700
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8.10 MAJOR SYSTEMS AND PACKAGES
Instrument system: An instrument system is a system which integrates one or more instruments with
auxiliary or associated devices for detection, observation, measurement, automatic control, automatic
computation, communication, or data processing.
Systems and Packages:
Integrated Control and Safety system

Distributed Control System
Emergency Shutdown System
Fire and Gas Detection System
Building Fire alarm System
Condition Monitoring System
Machine Monitoring System
Flow Metering System
Tank Gauging System
Terminal Automation System
Well-head control System
Programmable Logic Controller Based Control System For Package Equipment
Analyzers
EMERGENCY SHUTDOWN SYSTEM (ESD)
The ESD system be designed, engineered and certified to be ‘Fail-Safe’ i.e. in the event of a detected
failure of the protective function, the system shall put the plant into a safe state, by isolating, de-
energizing, de-pressurizing processes and equipment via the field outputs.
The safety systems shall continuously monitor all process plant and utilities systems for abnormal
conditions. Information shall pass between the DCS and ESD System for monitoring and control
purposes via dual redundant serial links.
FIRE & GAS DETECTION SYSTEM (FGS)
The Fire & Gas Detection system functionality includes, but not is limited to, the following:
Monitor all designated areas for fire.
Monitor all designated areas where toxic or flammable gas may be present due to leakage or
accidental release.
Monitor air intakes (building /machines) for concentration of flammable gasses.
Alert personnel in the control centers of any fire or gas emergency situation.
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Activate the ESD System as necessary.
MACHINE MONITORING SYSTEM
Machine monitoring system automatically collects, transmits and manages information about how the
machinery equipment is working or operating. Information mainly relates to vibrations and
temperature conditions of the machine.
INTEGRATED CONTROL & SAFETY SYSTEM
The ICSS shall function to safely control all process, monitor and alarm the status of all equipment,
provide data for use within other reporting systems and archive all process and safety related data.
The ICSS shall monitor/control all plant field equipment, inclusive of Third party mechanical
package systems.
The principle aims and objectives of the ICSS are:

Protection of personnel.
Protection for the environment.
Protection of the plant assets.
To provide the operations personnel with sufficient information to allow the plant to be
controlled safely and effectively.
To allow the safe start-up and shutdown of all plant and equipment.
To provide automatic protective action where deviation of plant variables could result in a
hazard to personnel or equipment.
To transfer data to corporate management systems.
The Integrated Control and Shutdown system (ICSS) shall include the following:
Distributed Control System (DCS).
Emergency Shutdown System (ESD).
Fire & Gas System (FGS).
The ICSS shall interface and communicate with the following sub-systems:
Flow Metering System (FMS).
Machine Monitoring System (MMS).
Electrical Switchgear/ Motor Control Centre (By Electrical Group).
Unit Control Panels (UCPs).
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BLOCK DIAGRAM OF INTEGRATED CONTROL AND SAFETY SYSTEM
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METERING SYSTEM
The metering system shall be considered as two major sub-systems. These are:
The field-mounted skid including the sampling and proving equipment
The computing facility in the CCR, LCR or LER (local equipment room) for calculation,
display and control.
The metering system shall indicate measurement uncertainty for accounting purposes as required for
mass and volumetric quantities and the flow rates of the liquid hydrocarbon together with its
temperature, pressure, density, and water content prior to delivery into downstream systems. It shall
incorporate sufficient parallel meter runs to enable the maximum and minimum flow rates to be
measured at the specified uncertainty, and to within the specified availability and to cater for
validation exercises when one of the meter runs is taken offline.
CONDITION MONITORING SYSTEM:
Condition Monitoring is taken to the use of advanced technologies in order to determine equipment
condition, and potentially predict failure. It includes, but is not limited to, technologies such as:
Vibration Measurement and Analysis

