THE BLOOD

Blood is a uniquely specialized connective tissue in that it consists of two

components: the formed elements of blood or the blood cells, and the fluid part of
blood or plasma.

FUNCTIONS OF THE BLOOD

• Transports oxygen from the lungs.
• Transports carbon dioxide from the cell.
• Carries nutrients
• Transports waste products
• Transports hormones and enzymes
• Helps regulate body pH
• Helps to regulate the water content of cells
• Plays a role in the process of osmosis
• Protects the body against foreign microorganisms and toxins.

THE CLASSIFICATION OF BLOOD CELLS AND THE COMPOSITION OF PLASMA

• Erythrocytes or red blood cells (RBCs) – makes up 95% of the volume of
blood cells.
• Leukocytes or white blood cells (WBCs) - granular leukocytes and agranular
or nongranular leukocytes.
1. Granular leukocytes – have granules in their cytoplasm
a. Neutrophils – make up 60% to 70% of WBCs
b. Eosinophils – 2% to 4% of WBCs
c. Basophils – 0.5% to 1% of WBCs
2. Agranular or non-granular leukocytes – do not show granules in their cytoplasm
 a. Monocytes – 3% to 8% of WBCs
b. Lymphocytes – 20% to 25% of WBCs
• Thrombocytes or platelets

Plasma is the fluid component of blood; 91% of plasma is water and about 7% are the
proteins albumin, globulins and fibrinogen.
 Albumin – maintains osmotic pressure and water balance
 Globulins – important in the immune response
 Fibrinogens – clotting mechanism
Ions, nutrients, waste products, gases, enzymes, and hormones – the remaining
2% of plasma
Dr. Charles Drew
• African American scientist that developed the
blood storage techniques.
• Known for his research on blood plasma
FORMATION OF BLOOD CELLS: HEMATOPOIESIS
Hematopoiesis
• Blood formation
• Occurs in red bone marrow also known as myeloid tissue
Stem cells or Hematocytoblasts
• An undifferentiated mesenchymal cells where all blood cells are developed.
Hemocytoblast differentiation:
• Lymphoid stem cell produces lymphocytes
• Myeloid stem cell produces other formed elements

BLOOD CELL ANATOMY AND FUNCTIONS

ERYTHROCYTES
• Bioncave disks with edge that are thicker than the center of the
cell ; doughnut-shaped
• Do not have nucleus
• Composed of a network protein:
─ stroma
 ─ cytoplasm
─ some lipid substances
─ red pigment called hemoglobin
Primary function of erythrocytes
• Combine with oxygen in the lungs
• Combines with carbon dioxide in tissues
Hemoglobin
• Contributes 33% of the cell’s volume
• Made of protein called globin and pigment called heme
Hemoglobin that is carrying oxygen is bright red in color, whereas hemoglobin not
carrying oxygen is a darker red in color.
LEUKOCYTES
• Have nuclei and no pigment
• General function is to combat inflammation and infection
• Larger in size than RBCs
• Have the ability to leave the blood and move into tissues
• Attack invading microorganisms and clean up cellular debris by consuming this
material by phagocytosis, which means eating cells.
NEUTROPHILS
• Most common leukocytes
• Most active WBCs in response to tissue destruction by bacteria
• Stays in the blood for 12 hours and then move into tissue
MONOCYTES
• Also phagocytotic
• The largest leukocytes
EOSINOPHIL
• Combat irritants
• Produce antihistamines
• Their chemical secretions also attack some worm parasites in the
body
BASOPHILS
 • Involved in allergic reactions
• Releases heparin, histamine, and serotonin

LYMPHOCYTES
• Involved in the production of anti-bodies
• Play crucial role in the body’s immune response
• Smallest leukocytes
• There are two types of Lympocytes:
a. B lymphocytes
b. T lymphocytes

THROMBOCYTES OR PLATELETS
• Disk-shaped cellular fragments with nucleus
• Range in size from 2 to 4 micrometers in diameter
• Prevent fluid loss
• Have a life span of about a week
• Produced in red bone marrow from large megakaryocytes
THE CLOTTING MECHANISM
The clotting mechanism is a process that the body uses to stop the loss of blood.
A cut in a blood vessel causes the smooth walls of the vessel to become rough and
irregular. Clotting or coagulation is a complex process that proceeds in three stages.
• In the first stage, the roughened surface of the cut vessel causes the platelets or
thrombocytes to aggregate, or clump together, at the site of injury. The damaged
tissue release thromboplastin.
• In the second stage, prothrombin, a plasma protein produced by the liver, is
converted into thrombin.
• In the third stage, another plasma protein, soluble fibrinogen, is converted into
insoluble fibrin.
Fibrin forms long threads that act like a fish net at the site of injury. The fibrin forms
what we call the clot.
 • Syneresis or clot retraction – the tightening of the fibrin clot in such a way that
the ruptured area of the blood vessel gets smaller and smaller, thus decreasing
the hemorrhage.
• Serum – blood plasma without the clotting factors
• Fibrinolysis – dissolution of the blood clot occurs
• Plaque – cholesterol-containing mass that adheres to the smooth walls of blood
vessels
• Thrombosis – clotting in such an unbroken vessel
• Thrombus – the clot itself
• Embolism – when an embolus becomes lodged in the vessel and cuts off
circulation
• Cerebral thrombosis – if the brain is affected
• Coronary thrombosis – if the heart is affected
• Infarction – if the tissues are killed; often fatal
• Pulmonary embolism – if a blood clot dislodges and travels to a vital organ like
the lungs and blocks a vessel supplying that organ

