MUDLOGGINGQUALITYCONTROLPOREPRESSUREPREDICTION AhmedSabry PHD

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MUD LOGGING QUALITY CONTROL AND PORE PRESSURE PREDICTION USING

GEOLOGICAL AND GEOPHYSICAL DATA IN SELECTED FIELDS, NILE DELTA,
EGYPT
Thesis · July 2016

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.19518.38722
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Mansoura University
Faculty of Science
Geology Department
MUD LOGGING QUALITY CONTROL AND

PORE PRESSURE PREDICTION USING
GEOLOGICAL AND GEOPHYSICAL DATA IN
SELECTED FIELDS, NILE DELTA, EGYPT
By
Ahmed Sabry Alla-Eldin Abd-Elazim Khalf
Geology Department
Faculty of Science – Mansoura University
(B.Sc. Geophysics 2001)
(M. Sc. Applied Geophysics - Mansoura University-Egypt, 2008)
A thesis
Submitted to the Faculty of Science, Mansoura University
For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy of Science (Geology /
Applied Geophysics)
Supervised By:
Prof. Dr.
Omar Abd El-Rahman Hegab
Emeritus Professor of Sedimentary Rock,

Geology Department,
Faculty of Science, Mansoura University
Dr. Dr.
Mohammed Awad Ahmed Mohamed Nashaat Mohy Eldin
Lecturer of Applied Geophysics, Geology Previous Exploration General Manager
Department, Faculty of Science, Mansoura Rashid Petroleum Company (RASHPETCO)
University
2016
Mansoura University
Faculty of Science
Geology Department
Title of Study:
MUD LOGGING QUALITY CONTROL AND PORE
PRESSURE PREDICTION USING GEOLOGICAL AND
GEOPHYSICAL DATA IN SELECTED FIELDS, NILE
DELTA, EGYPT
Researcher Name: Ahmed Sabry Alla-Eldin Abd-Elazim Khalf
Supervisors:
No. Name Position Signature
Prof. Dr.
1 Omar Abd El- Emeritus Professor of Geology, Faculty
Rahman Hegab of Science, Mansoura University
Lecturer of Applied Geophysics,
Dr. Mohammed
2 Faculty of Science, Mansoura
Awad Ahmed
University
Previous Exploration General Manager
Dr. Mohamed
3 Rashid Petroleum Company
Nashaat Mohy Eldin
(RASHPETCO)
Head of Geology Department Vice Dean for Graduate Studies and Research Faculty Dean
Prof. Dr. Hosni H. Ghazala Prof. Dr. El-Sayed I. El-Desoky Prof. Dr. Azza I. Othman
Mansoura University
Faculty of Science
Geology Department
Title of Study:
MUD LOGGING QUALITY CONTROL AND PORE
PRESSURE PREDICTION USING GEOLOGICAL AND
GEOPHYSICAL DATA IN SELECTED FIELDS, NILE
DELTA, EGYPT
Researcher Name: Ahmed Sabry Alla-Eldin Abd-Elazim Khalf
Supervisors:
Prof. Dr.
1 Omar Abd El- Emeritus Professor of Geology, Faculty
Rahman Hegab of Science, Mansoura University
Lecturer of Applied Geophysics,
Dr. Mohammed
2 Faculty of Science, Mansoura
Awad Ahmed
University
Previous Exploration General Manager
Dr. Mohamed
3 Rashid Petroleum Company
Nashaat Mohy Eldin
(RASHPETCO)
Referees:
Prof. Dr.
Emeritus Professor of Geology, Faculty
1 Omar Abd El-
of Science, Mansoura University
Rahman Hegab
Prof. Dr. Awad Professor of Geophysics, Faculty of
2 Abdel-Khalek Omran Science, Assiut University
Prof. Dr. Abdulaziz
Professor of Geology, Faculty of
3 Mohammed AL-
Science, King Saud University
Bassam
Head of Geology Department Vice Dean for Graduate Studies and Research Dean of Faculty
Prof. Dr. Hosni H. Ghazala Prof. Dr. El-Sayed I. El-Desoky Prof. Dr. Azza I. Othman
AUTHOR’S DECLARATION
I hereby declare that I am the author of this thesis.

The experiments in this thesis constitute work carried out by the candidate unless otherwise stated.
The thesis's tables, figures, and bibliography have been complied with the stipulations set out for the
degree of Doctor of Philosophy by the Mansoura University.
I further authorize Mansoura University to reproduce this thesis by photocopying or by other means,
in total or in part, at the request of other institutions or individuals for the purpose of scholarly
research.
Title of Thesis/Dissertation:
MUD LOGGING QUALITY CONTROL AND PORE PRESSURE PREDICTION
USING GEOLOGICAL AND GEOPHYSICAL DATA IN SELECTED FIELDS, NILE
DELTA, EGYPT
Signature
Author ___________________
Sabry, Ahmed
Faculty of Science, Mansoura University
April, 2016
I
ABSTRACT
The present study deals with studying the mud logging real-time data while drilling to
improve the quality of the gathered data and propose a new early kick detection method. In
addition, focusing on pore pressure prediction using mud logging data and measurements
while drilling (MWD) in order to compare the results with the calculated pore pressure after
drilling using wireline data and repeated formation tester (RFT). The investigated area lies in
the offshore Nile Delta within the three concessions (Temsah, Offshore Rosetta and West
Delta Deep Marine concessions). Mud logging quality control has been applied on the
currently used gas trap in the offshore Nile Delta. The comparison of three mud logging
companies system was achieved. The kick detection has been studied based on the mud
logging parameters and the pore pressure estimation then the advanced early kick detection
method has been proposed to detect early small kick and near-balance state.
The formation pore pressure of the studied area has been evaluated through the
integration of the mud logging and petrophysical data to deduce overpressure zones. The
studied pore pressure methods advantages and limitations were summarized to be a guide for
the future exploration and well planning.
Keywords: Mud logging quality control, Pore pressure, Kick detection, Offshore Nile Delta
II
Publications arising from this thesis
MOHAMMED A. AHMED A, OMAR A. HEGAB, AHMED SABRY., 2016. Early detection
enhancement of the kick and near-balance drilling using mud logging warning sign. EGYPTIAN
JOURNAL OF BASIC AND APPLIED SCIENCES (EJBAS), 3(1), pp. 85-93.
III
DEDICATION
GRATEFULLY AND RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED
TO
My kindly parents
My brother
My Wife
And
My children Omar, Aya, and Moaz
The Author:
Ahmed Sabry Alla-Eldin Abd-Elazim Khalf
IV
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Praise is to Allah, the Lord of the world, Eternal guardian of the heavens and earth. I
praise him for favors and ask him to increase his grace.
Special thanks are due to Prof. Dr. Omar Abd El-Rahman Hegab, for his kindly
help, supervision and revision of the manuscript. I have learned a great manner from him,
so he deserves a special deep heart thanks.
This research and its preparation was influenced by the cumulative experience of Dr.
Mohamed Nashaat Mohy Eldin, whose I have had the pleasure to work on his interesting
subject, he pointed me into the right direction.
I wish to express my sincere thanks to Dr. Mohammed Awad Ahmed for his great
support and co-supervision; I had the pleasure to work with him.
Deep heart thanks to Prof. Dr. Hosni Hassan Ghazala, Chairperson of the
Geology Department, Faculty of Science, Mansoura University, for his help and
support.
Much gratitude is offered to the staff members of the Geology Department,
Faculty of Science, Mansoura University for their continuous encouragement.
Acknowledgements and gratitude are also due to the authorities of the Egyptian
General Petroleum Co-operation (EGPC), Belayim Petroleum Company (Petrobel) and
Rashid Petroleum Company (Rashpetco), for their approval and permission to use the
material of study and providing the necessary exploration raw data for conducting this
research.
I am grateful to my parents, who taught me to cherish excellence. I would like to
thank my family for their patience with regard to the time I spent in rewriting the material
ultimately compiled in this research. I express explicitly my appreciation to special persons,
my brother Sherif and my friend Mahmoud Desoky, who gave me a hand to complete this
research.
V
CONTENTS
Chapter Title Page
AUTHOR’S DECLARATION I
ABSTRACT II
MOHAMMED A. AHMED A, OMAR A. HEGAB, AHMED SABRY., 2016. Early
detection enhancement of the kick and near-balance drilling using mud logging
warning sign. EGYPTIAN JOURNAL OF BASIC AND APPLIED SCIENCES
(EJBAS), 3(1), (pp. 85-93). III
DEDICATION IV
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS V
LIST OF FIGURES IX
LIST OF TABLES X
GLOSSARY XII
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1. Introduction 1
1.2. Abnormal pore pressure and drilling incidents 2
1.3. Overpressure regimes global examples 3
1.4. The Nile Delta overpressure regime and exploration 4
1.5. Historical overview on the exploration activities 5
1.6. The study materials and methods 7
1.7. The aims of the study 8
CHAPTER TWO: GEOLOGICAL SETTINGS

2.1. General 11
2.2. Lithostratigraphic framework of the Nile Delta 11
2.2.1. Basement rocks 11
2.2.2. Paleozoic 11
2.2.3. Mesozoic 11
2.2.4. Cenozoic 11
2.3. Structural setting and tectonic elements of the Nile Delta 18
2.3.1. The Southern Delta Block 19
2.3.2. The Northern Delta Basin 20
2.4. Overpressure 21
CHAPTER THREE: MUD LOGGING QUALITY CONTROL
3.1. Introduction 24
3.2. Mud logging data acquisition 26
3.3. Mud logging gas system 26
3.4. Gas trap quality control 27
3.4.1. Gas trap quality control recommendations 29
3.5. Comparison of the mud logging company systems 30
3.5.1. Time database comparison 30
3.5.2. Depth database comparison 32
3.5.3. Gas chromatograph comparison 32
3.6. Applications of gas chromatograph 34
3.6.1. Ratio calculations 34
VI
Chapter Title Page
CHAPTER FOUR: EARLY KICK DETECTION

4.1. Introduction 37
4.2. Causes of kick 37
4.3. The importance of the early kick detection 39
4.4. Limitations of the early kick detection in the offshore Nile Delta 39
4.4.1. Limitations of the pore pressure estimation while drilling 39
4.4.2. Limitations of the conventional well control procedure 40
4.5. Kick detection from mud logging real-time data 41
4.6. Kick detection in the offshore Nile Delta 42
4.6.1. Offshore Nile Delta case studies 43
4.6.1.1. Case study#1 44
4.6.1.1.1. Comparison between the first and second kick detection 44
4.6.1.1.2. Comparison between gas parameters and drilling
parameters warning sign 46
4.6.1.2. Case study#2 47
4.6.2. Comparison of the kick detection parameters 47
4.7. Proposed advanced early kick detection method 49
4.8. Advanced early kick detection recommendations 51
CHAPTER FIVE: PORE PRESSURE PREDICTION
5.1 Introduction 52
5.2. Formation pore pressure and pressure gradient 53
5.3. The determination of the overburden stress gradient 56
5.4. Review of some methods of pore pressure prediction 57
5.4.1. Pore pressure prediction from resistivity 58
5.4.2. Pore pressure estimation using interval velocity and sonic logs 59
5.4.2.1. Eaton's method 59
5.4.2.2. Bowers' method 59
5.5. Adapted Eaton's methods with depth-dependent normal compaction 60
trendlines
5.5.1. Eaton's resistivity method with depth-dependent normal compaction 60
trendline
5.5.2. Eaton's velocity method with depth-dependent normal compaction 62
trendline
5.6. Steps for vertical pore pressure analysis in the Nile Delta 68
5.7. The vertical distribution of the pore pressure (pressure-depth plot) 71
5.7.1. The Pressure-Depth plot of the Temsah-4 well 71
5.7.2. The Pressure-Depth plot of the Temsah-13 well 73
5.7.3. The Pressure-Depth plot of the Temsah East-1 well 74
5.7.4 .The Pressure-Depth plot of the Temsah NW-5 well 77
5.7.5. The Pressure-Depth plot of the Temsah NW-9 well 79
5.7.6. The Pressure-Depth plot of the Rosetta-7 well. 82
5.7.7. The Pressure-Depth plot of the Sapphire Deep-1 well 84
5.7.8. The Pressure-Depth plot of the Mars-1 well 87
VII
Chapter Title Page
5.7.9. The Pressure-Depth plot of the Mathilde-1 well 89
5.7.10. The Pressure-Depth plot of the Memphis-1 well 91
5.8. Increasing geological information from pressure-depth plots 95
CHAPTER SIX: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 99

REFERENCES CITED 105
ARABIC SUMMARY
VIII
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Title Page
Fig. 1-1 Non-Productive Time (NPT) related to pore pressure and hole stability pie chart (Hannegan, 3
2007).from Egyptian Gas company website.
Fig. 1-2 Worldwide occurrence of the overpressure (updated after Fertl, 1976, Mouchet and Mitchell, 4
1989 and Chilingar et al, 2002).
Fig. 1-3 Proven natural gas reserves in Egypt (Sabry, 2008). 5
Fig. 1-4 Location map of the studied wells in the offshore Nile Delta (updated after Nashaat, 1998). 8
Fig. 2-1 A generalized stratigraphic column of the Nile Delta area buildup (completed after 12
Schlumberger, 1984 and Kamel et al,1998).
Fig. 2-2 Tentative stratigraphic model of the Nile Delta buildup (Schlumberger, 1984). 14
Fig. 2-3 -Dimensional structural contour map on the top of the Qawasim and the equivalent Wakar 16
Formation (Ahmed, 2002).
Fig. 2-4 The Nile Delta structural domain Map (Keshta, 2012). 19
Fig. 2-5 Scheme of the stratigraphic relations in the Nile Delta subsurface showing the structural sub- 20
provinces of the Nile Delta. (After Rizzini et al. 1976).
Fig. 2-6 Generalized cross-section showing major South-North stratigraphic and structural features 21
in the Nile Delta (Sarhan and Hemdan, 1994).
Fig. 2-7 The Nile Delta and North Sinai Basin Map showing: (a) depth to the top of overpressure zones 22
(in ft); (b) rates of sedimentation for Pliocene-Pleistocene sediments (Nashaat, 1998).
Fig. 3-1 Mud logging data acquisition and exchange configuration. 25
Fig. 3-2 Sketch of the real-time mud gas monitoring setup. The gas phase is released from the mud 26
cycle and pumped into the mud logging for real-time analysis. (Modified after Erzinger et
al., 2006).
Fig. 3-3 Quantitative gas measurement trap (Wright et al., 1993). 28
Fig. 3-4 Real-time log represents the fluctuation in the gas data gathered by current traditional gas trap. It 30
shows the changes in the mud flow out in different operations (wash and ream, pump off and
drilling).
Fig. 3-5 Real-time log comparison between two servers (A and B) with time interval 5 and 30 seconds, 32
respectively, illustrates the high accuracy of the data displayed by server (A) compared to server
(B).
Fig. 3-6 A Comparison between two gas chromatographs analysis charts. 34
Fig. 3-7 Mud log shows the chromatograph gases (C1 to C5) and the gas ratios (wetness and balance). 36
The wetness and balance separation help to identify lithology change and productive sand.
Fig. 4-1 Relation of connection gas, pump off gas and total gas to changes in differential pressure. 43
Fig. 4-2 The composite mud log and the estimated pore pressure while drilling. A warning sign based on 45
the CG and POG started appearing at 4320m and increased with depth until the kick detected at
4379m. On the other hand, the last estimated pore pressure at 4371m due to MWD offset distance
(13m).
Fig. 4-3 The composite mud log and the estimated pore pressure while drilling, case study#2. (a) At 48
depth 1580m the ROP increased to 15 m/hr, BG increased to 1.4% at 1583m indicating
underbalanced drilling. This was confirmed by increased pore pressure at 1580m (MWD offset
distance 14m). (b) At depth 2220m the ROP increased to 18 m/hr, while the CG appear at
2223m indicated near-balance drilling which confirmed by the increased pore pressure after
drilling.
Fig. 4-4 Chart of the proposed advanced early kick detection method steps in the case of a kick or a near- 50
balance state is suspected (Modified after Ahmed et al., 2016)
Fig. 5-1 The relationship between the overburden stress, formation pore pressure, hydrostatic pressure and 54
effective stress with depth in a borehole (Zhang, 2011).
Fig. 5-2 The relationship between the overburden gradient, fracture gradient, mud weight, pore pressure 55
gradient, and casing shoes with depth. The overburden gradient and the pore pressure are
converted from Figure (5-1) (Zhang, 2011).
Fig. 5-3 Overburden stress gradient (OBG) calculated from wireline bulk density log in shallow and deep 57
offshore Nile Delta,where the water depth (WD) is 77m and 420m respectively.
IX
Figure Title Page
Fig. 5-4 (a) represents shale resistivity graph and (b) represents shale pressure graph. The 61
line in graph (a) shows the shale resistivity in normal compaction condition (Rn). In
undercompaction condition the resistivity (R) shifted from (Rn), accordantly the top
of overpressured appears in graph (b). In this figure, overburden pressure (σV), pore
pressure (p), normal pore pressure (pn) (Modified after Zhang, 2011).
Fig. 5-5 Pore pressure post-well analysis estimated from modified Eaton's resistivity method 62
in the offshore Nile Delta. The first track represents the shale resistivity and the
normal shale resistivity computed from Equation (12). The right track represents the
overburden gradient (OBG), measured pore pressure (RFT), the used mud weight
(MW) and the pore pressure estimated from resistivity (Pp Res) utilizing Equation
(12).
Fig. 5-6 Shows interval transit time (∆t) of shale, the transit time normal compaction 65
condition (∆tn) In this figure, σV= overburden pressure, pn=normal pore pressure,
p=pore pressure estimated from transit time (Modified after Zhang, 2011).
Fig. 5-7 Pore pressure calculated by the modified Eaton's sonic method in shallow water 66
depth (WD=77m) well located in the offshore Nile Delta. The left track shows the
shale transit time and the calculated normal trend using Equation (21). The right
track plots the mud weight (MW), overburden gradient (OBG), estimated pore
pressure from sonic (Pp DT) using Equation (22) and RFT.
Fig. 5-8 Pore pressure estimated based on transit time proposed method (Equation (22)) and 67
the Eaton's method with linear NCTL. The left graph plots the shale transit time and
NCTL calculated using Equation (21) and Linear NCTL Equation (9). The right
track shows measured pore pressure using RFT, mud weight, overburden gradient,
and pore pressure profile estimated from sonic using Equation (22) and by Eaton's
method using Equation (5) with Linear NCTL.
Fig. 5-9 Pore pressure estimated based on the proposed sonic method and from modified 69
Eaton's sonic method. (a) Shallow water offshore Nile Delta (WD=77m). (b) Deep
water offshore Nile Delta (WD=926m).
Fig. 5-10 Pore pressure calculation steps based on the sonic transit time for the Temsah-4 well 70
using adapted Eaton's sonic velocity in offshore eastern Nile Delta.
Fig. 5-11 Pore pressure depth plot of the Temsah-4 well, offshore eastern Nile Delta. 72
Fig. 5-12 Pore pressure depth plot of the Temsah-13 well, offshore eastern Nile Delta. 75
Fig. 5-13 Pore pressure depth plot of the Temsah East-1 well, offshore eastern Nile Delta. 76
Fig. 5-14 Pore pressure depth plot of the Temsah NW-5 well, offshore eastern Nile Delta. 79
Fig. 5-15 Pore pressure depth plot of the Temsah NW-9 well, offshore eastern Nile Delta. 81
Fig. 5-16 Pore pressure depth plot of the Rosetta-7 well, offshore western Nile Delta. 83
Fig. 5-17 Pore pressure depth plot of the Sapphire Deep-1 well, offshore western Nile Delta. 86
Fig. 5-18 Pore pressure depth plot of the Mars-1 well, offshore western Nile Delta. 88
Fig. 5-19 Pore pressure depth plot of the Mathilde-1 well, offshore western Nile Delta. 90
Fig. 5-20 Pore pressure depth plot of the Memphis-1 well, offshore western Nile Delta. 94
Fig. 5-21 Pressure-depth plot derived from 11 Temsah wells, illustrate the gas gradient, water 97
gradient and GWC for the Serravallian and Tortonian sandstones.
Fig. 5-22 Interpretation of Temsah field pressure profile using the available RFT, kicks, 98
estimated pore pressure, overburden and mud weight.
X
LIST OF TABLES
Table Title Page
Table 1-1 The drilling history of the studied 10 wells in the offshore Nile Delta. 17
Table 3-1 Mud logging systems comparison between three international companies. 31
Table 3-2 Comparison between the gas chromatograph of two mud logging companies. 33
Table 4-1 The used mud logging terms. 38
Table 4-2 The connection gas and pump off gas warning signs. 45
Table 4-3 Kick detection parameters comparison between the drilling parameters, gas 49
parameters and estimated pore pressure based on MWD data.
Table 4-4 Comparison between the proposed advanced early kick detection method and 50
the conventional well control procedure.
Table 5-1 Pressure gradients conversions between metric and American units. 56
XI
GLOSSARY
Symbol Meaning
A Parameter obtained from calibrating regional offset velocity versus