Infrared Thermography
Oil Analysis
Ultrasonics
Motor Current Analysis
Condition Monitoring is most frequently used as a Predictive or Condition-Based Maintenance

technique. However, there are other Predictive Maintenance techniques that can also be used,
including the use of the Human Senses (look, listen, feel, smell etc.), Machine Performance
Monitoring, and Statistical Process Control techniques.
TANK GAUGING SYSTEMS:
Tank gauging is the generic name for static quantity assessment of liquid products in bulk storage
tanks. It can be used as the sole method of leak detection for the life of the tank. It is essential for the
assessment of tank contents, tank inventory control, and tank farm management. A typical tank
gauging system is used to measure and display liquid level and volume in horizontal and vertical
cylindrical tanks.
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TERMINAL AUTOMATION SYSTEMS:
Terminal Automation System

provides safe and efficient
monitoring and control of all
aspects of marketing terminal
operations, including loading,
invoicing and reporting,
amongst others. Terminal
Automation System adopts a
client-server architecture
interfaced with hardware
devices in the field. The server
system manages the complete ordering procedure from assignment of order for loading to monitoring
and control of loading procedure. The client system facilitates the operator and graphical interfaces
and allows for manual data input and display of the field event in real-time.
Operators are able to view the loading process and can be quickly alerted to any abnormal conditions.
Alarms are time-stamped and logged for further analysis. In addition, daily reports can be generated
to provide information to management. The functions of the Terminal Automated System are shown
below:
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WELLHEAD CONTROL/SHUTDOWN SYSTEM:
Wellhead Control/Shutdown systems monitor vital process safety parameters of a wellhead platform
and provide safe and sequential start-up and shutdown of production wells as per design. Wellhead
Control/Shutdown systems are supplied with integrated or separate stand-alone or skid mounted
hydraulic power units (HPUs) complete with redundant hydraulic pumps, accumulators and
reservoirs.
Optional facilities are available for remote monitoring and control of critical process parameters and
shutdown valves from the process platform complex.
The Hydraulic Power Unit can be integrated in the common section of the panel complete with
pneumatic/electric driven pumps, accumulators, reservoirs, thermal and pressure relief optimally
sized to provide actuating power to all hydraulically operated shutdown valves.
PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER
A Programmable Logic Controller, PLC, or Programmable Controller is a digital computer used for
automation of industrial processes, such as control of machinery on factory assembly lines. Unlike
general-purpose computers, the PLC is designed for multiple inputs and output arrangements. A PLC
is an example of a real time system since output results must be produced in response to input
conditions within a bounded time, otherwise unintended operation will result.
Functions of PLC:
PLC executes a set of instructions stored in microprocessor by processing inputs and giving outputs.
A typical example is the calculator.
Decision making logic is expressed in simple ladder logic which appeared similar to electrical
schematic diagrams.
A single PLC can be programmed to replace thousands of relays. Programmable Logic Controllers
were initially adopted by the automotive manufacturing industry, where software revision replaced
the re-wiring of hard-wired control panels when production models changed.
ANALYZERS :
Analyzers are use to carry out the analysis of the following:

Relative Vapor Pressure
Chromatography
H2S content
O2 content
CO2 content
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NOx / SOx
The analysis will be undertaken by the use of the in-line probe-type cabled to an electronic unit
located in the Analyser House. Where low-level signals from the in-line probes dictate that the
electronics unit must be mounted local to the probe, the unit shall be suitably certified for the
hazardous area in which it is located.
Where the type of measurement dictates that a sample has to be drawn from the process, the analyzer
shall be supplied complete with the required fast-loop sampling system. The sampling system shall be
located close to the point of measurement to minimize sample line lengths. The sample shall
preferably be returned to the process down steam of the sample takeoff point utilizing an in-line
device such as a control valve, orifice plate etc. to provide a suitable pressure differential. If this is not
practical, alternatively the sample shall be piped to the plant flare/closed drain system.
All components within the sampling system, including measurement devices, electrical and non-
electrical items located in hazardous areas shall be certified by a recognized independent certification
authority such as FM, ATEX, etc.
8.11 DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM (DCS)
The DCS provides functions associated with monitoring and controlling process and utilities. The
scope for DCS functionality includes, but not limited to, the following:
Provides the operators interface for the remote operation and control of the plant.
Provides the display for all process variable recording traces (real time and historical
trend) and alarms
Regulatory analogue control (PID, ratio, cascade).
Sequential digital control.
Discrete control.
Alarm management.
Status Indication.
Graphical and schematic displays.
Trending of real time and historical data.
Communications with other devices and subsystems.
Data acquisition.
Report generation.
Diagnostic capability.
Other systems also need to be networked to the DCS, so that the entire facilities can be operated in an
integral manner.
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8.12 CABLE CLASSIFICATION CHART
Cable Classification
Foundation Fibre optic Fire Resistant cable Flame Retardant