THE BLOOD GROUPS

• Agglutination – clumping of RBCs
Agglutination of RBCs is the result of a transfusion reaction caused by
mismatched blood.
The individual may experience:
1. Headache
2. Difficulty in breathing
3. Face will appear flushed
4. Pain in the neck, chest and lowerback
5. Yellowing of the skin
6. Kidney failure

THE BLOOD GROUPS (ABO BLOOD GROUP)

Consists of those individual who have the presence or absence of two major
antigens on RBC membrane: antigen A and antigen B.
 • Antigen A – Type A blood ; antibody anti-B
• Antigen B – Type B blood ; antibody anti-A
• Has both Antigen A and B – Type AB blood ; have neither antibody
• Has neither Antigen A and B – Type O blood ; antibody anti-A and anti-B

THE BLOOD GROUPS (Rh BLOOD GROUP)

Named after the Rhesus monkeys, the animals in which one of the eight Rh
antigens or factors was first identified and studied.
If an Rh-negative person receives a blood transfusion of Rh-positive blood, the Rh-
negative person begins to produce anti-Rh antibodies against the foreign blood. If a
second mismatched transfusion occurs, the patient’s antibodies will now attack and
rupture the Rh-positive blood donor’s RBCs and they will agglutinate.
• Erythroblastosis fetalis – hemolytic disease of the newborn. The baby will be
anemic and suffer brain damage due to lack of oxygen to nerve cells. Death may
result.
• RhoGAM – anti-Rh antibodies that bind any Rh-positive fetal cells and shield
them, thus protecting any of the child’s RBCs that might contact the mother’s
cells.
DISORDERS OF THE BLOOD
HEMOPHILIA
Genetically inherited clotting disorder associated with the expression of a recessive
gene on the X chromosome inherited from the mother and passed down to male
children.
LEUKEMIA
Type of cancer in which there is abnormal production of WBCs.
ANEMIA
Can be caused by four factor: decrease in the normal number of erythrocytes, a
decrease of normal amounts of hemoglobin in the RBCs, a deficiency of normal
hemoglobin, or production of abnormal hemoglobin.
SICKLE-CELL ANEMIA
A hereditary disease found mostly in African American and individuals of southern
European ancestry. The erythrocytes have an abnormal sickle shape with abnormal
hemoglobin and cannot carry sufficient oxygen.
IRON-DEFICIENCY ANEMIA
Results from vitamin B12 deficiency, nutritional deficiencies, or excessive iron loss from
the body, resulting in lower than normal erythrocyte production.
HEMOLYTIC ANEMIA
An inherited condition in which eryhthrocytes rupture or are destroyed at a fastter rate
than normal.
THALASSEMIA
Hereditary disease found in people of African, Mediterranean, and Asian background.
Hemoglobin production is suppressed and death can occur by the age of 20.
SEPTICEMIA
Also known as blood poisoning, is caused by an infection oof microorganisms and their
toxins in the blood.
MALARIA
Caused by the injection of a protozoan, Plasmodium, by a female Anopheles mosquito.
The microorganism spends part of its life cycle in the erythrocytes, eventually destroying
them.
INFECTIOUS MONONUCLEOSIS
Also known as mono, caused by the Epstein-Barr virus, which infects B lymphocytes
and the salivary glands.
THROMBOCYTOPENIA
A serious decrease in the number of thrombocytes or blood platelets.
ERYTHROCYTOSIS
Caused by an excessive amount of red blood cells.
CARBON MONOXIDE POISONING
Can develop from working in places that accumulate large amounts of exhaust from
combustion such as automobile engines.
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES:

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Describe the functions of blood.

2. Classify the different types of blood cells.

3. Describe the anatomy of erythrocytes relative to their

function.

4. Compare the functions of the different leukocytes.

5. Explain how and where blood cells are formed.

6. Explain the clotting mechanism.

7. Name the different blood groups.