MODULE I

Introduction to Electronics, Passive Components

1.Introduction to electronics:
The word electronics is derived from electron mechanics, which means to study the behavior of an electron
under different conditions of applied electric field. The branch of engineering in which the flow and control of
electrons in vacuum or semiconductor are studied is called electronics. Electronics can also be defined as the
branch of engineering in which the electronic devices and their utilization are studied.
2.Distinguish principles behind Electrical and Electronic Systems

Properties
Electrical Electronics

Electrical devices mainly Electronics devices manipulate

Behavior change current into another form current in such a way so that it
of energy such as heat or light. can do a particular task.

It is concerned with application

It relates to producing or being
Relation of devices involving flow of
operated by electricity.
electrons.

Electronic devices can

Electrical devices do not
Manipulation manipulate data to assign
manipulate data.
meaning to it.

They use Alternate Current i.e.

Current flow They use Direct Current i.e. DC
AC

Voltage They use high voltage. They work on low voltage.

By mechanical parts or Without mechanical parts or

Control of current
electromagnetism electromagnetism

3.Areas of Application of Electronics

1. Aerospace industry – Electronics is widely used in aerospace such as Space shuttle, Satellite power
supplies, aircraft power management.
2. .Medical – The development of electronics, and particularly that of computers has made possible many
of the technologies which made possible for a doctors to examine His patient. Many machines like x-
ray, NMR etc which is the combination of different physics theorem and electronics.
3. Automobile – Electronics are used in road vehicles,
 4. Utility Systems – Electronics has also applications in utility systems. High voltage DC Transmission,
Excitation systems, VAR compensation, Static circuit breakers, fans and boiler feed pumps,
supplementary energy systems(solar, wind) .
5. Agriculture - With increase in global warming electronics has proved very useful to solve these
problems in of agriculture.
6 Communication and Entertainment
7 Industrial –Heating and welding systems, Automatic control systems
8 Residential
9 Military.-Radar, Guided missiles, coded communication
10 Precision Instrumentation

4.Types of Electronic Components

There are two classes of electronic components – Active and Passive
Passive Components : They do not have directionality or gain and themselves are not capable of processing an
electrical signal such as amplification,oscillation and modulation.
Eg: Resistors, capacitors, inductors
Active Components : They have directionality or gain. They actually perform the signal processing,when signal
pass through it.These component requires bias or trigger voltage for their operation.
Eg:Semiconductor devices ,diodes,transistor
Comparison
Passive Components Active Components
do not have directionality or gain have directionality or gain
not capable of signal processing capable of signal processing
Does not require any input for operation requires bias or trigger voltage for their operation
Linear in operation Nonlinear
Aid the active component in functioning Perform operation with/without the aid of passive
componets
Eg: Resistors, capacitors, inductors Eg:Semiconductor devices ,diodes,transistor

II.1Resistors
Resistors are passive elements that oppose/restrict the flow of current .It is used in electronic circuit for various
purpose such as setting bias ,Controlling gain,Matching and loading circuits,Voltage division,heat generation
etc

Symbol
Resistance is a fundamental property of conductor to oppose the current flow through it.
All materials have a resistance that is dependent on cross-sectional area, material type ,length and temperature.
The resistance of a conductor R=ρ L/A
R=Resistance ρ=specific resistance of the conductor material ohm-Cm2
L=length of conductor in Cm, A=Cross sectional Area of the conductor in Cm2

Specific Resistance or restivity (ρ ):Resistance of materials are usually given in per unit cross sectional area and
per unit length .
A resistor dissipates power in the form of heat

A voltage is developed across its terminal, proportional to the current through the resistor.
Resistance is measured in units of ohms (Ω) and named after George Ohm, whose law (Ohm’s Law) defines the
fundamental relationship between voltage, current, and resistance.