effective stress data in Bower’s sonic method
B Parameter obtained from calibrating regional offset velocity versus
effective stress data in Bower’s sonic method
b Logarithmic slope of resistivity at normal compaction trendline
BG Background gas
Bh Balance gas ratio
c Constant
C1 Methane
C2 Ethane
C3 Propane
CG Connection gas
CO2 Carbon dioxide
CVE Constant volume extractor
CVT Constant volume gas trap
D Vertical height of the fluid column
d1 Normal hydrostatic gradient for the region
d2 Mud weight used while drilling
DAU Data acquisition unit
DST Drill Stem Test
dxc Corrected D exponent
ECD Equivalent circulation density
F Distance from the ground floor or sea floor to the mudline
g Earth gravity
g/cc Gram per cubic centimeter
gpm Gallon per minute
GWC Gas water contact
H Bit size
I-C4 Isobutane
I-C5 Isopentane
k Constant
LCT Linear compaction trend
XII
MD Measured Depth
MDT Formation dynamics tester tool
MW Mud weight
MWD Measurement while drilling
n Eaton exponent
N Rotary speed
N2 Nitrogen
N-C4 Butane
N-C5 Pentane
NPT Non-Productive Time
O2 Oxygen
OBG Overburden stress gradient
ohmm Ohms per meter
P Pressure
p Pore pressure
pf Formation fluid pressure
pn Normal pore pressure
Png Normal pore pressure gradient
POG Pump off gas
Pp DT Pore pressure estimated from sonic transit time
Pp Res Pore pressure estimated from resistivity
Pp VSP Pore Pressure calculated from VSP interval velocity
Ppg Pore pressure gradient
psi Pound per square inch
Pulo Pore pressure in the case of unloading in Bower’s sonic method
QGM Quantitative gas measurement
R Shale resistivity
R0 Resistivity of shale in the surface
RFT Repeated formation tester
Rn Resistivity of shale at the normal pore pressure
ROP Rate of penetration
rpm Rotary per minute
SG Specific gravity
XIII
SICP Shut-in casing pressure
SIDP Shut-in drill pipe pressure
TCF Trillion cubic feet
TD Total measured depth
TG Total Gas
TVD True vertical depth
TVDSS True vertical depth subsea
U Uplift parameter in Bower’s sonic method
vml Surface compressional velocity in the mudline
vp Compressional velocity at a given depth
VSP Vertical seismic profile
W Weight on bit
WDDM West Delta Deep Marine concession
Wh Wetness gas ratio
z Depth from the sea level or from flow line
Z Depth from the rotary table or mudline
zw Water depth in offshore drilling
∆t Sonic transit time
∆tf Formation fluids transit time
∆tm Shale matrix compressional transit time (with zero porosity)
∆tml Compressional transit time in the surface
∆tn Normal compaction trend of sonic transit time
ρ Average fluid density
ρb Formation bulk density
ρw Density of sea water
σe Effective vertical stress,
σmax Effective stress
σV Overburden pressure
Ф Porosity
Фgf Porosity of the sea floor (offshore) or ground floor (onshore)
Фn Normal compaction porosity
XIV
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
______________________________________________________________________________________________
CHAPTER ONE
1.1. Introduction
Mud logging is an important evaluation technique while drilling that has
developed since the advent of rotary drilling and mud circulation in the 1920’s.
Besides detecting abnormal pressure and improving safety during drilling, mud
logging focuses on formation and reservoir evaluation in real-time (Ablard, et al.,
2012).
The present study will discuss the mud logging real-time during drilling to
improve the quality of the collected data and well safety and focus on early kick
detection and pore pressure prediction. This is gained using mud logging data and
measurements while drilling (MWD) in order to compare the results to the
calculated pore pressure after drilling using wireline data and repeated formation
tester (RFT).
The abnormal subsurface pore pressure has played an important role in
petroleum exploration, its conditions can pose significant drilling hazards if not
detected (Bowers, 2001). Abnormal subsurface pressures either overpressure
(geopressure) or underpressure, are encountered in hydrocarbon basins throughout
the world. They are encountered in all lithologies, from all geologic ages during
exploratory drilling through a lot of basins (Fertl et al., 1994).
The normal hydrostatic pressure is the pressure exerted by an overlying static
column of fluid corresponding to its density and vertical. Mathematically, this can
be expressed as:
P = D.ρ.g
where P = pressure (Pascals), D = vertical height of the fluid column (m), ρ =
average fluid density (Kg/m³) and g = gravity value (9.81m/s²).
The subnormal hydrostatic pressure, on the other hand, is that pressure below
the normal hydrostatic gradient.
Overpressure zone is the interval of formation pore pressure greater than the
vertical hydrostatic formation fluids pressure. The origin of overpressure is likely to
be one of the reasons or combined thereof: 1) rapid rate of sedimentation, 2) thin
1
______________________________________________________________________________________________
lenticular permeable layers sealed within exclusive clay or any other impermeable
layers, 3) tectonic uplifted and/or salt diaprism 4) oil and gas generation from
organic matter associated with volume expansion (Chilingar et al., 2002 and Roy et
al., 2010).
The Nile Delta Basin (offshore and onshore) is the biggest sedimentary
basins in Egypt and one of the major basins in the Mediterranean Sea as a whole.
The Nile Delta Hydrocarbon exploration has about sex decades with more than 300
wells drilled in the onshore and offshore Nile delta. The first exploratory well in the
Nile Delta was drilled in 1966. Since that, the evaluation of overpressure in this
basin is becoming very important due to the association of abnormally high pressure
with the recent offshore hydrocarbon discoveries (Maghara, 1978). The occurrence
of abnormally high pressures in the Nile Delta and North Sinai is interpreted to be
mainly due to high sedimentation rates (Nashaat, 1998).
1.2. Abnormal pore pressure and drilling incidents
Abnormal pressure (overpressure) can greatly increase the drilling non-
productive time and causes serious drilling incidents (e.g., fluid influx, well
blowouts and pressure kicks). Study of the drilled 2520 shelf gas wells shows that
more than 42% non-productive time as shown in Figure (1-1) associated with
incident of water flow, lost circulation, kicks, stuck pipe, twist off and sloughing
shale which were related to inaccurate pore pressure estimation (Hannegan, 2007).
Early prediction and reliable detection of abnormal pressure is important to avoid
potential drilling and safety hazards. If the abnormal pressure is not early
controlled, this may lead to uncontrolled blowout, lose circulation, waste time and
lose the hole section which cost the oil industry billions of dollars a year, as well as
more serious consequences of injury and potential loss of life.
Furthermore, an investigation of drilling incidents shows that there are 48
kicks for 83 wells drilled in the deep water, and at least 21% of those kicks resulted
in loss of all or part of the well (Holand and Skalle, 2001).
During drilling advanced warning of abnormal pressure enables the drilling
fluid to be adjusted to avoid well and reservoir damage and to determine casing
2
______________________________________________________________________________________________
points. This is a particular concern in deep water wells in which the pressure
difference varies.
Figure (1-1). Non-Productive Time (NPT) related to pore pressure and hole stability pie chart
(Hannegan, 2007).
1.3. Overpressure regimes global examples

Global search in petroleum exploration while drilling in onshore and offshore
often encountered overpressure zones in all continents. It occurs in shallow depth as
only a few hundred meters below the surface or exceeding depths of 6000m. The
occurrence and magnitude of these overpressure environments have a profound
impact on the petroleum industry (Roy et al., 2010).
The word wide overpressured areas have been occurred in all Continents. The
high overpressured zones are found in the east coast at Venezuela, Guiana, Gulf of
Mexico coast, Brazil, Oceania Australia, Artic Island, Canada and Far East. It is
also encountered in Middle East; Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Kuwait, Red Sea areas and
along the Nile Delta as shown in Figure (1-2) (updated after Fertl, 1976, Mouchet
and Mitchell, 1989 and Chilingar et al, 2002).
3
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Figure (1-2) Worldwide occurrence of the overpressure (updated after Fertl, 1976, Mouchet and
Mitchell, 1989 and Chilingar et al, 2002).
1.4. The Nile Delta overpressure regime and exploration

Overpressure occurs in the Nile Delta and increases generally from south to
north (north hinge zone). The Tertiary rocks are thin and sandy in the composition
in the onshore Nile Delta compared to the thicker and more shale-rich equivalent in
the more distal in the offshore areas of the Nile Delta. From Pliocene to Oligocene
the overpressure increases and reaches the highest values, close to the fracture
domain in some areas. The depth to the top of abnormally high pressured zones is
quite variable; ranging from about 520m in the offshore areas to 3700m in the
onshore areas. The top of the overpressure zone occurs at progressively shallower
depths northward because of high rates of sedimentation and subsidence along the
depositional axis during the Pliocene and Pleistocene times (Nashaat, 1998).
Shale interval is important in petroleum exploration, not only as hydrocarbon
source but also as a seal rock. It is also the source of the compacting fluids which
influence or control the direction and volume of hydrocarbon migration. Thus, shale
interval is considered as a source for overpressure, which affects the fluid drain.
Therefore, an intensive study of shales in sedimentary basin like deltas may greatly
contribute to oil and gas exploration. (Nashaat, 1992).
4
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Exploration in the offshore Nile Delta is getting more significance according

to the increase in the gas reserve discovered by the International Egyptian Oil
Company (IEOC) with Petrobel Company in the eastern Nile Delta in Temsah, Port
Fouad and Baltim concessions, and by BG Group with Rashpetco Company in the
western Nile Delta in West Delta Deep Marine concession (WDDM) and offshore
Rosetta concession. The Egypt's natural gas sector is expanding rapidly, with
production having more than doubled between 1999 and 2003. The estimated
proven gas reserves are 67 trillion cubic feet (TCF) based on several new discovers
(Sabry, 2008). Most of this increase has come as a result of new natural gas
discoveries from the offshore Nile Delta 78%, and some finding in the Western
Desert 11% as shown in Figure (1-3). The Nile Delta has emerged as a world-class
natural gas basin due to the recent offshore field discovers and developments
including Temsah, Scarab, Saffron, Simian, Port Fouad, Rosetta and Sapphire gas
fields.
Figure (1-3) Proven natural gas reserves in Egypt (Sabry, 2008).
1.5. Historical overview on the exploration activities

Petroleum exploration in the Nile Delta started in the 1940s with gravity,
magnetic and seismic data acquisition. The first offshore gas discovery, Abu Qir-1x
well was announced by Phillips Company in 1969. This discovery well led to
5
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WEPCO’s gas and condensate production from the sandstone reservoirs of the Sidi
Salim and Abu Madi Formations. The first deep water well, NDO-1, was drilled by
Esso Company in 1973 (Schlumberger, 1995).
Mobile Company acquired the offshore Delta concession (which covered the
eventual Temsah discovery) in December 1973. The first well, Temsah-1, drilled in
1977, was the discovery well for the Temsah Field. It was targeted was planned at
the Middle Cretaceous. Because of formation pore pressure problems, the well
stopped in the Oligocene at 4350 m, but two sandstones in the Middle Miocene Sidi
Salim Formation were penetrated and drill-steam tested.
The second well Temsah-2 was drilled in 1981, about 0.75km NE of the
discovery well. Again, it failed to reach the Cretaceous primary objective because
of formation pore pressure problems, it penetrated gas-bearing Sidi Salim
Formation. Mobile relinquished the area in 1980’s, where they considered Temsah
uneconomic. In 1992 IEOC/AMOCO was granted the exploration of Temsah
concession after IEOC/AMOCO acquired a 3D seismic survey of about 350 sq.km
over the structure tested by Mobile. The interpretation of the 3D seismic data
showed that the Miocene structure appeared more promising than that based on the
previous 2D seismic data. The exploration of the Temsah structure was performed
through three phases:
1) The first phase was performed during the period 1992-1996, started by
Temsah-3 well which considered as one of the most successful wells ever
drilled in the Nile Delta. It penetrated 10m of net pay Early Miocene Wakar
Formation and 70m in the Sidi Salim Formation, then followed by 7 wells
drilled and considered as commercial discoveries (Temsah-4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and
Temsah East-1).
2) The second phase started 1996 and ended after 2 years. During this period
Three wells were drilled (Temsah NW-1, 2 and 3), where 417km2 were
relinquished on the SE part of the concession. At the same time IEOC
granted Petrobel two development leases (Temsah lease of about 175km2 and
Denise lease of about 157km2).
6
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3) The third phase was started in 1998 and was operated by Petrobel to evaluate
the extension of the Serravallian sand lobes in the northwestern direction of
the Temsah structure. Six wells were drilled during this phase (Temsah NW-
4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9).
On the other hand, in the western offshore Nile Delta Rashpetco with BG
Group has previously drilled 25 successful exploration and appraisal wells in West
Delta Deep Marine concession (WDDM) and offshore Rosetta concession since
1992. This has resulted in the discovery of nine gas fields: Scarab, Saffron, Simian,
Sienna, Sapphire, Serpent, Saurus, Sequoia and Solar.
Table (1-1) summarizes the drilling history of the 10 wells addressed thought
this study. The depths were represented in true vertical depth subsea (TVDSS).
Table (1-1) The drilling history of the studied 10 wells in the offshore Nile Delta.
Well Name Drilling Year Total depth (m) TVDSS(m) Concession
Eastern offshore Nile Delta
Temsah-4 1994 4167 4132.3 Temsah concession
Temsah E-1 1995 4029 3973.5 Temsah concession
Temash NW-5 1999 4216 3828.3 Temsah concession
Temsah NW-9 2000 4515 3944.5 Temsah concession
Temsah-13 2009 3942 3811 Temsah concession
Western offshore Nile Delta
Rosetta-7 1999 3734 3700 Offshore Rosetta concession
Sapphire D-1 2004 4680 4650.1 West Delta Deep Marine concession
Mars-1 2005 4435 4406 West Delta Deep Marine concession
Mathilde-1 2006 3688 3660 West Delta Deep Marine concession
Memphis-1 2006 4859 4831.47 West Delta Deep Marine concession
1.6. The study materials and methods