field bus cable (Armoured/Unarmoured) (Armoured/Unarmoured)
Single mode Multi mode

IS NIS
IS NIS
IS NON-IS
SP MP 2- Multicore
core (4C, 7C, SP MP 2 Core Multi-
12C, core (4C,
Single pair 19C, etc.) 7C, 12C,
RTD Thermo- 19C, etc.)
Multi-pair couple
(2P, 5P, extension
ST MT (5T, etc.) cable
10T, etc.)
IS : Intrinsic safety SP MP Single Muti-pair Thermocouple

NIS : Non-IS pair (2P, 5P, extension cable
SP : Single Pair etc.)
MP : Multi-pair
ST : Single Triad
MT : Multi-Triad
T/C : Thermocouple
ST MT (5T,
C: Core
10T, etc) SP MP
MC : Multi-core
RTD: Resistance
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Temperature Detectors
8.13 PROTOCOLS USED FOR FIELD INSTRUMENT COMMUNICATIONS
Protocols are used for the transmission of signals from the filed instruments to the DCS. Initially a
conventional 4-20mA analog signal was used for the signal transmission which was later replaced by
the HART (High-way Addressable Remote Transducer) with 4-20mA analog or digital.
EVOLUTION OF SIGNAL TRANSMISSION TECHNOLOGY
Vendor Proprietary Non-Proprietary

Communication Interoperable
Protocols Communication
Protocols
Analog Hybrid
Pneumatic 4 -20 mA Field bus
(Heart, Brain)
(Profibus,
Foundation Fieldbus,
Device Net, CAN, ASI)
1940 1960 1980 2000
HART (Highway Addressable Remote Transducer) :
HART protocol allows both 4-20mA and digital communication signals to be transmitted
simultaneously on the same wiring. The HART protocol enables two-way digital communication with
smart instruments without disturbing the 4-20 mA analog signals. Primary variable and control signal
information is carried by the 4-20 mA (if desired), while additional measurements, process
parameters, device configuration, calibration, and diagnostics information is accessible through the
HART protocol over the same wires at the same time.
The wiring practice for HART communicating devices is:
Individually shielded twisted pair cable either in a single pair or multi pair varieties.
Unshielded cables may be used for short distances if ambient noise and cross-talk will not
affect communication.
The minimum conductor size is 0.51 mm diameter (#24 AWG) for cable runs less than 1,524
m (5,000 ft) and 0.81 mm diameter (#20 AWG) for longer distances.
Theoretical limit for HART communication is within 3000m.
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FIELDBUS
A fieldbus is an all-digital, two-way communication system that interconnects measurement and

control equipment such as sensors, actuators and controllers in the industrial processes.
Cables used for Filedbus communication:
Data up to 32 participants is transmitted over pair of twisted shielded wires

Shielding is required for EMC protection
Due to high frequency signal, AC resistance matters
Commonly used cable: Type A Shielded Twisted Pair and its specifications are as below:
Resistance load per unit length =44Ω/ Km

Characteristic impedance at f=31.25 kHz =100Ω
Wire cross section >=0.8mm2
Capacitance per unit length =2 nF per KM
Cable Type Gauge No. Max. Length
Type A: Twisted-pair with Shield