V = IR

Units: Ohms (Ω)

2. Specification
1 ) Ohmic Value: Ohms (Ω)
2 ) Tolerance: Deviation in resistance value +-%
3) Power Ratings: Max power in watts that resistor can safely dissipate
4) Temperature Coefficient: Resistance change with temperature effect(PPM/ºC)
Metals have positive temperature coefficient.
5) Voltage Rating: Max voltage that can be applied to resistor (V)
6) Voltage Coefficient: Change of resistance with applied voltage. Normally decrease with increase in voltage.
7) Noise: Current passes through a resistor produces thermal agitation called noise.
8) Stability: Change in resistance value which occurs under specified physical and electrical operating
conditions.(%)
9) Reliability:A factor which gives the percentage of failure per 1000hrs of use.
3. Classification(list the type of resistor)
• Fixed resistor
• Variable resistor
3.1 • Fixed resistor
Whose values cannot be changed after manufacturing.
• Based on construction
• Carbon composition
• Carbon film
• Metal film
• Wire wound
• Chip

Carbon composition Resistor

These are made from finely divided carbon

mixed with powdered insulating material such
as resin in suitable proportion and leads from
tinned copper.
Available range:1Ω to 22MΩ ±5% to±20%
0.1w to 2 watts
Application: General purpose electronics
equipment

Film resistor
Made by depositing a very thin layer of conducting material on an insulated rod made of ceramic or glass.
1.Carbon film
They are constructed out of a ceramic carrier with a thin pure carbon film around it,that functions as resistive
material. Carbon film resistors are made with a deposition process. At high temperature and under a high
pressure, a ceramic carrier is held in hydrocarbon gas. The gas (methane or benzene) is cracked at a temperature
of 1000°C.
 The crystalline carbon is deposited on the
ceramic substrate. Because of the precise
distribution of the pure graphite without
binding, these carbon resistors have a low
noise. The desired resistance value can be
obtained by choosing the right layer
thickness, and by cutting a spiral shape in
the carbon layer. The helical cut in the film
increases the length of the current path. By
decreasing the pitch of the helix, the length
of the resistive path increases, and there
with the resistance value increases.
Furthermore, by fine tuning the cutting of
the spiral the resistor can have a higher
accuracy of resistance value. Typical
tolerance values for carbon film resistors are
2, 5, 10 and 20%.
Application: HF amlifiers,computers, telephones
Metal film
Metal film resistors are axial
resistors with a thin metal film as
resistive element. The thin film is
deposited on usually a ceramic body.
The resistive element is usually
sputtered (vacuum deposition) on a
cylindrical high purity ceramic core.
The resistance material is often
nickel chromium (NiCr).The
stability and resistance are strongly
dependent on the thickness of the
metal film (50-250 nm). A larger
thickness of the layer results in a
better stability and a lower resistance value. On both ends a metal cover is pressed with the connection
leads. After this, the desired resistance is achieved by cutting a spiral shaped slot in the thin metal layer. The
metal film resistors are available with tolerances of 0.1, 0.25, 0.5,1 and2%.
Applications:Professional instruments and calibrating equipments.
Wire wound resistor
A wire wound resistor is a resistor where a wire with a high resistivity is wrapped around an insulating core to
provide the resistance. The wire material has a high resistivity, and is usually made of an alloy such as Nickel-
chromium (Nichrome) or a copper-nickel-manganese alloy called Manganin. Common core materials include
ceramic, plastic and glass. They can be produced very accurate, and have excellent properties for low resistance
values and high power ratings.
Application: Power electronics, load resistor
Color Coding of Resistor
> It is difficult to print the significant value of resistor on their bodies.
>The color coding is standardized by the electronic industries association.(EIA)
> Two methods
.Four color band system
.Five color band system

Chip Resistor

features:
small size and light weight
High reliability and stability
Applications:
• Small size and cost
• High reliability and stability
• Lower assembly cost
• Used in Mobile phones,PDA,Camcoders,computers
Coding of Chip Resistor

Resistor ratings
• Physical size of resistors determines power handling ability
• Commonly available as 1/8, 1/4, 1/2, 1, and 2 watt components
• Much higher powers available , usually as wirewound or ceramic encapsulated parts

Variable resistor
• Resistors whose resistance can be changed to any value between zero and certain maximum value.
• It consists of a fixed resistor element and a slider which taps onto the main resistor element.
• These gives three connection to the component: two connected to fixed element, and third is the slider.
• According to the rate of resistance variation
• Linear (control in CRO)
• Logarithmic (Volume control)
Types
• Rheostat

• Potentiometer
• Preset

Rheostats

• Rheostats are high power variable resistor.