The present study deals with the pore pressure prediction and mud logging
quality control in selected fields in the offshore Nile Delta as shown in Figure (1-4).
The studied area lies in the offshore Nile Delta concessions of Petrobel Company
and Rashpetco Company between the latitudes 31° 38' 50.96" and 32° 22' 06.46" N
longitudes 30° 16' 42.06" and 32 10' 15.35" E.
The study is based on subsurface geological information, mud logging and
petrophysical data of ten wells distributed in the study area as shown in Figure (1-
4). The petrophysical data include sonic, vertical seismic profile (VSP), modular
7
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formation dynamics tester tool (MDT) and repeated formation tester (RFT), where
the geological data are represented by the mud log and the composite log of the
studied intervals. A successful analysis of ten wells requires appropriate application
of the following resources:
1) A reliable computer hardware and software package capable of fast
processing and plotting.
2) Digitizing and archiving all the data into computerized database.
3) Gathering previous lecture work about the Nile delta and localized study
area.
Figure (1-4) Location map of the studied wells in the offshore Nile Delta (updated after Nashaat,
1998).
8
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The digital database resides on one computer, termed mud logging and
formation pore pressure database. Several specific analysis steps are utilized to the
log analysis procedure sush as:
1) Filtering the raw log data to correct or remove the anomalous data points
(if needed).
2) Normalize logs specialty when logging inside casing (if needed).
1.7. The aims of the study

The present study includes innovation approaches for mud logging data
quality control and pore pressure prediction in the offshore Nile Delta which
integrated with other geo-science related studies to enhance pore pressure prediction
and early kick detection. The primary goal of this work is to increase the accuracy
pore pressure prediction and early kick detection.
A comprehensive study of the overpressure has been undertaken, where
undercompacted shale and overpressured sections are encountered in the offshore
Nile Delta. The formation pore pressure of the studied area has been evaluated
through integration of the mud logging and petrophysical data to deduced
overpressure zones and enhances early kick detection in the study area.
Geological investigations including reviewing the general geological setting
of the concerned area using the available subsurface data gathered from well logs
and mud logs with the aid of isopach and structural contour maps.
To fulfill the aims of the research the following were carried out as follow:
1) Mud logging studies to:
a) Identify the mud logging data and it's important.
b) Apply the Mud logging data quality control to three international Companies.
c) Enhance the mud logging gas data and recommend the requirements for better
gas date quality.
2) Early kick detection studies to:
a) Identify the causes of kicks in the offshore Nile Delta.
b) Apprise the importance of early kick detection.
9
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c) Detect kick from mud logging real-time data.

d) Assess the reasons of failure to detect small kick early based on conventional
well control procedure.
e) Revise the offshore Nile Delta case studies.
f) Propose an advanced early kick detection method.
3) Pore pressure studies to:
a) Predict pore pressure from mud logging and MWD resistivity tools.
b) Predict pore pressure using VSP and sonic logs.
c) Propose modification to sonic Eaton’s method to be more suitable to onshore and
offshore (shallow and deep sea water depth).
d) Calculate the pore pressure from available methods for 10 wells in the offshore
Nile Delta.
e) Discus the pore pressure prediction methods advantages and limitations.
f) Build pressure-depth plot for Temsah field from the available RFT and kicks.
10
CHAPTER TWO GEOLOGICAL SETTINGS
_____________________________________________________________________________
CHAPTER TWO
GEOLOGICAL SETTINGS
2.1. General
The Nile delta covers an onshore area of about 25,000km2 and about
35,000km2 in the offshore (Nashaat, 1992, Nabawy and Shehata, 2015).
From the structural point of view, the northern delta was controlled by four
fault systems known as the Hinge zone, Qattara-Eratosthenes Line, Pelusium Line,
and Bardawil Line (Risk and Said, 2001).
2.2. Lithostratigraphic framework of the Nile Delta
The generalized lithostratigraphic sequence of the Nile Delta Figures (2-1)
and (2-2) can be described as follow, arranged in an ascending order:
2.2.1. Basement rocks
Based on geophysical studies the basement relief map shows the thickness
of the sediments to vary from 4000m to 9000m over the Nile Delta region
(Nashaat, 1992).
2.2.2. Paleozoic
Formations belong to the Paleozoic Era have not been encountered by
drilling as they occurred at inaccessible depths.
2.2.3. Mesozoic
It comprises a series of Upper Jurassic and Cretaceous rocks, of lagoonal
deposits and close-shore shelf (Schlumberger, 1984, Sarhan and Hemdan, 1994
and Kamel et al., 1998).
2.2.4. Cenozoic
It comprises sediments ranging in age from Eocene to Holocene.
Eocene
It consists mainly of thin series of marly limestone represented by Early to
Middle Eocene.
11
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Figure (2-1). A generalized stratigraphic column of the Nile Delta area buildup (completed after
Schlumberger, 1984 and Kamel et al,1998).
Oligocene
Is represented by the Tineh Formation, which composed of very thick series
of marine to fluvio-marine shale and sandstone interbeds, It attributes to Late
Oligocene and Early Miocene. The Tineh Formation unconformably underlies by
the Qantara Formation.
Due to the absence and/or relatively thin thickness of the lower part of the
Tineh Formation, it is evident that it was deposited in a submarine high during the
Late Oligocene (El-Heiny and Enani, 1996).
12
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Miocene
(Rizzini et al., 1978) recognized the Neogene stratigraphic breakdown of the
litho-stratigraphic units penetrating the Nile Delta area. They are essentially
clastics consisting of three distinct sedimentary cycles; the Miocene, the Plio-
Pleistocene and the Pleistocene-Holocene cycles.
Miocene cycle, its base is not reached except at few wells such as the
onshore Sindy, Tarif, Qantara, Port Said, Mallaha and SW Bilqas wells as well as
the offshore Port Fouad Marine, Kersh, Sapphire Deep, Temsah and Wakar wells.
The Miocene depositional environment shows an open marine deposits at
the start with a starved evaporitic sequence at the end. The Miocene cycle is
represented by the Sidi Salim and Qawasim Formation. The Qawasim Formation
unconformably overlies the Sidi Salim Formation and underlies the Rosetta
evaporites (Kamel et al, 1998).
The Qantara Formation
It attributes to the Early Miocene which unconformably overlain by Middle
Miocene Sidi Salim Formation and composed mainly of highly calcareous shale
with some sandstone and limestone intercalations. It deposited in a continental to
shallow marine and partially in lagoonal environments (Herms and Wray, 1990).
The Sidi Salim Formation
Sidi Salim Formation belongs to Middle-Late Miocene. It composed mainly
of predominant shale intercalations and streaks of sandstone with occasional
anhydrite and sandy limestone at its top (Barakat, 1982). Sidi Salim Formation is
over 1500m thick in the offshore Ras El Bar-1 well (Nashaat, 1992).
The shale is grey-green whereas, the sandstone is quartzose with calcareous
cement which were deposited under a prograding sea of eustatic sea level rise.
Therefore, the main axis of this basin is more or less parallel to the southern
hinge zone. The upper limit of the Sidi Salim Formation is marked by the base of
thick sandy conglomeratic series of the Qawasim Formation (EGPC, 1994).
13
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The Qawasim Formation

It is of Late Miocene and unconformably overlies the Sidi Salim Formation.
This formation is a complex sequence of fairly thick sandstones and shale
interbedded with conglomerates. The sandstone is slightly indurated, ill-sorted
with fair to good porosity. The conglomerate layers are very thick with sandy
matrix (Schlumberger, 1984). The type section is present in the interval from
2800m to 3733m in the Qawasim-1 well. This sedimentary series contains a rare
Messinian fauna, which are typical of the Mediterranean basin (Nashaat, 1992).
Figure (2-2). Tentative stratigraphic model of the Nile Delta buildup (Schlumberger, 1984).
The Qawasim Formation upper boundary is difficult to be determined

particularly when the anhydrites of the Rosetta Formation are missing. Sometimes
it changes laterally to marine clays with Pliocene fauna of the Kafr El Sheikh
14
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Formation. In the case of this change passes with Abu Madi Formation, the
separation identify is based on sedimentological and paleontological evidences.
Such a change and development indicates a gradual shift from a regressive phase
to a transgressive one, from fluvial–deltaic to marine environment (Barakat, 1982).
The Wakar Formation
Stratigraphically, Wakar Formation (mainly shale, sandstone and siltstone
straks). The Wakar Formation which belongs to Late Miocene age is equivalent to
the Qawasim Formation in the Eastern sub-basin. The Wakar Formation
unconformably underlies the Rosetta Formation and overlies the Sidi Salem
(Kamel et al, 1998, Nabawy and Shehata, 2015).
The top Qawasim and the equivalent Wakar Formation structural contour
map are illustrated in Figure (2-3), which illustrates the paleo-relief pattern and
faults. The throw magnitudes of these faults range from <350m at the so-called
Hinge zone to >400m at the Misfaq-Bardawil line (Ahmed, 2002).
These faults are influencing the Sidi Salim Formation. These throws are
much larger in the Sidi Salim Formation than those of the overlying Wakar and
Qawasim Formations. This indicates that these faults are older in age than the
Wakar Qawasim Formations and periods of rejuvenations may occur along these
faults (Ahmed, 2002).
The Rosetta Formation
The Rosetta Formation of Messinian age represented by anhydrite deposits
interbedded with thin claystone and limestone layers. The maximum recorded
thickness is in Wakar-1 well of 267m (Nashaat, 1992). The Rosetta anhydrite
indicates a general starvation of the sea that affected the entire Mediterranean area
and led to the deposition of evaporites. Its occurrence limited to the offshore and
northern part of the Delta. (Barakat, 1982 and Schlumberger, 1984).
Pliocene-Pleistocene
The Plio-Quaternary section in the northern Nile Delta is a mega sequence
of marine sediments which develops mainly north of the hinge line and thickens
15
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considerably (up to more than 3000m) toward the northern sectors (Cardamone et
al, 1998). The Pliocene cycle is subdivided into three formations, from the bottom
to top; the Abu Madi, Kafr El-Sheikh and El Wastani Formations.
31° 30' 32° 00' 32° 30'
M E D I T E R R A N E A N S E A
Missed
3021
2692 3070
2491
2638
3382 31°
31° 30'
30' 3192
2869
3081
3472
2949 2298
1952
2842
2157
1637
1834 1810
LEGEND: 31°
1365 00'
2298 Qawasim Fm. top 1968 1613
Well location
2250 Contour line & value
C. I: 50 m
Fault trace with throw 1452
0 20 Km
32° 00' 32° 30'
Figure (2-3). 2-Dimensional structural contour map of Wakar Formation top and the equivalent
Qawasim Formation (Ahmed, 2002).
The Abu Madi Formation

The age of the Abu Madi Formation is Early Pliocene. It is the gas
producing horizon of the Nile Delta fields (Schlumberger, 1984). The maximum
Abu Madi thickness is 480m NDOA-1 well (Nashaat, 1992). This formation is
composed mainly of sandstone with siltstone intercalations and shale interbeds.
The shale content becoming thicker and more frequent in its upper part. These
sediments were deposited within fluvio-marine to shallow marine deltaic
environments, where the braided fluvial distributary channels are dominated. The
lithofacies of this formation varies from area to another due to northward
16
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entrenched channels confined by topographic and structural highs (El-Heiny and

Enani, 1996).
The upper boundary of the Abu Madi Formation is delineated by a clayey
sequence of the Kafr El Sheikh Formation. The base of this formation is
characterized by unfossiliferous clastics, but the upper sands are always associated
with clays rich in marine fauna (Ahmed, 2002).
The Kafr El Sheikh Formation
It dates paleontologically to Early-Middle Pliocene. The maximum
formation thickness is 1839m at Abu Zakn-1 well (Nashaat, 1992). It is composed
of claystone and siltstone sequences with thin sandstone units (Schlumberger,
1984). The development of these series is extended over the entire Nile Delta
basin with constant characteristics. The Kafr El-Sheikh lithology and faunal
content reflect an outer shelf depositional environment or perhaps the slopes of
depocenter. Its top is defined by the first appearance of the overlying El Wastani
sheet sands which have a typical littoral fauna (Cardamone et al,1998). However,
(Zaghloul et al, 1977) mentioned that the sediments of the Kafr El-Shiekh
Formation were possibly deposited in a subsiding basin with strongly transgressive
sea condition.
The El Wastani Formation
El Wastani Formation is of Late Pliocene age with type section of 123m
recorded at the El Wastani-1 well. This unit is made up of thick quartzose sand
with little feldspar, interbedded with thin clays becoming less thick toward the top,
with argillaceous interbeds. Its upper boundary is ill-defined, but it is delineated,
where the series persists to be sandy for several tens of meters. The depositional
environment of the El Wastani Formation is transitional between the outer shelf
facies of the underlying Kafr El-Shiekh Formation and coastal to continental sands
of the overlying Mit Ghamr Formation (Barakat, 1982 and Schlumberger, 1984).
17
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Pleistocene - Holocene
The Pleistocene-Holocene cycle is represented the Mit Ghamr and Bilqas
Formations
The Mit Ghamr Formation
The Mit Ghamr Formation composed of sand and gravels with clay
interbeds. The sand is quartz reach, medium to course grained. Whereas the
gravels are composed of flint and dolomites. The maximum thick is 1172m at Naf-
1 well which dates to the Late Pliocene-Pleistocene. The formation deposits in
general are continental deltaic. On the other hand, toward the north marine
elements become noticeable (Nashaat, 1992).
The Bilqas Formation
It is of the Holocene age with a thickness of 25 m at Bilqas-1 well. The
Bilqas Formation consists predominantly of very coarse sand interbedded with
clay rich molluscan fragments. The faunal association reflects a lagoon or brackish
swamps environment intermittent with beach sand (Barakat, 1982).
2.3. Structural setting and tectonic elements of the Nile Delta
The Nile Delta was affected by large scale tectonic in the north Africa,
eastern Mediterranean Sea uplifting and subsidence with the Red sea and Gulf of
Suez fracturing (Said, 1962). These tectonic events had made a predominant part
in the structural and depositional history of the Nile Delta area (Herms and Wray,
1990).
The Nile Delta basin is sectioned by the hinge zone into two structural sub-
basins; the North Nile Delta basin and the South Nile Delta block are illustrated in
Figure (2-4). The hinge line is a faulted flexure zone (30-40km width) that
affected the Pre- Miocene formations and extends from E–W across the Mid Delta
area (Said, 1981).
The hinge zone age back to Jurassic, represents the boundary between the
Mesozoic carbonate platform and the very thick tertiary clastic basin to the north
18
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(Kamel et al, 1998). The Hinge line has shown a predominant effect in all the
tectonic and stratigraphic setting of the Nile Delta (Said, 1981 and Nashaat, 1992).
The structural pattern of the Nile Delta is a complex interplay of three main
fault trends. The Misfaq-Bardawil (Temsah) fault trend, the NW-SE transgressive
feature mainly active during the Miocene, the NE-SW (of Late Cretaceous)
Qantara–Eratosthenes (Rosetta) fault trend, parallel to the Pelusium lineament and
active, since the Messinian, and E-W fault delineating the Messinian salt basin. In
addition to the Pelusium line, old left mega shear reactivated in the Tertiary and
bounding the basin to the east Figure (2-4). These trends are oriented parallel to
the circum-Mediterranean plate boundaries (Barsoum et al, 1998 and Abdel Aal et
al, 2000).
Figure (2-4). The Nile Delta structural pattern (Kamel et al, 1998).
The structural sub-provinces of the Nile Delta are shown in Figure (2-5).
The following is a brief description of these sub-provinces.
2.3.1. The Southern Delta Block
It is characterized by a gradual northward dip of Middle Eocene- carbonates,
which is gently folded and dissected by approximately E-W normal fault. The
19
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flexure faults reached the Pliocene sediment in some areas (Kamel et al, 1998).
The South Block is considered a continuation of the Western Desert structure and
stratigraphic sequence (EGPC,1994).
2.3.2. The North Delta Basin