H1 (31.25kbps) #18AWG 1900 m
Type B: Multi-twisted-pair with Shield

H1 (31.25kps) #22AWG 1200 m
Type C: Twisted-pair without Shield

H1 (31.25kbps) #22AWG 400 m
Type D: Multi-core with Shield
H1 (31.25kbps) #16AWG 200 m
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Foundation Field bus
Foundation fieldbus is an open, integrated total architecture for information integration. H1 (31.25
kbit/s) interconnects” field” equipment such as sensors, actuators and I/O. HSE (100 Mbit/s) (High
Speed Ethernet) provides integration of high speed controllers (such as PLCs), H1 subsystems (via a
linking device), data servers and workstations.
COMPARISION BETWEEN FOUNDATION FIELD BUS AND HART
FOUNDATION FIELD BUS

PARAMETERS
H1 HSE HART
Intrinsically Safe YES NO YES
Operating Voltage 9-32V DC 24V DC
Maximum Cable
1900m 100m; 2km with FO 2000m
Length
IEC-61158-2; IEEE 802.3u; FSK modulation on

Governing Standards
ISA S50.2 ISO/IEC 8801-3 4-20mA signal
Communication Client/Server Client/Server

Master/Slave
methods Publisher/ Subscriber Publisher/ Subscriber
Event Notification Event Notification
Communication speed 31.25 kbits/s 100 Mbits/s 1200 bits/s
Media access
Token passing Token passing N/A
algorithm
8 bits
Max data size 246 bytes 246 bytes
Uses IP Addressing
Max stations 32 devices 15 slaves
essentially unlimited
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COMPARISION BETWEEN FIELD BUS AND CONVENTIONAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM:
FIELD BUS CONVENTIONAL 4-20 mA SYSTEM
1. Digital communication
1. Analog signal 4-20mA
2. Multi data handling
2. Single Data handling
3. No marshalling rack
3. Marshalling rack is required
4. Reduced wiring and terminations
4. higher cable cost
5. High accuracy and high quality data 5. Less accuracy compare to fieldbus
6. Maintenance cost reduction 6. Significant maintenance cost
7. Distributed functionality
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PROFIBUS
The PROFIBUS provides a high-performance communication system for simple, inexpensive

equipment. The PROFIBUS is designed to provide communication with simple field instrumentation
with immediate response, master-slave access with central polling and broadcast messages. It is a
simple and economic transmission system, also used for international standard applications.
SERIAL COMMUNICATION
Protocols used in the serial communication are RS 232/ 422/ 485
COMPARSION CHART OF RS 232/ 422 / 485
RS-232C RS-422 RS-485

Mode of operation Single ended Differential Differential
Drivers per line 1 1 32
Receivers per line 1 10 32
Maximum cable length 50 feet 4000 feet 4000 feet
Maximum data rate 38.4 kbps 9.6 kbps 90-500 kbps
Driver output maximum voltage ±25V -0.25 to +6 V -7 to +12 V
Driver output single level (loaded) ±5V ±2V ±1.5V
Driver output single level (unloaded) ±15V ±5V ±5V
Driver load impedance 3kΩ to 7kΩ 100kΩ 54kΩ
Max. Driver output current (power on) n/a n/a ±100µA
Max. Driver output current (power off) VMAX/300Ω ±100µA ±100µA
Slew rate 30 V/µs max n/a n/a
Receiver input voltage range +15V to -15V -7V to +7 V -7V to +12 V
-200mV to -200mV to
+3V to -3V
Receiver input sensitivity +200mV +200mV
Receiver input Resistance 3kΩ to 7kΩ >4kΩ >12kΩ
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Equipments in Control Room
S.No. Equipments in control room
ICSS (Integrated Control and Safety Systems)

Control Systems
1 Miscellaneous (Printers, Network equipments,
Large Screen Displays, MIMICs,Consoles)
PAGA Central Cabinet, Master Control Station, Speaker (In

2
Door),Cables
Paging and party systems Central Cabinet, Master Control Station, In door
3
handset, Speaker (In Door)
4 PABX Operator Console,Telephone,Power Supply,MDF
Video Cabinet ,Main Cabinet, Control Unit,CCTV

