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Diagnostic in Pulmonary Emergency

and Respiratory Problem

Ika Trisnawati

PULMONOLOGI DIVISION
Internal Medicine Departement, Faculty of Medicine Gadjah Mada
University/Dr. Sardjito Hospital
Kegawatan Respirasi
VascularVascular Airway Airway
Emboli paru Aspirasi benda asing
Vasculitis Hemoptysis masif
Asthma attack
Tumor
Pleura Pleura
Efusi pleura masif
Tension Parenkim
Parenkim
pneumothorax
Acute respiratory
Hemothorax
distress syndrome
Empyema thorax
Severe pneumonia
Tumor
Efusi Pleura
• Akumulasi cairan dalam rongga
pleura karena imbalans:
pembentukan dan absorpsi
cairan pleura  diakibatkan
oleh berbagai macam
penyebab.

• Cairan pleura berasal  sistim


sirkulasi pada pleura viseral.

• Absorpsi  ke dalam sistim


limfatik permukaan pleura
parietal.
(Porth, 2005, p. 639)
Fisiologi
₋ Cairan pleura dihasilkan 5-15 ml/jam  pleura viseral.

₋ Rata-rata jumlah absorpsi cairan pleura adalah 0.1 – 0.2


ml/kg per jam  pleura parietal.

₋ Sejumlah 100-200 ml cairan pleura beredar melalui rongga


pleura dalam waktu 24 jam.

(Drummond Hayes, 2001, p. 32; Brubacher & Holmes Gobel, 2003)


Efusi Pleura Fisiologis

• 0.1-0.2 ml/kg
• Clear appearance
• pH: 7.60-7.64
• Protein < 1.5 g/dl
• Cell (WBC) < 1000/ ml3
• Glucose = plasma
glucose
• LDH < 50% plasma LDH
• Na+, K+ and Ca2+ =
plasma
(Light RW:Ann. Intern. Med 1972;27:507-13)
Marker Tuberculosis

• Terdapat limfositosis / mononuklear


• Sekitar < 40 % memberikan hasil kultur yang
positif, sehingga disarankan pemeriksaan
tambahan:
– Adenosine deaminase (> 40 U/L)  99.6% sensitivitas
dan 97.1 % spesifisitas
– ADA merupakan enzim yang berperan dalam
metabolisme purin
– Interferon (> 140 pg/ml) + ADA
– PCR DNA mycobacterial  definitif untuk TB

Health Technol Assess. 2007


Light’s Criteria

Pleural fluid is exudate if one or more:


– Pleural LDH/serum LDH > 0.6* -OR-
– Pleural protein/serum protein > 0.5 -OR-
– Pleural LDH > 2/3 upper limit of normal (serum)
• Usually > 200 IU

Absence of ALL: transudate


Sensitivity 99%, Specificity 98%

(Light RW:Ann. Intern. Med 1972;27:507-13)


Empyema Thorax

• Pus
• Yellow, cloudy, and foul odor
• Most likely due to:
pneumonia, lung abscess,
infected chest wounds
• Has a pH > 7.2

(Drummond Hayes, 2001, p. 33)


Chylothorax

• Milky fluid
• Consists of lymph and fat
• Chyle leaks from the thoracic
duct  due to lymphatic
obstruction (tumor) or trauma
• fluid analysis: high triglyceride

(Drummond Hayes, 2001, p. 33)


Hemothorax

• Blood  hematocrit > 50%


• Usually results from chest injury
• A blood vessel ruptures into the
pleural space or a bulging area into
the aorta (aortic aneurysm) leaks
blood into the pleural space

(Drummond Hayes, 2001, p. 33)


Efusi Parapneumonia
Cont.

BTS and ACCP criteria


BTS ACCP

Non purulent PPE is Non purulent PPE is


complicated if any of complicated if any of
the following the following
– pH < 7.2 – Positive culture
– LDH > 1000 IU/L – pH < 7.2
– Glucose < 40mg/dL – Glucose < 60mg/dL
– Positive culture – Effusion > half of the
hemithorax
Porcel et al, Respir Med 2006
Thoracentesis
Thoracentesis adalah tindakan intervensi pada
dinding dada untuk mengambil cairan atau
udara dari rongga pleura