It is characterized by two main structural patterns, Deep pre–Tortonian fault
pattern fundamentally of E-W fault blocks and Shallow post–Messinian fault
pattern of recent sediments at the unstable Delta. These fault patterns caused
normal faults, slumping and growth faulting (Kamel et al, 1998).
The old fault systems which were rejuvenated in Late Oligocene and
younger ages controlled the distribution of Miocene and younger sequences. This
led to the formation of three main Miocene sub-basins, at the North Delta basin
namely; The Western, Central, and Eastern, respectively as shown in Figure (2-6).
The basins yielded great facies and thickness variations, which also were
controlled by the tectonic events.
Figure (2-5). Scheme of the stratigraphic relations in the Nile Delta subsurface showing the
structural sub-provinces in the Nile Delta. (After Rizzini et al. 1978).
20
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Figure (2-6). Generalized cross-section showing major South-North stratigraphic and structural
features in the Nile Delta (Sarhan and Hemdan, 1994).
2.4. Overpressure
In the offshore Nile Delta, low permeability shale can trap fluids and cause
overpressured shale as a result of compaction disequilibrium. Overpressured zones
can be developed by fluid expansion mechanisms (e.g, heating, hydrocarbon
generation and expulsion of inter-granular water during clay transformation).
Local tectonic compression can also generate abnormal pressure. The studies of
the overpressured sediments in the offshore Nile Delta illustrated that pore
pressures are largely related to undercompaction (Badri et al, 2000).
The stable carbonate platform located south of the Hinge zone has a normal
hydrostatic pressure regime. The Tertiary rocks are thin and sandy compared to the
thicker and more shale-rich equivalent rocks in the more distal in the offshore
areas of the Nile Delta (Nashaat, 1998).
21
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Figure (2-7). The Nile Delta and North Sinai Basin Map showing: (a) depth to the top of
overpressure zones (in ft); (b) rates of sedimentation for Pliocene-Pleistocene sediments
(Nashaat, 1998).
From Pliocene to Oligocene the overpressure increases and reaches the highest
values, close to fracture domain in some area. The lateral pressure distribution is
controlled by the main fault systems, whereas regional unconformities (top seals)
affect the vertical distribution (Nashaat, 1998).
22
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The depth to the top of abnormally high pressured rocks is quite variable,
ranging from about 1,700ft (520m) in the offshore areas to 12,140ft (3,700m) in
the onshore areas as shown in Figure (2-7a). The shallower depths to the top of
overpressured zones in Pliocene rocks occur in areas of relatively high
sedimentation rates as shown in Figure (2-7a) and Figure (2-7b). Sedimentation
rates in these areas are as high as 70 cm/1,000 year as shown in Figure (2-7b),
which according to (Mann and Mackenzie, 1990) and (Osborne and Swarbrick,
1995) are sufficient to cause compaction disequilibrium and abnormally high
pressures (Nashaat, 1998). The shallower depth to the top of overpressuring is
related to the thicker and more shale-rich sediments in the offshore Nile Delta
Figure (2-5). This is in accordance with the rapid sedimentation rate in the
offshore area along the depositional axis during Pliocene and Pleistocene time
Figure (2-7a) and Figure (2-7b).
In the Nile Delta, the sealing system is more related to regional
unconformities than the presence of massive shales. The stratigraphic tops of the
Abu Madi, Sidi Salim, Qantara and Tineh Formations are considered the most
remarkable seals. In the Nile Delta, growth faults and associated fractures may
experience cycles of periodic opening and closing as the pressure within each
compartment builds up and then dissipates. During the early stage of this cycle,
fluids may flow along these pathways. At a later stage when pressure differences
across the seal equilibrate, the fluid pathways probably close and fluid flow may
cease until a sufficiently high pore pressure develops to reopen or create new flow
pathways. The process could conceivably permit pulses of hydrocarbon bearing
fluids to migrate along fault planes into shallower compartments. Structural
features with four way dip closures are believed to be the most prospective in the
Tineh, Qantara and even Sidi Salim Formations (Abdel Halim, 2001).
23
CHAPTER THREE MUD LOGGING QUALITY CONTROL
____________________________________________________________________________
CHAPTER THREE
MUD LOGGING QUALITY CONTROL

3.1. Introduction
Since the beginning of the 1930s, mud logging became a standard technique
in drilling worldwide. As mud circulates constantly during drilling, mud logging
can provide a continuous information on formation sample. In addition to
improving safety during drilling, mud logging focuses on real-time formation and
reservoir evaluation. These objectives are accomplished by characterizing the
cuttings (i.e. small pieces of the formation) and by analyzing the gas composition
of the drilling mud. The cuttings and the drilling mud gas circulate upwards via the
drilling mud. The cuttings are collected at the shale shaker and investigated under
the microscope, whereas the gas component is collected from the drilling mud by a
gas trap, then forwarded to the mud gas monitoring unit, where the gas
composition is determined (Ablard, et al., 2012).
The mud logging unit is the surface data logging laboratory. It records
continuously the real-time well site information, as well as monitors and analyzes
parameters related to the strata being drilled. This real-time monitoring results in
early or immediate information about the drilled formation.
Using mud logging unit as an exploratory tool while drilling is widespread
throughout the world because the mud logging equipment is simple, cheap,
requires low technological maintenance and does not interfere with the drilling
process.
A mud logger checks mud for oil and gas and collects bit cuttings for
analysis. Bit cutting analysis is very useful, since it can tell much about rock types
and formation characteristics, which must be known for mapping formation beds.
In brief, a surface data logging job will help the operator to know what is going on
the down hole as soon and as scientifically as possible.
The basic mud logging unit involves: 1) depth and rate of penetration (ROP)
determination, 2) lag-time determination, 3) cuttings sampling and lithological
24
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description, 4) gas sampling and analysis (total gas and gas chromatograph), and
5) continuous multichannel recorder.
Because of the fact that all information obtained by surface data logging is
relative and affected by surface conditions, the mud logging data quality is an
important aim to both owner companies and mud logging companies for better
data interpretation while drilling. This chapter deals with the mud logging data
acquisition and compares between three mud logging companies recording system
and gas system.
3.2. Mud logging data acquisition
The mud logging system consists of a set of surface sensors distributed on
the mud system as well as the rig floor for measuring mud parameters and drilling
parameters. The collected data are used to evaluate the characteristics of the
penetrated strata.
The mud logging system configuration is illustrated in Figure (3-1). The
sensors connected to data acquisition unit (DAU) receive output signals,
packaging and transmit the signal to the data processing unit called server. The
server receives the data acquisition module, process and saves the data to depth
and time database. It works also as data exchange hub for mud logging procedures.
Figure (3-1). Mud logging data acquisition and exchange configuration.
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3.3. Mud logging gas system
Gas data is one of the most important services presented by mud logging
companies. It was introduced in the early days of mud logging with two main
objectives. Firstly as a safety device to indicate well behavior to drillers and
secondly as an indicator of hydrocarbon bearing zones (Beda et al., 1999).
The mud gas system Figure (3-2) consists of three main parts: 1) gas trap to
extract gases from the mud flow line or mud ditch, 2) lines, water trap and pumps
enabling the transport a gas sample to the mud logging unit, 3) a gas detection
system in the mud logging unit (total gas detector and gas chromatograph). The
total gas often uses a flame ionization detector or thermal conductivity detector to
measure the total gas; it gives the amount of gas in equivalent methane (C1). The
second instrument is a gas chromatograph, which gives the concentration of light
hydrocarbons (C1 to C5) in the gas sample.
The gas separated from the mud using gas trap is fed into an automatic gas
sampling system Figure (3-2). The water vapor is removed from the gas line using
the water trap, then the gas is pumped individually into the total gas detector and
gas chromatograph for analysis. Finally, the analysis result sends to the data
processing unit.
Figure (3-2). Sketch of the real-time mud gas monitoring setup. The gas phase is released from
the mud cycle and pumped into the mud logging for real-time analysis. (Modified after Erzinger
et al., 2006).
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Different gas traps are used by mud logging companies. The majority is
based on the same principle: a small amount of fresh drilling mud is agitated and
mixed with air inside the gas trap in order to release the light hydrocarbons into
the gas phase.
There are many trials to establish standard gas trap. The agitator trap types
are the most widely used gas traps, principally because they are relatively cheap,
mechanically and functionally simple, although requiring a certain amount of
maintenance. One of the first fully efficient agitator traps was the quantitative gas
measurement (QGM) developed by Texaco and the Gas Research Institute in the
90’s. The QGM trap works as a centrifugal pump Figure (3-3); where the drilling
mud is drawn up to the trap from the bottom and exits through a side pipe. The air
flow is pumped in and out from the top of the trap. The middle ring baffles and
stabilizes the mud circulation and increases mud residence time. The agitation is
kept constant at 1725 rotary per minute (rpm) (Wright et al., 1993). If the mud
level surround the gas trap is constant, the volume of mud degassed in the trap is
constant.
3.4. Gas trap quality control
The interpretation of the obtained gas curves requires an accurate
understanding of the relationships between drilling parameters, formation type,
and the surface conditions. The accuracy of the gas data affected is by many
surface factors which should be taken into consideration for gas data quality, such
as the gas trap position, type, efficiency and the mud level surround and inside the
gas trap.
Quality control while drilling was done in rig site to the currently used gas
trap in the offshore Nile Delta in order to check the effect of gas trap position, mud
flow change while wash and ream, pump off and drilling. Figure (3-4) displays the
data as a function of time while drilling. The first track plots the hook position
(string hook position) relative to the drilling floor as well as the hookload (the
drilling string weight plus the hook weight). On the other hand, the second track
represents the total gas and total gas chromatograph scaled from 0 to 70 gas units,
in which 30 gas units equal to a 1% volume of gas in air. While drilling the gas
27
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readings were fluctuating up and down (visual checking the gas trap position,
indicated that the gas trap was placed in mud ditch and the mud level was
fluctuating). This fluctuation changed the quantity of the agitated mud by the gas
trap and fluctuated the gas reading while drilling Figure (3-4).
Figure (3-3). Quantitative gas measurement trap (Wright et al., 1993).
The effect of wash and ream on gas trap reading is shown in Figure (3-4).
After drilling each stand, the drilling crew makes wash and ream up and down the
last drilled stand to smooth the hole profile before connecting new stand. While
drilling, the mud flow rate was 265 gallon per minute (gpm). Whereas during
wash and ream string down with running speed ranged between 20 and 37 feet per
minute, the flow rate increased due to string pushed down to a range between 290
and 310 gpm, respectively. On the other hand, while wash and ream string up with
running speed ranged between 8 and 15 feet per minute, the flow rate decreased to
a range between 255 gpm and 248 gpm, respectively. These changes in flow rate
while wash and ream affect the amount of agitated mud by the gas trap and lead to
28
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an increase in gas reading while wash and ream down and decrease in gas reading
while wash and ream up. After finishing wash and ream the pump is closed off
then the fresh mud stop coming out from the well accordantly the gas data rapid
decrease as shown in Figure (3-4). The delayed time from wash down effect to
reach the total gas and gas chromatograph is 4 minutes due to the time required to
suction gases from gas trap through the gas lines. Also, the gas chromatograph
reading delay 30 seconds from the total gas (chromatograph cycle time).
The gas trap motor is air motor type with variable rpm due to the air
supplier pressure was not constant all the time, which lead to an irregular pattern
of gas reading Figure (3-4). In addition, the air motor efficiency decreased with
time.
3.4.1. Gas trap quality control recommendations
The flowing recommendations aim to improve the gas data quality:
1) The gas trap position should be close to the flow line as much as possible
to minimize gas escaping from mud before the gas trap.
2) The time required to move the gases from the gas trap to the total gas and
gas chromatograph in order analyze gases should be minimized as much
as possible by increasing the suction pump efficiency and/or move the
total gas system and gas chromatograph nearby the gas trap.
3) The gas trap type and specifications should be kept constant for better
meaningful analysis and well to well correlation.
4) Replace the gas trap air motor type by an explosion proof electrical
motor.
5) The agitation speed of motor should be calibrated and kept constant all
the time.
6) The mud level surrounds the gas trap should be kept constant as much as
possible to avoid change in the quantity of the mud agitated by gas trap
per minute.
7) Mud should not be discharged from the trap exit port in an intermittent
manner but should exit in a continuous flowing manner.
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8) Exit port side pipe should be in the form of (L- Shape) to minimize the
wind effect.
9) Using the new generation gas trap which minimizes the change in gas
readings due to fluid fluctuations. This new generation called the constant
volume gas trap (CVT) or the constant volume extractor (CVE) that
provides a steady flow of drilling mud from the flow line to the gas trap
using the suction pump with constant flow rate.
Hook position (ft) Total gas (unit)

0 120 0 70
Hookload (Klb) Total chromat (unit)
Time
0 70
0 700 CO2 (unit)
0 70
Wash
and
ream
Pump off
Drilling
Figure (3-4). Real-time log represents the fluctuation in the gas data gathered by the current
traditional gas trap. It shows the changes in the mud flow out in different operations (wash and
ream, pump off and drilling).
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3.5. Comparison of the mud logging company systems
3.5.1. Time database comparison
The server update the gathered data on the parameters screen assembled
every 1 second. On the other hand, most servers do not save the data each 1
second to avoid server slowing by time due to huge time database space. Table (3-
1) shows the time interval of three mud logging companies ranges between 5 to 30
seconds. The mud logging company (A) records data in the time base every 5
seconds, whereas the second company (B) and the third company (C) record every
30 seconds Table (3-1).
A real-time database comparison Figure (3-5) is carried out between two
servers (A and B) with time interval 5 and 30 seconds, respectively. The two
servers were connected to the same DAU in order to receive the real-time data at
the same time. Each server records the data independently and individually. The
comparison of the output data is shown in Figure (3-5). The left hand track shows
server (A) with time interval 5 seconds illustrating a detailed of the operation
while running in the hole and while stopping at every tool joint for checking joint
torque. The right hand track shows server (B) with time interval 30 seconds which
masks the details compared to the server (A). The server (B) save only one record
every 30 seconds and miss 29 record without recording the maximum, minimum,
and average for the 30 seconds interval. The low resolution time based data hides
the detail of the operation while checking the time log for important operations or
while rig incident investigations.
3.5.2. Depth database comparison
The mud logging parameters are archived in depth database while drilling.
This depth database constructs the mud log which is the most important mud
logging final output.
A comparison between three mud logging companies depth database was
carried out on the rig site. The depth database of the mud logging companies (A)
and (B) record the maximum, minimum, and average every foot or meter. On the
contrary, the company (C) records only the current value of all parameters except
the gases date the system record only as maximum Table (3-1).
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Table (3-1). Mud logging systems comparison between three international companies.
Mud logging company (A) (B) (C)
Every 0.25 meter

Depth interval Every meter or foot
or foot
Time interval Every 5 seconds Every 30 seconds
Current value
Parameters recorded in except gases
Maximum, minimum, and average
depth database record as
maximum
Parameters recorded in time Current value
Current value every 30 seconds
database every 5 seconds
Gas chromatograph cycle
60 seconds 90 seconds 30 seconds
interval
Figure (3-5). Real-time log comparison between two servers (A and B) with time interval 5 and
30 seconds, respectively, illustrates the high accuracy of the data displayed by the server (A)
compared to the server (B).
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3.5.3. Gas chromatograph comparison
Chromatograph analysis of hydrocarbon gases is the first indication of a
reservoir's fluid characteristics. Ratio calculations of gases data can enhance the
interpretational value of gases information, giving the well-site geologist an
immediate indication of zones of interest that need further testing (Haworth et al.,
1985). However, the gas chromatograph does not provide a continuous analysis,
processes batch samples separated by a number of seconds ranged between 90 to
30 seconds in the modern gas chromatograph. In the gas chromatograph, a fixed
volume of gas sample is carried through a separating column by a carrier gas. The
gas mixture is separated by molecular weight into its components, the lightest
traveling quickly through the column and the heaviest more slowly (Whittaker,
2006). Common alkanes detected within a reasonable time frame include: Methane
(C1), Ethane (C2), Propane (C3), Isobutane (I-C4), Butane (N-C4), Isopentane (I-C5)
and Pentane (N-C5). The analyzed gases were represented as a unit based on peak
height till the mid-1990’s. Nowadays chromatograph gases are given as a part per
million (ppm) that based on integration of the area under the peak which gives a
better representation of the proportions.
A comparison between two mud logging gas chromatographs is shown in
Table (3-2) and Figure (3-6). The gas chromatographs (A) and (C) analysis time
are 60 and 30 seconds, respectively. The gas chromatograph (C) uses thermal
conductivity detector which is able to detect non-hydrocarbon gas (CO2, N2 and
O2). Accordingly, detects the change in formation fluids and mud properties.
Moreover, the chromatograph (C) uses two separation columns A and B to reduce
analysis time to less than half of chromatograph (A) analysis time.
Table (3-2). Comparison between the gas chromatograph of two mud logging companies.
Chromatograph
Chromatograph (A) Chromatograph (C)
specifications
Hydrocarbon compounds
C1 to C5 C1 to C5
analysis
Non-hydrocarbons analysis None CO2, N2, O2
Flame ionization Thermal conductivity
Gas detector
detector detector
Analysis time ≤60 seconds ≤30 seconds
Accuracy ±5% reading ±5% reading
Lower detection limit 10 ppm as Methane 1 ppm as Methane
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Figure (3-6). A Comparison between two gas chromatographs analysis charts.
3.6. Applications of gas chromatograph

3.6.1. Ratio calculations
The ratios were developed in the mid-1980’s from data gathered in the USA
and in the North Sea (Haworth et al., 1984 and Haworth et al., 1985). The distinct
advantage of the ratios is the immediate calculated while drilling as the reservoir
being penetrated as well as the graphical presentation on real-time screen plots.
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This provides immediate evaluation and identifying of lithology change and
hydrocarbon bearing zone while the reservoir is being drilled. The most used ratios
are wetness (Wh) and balance (Bh).
Wetness ratio (Wh) shows an increasing trend as gas and oil density
increases (i.e. as the amount of heavy gas increases proportionally against the
lighter gases).
(1)
Balance ratio (Bh) is a direct comparison of light to heavy hydrocarbons

and for interpretative purposes, is used together with the wetness ratio as shown in
Figure (3-7). This diagram can be thought of as a reservoir profile, either time
based while drilling, or depth based on a mud log.
(2)
Bh inversely related to Wh, where it decreases as the fluid density increases.