5 CCTV
Monitor
6 Radio System Radio control Unit
7 Intruder Detection Master Control Station
8 Access Control System Master Control, Intercom
9 Microwave Control unit/Computer
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8.14 TELECOM IN BRIEF
To provide communication between the field to Control room, Control room to external world by
means of receiving and transmitting data or voice via wire or wireless network.
Type of Telecom systems:
Telephone Network
Structured Cabling Network
Fiber Optic Cable Network
Closed System Television System (CCTV- Operation and Security)
Public Address General Alarm (PAGA System)
Access Control System
TETRA Radio System
Microwave Radio Link
Aeronautical VHF
NDB Aeronautical Beacon
INMARSAT Voice
Satellite System
Vehicle Tracking System (GPS) – Interfaced with VHF trunked radio
Environmental Monitoring System
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BLOCK VALVE GAS BLOCK VALVE OIL
GAS OIL SEPARATION PLANT
OIL FIELD WELL SITE
RECEIVING STATION GAS RECEIVING STATION OIL
CAMP
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TYPICAL TELECOMMUNICATIONS BLOCK DIAGRAM
Telecom equipments in Field
S.No. Telecom equipments in Field
PAGA
1 Loudspeakers, Junction Box
Paging and party

2 System Loudspeakers, Headphone sets, Junction Box
PABX
3 Telephone
CCTV
4 Cameras
Radio System
5 Base Station, Antenna
Person movement (within fence area)

6 Intruder Detection Fiber optic sensing type,Laser Type,
Microwave Type
7 Access Control System Sensor (CCTV)
Microwave Antenna, Radio Terminal (Both ends),

8
Antenna at both ends
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Typical Telecommunication Cable Specification
Sl.No. Telecom Cable Type Description
1 Fiber Optic 48 Fiber (each SM, 9/50um), mechanical and rodent protection
2 PAGA Speaker Distribution Cable 2-pair x 2.5mm2 armoured, fire resistant
3 PAGA Beacon Distribution Cable 2-pair x 2.5mm2 armoured, fire resistant
4 PAGA Marshalling Box Cable 12-pair x 2.5mm2 armoured, fire resistant
5 Field Telephone Cable 2-pair x 2.5mm2 armoured, flame retardant
6 Internal Phone / Data Distribution Category 6 UTP, LSOH
7 Phone / Data Multi-pair Multi-pair (0.6mm2 , LSOH, Flame Retardant)
8 CCTV Camera Composite Power & signal, to vendor spec, LSOH & flame retardant
Ducts, to take Fiber Optic Cable Twin (laterally joined) PVC ducts, each 50mm diameter, telecoms duct
9 for direct burial in pipeline trench
10 Fiber Optic Jumper Single mode, 9/50 um, FC/PC-FC/PC connectors
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8.15 SOFTWARES USED
In tools: In Tools is software for developing instrument data base. It is used in the preparation of I/O
list, Hook-up drawings, Data sheets, Instrument Index, Instrument Loop Drawings, Calculations and
Wiring Diagrams.
InstruCalc: InstruCalc is used for sizing calculations of control valves, safety valves & Flow
elements.
Control Valves - As per ISA standards
Flow Elements - As per AGA/ISO 5167
Relief Valve - As per API/ASME standards
Rupture Disk/Tank Vent – As per ASME/NFPA/API 2000
(Vendor Calculations will be provided)
PDS: PDS is a drafting software used for 3D modeling of Instrument Layout Drawings.
Navis Works: Navis Works is used to navigate through the model for reviewing purpose.
Micro station: Micro station is a drafting software used for 2D modeling for Loop Diagrams, Logic
Diagrams & Termination Drawings, level sketches and control room diagrams.
American Petroleum Institute (API):
API 6D Valves used in pipeline service, including gate, plug, ball and check valves
API 6FA Fire Test for Valves
API RP520 Recommended Practice for the Design and Installation of Pressure Relieving
systems
API RP 521 Guide for Pressure Relief and Depressurizing Systems (For Information
Purpose Only)
API RP 526 Flanged Steel Safety Relief Valves
API RP 527 Commercial Seat Tightness Of Safety Relief Valves With Metal To Metal
Seat
API RP 550 Manual on Installation Of Refinery Instrument & Control Systems
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API RP 551 Process Measurement Instrumentation
API RP 552 Transmission Systems
API RP 553 Refinery Control Valves
API RP 554 Process Instrumentation and Control
API RP 555 Process Analyzers
API 598 Valve Inspection and Testing
API RP 670 Vibration, Axial position and Bearing Temperature monitoring systems
API 678 Accelerometer Based Vibration Monitoring systems
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME):
ASME B16.5 Steel Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings
ASME B16.10 Face to Face and End to End Dimensions of Valves
ASME B16.11 Forged Fittings, Socket-welding and Threaded
ASME B16.25 Butt Welding Ends
ASME B16.34 Valves – Flanged, Threaded and Butt Welding End
Atmospheres Explosibles (ATEX)
Directive 94/9/EC Equipment and Protective Systems Intended for use in Potentially Explosive
Atmospheres (ATEX 95)
Fluid Control Institute (FCI)
ANSI FCI 70-2 Standard for Control Valve Leakage
British Standard (BS)
BS 6739 Instrumentation in Process Control Systems
Engineering Equipment and Materials Users Association (EEMUA)
EEMUA 138 Design and Installation of On-line Analyser Systems
European Standard (EN)
EN 50015 Electrical Apparatus for Potentially Explosive Atmospheres – Oil immersion “o”
EN 50017 Electrical Apparatus for Potentially Explosive Atmospheres – Powder filling “q”
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EN 50020 Electrical Apparatus for Potentially Explosive Atmospheres-Intrinsic Safety ‘i’
EN 50021 Electrical Apparatus for Potentially Explosive Atmospheres-Type of protection “n”
EN 50039 Electrical Installation in Potentially Explosive Atmospheres – Intrinsically safe