• The former made ceramic or steel is coated with enamel.
• The resistance wire of nichrome in oxidized form is wound over the former.
• Resistance range:1-10k wattage rating: 10W-100W,current:.1A-10A, Tolerance:+-10%
• Applications:control voltage and current in AC and DC circuits,welding control,Light dimmer,Motor
speed control.
Potentiometer
Carbon Potentiometer

• Carbon composition mix is molded into a cavity in a plastic

base.
• specification
• Resistance:20-22M ohm
• Tolerance:+-20%
• Power rating: ½ w-2 ½ w
• Application
Volume control in audio equipment

Wire wound Potentiometer

• Nichrome or other resistance materials wound on a former of insulating materials such as backlite,
synthetic resin, bonded sheet,paper etc.This strip is bent into arc of circle and fixed in backlite mould.
• specification
• Resistance:10-100K ohm
• Tolerance:+-10%
• Power rating: 1 w-4 w
• Application
• Balance controller, small motor controller, servo controller.
Preset/trimmers
Variable resistors used to set internal parameters on circuits. Here the resistance track is made of carbon and
cermet.
Effective resistance
• The effective resistance of the series combination is simply equal to the sum of the individual resistance
• In parallel combination the reciprocal of the effective resistance is equal to the sum of the of the
reciprocal of the individual resistance.
Capacitors

Symbol

• A capacitor is a passive an electronic component used to store an electric charge and release whenever
desired.
• Capacitor consists of two parallel conductors separated by an insulating material.
• Block the direct current through it.
• used for filtering, tuning, separating signals , etc.
• The ability of a capacitor to store charge in the form of an electrostatic field is called “Capacitance”.
• C = Q/V (amount of charge stored/applied voltage)

• A capacitor has the capacitance of One Farad when a charge of One Coulomb is stored on the plates
by a voltage of One volt.
Capacitance, C is always positive and has no negative units.
Capacitance is measured in units of farads (F) and named after Michael Faraday, a British chemist and
physicist who contributed significantly to the study of electromagnetism.
Commonly used capacitances are much smaller than 1
Farad, micro-Farads (10-6 Farad, μF),
nano-Farads (10-9 Farad, nF),
pico-Farads (10-12 Farad, pF).
• capacitance value is fixed by the surface area of the conductive plates and the distance or separation
between them.
• another factor which affects the overall capacitance of the device is "Permittivity" (ε) of the dielectric
• The permittivity of a dielectric is the ratio of the Electric Flux density to
the electric field intensity in the dielectric.
ε= D/E
• Permittivity is a measure of how easily the dielectric will permit the
establishment of flux lines within the dielectric
• Different dielectric materials between the same two parallel plates offer different capacitance depending
on the permittivity of the dielectric
C= ε0εr A/D
εr =relative permittivity of the dielectric
permittivity of free space, εo is equal to one,

Charging of Capacitors
 • When used in a direct-current or DC circuit, a capacitor blocks the flow of current through it,
• when it is connected to an alternating-current or AC circuit, the current appears to pass straight through
it with little or no resistance.
• If a DC voltage is applied to the capacitors conductive plates, a current flows charging up the plates
with electrons giving one plate a positive charge and the other plate an equal and opposite negative
charge.
• This flow of electrons to the plates is known as the Charging Current and continues to flow until the
voltage across both plates (and hence the capacitor) is equal to the applied voltage .
• At this point the capacitor is said to be fully charged
• charging current at its maximum when the plates are fully discharged and slowly reduces in value to
zero as the plates charge up to a potential difference equal to the applied supply voltage.
Discharging of Capacitors
• The action of neutralizing the capacitor by connecting a conducting path across it is called discharging
the capacitor.
• A low value resistor is connected between the plates provide a path for discharging current.
• The negative plate repels electrons which are attracted to positive plate through the resistor until positive
and negative charges are neutralized.
Dielectric

• The dielectrics contain charged molecules which are randomly oriented.