Therefore decreases as the gas wetness increases Figure (3-7). The wetness and
balance separation helps to identify lithology change and sand reach hydrocarbon.
Additionally, this data can be used to deduce formation being drilled and thus
make better steering and drilling.
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Figure (3-7). Mud log shows the chromatograph gases (C1 to C5) and the gas ratios (wetness
and balance). The wetness and balance separation help to identify lithology change and
productive sand.
36
CHAPTER FOUR EARLY KICK DETECTION
______________________________________________________________________________________________
CHAPTER FOUR
EARLY KICK DETECTION
4.1. Introduction
The kick prevention and early kick prediction are of great concern in the
petroleum industry. The late kick detection can increase the amount of formation
fluids that enters the well borehole which increases the kick pressure. It leads to
uncontrolled blowout, lose circulation, waste time and losing the hole section.
Consequently, costs the oil industry billions of dollars a year, as well as the more
serious consequences of injury and potential loss of life.
The use of mud logging gas anomalies was recommended as an overpressure
indicator and as a warning of impending blowouts (Pixler, 1946). Similarly,
(Rochon, 1968) proposed mud gas anomalies as an aid in controlling drilling fluids
hydrostatic head-pore pressure relationships. Nowadays there are a lot of
complicated services for early kick detection, but mud logging service stills the first
choice for early kick detection because, the mud logging service is simple, cheap,
requires low technological maintenance and does not interfere with any drilling
operation.
The objective of this chapter is to focus on real-time mud logging warning
signs not only when kick starts with small intensity (especially in low permeable
zone, such as shale) using drilling parameters but also before kick occurs. Using gas
parameters warning sign such as an increase in background gas (BG), the
appearance of connection gas (CG) and pump off gas (POG) indicates gradually
increases of pore pressure close to hydrostatic pressure. Finally recommendations
for early kick detection while drilling will be achieved. The mud logging terms used
in this study are listed in Table (4-1).
4.2. Causes of kick
A kick is defined as an unintentional influx of formation fluids into a
borehole. It occurs because the pressure exerted by the drilling fluid column is not
great enough to overcome the pressure exerted by the formation fluids. There are
three conditions required for a kick to occur in the open hole (Nas, 2011), these are:
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Table (4-1). The used mud logging terms.

Terms Symbols Definitions
Background The gas enters the drilling mud as the formation drilled by the bit and usually
BG
Gas maintains a steady but low level.
Blowout A large valve at the top of the well that closed if the drilling crew losses control of
BOP
Preventer formation fluids.
Connection The gas released from the formation to the borehole while pump off at pipe
CG
Gas connection time.
Differential The difference between the hydrostatic pressure and the formation pore pressure in
__
pressure the well.
Equivalent
The combination of the hydrostatic pressure of the mud in a static condition, plus the
Circulating ECD
fractional forces caused by mud moving up the annulus.
Density
Hydrostatic The pressure exerted by an overlying static column of mud fluid corresponding to its
__
Pressure density and vertical height.
Measurements
MWD Tools uses for measuring the physical properties of the well while drilling.
While Drilling
The state when formation pore pressure increase close to hydrostatic pressure and
Near-Balance __
hydrostatic pressure still higher.
Pump Off Gas POG Similarly to connection gas but occurs when pump off without pipe connection.
Rate Of
ROP The speed at which the drill bit can break the rock and thus deepen the wellbore.
Penetration
The surface pressure exerted at the top of the annulus when the BOP is closed. This
Shut-In Casing
SICP pressure represents the difference between the formation pressure and the hydrostatic
Pressure
pressure in the annulus when kick occurs.
The surface pressure exerted at the top of the drill pipe when the BOP is closed, this
Shut-In Drill
SIDP pressure represents the difference between the formation pressure and the hydrostatic
Pipe Pressure
pressure in the drill pipe when kick occurs.
The measurement of the total hydrocarbon gasses which are present in the mud flow
Total Gas TG
out.
A low-volume, calibrated tank that can be isolated from the remainder of the surface
Trip Tank __
drilling fluid system and used to keep track of fluid volumes while tripping.
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1) The exposed formation pore pressure must be greater than the drilling fluids
pressure in the open hole.
2) The formation must have sufficient permeability to allow flow into the open
hole.
3) The pore fluids must have sufficient low viscosity so that it can flow.
Therefore, this explains why some intervals of a low permeable zone (mainly
shale) in the Nile Delta were drilled underbalanced without hole problems till
drilling a permeable zone which allows kick flow.
4.3. The importance of the early kick detection
The time since the formation fluids influx starts to a kick detection is of great
importance. If the kick is detected early, the amount of formation fluids that enters
the borehole can be reduced and consequently, the kick pressure in the well can be
reduced. Therefore, evaluating the existing kick detection parameters are a great
important. Whereas, late kick detection increase the amount of formation fluids
influx which decreases the hydrostatic pressure. The additional influx of formation
fluids increase the possibility of flammable and toxic gasses to come out, as well as
more serious consequences of injury and potential loss of life and equipment.
According to gas expansion (Mouchet and Mitchell, 1989) and gas solubility in
mud (Anfinsen and Rommetveit, 1992), the late gas influx detection can lead to
rapid expansion near the surface. For example, a cubic meter gas influx at formation
depth of 4000m (if ignored) may become 50 cubic meters or more at depth 500m
(where the gas bubble is rapidly expanded). Therefore, any minor warning sign for
kick detection from mud logging real-time data must be taken into consideration.
4.4. Limitations of the early kick detection in the offshore Nile Delta
4.4.1. Limitations of the pore pressure estimation while drilling
There are various methods used for pore pressure estimation while drilling.
Traditional methods (D Exponent and Sigma log) generally have limitations in the
Nile Delta and elsewhere due to use indirect pore pressure indications from drilling
parameters rather than measuring formation properties directly (Mazzoni et al.,
1997). Recently, the most advanced method used for pore pressure prediction in the
offshore Nile Delta is measurement while drilling (MWD) of resistivity data which
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depend on the petrophysical properties of the rock. The accuracies in pore pressure
estimation are ranging between ± 0.024 to ± 0.06 g/cc (Jeremy and Abdallah, 2007).
While drilling the offset distance between resistivity sensor and the hole bottom
ranged between 13m to 14m which resulted in the delay of pore pressure prediction
and early kick detection. For early kick detection while drilling, we can not only
depend on pore pressure prediction from resistivity data with accuracy range (±
0.024 to ± 0.06 g/cc). Moreover, the offset distance from hole bottom, any warning
sign from mud logging real-time data should be taken into consideration in order to
avoid kick.
4.4.2. Limitations of the conventional well control procedure
If the kick is suspected, the conventional well control procedure is as follows:
1) Pick up off bottom, space out and shut off the mud pump.
2) Check for flow by visual watching the well mud level.
3) Observed the flow, if the well flowing, shut-in the well and record the shut-in
drill pipe pressure (SIDP) and shut-in casing pressure (SICP).
4) Prepare to handle the kick.
In a low permeability zone (e.g. shale), kick often starts with small volume
and gradually increases through time and with continue drilling. Therefore, the
conventional well control procedure may failures to detect kick early in a low
permeable zone due to two reasons: first, small flow at beginning of the kick.
Second, a low shut-in pressure at the starting of the kick. Small flow at the kick start
does not allow the inaccurate visual flow check by “eye” to detect this flow.
Therefore, the drilling crew may ignore this minor flow and considered it as U-tube
effect. The U-tube effect occurs when the mud in the drill pipe flows into the
annular until the pressures equalize between the annular and the drill pipe (Robert,
1994). On the other hand, the low shut-in pressure at the kick start is due to low
permeability and low differential pressure between pore pressure and hydrostatic
pressure. The pressure sensors which measure the SIDP and SICP designed mainly
to measure high pressure values. These sensors measure the pump pressure while
drilling and the chock pressure while schedule test. The measurements range from 0
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to 10000 psi and from 0 to 15000 psi, respectively. The accuracy error (± 100 psi)
does not allow measuring minor kick pressure while shut-in well.
4.5. Kick detection from mud logging real-time data
Mud logging services are defined as a continuous real-time well site
information that records and analysis of the drilling parameters, mud parameters
and cuttings. The plots of such data often include a sample log (mud log). Besides
formation and reservoir evaluation, mud logging focuses on improving safety
during drilling (Ablard et al., 2012).
The flow in and flow out are in a steady state condition during normal
circulation; what goes in, must come out. A kick breaks this balance and leads to an
increasing in flow out. Following this flow increase in surface volumes as formation
fluids is added to the circulation process.
Monitoring the mud logging real-time data provides several parameters that
are used for kick detection. These are increasing in pit gain, flow out, rate of
penetration (ROP), total gas (TG), pump off gas (POG), connection gas (CG) and
drop in pump pressure. None of these requires sophisticated downhole electronics
or advanced signal processing. Excellent discussions and detailed reviews of kick
detection based on mud logging data are available in the literature (e.g., Fertl, 1973,
Whittaker, 2006, Anfinsen and Rommetveit, 1992 and Santos, 2007).
The mud logging real-time data can be divided into instantaneous parameters
(drilling parameters) and lagged parameters. Drilling parameters are the ROP, pit
gain, pump pressure and flow out. Whereas, the lagged parameters comprise gas
parameters delayed by the lag time. The lag time is defined as a definite time
interval that always required for pumping the drilled formation cutting from the
hole bottom to the surface. The lag time depends on the volume of drilling fluids in
the annular and the flow rate of the drilling fluids. The faster the drilling fluid is
pumped into the borehole, the quicker it returns to the surface (Whittaker, 2006).
Most impermeable shale intervals often contain some gas, while abnormally
pressured shale often contain large quantities of gas. Therefore, an increase in the
background gas over time may indicate an increase in pore pressure or penetration
of a hydrocarbon-bearing zone (Goldsmith, 1972 and Fertl, 1973b). But
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unexplained increases in background gas are always a cause for concern. The
amount of gas influx is directly proportional to the pressure difference between the
shale pore pressure and the equivalent drilling mud pressure (Alberty and Kristi,
2014).
The presence of connection gas (CG) or pump off gas (POG) is used to
indicate near-balanced or underbalanced drilling, where the formation pore pressure
is near or greater than the equivalent density of the static drilling mud column. The
pressure drop from a dynamic circulating drilling mud density (pump on) to that of
a static drilling mud density (pumps off) may allow gas to seep into the drilling mud
that led to an increase in the gas at the point of seepage.
Correlation of the frequency and level of POG and CG with respect to the
mud weight can give an accurate indication of differential pressure (Mouchet and
Mitchell, 1989). The relation between the increase in formation pore pressure and
the mud total gas is illustrated in Figure (4-1). The ECD generally decreases to the
static mud density while pump off. The pore pressure increases gradually to the
static mud pressure; connection gas and pump off gas appears at 2534m as sharp
peaks of produced gas. The connection gas and pump off gas increase as the
differential pressure decreases. When the pore pressure finally exceeds the ECD at
2568m, the background gas readings rapidly increase as an underbalanced condition
exists. On the other hand, while drilling a hydrocarbon bearing zone at 2662m, the
total gas readings increase without pore pressure increase.
4.6. Kick detection in the offshore Nile Delta
In deltaic deposition like offshore Nile Delta, lithology is characterized
primarily by shale, sandstone with siltstone and limestone streaks. Shale acts as a
source of overpressure and also as a seal rock. Due to low permeability of shale,
pore pressure may increase gradually with depth until reaching underbalanced
drilling without strong significant kick sign till drilling a permeable zone. This may
allow a big amount of formation fluids to enter the open hole and increase the kick
volume and consequently, increase the kick intensity. This delay in kick detection
makes the kick control more difficult and may lead to uncontrolled incidents.
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Figure (4-1). Relation of connection gas, pump off gas and total gas to changes in differential
pressure.
4.6.1. Offshore Nile Delta case studies

A lot of kicks in a low permeable zone start with the same scenario. A
suspect of kick from minor warning sign leads to applying the conventional well
control procedure. Stop drilling and apply first visual flow check by eye, “well
static” or “slightly flow”, close the well and record pressure (no pressure recorded),
then back to normal operation (drilling), After drilling a few meters, more stronger
warning sign for a kick is obtained. In this instance stop drilling make another flow
check, “Well flowing”. This delay in kick detection may lead to uncontrolled kicks
and potentially blowouts. The following case studies will discuss the warning sign
from mud logging real-time data and operation reports for enhancing early kick
detection with two mud log examples.
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4.6.1.1. Case study#1

The case study in the offshore western Nile Delta while drilling 8 1/2x9 7/8”
section with advanced technique using bicenter bit. The mud weight was 1.83 g/cc.
At depth 4352m suspect a kick based on mud logging real-time warning sign
(increase in ROP, flow out, pit gain, BG also the presence of CG and POG). The
decision was taken to apply the conventional well control procedure (stop drilling
and made a visual flow check by eye "well static"), Then back to normal drilling
until a depth of 4379m is reached, where stronger warning signs from mud logging
real-time data are observed. Made the second flow check "well flowing" and the
kick is confirmed. A fast decision was taken to kill the well by increasing the mud
weight from 1.83 g/cc to 1.87 g/cc. While killing operation the well got losses, more
than 170 hours recorded as lost time dealing with the kick and curing the losses.
4.6.1.1.1. Comparison between the first and second kick detection
The first kick detection: an increase in flow out observed while drilling at
measured depth 4352m, 6bbl pit gain and ROP was increased gradually from 4m/hr
to 8m/hr at 4348m and 4351m, respectively. The total gas was increased from 0.7%
to 4.75% at depth of 4348m and 4351m, respectively. Moreover, the POG and CG
were increased with depth as shown in Table (4-2) and Figure (4-2). The
operational decision was to apply a visual flow check (well static) then close the
well and record pressure; the SIDP and SICP read zero. The inconvenient decision
was taken to continue normal drilling operation.
The second kick detection: at measured depth 4379m, 10bbl pit gain, the
POG and CG were further increased with depth until reaching 5.2% and 9.46%,
respectively. The drilling was stopped where a visual flow check by observing
slight flow and made another flow check using trip tank resulted in an increase in
the trip tank, then the well was close and the pressure was recorded. The SIDP (320
psi) is higher than SICP (51 psi) that is illogic, this low reading of the SICP
compared to SIDP indicate inaccurate SICP readings.
44
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Table (4-2). The connection gas and pump off gas warning signs.
Total Gas Measured Depth

Type of Gas
(%) (m)
Pump Off Gas 2.89 4320
Connection Gas 2.76 4336
Connection Gas 9.46 4367
Figure (4-2). The composite mud log and the estimated pore pressure while drilling. A warning
sign based on the CG and POG started appearing at 4320m and increased with depth until the kick
detected at 4379m. On the other hand, the last estimated pore pressure at 4371m due to MWD
offset distance (13m).
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The mud logging real-time data provided excellent indicators for early kick
detection based on drilling and gas parameters. The drilling parameters showed an
increase in ROP and pit gain. Whereas the gas parameters, accompanied by an
increased values of the background gas with many connection gas and pump off gas
increased with depth from 2.89% at 4320m to the maximum connection gas of
9.46% at 4368m. On the other hand, the conventional well control procedure (flow
check by eye and the recorded pressure while shut-in the well) failed to confirm the
kick early. Moreover, the estimated pore pressure prediction from the MWD
resistivity data was delayed until drilling resumes. This is because the offset
distance (13m) from the resistivity tool to the hole bottom. The estimated pore
pressure from resistivity data showed an increase from 1.76 g/cc at depth 4320m to
1.81 g/cc at depth 4349m. The maximum pore pressure estimated from resistivity
did not exceed 1.81 g/cc, which did not assist in kick detection.
4.6.1.1.2. Comparison between gas parameters and drilling parameters
warning sign
The first warning sign based on gas parameters appears at depth 4320m as
POG which indicates a near-balance state before kick occurred. The POG and the
CG were recorded while pump off at the static mud density of 1.83 g/cc. On the
other hand, the first warning sign from drilling parameters at depth 4351m appears
as pit gain and an increase in the flow out. The delay in drilling parameters warning
sign, results from the drilling parameters give the warning sign when underbalanced
drilling state. In addition, the drilling parameters were recorded while pump on with
ECD 1.88 g/cc. The difference between the static mud density and the ECD (0.05
g/cc) prevents the underbalanced condition while pump on and lead to a delay in
early kick detection. The time required to drill from the first gas parameters sign at
depth 4320m to first drilling parameters appear at depth 4351m was 4 hours and the
lag time was 1 hour. Therefore, the first gas parameters warning sign was recorded
at the surface 3 hours before the appearance of the first drilling parameters warning
sign. This means when pore pressure increases gradually with depth and if the ROP
until reach underbalanced state is not high, CG and POG give a warning sign at
near-balance state before kick occurs.
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4.6.1.2. Case study#2