electrical systems “I” – Group II systems for gas atmospheres
EN 61779-4 Electrical apparatus for the detection and Measurement of flammable gases – Part 4
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)
IEC 60079-0 Electrical Apparatus for Explosive Gas Atmosphere - General Requirements
IEC 60079-1 Electrical Apparatus for Explosive Gas Atmospheres - Flameproof Enclosures‘d’
IEC 60079-11 Electrical Apparatus for Explosive Gas Atmospheres - Intrinsic Safety ‘i’
IEC 60079-14 Electrical Installation in Explosive Gas Atmospheres - Electrical Installation in

Hazardous Areas (Other Than Mines)
IEC 60228 Conductors of insulated cables
IEC 60255 Electrical Relays, switches, switchgear, electrical insulation
IEC 60331 Fire resisting characteristics of electrical cables
IEC 60332 Test of electric cables under fire conditions
IEC 60529 Degrees of Protection Provided by Enclosures (IP Code)
IEC 60546 Controllers with analogue signals for use in industrial-process control systems.
IEC 60584-1 Reference Tables – Thermocouples
IEC 60584-2 Thermocouple – Tolerance
IEC 60751 Industrial Platinum Resistance Thermometer Sensors
IEC 60331 Fire Resisting Characteristics of Electric Cables
IEC 60332 Test On Electric Cables under Fire Conditions
IEC 60617 Graphical symbols for diagrams
IEC 60747 Semiconductor devices
IEC 60751 Industrial platinum resistance thermometer sensor
IEC 60811 Common test methods for insulating and sheeting materials of electrical cables
IEC 61131 Programmable Controllers
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IEC 61285 Industrial- process control-safety of analyzer House
IEC 61508 Functional Safety of Electrical / Electronic/Programmable Electronic Safety