• When an external field is applied, by dropping a potential across the two plates, the charged molecules
align themselves with the electric field.
• This alignment of charges produces dipoles where the positive charges of each molecule are in the
direction of the applied field and the negative charges oppose the field.
• An internal electric field, which is opposite in direction of the external electric field will result.
• Consequently a reduction of the overall electric field and the overall potential occurs.
• The purpose of the dielectric therefore is to create an electric field to oppose the electric field set up by
free charges on the parallel plates.
 • So the insulating material placed between plates of capacitor is called dielectric.
• Dielectric strength is the ability of dielectric to withstand potential that breaks bonds and causes current
to flow.
• This dielectric material can be made from a number of insulating materials or combinations of these
materials with the most common types used being: air, paper, polyester, polypropylene, Mylar, ceramic,
glass, oil, or a variety of other materials.
Specifications
• 1. Value of Capacitance, (C)
• 2. Working Voltage, (WV) :Max voltage at which capacitor can operate.
• 3. Tolerance, (±%): Accuracy
• 4. Leakage Current: current flowing in the dielectric when the rated dc voltage is applied at given temp
• 5. Temperature Coefficient (TC): Change in capacitance due to temperature
• 6. Polarization
• 7. Stability : % variation of capacitance

Classification
• Fixed Capacitors
• Variable capacitor
Fixed Capacitors
• Depending on the dielectric material used
• Paper
• Mica
• Ceramic
• Polyester
• Polystyrene
• Electrolytic

Paper capacitor
Paper capacitors are constructed by rolling impregnated paper with metal foils. Range:.001µf -1µf
Breakdown voltage;200-1600V

Mica Capacitor

Mica Capacitor consists mica sheets separated by sheets of metal foil.

Mica capacitors are capacitors that offer high precision, reliability
and stability. They are available in small values and are generally
used at high frequencies. They have low losses. Range:10pf -5000pf
Breakdown voltage; 500-20000V
Ceramic Capacitors

Ceramic Capacitors or Disc Capacitors as they are generally

called, are made by coating two sides of a small porcelain or
ceramic disc with silver or copper and are then stacked together
to make a capacitor. For very low capacitance values a single
ceramic disc of about 3-6mm is used. Ceramic capacitors have a
high dielectric constant (High-K) and so that relatively high
capacitances can be obtained in a small physical size.
• It is made in many shapes
Tubular,Disc,Monolithic,Barrier layer
• Range: 1pf to 1 µf, Breakdown voltage; 500-20000V

Polyester film

• Two metal foils separated by a strip of polyester material such as mylar.

• Temperature stability is poorer than paper capacitors. Usable at low (AC power) frequencies, but
inappropriate for RF applications due to excessive dielectric heating
• (from about 1 nF to 10 μF).Used as signal capacitors, integrators
Electrolytic Capacitor
 Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitor
 Tantalum Electrolytic Capacitor
Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitor

• Aluminum electrolytic capacitors are constructed from two conducting aluminum foils, one of which is
coated with an insulating oxide layer, and a paper spacer soaked in electrolyte. The foil insulated by the
oxide layer is the anode while the liquid electrolyte and the second foil acts as the cathode. This stack is
then rolled up, fitted with pin connectors and placed in a cylindrical aluminum casing. Range:1-6800 µf,
Breakdown voltage; 10-450V
Tantalum Electrolytic Capacitor
• Tantalum Electrolytic Capacitors are available in both wet (foil) and dry (solid) electrolytic types.
The anode is made of pure tantalum metal on which a very thin insulating oxide layer is formed, which
acts as the dielectric of the capacitor. A solid or liquid electrolyte which covers the surface of the oxide
layer serves as the second, cathode electrode (−) of the capacitor. Because of its very thin and relatively
high permittivity dielectric layer, the tantalum capacitor distinguishes itself from other conventional and
electrolytic capacitors in having high capacitance per volume (high volumetric efficiency) and lower
weight. The dielectric properties of tantalum oxide is also much better than those of aluminum oxide
giving a lower leakage currents and better capacitance stability which makes them suitable for use in
blocking, by-passing, decoupling, filtering and timing applications. Tantalum Capacitors although
polarized, can tolerate being connected to a reverse voltage much more easily than the aluminum types
but are rated at much lower working voltages. Generally, the positive lead is identified on the capacitor
body by a polarity mark, with the body of a tantalum bead capacitor being an oval geometrical shape.
Typical values of capacitance range from 47nF to 470uF.
Ultra capacitor
• Ultra capacitors can be defined as a energy storage device that stores energy electrostatically by
polarising an electrolytic solution. Ultracapacitors are also known as double-layer capacitors or
supercapacitors.