The case study in the offshore western Nile Delta while drilling the 20” section
using drilling mud weight of 1.14 g/cc. The mud logging real-time data indicated an
increase of the ROP from 10 m/hr to 15 m/hr at 1578m and 1580m, respectively.
Moreover, at depth 1583m flow out increased and pump pressure dropped by 150
psi. The drilling was stopped and the visual flow check indicated a slight flow. The
additional flow check using trip tank gains 2.5 bbl. Subsequently, the well was
closed where the record SIDP was 0 psi and SICP was 20 psi; this minor flow and
pressure are due to the low formation permeability and the low pressure sensors
accuracy. The operational decision was to weight up the drilling mud from 1.15 to
1.2 g/cc based on the mud logging real-time data warning sign (an increase in ROP,
flow out and drop in pump pressure) with the aid of positive flow check using trip
tank. The underbalanced state was confirmed after the lag time (1 hours) by an
increase in background gas from 1% at depth 1570m to 1.4% at depth 1583m. In
addition to the MWD resistivity data after the drilling was continued (resistivity
offset distance from the hole bottom 14m) by a rapid build up in estimated pore
pressure from 1.07 g/cc at depth 1570m to be 1.16 g/cc at depth 1580m as shown in
Figure (4-3a). No problems were encountered while drilling this hole section due to
early kick detection based on mud logging real-time data with no extra costs and no
time wasted dealing with the kick.
At 2223m, connection gas was an excellent warning sign to detect the near-
balance state where the estimated pore pressure was increased close to the hydrostatic
pressure. The decision was to increase the mud weight from 1.2 g/cc to 1.22 g/cc. The
near-balance state was confirmed after continue drilling 14m (MWD offset distance)
by an increase in the estimated pore pressure from 1.16 g/cc to 1.19 g/cc at 2221m
while the mud weight was 1.2 g/cc. The increased total gas at depth 2235m indicates a
permeable zone (sandstone bearing gas) as shown in Figure (4-3b).
4.6.2. Comparison of the kick detection parameters
In the case of pore pressure increases gradually with depth, until reach near-
balance state, the POG and CG will appear giving warning sign recorded on the
surface after the lag time. On the other hand, the drilling parameters will not give
47
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warning sign unless the kick started, except the ROP parameter may increase. It is
not recommended to depend on ROP increase only to detect near-balance state
because the ROP is affected by the change in the drilling parameters, bit condition,
bit hydraulic and lithology changes. In the case of abrupt pore pressure exceeding
the ECD (underbalance state), the drilling parameters will give the first kick
warning sign which will be confirmed from gas parameters after the lag time. On
the contrary, the pore pressure estimation while drilling using MWD logging tools
always delayed by the offset distance from MWD logging sensor to the hole bottom
then requires data processing and complicated calculations as shown in Table (4-3).
Figure (4-3). The composite mud log and the estimated pore pressure while drilling, case study#2.
(a) At depth 1580m the ROP increased to 15 m/hr, BG increased to 1.4% at 1583m indicating
underbalanced drilling. This was confirmed by an increased pore pressure at 1580m (MWD offset
distance 14m). (b) At depth 2220m the ROP increased to 18 m/hr, while the CG appear at 2223m
indicated near-balance drilling which confirmed by the increased pore pressure after drilling.
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Table (4-3). Comparison between the kick detection parameters (drilling parameters, gas
parameters and estimated pore pressure based on MWD data).
Bottom Hole
Near-balance State Underbalanced
Kick Detection Parameters Recording
(Pre-kick occur) State (kick occur)
Time
All drilling parameters are
Drilling Parameters (ROP, pit
unable to detect near- Instantaneous
gain, pump pressure and flow Instantaneous
balance state except the detection
out)
ROP
can detect near-balance
Gas Parameters (BG, CG, and Delayed by Detection delayed by
using increase in BG and
POG) Lag time lag time
presence of CG and POG
MWD Logging data (Resistivity, Delayed by offset distance of the MWD tool from the hole bottom,
Sonic) then requires data processing and complicated calculations
4.7. Proposed advanced early kick detection method

The conventional well control procedure fails to detect kick early especially
in a low permeability zone, as previously discussed, in Case study #1. On the other
hand, the mud logging real time data gave many warning signs (increase in drilling
parameters "flow out, ROP and pit gain", and gas parameters "BG, CG, and POG").
A new advanced early kick detection method has been proposed based on more than
12 years of experience in drilling exploratory wells. The proposed method has many
advantages more than the conventional well control procedure. The proposed
method not only can detect the minor kick early but also can detect the near-balance
state before kick occurs. In the case of kick is suspected, the proposed method
recommends additional accurate flow check through trip tank by line up well to trip
tank. This can be recorded through mud logging real-time chart giving an accurate
volume return per minute. For recording accurate SIDP and SICP, the proposed
method recommends adding two additional pressure sensors with high accuracy in
order to measure low pressure values ranged from 0 to 2000 psi. Moreover, it is
recommended in the case of negative flow check, don’t resume drilling, circulate
bottom’s up to check if there is an indication of the CG and the POG or an increase
in the BG at the bottom. This helps to detect near-balance state before reach
underbalanced as shown in Table (4-4) and Figure (4-4).
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Table (4-4). Comparison between the proposed advanced early kick detection method and the
conventional well control procedure.
Kick detection Conventional well control

Advanced early kick detection method
procedure procedure
An additional and accurate flow check using

Flow check Visual flow check by eye
trip tank
Using a wide range pressure

Pressure Using two additional pressure sensors (high
sensor (low accuracy measuring
measurements accuracy for measuring low pressure values)
low pressure values)
Able to detect near-balance state by circulating

Near-balance Unable to detect near-balance
bottom’s up to check if there is a presence of
detection state
CG and POG or an increase in BG at the bottom
If kick is
suspected
Pick up of bottom, space out,

shut of the drilling pump and
carry out a visual flow check with
additional trip tank flow check
Positive flow
check (Well Slightly flowing Well Static
Flowing)
Recommendation for near-

Shut-in the well and record SIDP balance state detection.
and SICP. In the case of zero or -ve Circulate bottom's up to
small value, use the additional check if there is a CG and
accurate pressure sensors POG at hole bottom
+ve
Prepare to If CG or POG appear, discuss

handle the kick to increase mud weight
Figure (4-4). Chart of the proposed advanced early kick detection method steps in the case of a kick or a
near-balance state is suspected (Modified after Ahmed et al., 2016).
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4.8. Advanced early kick detection recommendations

1) Add two high accuracy pressure sensors (ranged from 0 to 2000 psi) in
order to measure the SIDP and SICP in the case of zero or small pressure readings.
2) Test the traditional wide range pressure sensors as well as the additional
accurate pressure sensors with small pressure values 100, 300 and 500 psi before
drilling new section to check accuracy.
3) Carry out another flow check in the case of static visual flow check using a
trip tank for two reasons: a)-flow check using a trip tank is more accurate than
visual flow check especially in the case of small suspected kick. b)- flow check
using trip tank can be seen from mud logging real-time chart which showing the
amount of mud increase per minute.
4) Do not ignore slightly flow or considered it as an effect of U-tube, do the
safe action, close the well and record the pressure. If no pressure is recorded, stop
drilling. Apply another SIDP and SICP measurements using the additional pressure
sensors Figure (4-4).
5) The drilling operator and the higher decision maker when kick suspected
should take into consideration the error range in the SIDP and SICP pressure
readings, visual flow check, and the pore pressure predicted method used.
6) While drilling high-temperature high-pressure well make at least one
dummy connection while drilling every stand in order to check the hole condition,
the presence of POG and CG in the static state. In order to detect near-balance state
before reaching underbalance state.
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CHAPTER FIVE PORE PRESSURE PREDICTION
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CHAPTER FIVE
PORE PRESSURE PREDICTION
5.1. Introduction
Abnormal pore pressure, particularly overpressure is a key factor in petroleum
exploration. Accurate determination of pore pressure is very important to safe the well
from increase drilling non-productive time and cause serious drilling incidents e.g., well
blowouts, pressure kicks and fluid influx.
Overpressures originated from a number of mechanisms, such as rapid rate of
sedimentation (compaction disequilibrium), aquathermal pressuring, oil and gas
generation from organic matter, tectonic activity and clay diagenesis (Gutierrez et al.,
2006). The compaction disequilibrium is the main cause of overpressure in many areas
such as the North Sea, U.S. Gulf Coast, Mackenzie Delta, Niger Delta and the Nile
Delta (Powley, 1990, Burrus, 1998, Morley et al., 2011 and Zhang, 2011). In such
basins, the overpressured zones are mostly existed in deltaic deposition and the
lithology is mainly shale.
Undercompaction is the main cause of the overpressure. In the case of normal
compaction of the sediments, the porosity of formation is decreased due to pore fluid is
expelled as a result of overburden stress. If the deposition rate of sediments is slow,
normal compaction occurs due to the reduction of pore fluid volume due to compaction
which leads to normal hydrostatic pore pressure (Mouchet and Mitchell, 1989). Rapid
sedimentation rate leads to fluid flow becomes so restricted because fluids have not
been expelled. Under these conditions, as the overburden is increased the clay is
compaction less than normal and the increased compressive stress is transmitted to the
pore fluids. In order that overpressure in the pore space is preserved an impervious seal
must exist preventing upward expulsion of fluids from the below compacting sediment.
The seal interval is usually impervious shale, but not restricted to. In some cases, it may
be a layer of evaporite or halite.
The remained pore space fluid in the sediments must back up totally or partly
overburden stress, causing increases in the pore pressure. Accordingly, porosity
decreases less rapidly than it should be with depth and formations become under-
compacted (Zhang, 2013). The undercompaction is determined by higher porosities than
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the expected normal porosity trend. Therefore, knowing both the porosities deviated
from the normal porosity trend of the study area and the measured formation porosity
(obtained from well log data), it is possible to estimate the pore pressure.
5.2. Formation pore pressure
Pore pressure is an important parameter for well planning and geological
analyses. The pore pressure varies from normal hydrostatic pressure to excessively
overpressure. If the formation pore pressure is higher or lower than the normal
hydrostatic pressure, it is abnormal pore pressure. In the case of pore pressure is higher
than the normal pressure, it is called overpressure (Zhang, 2011).
The effective stress law for pore pressure estimation according to Terzaghi's
(Terzaghi, 1943). It is defined as the difference between the overburden pressure, σV,
and effective vertical stress, σe in the following form:
p = (σV−σe) (1)
The effective vertical stress reflects the compaction process of sedimentary rocks
and can be obtained using well logging data (sonic transit time and resistivity) or using
drilling parameters ((corrected D exponent (dxc)). Overburden stress (overburden
pressure) can be calculated using density log.
Figure (5-1) illustrates the relationship between the overburden stress, formation
pore pressure, hydrostatic pressure and effective stress related to the true vertical depth
(TVD) in the exploratory well. This pore pressure profile shows that the overpressure
appears at comparatively shallow depths (average young sediment shallower than
2000m (Zhang, 2011), while in the offshore Nile Delta overpressure appears at a depth
less than 1300m). The overpressure starts at depth more than 2000m then the pore
pressure rapidly rises. At depth 3800m the pore pressure value increases rapidly to
reach near the overburden pressure. The increase in the pore pressure causes lowering
the effective stress.
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Figure (5-1). The relationship between the overburden stress, formation pore pressure, hydrostatic
pressure and effective stress with depth in a borehole (Zhang, 2011).
The pore pressure gradient Figure (5-2) usually uses in the drilling operation,
because the gradients can be easily correlated to the mud weight. The pore pressure
gradient at a certain depth can be calculated using the pore pressure divided by the true
vertical depth. The mud weight and the casing point should be carefully according to
fracture gradient, well hole stability and pore pressure. The mud weight while drilling
should be higher than the pore pressure gradient to prevent formation fluid influx, kicks,
and hole collapse. On the other hand, the mud weight must be less than the fracture
gradient to avoid severe mud loss while drilling, as illustrated in Figure (5-2).
However, when mud weight is higher than the fracture gradient of the drilling
section, it may fracture the formation, causing mud losses or even lost circulation. To
prevent wellbore from hydraulic fracturing by the high mud weight, as needed where
there is overpressure, casing needs to be set to protect the overlying formations from
fracturing (Zhang, 2011), as illustrated in Figure (5-2).
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Figure (5-2). The relationship between the overburden gradient, fracture gradient, mud weight, pore
pressure gradient, and casing shoes with depth. The overburden gradient and the pore pressure are
converted from Figure (5-1) (Zhang, 2011).
The mud weight and pressure gradients are explicit in specific gravity (SG)). Mud
weight and pressure gradient are usually expressed in the American or English unit as
shown in Table (5-1).
Pore pressure analysis includes three phases: pre-drill pore pressure prediction,
pore pressure estimation while drilling and post-well pore pressure study. The pre-drill
pore pressure uses the seismic interval velocity with logging data and drilling data from
the offset wells. The pore pressure estimation while drilling is based on the
measurement while drilling (MWD), mud logging real-time data, and drilling
parameters. The post-well study after drilling uses all the available data in order to build
a pore pressure model which used in the next wells planning (Zhang, 2011).
Pore pressure can be measured directly only in sediments within sufficient
permeability to enable fluids transfer from formation to pressure testing tool such as the
commonly used Repeat Formation Tester (RFT) and the developed Modular Formation
55
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Dynamics Tester (MDT). Other methods of determining direct pore pressure include the
Drill Stem Test (DST) and production test. The DST is executed after drilling in the
hydrocarbon zones using perforated drill pipe and packers. On the other hand, the
production tests are typically used to sample hydrocarbons during the final stages of
well completion. Well kicks also provide a direct indication of formation pressures
Table (5-1) Pressure gradients conversions between metric and American units.
5.3. The determination of the overburden stress gradient

Overburden pressure at a given depth is the pressure exerted by the weight of the
overlying sediments. Since this is not a fluid pressure, it is often preferable to
differentiate between matrix and fluid by using the term overburden stress (Mouchet
and Mitchell, 1989).
The overburden stress can be calculated from the following equation:
(2)
where σV is the vertical overburden stress; g is the earth gravity; ρb(z) is the formation
bulk density as a function of depth; ρw is the density of sea water for offshore drilling; z
is the depth from the sea level; zw is the water depth; for onshore drilling zw = 0.
The importance of an accurate overburden gradient should be realized for its
contribution in the fracture pressure and pore pressure calculations. Any errors
introduced at this point will lead to inaccuracies in these dependent analytical methods.
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Therefore, accurate bulk density values must be obtained from the wireline density log.
If this data source is not available, densities can be obtained from offset wells.
A comparison between the overburden gradient calculations based on wireline
density log in shallow and deep offshore Nile Delta is shown in Figure(5-3). The water
depth (zw) is 77m and 420m respectively. The overburden stress of the shallow offshore
is reach 2.16 g/cm3 whereas the overburden stress of the deep offshore well is 1.98
g/cm3 at a corresponding depth 4000m TVDSS.
Figure (5-3). Overburden stress gradient (OBG) calculated from wireline bulk density log in shallow
and deep offshore Nile Delta,where the water depth (zw) is 77m and 420m respectively.
5.4. Pore pressure prediction methods

The first study on the pore pressure prediction was derived by Hottmann and
Johnson (1965) using shale properties from well log data (Azadpour et al., 2015). They
indicated that porosity decreases as a function of depth from analyzing acoustic travel
time in Miocene and Oligocene shales of the Upper Texas and Southern Louisiana Gulf
57
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Coast. This trend represents the “normal compaction trend” as a function of burial
depth, and fluid pressure exhibited within the normal trend is hydrostatic. If intervals of
abnormal compaction are penetrated, the resulting data points diverge from the normal
compaction trend. They contended that porosity or transit time in shale is abnormally
high relative to its depth if the fluid pressure is abnormally high (Zhang, 2011).
Analyzing the data presented by Hottmann and Johnson (1965), Gardner et al.
(1974) proposed an equation that can be written in the following form to predict pore
pressure:
(3)
where, pf is the formation fluid pressure (psi); σV is expressed in psi; αV is the normal
overburden stress gradient (psi/ft); β is the normal fluid pressure gradient (psi/ft); Z is
the depth (ft); ∆t is the sonic transit time (µs/ft); A and B are constants, A1=82,776 and
B1=15,695.
Later on, many empirical equations for pore pressure prediction were presented
based on resistivity, sonic transit time (interval velocity) and other well logging data
(Zhang, 2011).
5.4.1. Pore pressure estimation using resistivity logs
Basins of young sediment where the primary origin of overpressure is compaction
disequilibrium , e.g., Nile Delta, the resistivity logs can estimate the abnormal pressure.
Eaton (1972) introduced a theory on the effect of overburden stress gradients and
geopressure prediction techniques using resistivity log in shale sequence:
(4)
where Ppg = pore pressure gradient (g/cm3), OBG = overburden gradient (g/cm3); Png =
normal pore pressure gradient (normally 0.45 psi/ft or 1.03 g/cm3), R is the shale
resistivity obtained from well logging; Rn = resistivity of shale at the normal pore
pressure; n = Eaton exponent (dimensionless), which is normally 1.2.
The normal shale resistivity is required to estimate pore pressure. In some
approach, the normal shale resistivity assumes to be a constant (Lang et al., 2011),
where the recent approach uses more accurate normal compaction trendline.
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5.4.2. Pore pressure estimation using interval velocity and sonic logs
5.4.2.1. Eaton's sonic method
Eaton's Method is the most widely used quantitative methods. This method
applies a regionally defined exponent to an empirical formula. Eaton (1975) presented
the following empirical equation for pore pressure gradient estimation from sonic
compressional transit time:
(5)
where ∆tn = sonic transit time in shales at the normal pore pressure, ∆t = sonic transit
time in shale from well logging. The Eaton’s method is applicable in many petroleum
basins (Sayers et al., 2002), but it does not consider unloading effects. In order to apply
this method, the normal transit time (∆tn) is required.
5.4.2.2. Bower’s sonic method
Like Eaton's method, Bowers (1995) used Terzaghi's equation to calculate the
effective stresses from measured pore pressure data of the shale and overburden
stresses. Bowers method is based on the effective stress, which considers compaction
disequilibrium and unloading as the main mechanisms of overpressure generations.
Bowers proposed an empirically equation to calculate the effective pressure with the
following relationship between the effective stress and sonic velocity as follows:
(6)
where vp = velocity at a given depth, vml = surface compressional velocity in the

mudline (normally 1520 m/s, or 5000 ft/s), A and B are the parameters obtained from
calibrating regional offset velocity versus effective stress data.
Rearranging Equation (6) and considering σe=σV−p, the pore pressure can be
calculated from the velocity as described in Equation (6), as:
(7)
Equation (7) can also be written in terms of transit time by replacing vp by 106/∆t
and vml by 106/∆tml for:
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(8)
where ∆tml = compressional transit time in the surface, normally ∆tml=200 µs/ft or 660
µs/m.
In basins with the mechanism of unloading curve due to formation uplift or
unloading, Bowers (1995) proposed the following empirical equation for unloading
effect:
(9)
where σe, vp, vml, A and B are as before; U is the uplift parameter, and σmax is the value
of effective stress.
Rearranging Equation (9) the pore pressure can be obtained in the case of
unloading:
(10)
where Pulo is the pore pressure in the case of unloading.