Related Systems
IEC 61511 Functional Safety – Safety Instrumented Systems for Process Industry sector
International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
ISO 5167 Measurement of Fluid flow by Means of Pressure Difference Device
ISO 5168 Flow Measurement:-Evaluation of Uncertainties
Instrumentation, Systems and Automation Society (ISA)
ISA S5.1 Instruments Symbols And Identification
ISA S5.2 Binary Logic Diagrams
ISA S5.3 Graphic Symbols For Distributed Control
ISA S5.4 Instrument Loop Diagrams
ISA S18.1 General Purpose Annunciators
ISA S75-01.01 Equations for Control Valve Sizing
ISA 75-19.01-2001 Hydrostatic Testing of Control Valves
ISA 84.01-1996 Application of Safety Instrumented System
ISA 91.00.01-2001 Identification of Emergency Shutdown System & control
ISA 92.0.01 Part 1 Performance requirements for Toxic gas detection instruments
ISA P92.0.02 Part 2 Installation, operation and maintenance of toxic gas detection instruments
ISA S20 Specification forms for Process measurements and Control instruments,
primary elements and control valves.
National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE)
NACE MR 0175 Sulphide Stress Cracking Resistant Metallic Materials For Oil Field
Equipment
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
NFPA 1 Fire Prevention Code
NFPA 30 Flammable & Combustible Liquids Code
NFPA 72 National Fire Alarm Code

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COMMON REFERENCE GUIDE

Under The Esteemed Guidance of

The “Common Engineering Reference Guide” is prepared in order to provide a quick

Projects department normally handles the following types of work

AFC - Approved for Construction

1.3 About Project Management:

1.3.3 Project Management & Execution

Project Management Project Services

◊ Maintain Client relationship

◊ Interdisciplinary engineering co-ordination

II. Project services:

Project Control Manager

◊ Interdiscipline engineering co-ordination

C. Key Success Factors for on-time completion of project

New Project Proposal

Interface details if protection signals are to

The Process department normally handles the following types of work

2.2 PROCESS RESPONSIBILITIES

2.2.1 Brief List of Deliverables for Each Type of Project

2.2.2 Simple Activity Chart on Proposal/Feed/Detail Engineering

Cause and Effect

Note-1: Process Control Philosophy Commissioning

2.3.2 Compressors Classification

Positive Displacement Dynamic

Reciprocating Rotary Centrifugal Axial

Positive Kinetic Open Screw

Radial Flow Axial

Single Rotor Multiple Rotors Fluid Ring

Vane Piston Screw

2.3.5 Heat Exchangers

Direct contact type indirect contact type

Direct transfer type Storage type

B. Classification according to surface compactness

C. Heat exchanger classification according to construction

Tubular Plate Extended surface Regenerative

Gasketed Spiral Lamella Fin type

Double-pipe Shell and tube Spiral tube Disk-type Drum-type

Fractionation is a unit operation utilized to separate mixtures into individual products.

2.3.8 Glycol Dehydration

There are 3 common types of Glycol used for Gas Dehydration:

 Mono-Ethylene Glycol (MEG)

2.3.10 Crude Stabilization Package

 Pig Launcher/Receiver Package

Pig launchers are used to launch

2.3.12 Gas and Oil Metering Skid Package

Partners, authorities and customers all

Although some small installations are

The figure below shows a full liquid

Gas metering is similar, but instead,

2.3.13 Flare Systems

Flares can be classified as:

A. Pipe Flares - Vertical or horizontal pipes with external ignition

2.3.14 Chemical Injection Package

2.4 SOFTWARES USED

2.4.1 HYSYS (2006)

2.4.2 SMARTPLANT (4.03)

2.5 IMPORTANT CODES AND STANDARDS FOLLOWED

LIST OF CODES AND STANDARDS

S.No Standards Description

1 API 2000 Venting Atmospheric and Low pressure Storage tanks

3 API 520 PART I Sizing and Selection of Pressure Relieving devices

4 API 520 PART II Sizing and Selection of Pressure Relieving devices

Mono-Ethylene Glycol (MEG)

Pig Launcher/Receiver Package

QRA – Quantitative Risk Assessment SIL – Safety Integrity Level