Kontraindikasi
Kontraindikasi relatif :
– Diatesis perdarahan abnormal
– Selulitis dinding dada atau infeksi kulit di
lokasi tusukan
Preprocedure
• INR < 3
• Trombosit > 25.000 / μL
• Penggunaan ventilasi mekanis tidak meningkatkan risiko
komplikasi pascaprosedural

Postprocedure
• Radiografi toraks evaluasi tidak rutin diperlukan
• Ultrasonografi dapat mengidentifikasi pneumotoraks secara
langsung
Komplikasi

Mayor : Minor :
• Pneumothorax (11%) • Nyeri (22%)
• Hemothorax (0.8%) • Dry tap (13%)
• Laserasi liver atau lien • Batuk (11%)
(0.8%) • Subcutaneous
• Cedera diaphragma hematoma (2%)
• Empyema • Subcutaneous seroma
• Tumor seeding (0.8%)
• Vasovagal syncope
Posisi pasien
Anechoic; efusi

Isoechoic
Why ultrasound?
Not all opacification is fluid
Volume efusi dengan USG

• Size / volume measurement :


– 2cm depth of fluid = 480 ml
– 4cm depth of fluid = 960 ml

• Supine patients ;
– Visceral-parietal (ml) x 20 = volume (ml)
– Distance between posterior chest wall and lung of
>50mm predicts >500ml thoracocentesis
Use of Doppler pleural thickening
Aspirasi Efusi Pleura
Pneumothorax
Insidensi pneumothorax non traumatik 7.4 - 18 per 100.000/tahun
Lebih tinggi pada perokok (12% vs 0.1%)

Gejala :
• Nyeri dada tajam, pleuritic pain, menjalar ke lengan ipsilateral
• Dispnea (64 to 85%)
• Gejala mendadak
• Batuk
• Anxietas

Size pneumothorax :
• Small pneumothorax: < 2 cm jarak paru ke
dinding dada
• Large pneumothorax: > 2 cm jarak paru ke
dinding dada
Pneumothorax

P-THORAX
• Pleuritic pain
• Trachea deviation
• Hyper resonance
• Onset sudden
• Reduced breath sound
• Absent fremitus
• X-ray show collapse
Klasifikasi Pneumothorax

Spontaneous Traumatic
Primary (a rupture of a subpleural bleb) Iatrogenic
Secondary Central venous catheter insertion
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease Pacemaker implantation
(COPD) Transthoracic needle biopsy
Cystic fibrosis Transbronchial needle aspiration
Bronchial asthma Thoracocentesis
Connective tissue diseases (Marfan Laparoscopic surgery
Syndrome) Barotrauma
Interstitial lung diseases (Eosinophilic Blunt trauma
granuloma) Road traffic accident trauma, falls, sports
Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (in AIDS injuries
patients) Penetrating trauma
Pneumonia with lung abscess Shot wounds, stab wounds
Pulmonary hydatid disease
Lung cancer (metastatic sarcoma) Catamenial
Esophageal perforation
Catamenial pneumothorax
Neonatal pneumothorax
Pneumothorax can also be classified based on their
physiology into the following types

1. Simple – tidak ada hubungan antara rongga pleura dengan


atmosfer, tidak ada pergeseran mediastinum atau diafragma.

2. Communicating – defek dinding dada yang menyebabkan ada


hubungan antara rongga pleura dengan atmosfer  terjadi
kolaps paru paradoksikal.

3. Tension – akumulasi udara yang progresif, mendorong


mediastinum ke sisi sehat, kompresi v. cava, penurunan
pengisian diastolic shg cardiac output menurun. Terjadi pada
injury one-valve yang menyebabkan udara dapat masuk
rongga pleura tetapi tidak dapat keluar (trapped).
Pneumothorax
Site puncture pneumothorax
Manajemen Pneumothorax

• Observasi – bila gejala minimal


• Needle aspiration atau chest drain
• Medical chemical pleurodesis – bila recurrent
• Surgical ; thoracotomy, VATS – bila persisten
• Atasi penyebab yang mendasarinya
Kasus

Wanita 45 tahun
Batuk, sesak nafas
Nyeri dada kanan, seperti ditusuk
Menjalar ke lengan kanan
Tidak ada riwayat trauma

T 90/60 N 110
R 28 t 36,8
Thorax : ketinggalan gerak paru
kanan, hipersonor SIC 1-5,
redup SIC 6-12, egofoni +
Aspirasi Pneumothorax

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