Bowers' method is applicable to many petroleum basins (e.g., the Gulf of
Mexico). However, this method overestimated pore pressure when a shallow formation
is poorly-consolidated or unconsolidated because the velocity in such a formation is
very slow (Zhang, 2011).
5.5. The modified Eaton's methods with depth-dependent normal compaction
trend
5.5.1 The modified Eaton's resistivity method with depth-dependent normal
compaction trend
The Eaton's method is unable to calculate the resistivity of shale trendline in a
normal compaction condition. Some old researches assumed that the resistivity trendline
is fixed with depth. Actually, the resistivity (Rn) is a depth function, Figure (5-4).
Consequently, the trendline of normal compaction should be calculated prior pore
pressure estimation (Zhang, 2011).
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From the relation between the burial depth and the measured resistivity in normal
compaction condition (Rn) Figure (5-4), the following equation can be used:
or
(11)
where R0 = resistivity of shale in the surface, b = constant, and Z = depth from the
rotary table or mudline.
Replacing Equation (11) into Equation (4), the Eaton's resistivity method will be
as follows:
(12)
where R is the measured shale resistivity at depth of Z; R0 is the shale resistivity at

normal compaction in the mudline and b is the logarithmic slope of resistivity at normal
compaction trendline (Zhang, 2011).
Figure (5-4). (a) represents shale resistivity graph and (b) represents shale pressure graph. The
line in graph (a) shows the shale resistivity in normal compaction condition (Rn). In undercompaction
condition the resistivity (R) shifted from (Rn), accordantly the top of overpressured appears in the
graph (b). In this figure, overburden pressure (σv), pore pressure (p), normal pore pressure (pn)
(Modified after Zhang, 2011).
It is important to note that the estimated pore pressure from resistivity tool is
affected by fluid salinity. In the Nile Delta, salinity variations shift the tool response.
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Therefore, constructing only one normal compaction trend through the data is virtually
impossible, especially in the top section of the drilled hole and at the top of the Rosetta
Formation. Accordingly, the trendline needs to be shifted when data affected by pore
fluid salinity change.
The modified Eaton's resistivity method is applied in the offshore Nile Delta,
Egypt. The sea water depth was 77m and the Miocene, Pliocene and Pleistocene
formations are composed mainly of claystone and sandstone. The pore pressures in the
offset wells were studied. Figure (5-5) shows the calculated pore pressure in a gas and
condensate well based on the modified Eaton's resistivity method. Before start pore
pressure estimation, the normal resistivity trend has been defined by Equation (11). The
data from the offset wells is used to determine the trendline in the Temsah field using
parameters as follows: R0=1.4 ohmm, b=0.000033. On the other hand, due to increase in
water salinity in the top hole section and opposite the top Rosetta Formation
(evaporites) at depth 3030m, the normal compaction trendline shifted to be R0=0.5
ohmm, and with reverse trendline at top hole section b=-0.000023. Whereas, the
estimated pore pressure from Equation (12) with Png=8.58 ppg and n=1.2 is compared
with the mud weight and the directed pore pressure measured from the RFT and kicks.
Figure (5-5) indicates the state of normal compaction of shale till depth 1305m TVD.
Figure (5-5) demonstrates that the modified Eaton's resistivity method gives a fairly
good result in pore pressure estimations.
5.5.2. The Modified Eaton's velocity method with normal compaction trend
(Slotnick, 1936) illustrated that compressional velocity increases with depth.
Consequently, the normal compaction trendline (NCTL) of transit time must be a
function of depth. (Slotnick, 1936) expressed NCTL in a simple linear relationship as
follows:
(13)
where v is the seismic velocity at depth Z, v0 is the surface seismic velocity and k is
constant.
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Figure (5-5). Pore pressure post-well analysis estimated from modified Eaton's resistivity
method in the offshore Nile Delta. The first track represents the shale resistivity and the normal shale
resistivity computed from Equation (12). The right track represents the overburden gradient (OBG),
measured pore pressure (RFT), the used mud weight (MW) and the pore pressure estimated from
resistivity (Pp Res) utilizing Equation (12).
In the Carnarvon Basin, the shale normal compaction trend transit time with
depth was fitted average sonic transit times utilizing 17 wells of normal pressure using
an exponential relation (Van Ruth et al., 2004):
(14)
where ∆tn = normal compaction trend of sonic transit time (µs/m) and Z = depth in
meters.
A comparable relation was applied in Brunei basin (Tingay et al., 2009):
−0:0007Z
∆tn = 176.5 + 461.5e (15)
Zhang (2011) proposed the modified Eaton’s method using depth-dependent
normal compaction trendline which depends on matrix and surface transit time. The
normal compaction trend (∆tn) in this modified Eaton’s method decreases exponentially
with depth as follows:
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(16)
where ∆tm = shale matrix compressional transit time (with zero porosity), ∆tml =
mudline transit time, c = constant, and Z = depth below the mudline.
The authors suggest modification to Equation (16) to be suitable to onshore and
offshore (shallow and deep sea water depth) as follows:
Porosity can be estimated using the empirical transit time equation presented by (Wyllie
et al., 1956):
(17)
where Ф is porosity, ∆tf is the formation fluids transit time, ∆tm is the compressional
transit time in the shale matrix.

Therefore, the normal compaction porosity (Ф n) can be described as:
(18)
The porosity of the sea floor (offshore) or ground floor (onshore) (Ф gf) can be
written as follows:
(19)
Using the porosity Equation with depth (e.g., Athy, 1930): , the
subsequent relation between the porosity at normal compaction and ground floor
porosity can be deduced:
(20)
where Z is the depth below the mudline; F is the distance from the ground floor or sea
floor to the mudline, and c is constant.
Substituting Equations. (18) and (19) into Equation (20), the normal compaction
trend transit time obtained as follows:
−c(Z-F)
∆tn = ∆tm + (∆tgf−∆tm)e (21)
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Substituting Equation (21) into Equation (5), modified Eaton's sonic method
expressed as follows:
(22)
Equation (22) uses a normal compaction trend and calculates the pore pressures
depends on depth started from sea floor (offshore well) or ground floor (onshore well)
as shown in Figure (5-6). Consequently, the estimated pore pressures in both deep and
shallow depths can be more accurate.
Figure (5-6). Shows interval transit time (∆t) of shale, the transit time normal compaction condition
(∆tn) In this figure, σV= overburden pressure, pn=normal pore pressure, p=pore pressure estimated
from transit time (Modified after Zhang, 2011).
The same case study Figure (5-6) is used to test and verify the modified Eaton's
sonic method with depth dependence. Figure (5-7) shows the pore pressure estimations
in a gas and condensate well from the modified Eaton's sonic method in the Nile Delta
basin.
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Before the pore pressure estimation, the sonic normal compaction trend should be
analyzed based on Equation (21), as illustrated in Figure (5-7). The normal compaction
trend is determined from these parameters: ∆tm=70 µs/ft, ∆tml=200 µs/ft and c=
0.000164. The estimated pore pressure from the modified method is compared to the
mud weight and the direct pore pressure measured using the repeat formation tester
(RFT). Figure (5-7) shows the presence of the normal compaction state above the depth
of 1305m TVD which confirmed by using mud weight 1.08 g/cm3 while drilling. On
the other hand, the depth interval (from 1305 to 2500m TVD), shows that the shale is
compacted slightly associated with a high sonic transit time, whereas, the depth interval
from 2500 to 4000m TVD shows a further undercompaction state that characterized by
the increased pore pressures. Figure (5-7) demonstrates that the modified Eaton's sonic
velocity method gives a very good result of pore pressure estimation.
Figure (5-7). Pore pressure calculated by the modified Eaton's sonic method in shallow water depth
(WD=77m) well located in the offshore Nile Delta. The left track shows the shale transit time and the
calculated normal trend using Equation (21). The right track plots the mud weight (MW), overburden
gradient (OBG), estimated pore pressure from sonic (Pp DT) using Equation (22) and RFT.
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The same case study is used to compare between the proposed sonic model and
the traditional Eaton's method with linear compaction trend (LCT), as shown in Figure
(5-8). The estimated pore pressure gradient from traditional Eaton's method with LCT
(Equation (13)) with ∆tml=180 µs/ft, Png=8.58 ppg, k= 0.0073. Compared to the result
estimated using Eaton's method with linear compaction trend, the proposed method
(Equation (22)) shows a better output in the estimated pore pressure, while the
traditional method underestimates the pore pressure, particularly in the shallow section.
Figure (5-8). Pore pressure estimated based on transit time proposed method (Equation (22)) and the
Eaton's method with linear NCTL. The left graph plots the shale transit time and NCTL calculated
using Equation (21) and Linear NCTL Equation (9). The right track shows measured pore pressure
using RFT, mud weight, overburden gradient, and pore pressure profile estimated from sonic using
Equation (22) and by Eaton's method using Equation (5) with Linear NCTL.
Two case studies are used to examine the proposed sonic model and the modified
Eaton's sonic method in both shallow and deep water offshore Nile Delta. Figure (5-9a)
shows after drilling pore pressure analysis to test the proposed method in shallow
offshore Nile Delta (water depth 77 m). The pore pressure gradient is estimated based
on the proposed sonic method (Equation (22)) using ∆tml=200 µs/ft, ∆tm=70 µs/ft,
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Png=8.58 ppg, and c= 0.000164. On the other hand, The pore pressure gradient is
estimated again using modified Eaton's sonic method (Equation (16)) with ∆tml=200
µs/ft and ∆tm=70 µs/ft, Png=8.58 ppg and c= 0.000164.
Compared to the result and modified Eaton's, the proposed method (Equation
(22)) shows a better pore pressure output, especially in shallow depth, whereas the
another method shows slightly higher pore pressure estimation. Figure (5-9b) shows
pressure study after drilling to test the proposed sonic method in deep offshore Nile
Delta (water depth 926 m). The pore pressure gradient is estimated from proposed
method (Equation (22)) using ∆tml=210 µs/ft, ∆tm=70 µs/ft, Png=8.58 ppg, and c=
0.00016. The pore pressure gradient is also estimated using the modified Eaton's sonic
method (Equation (16)) with the following parameters: ∆tml=210 µs/ft, ∆tm=70 µs/ft,
Png=8.58 ppg and c= 0.00016. The proposed method shows good results using
approximately the same calibration values in both shallow and deep offshore Nile Delta.
On the other hand, the modified Eaton's sonic method shows fairly good results in
shallow marine whereas an overestimation of the pore pressure calculation in the deep
offshore Nile Delta. The advantage of the proposed sonic method is that the pore
pressure calculations are dependent on depth from sea floor, and the load effects of both
the matrix and the sea floor have been considered.
5.6. Vertical pore pressure analysis in the offshore Nile Delta
The pore pressure analysis is performed using important steps start by selecting
shale points based on gamma ray log and compare the output to wellsite sample
descriptions from mud logs to distinguish shale points, as illustrated in Figure (5-10).
The determined shale points are then transferred to the related sonic log for pore
pressure prediction (Knowledge Systems, 2001). The Pore pressure gradient is
calculated for the from sonic log shale points or vertical seismic profile (VSP) interval
velocity transit time from the adapted Eaton's sonic velocity (Equation (22)) is obtained
using the NCTL as follows: Temsah field wells ∆tm=70 µs/ft, ∆tml=200 µs/ft and c=
0.000164. On the other hand, in the western offshore Nile Delta for Offshore Rosetta
Concession and West Delta Deep Marine (WDDM) concession parameters are ranged
between ∆tm=65 to 70 µs/ft, ∆tml=200 to 220 µs/ft and c= 0.000144 to 0.000164. This
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range is expected due to the variation in water depth from 18m to 932m as well as the
wide extension of the two concessions.
(a)
(b)
Figure (5-9). Pore pressure estimated based on the proposed sonic method and from modified Eaton's
sonic method. (a) Shallow water offshore Nile Delta (WD=77m). (b) Deep water offshore Nile Delta
(WD=926m).
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In Figure (5-10), first track shows the shale base lines and gamma ray. The
second track shows transit time of sonic (DT), the shale points which filtered from sonic
transit time (DT SH) and the normal compaction trendline. The third track shows the
estimated pore pressure from the filtered shale transit time (Pp DT) with corresponding
mud weight and the measured formation pressures (RFT and well kick).
The estimated pore pressure based on the Eaton's resistivity method (Equation
(12)). Using the normal compaction trend acquired from the following parameters:
R0=1.4 ohmm, b=0.000033. The trendline was calibrated to the water conductivity (CW)
of the available formation fluid samples and shale surface cation exchange capacity
(BQ) using pressure prediction program.
Figure (5-10). Pore pressure calculation steps based on the sonic transit time for the Temsah-4
well using adapted Eaton's sonic velocity in offshore eastern Nile Delta.
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5.7 The vertical distribution of the pore pressure (pressure-depth plot)