• Energy is stored in ultra-capacitor by polarizing the electrolytic solution. The charges are separated via
electrode –electrolyte interface. Ultra capacitor consist of a carbon based porous electrode, electrolyte
and a current collector (metal plates). There is a membrane, which separates, positive and negative plate
is called separator.The geometrical size of carbon sheet is taken in such a way that they have a very high
surface area.The highly porous carbon can store more energy than any other electrolytic capacitor.
 When the voltage is applied to positive plate, it attracts negative ions from electrolyte. When the
voltage is applied to negative plate, it attracts positive ions from electrolyte. Therefore, there is a
formation of a layer of ions on the both side of plate. This is called ‘Double layer’ formation. For this
reason, the ultracapacitor can also be called Double layer capacitor. The ions are then stored near the
surface of carbon. They utilize the high surface area of carbon as the energy storage medium,
resulting in an energy density much higher than conventional capacitors. The amount of energy stored
is very large as compared to a standard capacitor because of the enormous surface area created
by the (typically) porous carbon electrodes and the small charge separation (10 angstroms) created by
the dielectric separator.
Advantage
• Long life: It works for large number of cycle without wear and aging.
• Rapid charging: it takes a second to charge completely
• Low cost: it is less expensive as compared to electrochemical battery.
• High power storage: It stores huge amount of energy in a small volume.
• Faster release: Release the energy much faster than battery.
Disadvantage
• They have Low energy density
• Individual cell shows low voltage.
• Not all the energy can be utilized during discharge
• They have high self-discharge as compared to battery.
• Voltage balancing is required when more than three
capacitors are connected in series
Applications
• They are used in electronic applications such as cellular electronics, power conditioning, uninterruptible
power supplies (UPS),
• industrial lasers, medical equipment.
• electric vehicle and for load leveling to extend the life of batteries.
• wireless communication system for uninterrupted service.
• There are used in VCRs, CD players, electronic toys, security systems, computers, scanners, smoke
detectors, microwaves and coffee makers.
Chip Capacitor
• Chip capacitor is a single layer or multilayer monolithic capacitor constructed in chip form, with
metalized terminations. Chip capacitor or surface mount capacitor do not have leads.
• Insulating materials for chip capacitor include ceramic,glass,mica,oil,polyester,polycarbon,poly
propelyne,polystyrene etc
• It have high reliability and efficiency and available in various sizes
Application
1.High frequency circuit
2.Crystal filters and oscillators
3.RF,microwave telecommunication

Variable Capacitors

• Variable capacitors are those for which value of capacitance can be changed by adjusting some
parameter (Distance between plates, dielectic, Area of plates).Commonly used variable capacitors are
Gang, Trimmer or padder.Trimmers are internal adjusted capacitors that a consumer cannot adjust.
These variable capacitors would be difficult to squeeze into your mobile phone and iPod.Current
technology uses semi-conductor variable capacitors called varactors (varicaps).
Standard representation
• A number code is often used on small capacitors where printing is difficult:
• the 1st number is the 1st digit,
• the 2nd number is the 2nd digit,
• the 3rd number is the number of zeros to give the capacitance in pF.
• Ignore any letters - they just indicate tolerance and voltage rating.
• For example: 102 means 1000pF = 1nF (not 102pF!)
• For example: 472J means 4700pF = 4.7nF (J means 5% tolerance).
Effective capacitance
• Capacitors, like resistors, can be connected in a circuit in two ways, series or parallel (or combinations
of series and parallel).
• The equivalent capacitance of a series connection is
1 / Ceq = 1 / C1 + 1/ C2

• The equivalent capacitor of a parallel connection is

Ceq = C1 + C2

CAPACITOR APPLICATION SUITABLE TYPES WITH REASONS DETAILS

Power supply smoothing applications
Audio frequency coupling uses
RF coupling capacitor applications
Tuned circuit uses
Aluminium electrolytic High capacity and high
ripple current capability
Aluminium Electrolytic: High capacitance
Tantalum: High capacitance and small size
Polyester / polycarbonate : Cheap, but values not as
high as those available with electrolytics
Ceramic : Small, cheap and low loss
Polystyrene: Very low loss, but larger and more
expensive than ceramic
Silver mica: Close tolerance, low loss and stable, but
high cost
Ceramic : Close tolerance, low loss, although not as
good as silver mica