The pore pressure calculated using the adapted Eaton's methods as well as the
formation tops and the associated lithology are presented in a vertical pressure-depth
plot. The aim is to evaluate the pore pressure of the studied wells on the light of the
petrophysical and mud logging parameters.
This cross plot is displayed, in three tracks from left to right, the formation tops
associated with lithology. The second track represents the depth (true vertical depth
(TVD) in meters from kelly pushing). The right hand side track displays the casing
point legend, the overburden gradient (OBG), mud weight (MW), repeated formation
test (RFT), Pore Pressure calculated from resistivity (Pp Res), Pore Pressure calculated
from sonic (Pp DT) and/or Pore Pressure calculated from VSP interval velocity (Pp
VSP) and well kick points if present.
5.7.1 The pressure-depth plot of the Temsah-4 well
The Temsah-4 well is an exploration well drilled using a jack-up rig on 1994. The
well was drilled in the central area of the Temsah field Miocene structure to verify the
actual thickness of the reservoir in the central part of the field. A vertical hole was
drilled to a total measured depth (TD) of 4167m Measured Depth (MD) with a true
vertical depth subsea (-4132m TVDSS). The pore pressure is expected to be normal
1.03 g/cc, reflecting the salinity of sea water from the surface up to the top of the Kafr
El Sheikh Formation, where it starts to increase to 1.12 g/cc at 1340m. From depth
1640m, the pore pressure increased stepwise to reach 1.19 g/cc at 2200m, as shown in
Figure (5-11).
Below the depth of 2200m, due to shale highly silty and sandy, there is a reversal
cycle in pore pressure reached 1.05 g/cc at 2480m. A rapid build-up of pore pressure
starts and reach 1.4 g/cc at 2600m, hence, it was decided to set 13 3/8” casing.
Below 13 3/8” casing, through the rest part of Kafer El Sheikh Formation, the
pore pressure is 1.4 g/cc at 2620m, which has been confirmed by the RFT 1.4 g/cc at
2595m then increased to reach 1.59g/cc at 2958 m. A rapid build-up of pore pressure
occurred at the top part of the Wakar Formation reaching a value of 1.65 g/cc at 3130m,
then continue increase to 1.76 g/cc at 3347m. A slight decrease in pore pressure
gradient starts below 3384m to be 1.74 g/cc at the end of 12 ½” phase, hence, it was
decided to set 9 5/8” casing.
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Figure (5-11). Pore pressure depth plot of the Temsah-4 well, offshore eastern Nile Delta.
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Below 9 5/8” casing, a slight decrease in pore pressure gradient continued

through the rest part of the Wakar Formation to be 1.72 g/cc. At the top of the Sidi
Salem Formation, the pore pressure increased gradually to reach 1.75 g/cc at 3550m,
which has been confirmed by the RFT 1.74 g/cc at 3521m. Then continued to increases
to 1.77 g/cc at 3591m. A slight decrease in pore pressure gradient started below 3592m
to be 1.75 g/cc at 3703m and 1.72 g/cc at 3771m which has been confirmed by the RFT
1.7 g/cc at 3704m in the main reservoir. This decrease in the main reservoir pore
pressure is due to the lateral pressure drainage of the extended reservoir.
Through the shale section, below the main reservoir sandstone of the Sidi Salem
Formation, the pore pressure gradient increases again up to 1.78 g/cc at 3795m, then
increase reaching a maximum value of 1.84 g/cc which has been confirmed by well kick
of 1.83 g/cc at 3968m, hence, it was decided to set 7” liner casing.
5.7.2 The pressure-depth plot of the Temsah-13 well
The Temsah-13 well is a development well drilled using a jack-up rig between
29 July 2009 and 09th October 2009. The well was drilled as a deviated well from the
th
surface location of the Temsah-4 well to a total measured depth of 3942m MD (-3811m
TVDSS). There is no RFT data recorded in T-13, therefore, the RFT data from the
nearest offset well Temsah-4 well has been used.
A normal pore pressure of about 1.03 g/cc from the surface up to the top of the
Kafr El Sheikh Formation has been obtained. The pore pressure value gradually
increased to 1.13 g/cc at 1414m, then gradually decreased to 1.07 g/cc till 1617m,
where pore pressure gradually increased to 1.21 g/cc at 1790m, as shown in Figure (5-
12).
Below 1955m, due to shale is highly silty and sandy, there is a reversal cycle in
the pore pressure reached 1.06 g/cc at 2046m. A gradual build-up of pore pressure starts
and reach 1.4 g/cc at 2660m which has been confirmed by the RFT data of 1.4 g/cc at
2595m (from the nearest offset well Temash-4), then increases to reach 1.48 g/cc at
2773m, hence, it was decided to set 13 3/8” casing.
Below 13 3/8” casing, through the rest part of the Kafer El Sheikh Formation
pore pressure increases up to 1.5 g/cc at 2820m, which has been confirmed by the
connection gas of 8.38% at 2820m.
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The Evaporites of the Rosetta Formation act as a seal for the underlying shale
section, which leads to rapid build-up of pore pressure occurred at the top part of the
Wakar Formation reaching 1.66 g/cc at 3206m, then continually increased to 1.8 g/cc at
3340m, A slight decrease in pore pressure gradient starts below 3345m to be 1.68 g/cc
at 3739m which has been confirmed by the RFT 1.69 g/cc at 3735m (from offset well
Temash-4), hence, it was decided to set 9 5/8” casing.
Below 9 5/8” casing an abrupt decrease in the pore pressure gradient continued
through the Sidi Salem Formation to be 1.47 g/cc at 3784m which has been confirmed
by the RFT 1.49 g/cc at 3790 in the main reservoir. This decrease in the calculated
reservoir pressure from the original reservoir pressure (Temsah-4 RFT) was due to
production.
The shale section that underlies the main reservoir interval is characterized by an
increase in the pore pressure gradient reaching up to 1.6 g/cc at 3845m, hence, it was
decided to set 7” liner casing.
Vertical seismic profile (VSP) data was recorded every 15m after well casing and
cementing, the VSP interval velocity gives good pore pressure estimation. The
estimated pore pressure from VSP pore pressure estimation shows overestimation at 13
3/8” casing shoe, this may be due to bad cementation around 13 3/8” casing shoe. Also,
at depth start from 3600m VSP pore pressure estimation shows underestimation, that
effect expected due to the presence of shale highly silty and sandy interbedded with thin
lamination of siltstone and limestone.
5.7.3 The pressure-depth plot of the Temsah East-1 well
The Temsah East-1 well is an exploration well drilled using a jack-up rig between
18th August 2009 and 18th October 1995. The well was drilled in the southeastern part of
the Temsah field to test the turbidity Serravallian sandstone. A near vertical hole was
drilled to a total measured depth of 4029m MD (-3973.5m TVDSS). The resistivity data
is not available for this well so no pore pressure estimation from resistivity.
The pore pressure is expected to be normal 1.03 g/cc, reflecting the salinity of sea
water from the surface up to the top of the Kafr El Sheikh Formation, where it increases
to 1.17 g/cc at 1416m. Then the average gradient is 1.04g/cc till 1782m, where pore
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pressure increased stepwise to 1.29 g/cc at 2285m, then 1.39 g/cc at 2455m, as shown in
Figure (5-13).
Below 2455m, because the shale is highly silty and sandy, there is a reversal
cycle in pore pressure reached 1.3 g/cc at 2504m, a rapid build-up of pore pressure
starts and reaches 1.43g/cc at 2610m, hence, it was decided to set 13 3/8” casing.
Figure (5-12). Pore pressure depth plot of the Temsah-13 well, offshore eastern Nile Delta.
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Figure (5-13). Pore pressure depth plot of the Temsah East-1 well, offshore eastern Nile Delta.
Below 13 3/8” casing, through the rest part of Kafer El Sheikh Formation; pore
pressure increases to 1.5 g/cc at 2783m. A slight decrease in pore pressure gradient
starts below 2783m to be 1.46 g/cc at 2972m, then pore pressure increases reaching 1.6
g/cc at 3167m. The Rosetta Formation thickness in this well (10m) only consists of
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siltstone and limestone, so no extra seal effect for shale section, gradual build-up of
pore pressure occurred at the top part of the Wakar Formation reaching 1.61g/cc at
3236m, hence, it was decided to set 9 5/8” casing.
Below 9 5/8” casing the calculated pore pressure increases to 1.75 g/cc at 3336m.
A slight decrease in pore pressure gradient starts below 3337m to be 1.71 g/cc at
3372m, then the pore pressure increases to 1.77 g/cc at 3539m. A slight decrease in
pore pressure occur and continued through the rest part of the Wakar Formation to be
1.7 g/cc at 3620m which has been confirmed by the RFT 1.7 g/cc at 3616m.
At the top of the Sidi Salem Formation, the pore pressure increases gradually to
reach 1.76 g/cc at 3655m which has been confirmed by the RFT 1.79 g/cc at 3631
(super charged sandstone) then pore pressure increased to 1.81 g/cc at 3750m. A slight
decrease in pore pressure gradient started below 3755m to be 1.69 g/cc at 3915m which
has been confirmed by the RFT 1.63 g/cc at 3920 in the main reservoir. This decrease in
the sandstone main reservoir pressure expected due to the lateral pressure drainage of
the extended reservoir.
5.7.4 The pressure-depth plot of the Temsah NW-5 well
The Temsah NW-5 well is a development well drilled using a jack-up rig between
8th July 1999 and 10th August 1999. The well was drilled as deviated well to a total
measured depth of 4216m MD (-3838.3m TVDSS). The well was proposed to check the
extension and the sand distribution of the main sand lobes of serravallian age to the
south east from Temsah-NW-1 platform, in between the main Temsah field and the NW
Temsah field.
No RFT data recorded in Temsah NW-5 so we use RFT from offset wells Temsah
NW-2 and Temsah NW-7 intervals from 2335m to 2641m and from 3683m to 3769m
respectively. Also, no pore pressure estimated from resistivity from 1886m TVD to
3081m TVD due to the absence of resistivity data, so we use pore pressure estimated
from drilling parameters corrected D exponent (dxc) to fill this interval. The dxc is a
function of the rate of penetration (ROP), weight on bit (W), rotary speed (N), bit size
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(H), the normal hydrostatic gradient for the region (d1), and the mud weight (d2) for
which the original d-exponent is corrected.
(23)
The pore pressure is expected to be normal 1.03 g/cc from the surface up to top of
the Kafr El Sheikh Formation, where it starts to increase to 1.09g/cc at 1408m, then the
average gradient is 1.07g/cc till 1620m, where pore pressure increases stepwise to 1.18
g/cc at 1719 m.
Below 1725m, because the shale is highly silty and sandy, there is a reversal
cycle in pore pressure reached 1.07 g/cc. At 1800m, a gradual build-up of pore pressure
starts and reach 1.36 g/cc at 1946m. Below 2000m, due to the shale is highly silty and
sandy, there is a reversal cycle in pore pressure reached 1.23 g/cc At 2121m, then pore
pressure increases gradually to reach 1.32 g/cc at 22250m, hence, it was decided to set
13 3/8” casing, as shown in Figure (5-14).
Below 13 3/8” casing through the Kafer El Sheikh Formation pore pressure
increases to 1.43 g/cc at 2350m, which has been confirmed by the RFT 1.44 g/cc at
2335m (from offset well Temash NW-2), then decrease to reach 1.39 g/cc at 2910m,
hence, it was decided to set 9 5/8” casing.
Below 9 5/8” casing through the rest part of Kafer El Sheikh Formation, pore
pressure increases to 1.68 g/cc at 3140m. The Rosetta Formation thickness in this well
is 1m only, so no extra seal effect for shale section, a gradual build-up of pore pressure
occurred at the top part of the Wakar Formation reaches 1.77g/cc at 3273m, then
continue increase to 1.79 g/cc at 3440m. A slight decrease in pore pressure gradient
starts through Sidi Salem Formation to reach 1.74 g/cc at 3724m which is confirmed by
the RFT 1.7 g/cc at 3704 (from offset well Temash NW-7) in the main reservoir. This
decrease in the reservoir pressure expected due to lateral pressure drainage of the
extended reservoir.
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Figure (5-14). Pore pressure depth plot of the Temsah NW-5 well, offshore eastern Nile Delta.
5.7.5 The pressure-depth plot of the Temsah NW-9 well

The Temsah NW-9 well is a development well drilled using a jack-up rig between
15th May 2000 and 10th June 2000. The well was drilled as deviated well to a total
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measured depth of 4515m MD (-3944.5m TVDSS). The well was proposed to check the
Serravallian sand to the north of the Temsah NW-field.
No RFT data recorded in Temsah NW-9. Thus, we use RFT from offset wells
Temsah NW-4 and Temsah NW-3 intervals from 2260m to 2711m and from 3498m to
3901m respectively. Also, no pore pressure estimated from resistivity from 2906m to
3213m due to the absence of resistivity data, so we use pore pressure estimated from
drilling parameters (dxc) to fill this interval.
The pore pressure is expected to be normal 1.03 g/cc from the surface up to top of
the Kafr El Sheikh Formation, where pore pressure increases to 1.2 g/cc at 1354m. The
average pressure gradient is 1.15 g/cc till 1662m, where pore pressure increases
stepwise to 1.17 g/cc at 1781m, then increase to 1.31 g/cc at 1843m. Below 1940m,
where the shale is highly silty with sand streaks, there is a reversal cycle in pore
pressure reaches 1.27 g/cc at 2010m, then a gradual build-up of pore pressure starts and
reach 1.38g/cc at 2130m, hence, it was decided to set 13 3/8” casing, as shown in Figure
(5-15).
Below 13 3/8” casing, through Kafer El Sheikh Formation pore pressure increases
stepwise to 1.53 g/cc at 2528m, which is confirmed by RFT 1.55 g/cc at 2523m (from
offset well Temash NW-4). Then pore pressure decrease to reach 1.47g/cc at 2560m. A
gradual build-up of pore pressure starts and reach 1.53 g/cc at 2600m, which is
confirmed by RFT 1.54 g/cc at 2584m (from offset well Temash NW-4), then increases
stepwise to 1.78 g/cc at 3190m, hence, it was decided to set 9 5/8” casing.
Below 9 5/8” casing through the rest part of Kafer El Sheikh Formation, pore
pressure decrease to 1.68 g/cc at 3232m, Rosetta Formation at this well consist of
siltstone and limestone, no evaporates present, so no extra seal effect for shale section.
A slight build-up of pore pressure occurred at the top part of the Wakar Formation
reached 1.78 g/cc at 3423m, then decreases to 1.75 g/cc at 3520m. Also, a slight
decrease in pore pressure gradient continued through Sidi Salem Formation to be 1.72
g/cc at 3640m which is confirmed by the RFT 1.73 g/cc at 3635 (from offset well
Temash NW-3), then continued decrease to 1.64g/cc at 3890m which has been
confirmed by the RFT 1.64 g/cc at 3897m (from offset well Temash NW-3) in the main
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reservoir this decrease in the reservoir pressure expected due to lateral pressure drainage
of the extended reservoir.
Figure (5-15). Pore pressure depth plot of the Temsah NW-9 well, offshore eastern Nile Delta.
The shale section that underlies the main reservoir of the Sidi Salem Formation is
characterized by an increase in the pore pressure gradient reaching up to 1.66 g/cc at
3950m, hence, the decision was taken to set 7” liner casing.
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Vertical seismic profile (VSP) data was recorded every 102m giving average
velocity of this interval after well casing and cementing, this big interval every 102m
give low quality pore pressure estimation compared to well Temsah-13 where VSP shot
was every 15m; the VSP interval velocity give less pore pressure calculation due to
sand and silt streaks interbedded with shale.
5.7.6 The pressure-depth plot of the Rosetta-7 well
Rosetta-7 well is an exploratory well drilled using a jack-up rig between 2nd
September 1999 and 24th October 1999, Rosetta-7 located in the South East of the
offshore Rosetta concession. The well was drilled as a vertical well to a total measured
depth of 3734m MD (-3699m TVDSS). This well was the first well to test Abu Madi
Formation stratigraphic trap in the offshore western Nile Delta. The prime objective of
drilling Rosetta-7 was to test potential Abu Madi reservoir, the secondary target was El
Wastani sandstones.
The calculated pore pressure from sonic indicate a stepwise increase in pore
pressure started at 1233m through shale section of El Wastani Formation reached 1.04
g/cc at 1285m. This increase in pore pressure followed by pressure fluctuation between
1.03-1.04 g/cc through the interval1300-1480m. A rapid build-up of pore pressure
started from 1481m to be 1.09 g/cc at 1500m, hence, it was decided to set 13 3/8”
casing at 1504m, , as shown in Figure (5-16).
Below 13 3/8” casing, the rapid build-up of pore pressure continued to be 1.2 g/cc
at 1635m, then 1.23 g/cc at 1742m, then start to decrease reaching 1.18 g/cc at 1834m
due to the occurrence of shale silty interbedded with siltstone streaks. This was
followed by a cycle of a rapid increase in pore pressure reaching 1.35 g/cc at 2010m
which was reinforced by theincrease in background gas to 1.8% at 2020m and a
connection gas to 2.7% at 2021m. This required increases the mud weight from 1.3 g/cc
to 1.43 g/cc at 2019m, then pore pressure increases to 1.49 g/cc at 2370m and 1.57 g/cc
at 2915m. Thus, it was decided to set 9 5/8” casing at 2918m. It is noted that the
estimated pore pressure from dxc shows less that sonic pore pressure due to many
changes in drilling parameters while drilling and the bad bit conditions.
Below 9 5/4” casing, a build-up of pore pressure trend was observed in Kafr El
Shikh Formation increase to reach 1.56 g/cc at 2980m which was confirmed by
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connection gas 2.1% at 2960m . A cycle of reverse in pressure below 3000m through
Kafr El Shikh Formation reach 1.5 g/cc at 3055m and 1.47 g/cc at 3290m which was
confirmed by RFT 1.5 g/cc at 3073m and 1.48 g/cc at 3301m. A cycle of pore pressure
increases starts below 3334m reach 1.56 g/cc at 3360m at the contact between Kafr El
Shikh and the underlying Abu Madi Formation.
Figure (5-16). Pore pressure depth plot of the Rosetta-7 well, offshore western Nile Delta.
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In this well, Abu Madi Formation top was picked up at the top of the first
anhydrit bed at 3369m. The shale becomes calcareous to highly calcareous with
lamination of silt, sand, and anhydrite which affect sonic log transit time and lead to
underestimation of pore pressure calculation. So the dxc was the primary tool for pore
pressure estimation. The estimated pore pressure from dxc shows an increase from 1.56
g/cc at 3362m to reach 1.58 g/cc at 3382m (0.2 g/cc in 20m). According to this high
gradient in estimated pore pressure value which was confirmed by 16% pump off gas at
3401m as a gas bearing sand was penetrated, the decision was taken to stop drilling and
increasing mud weight from 1.63 g/cc to 1.7 g/cc.
After resume drilling, the estimated pore pressure from dxc increases to 1.63 g/cc
at 3413m. On the other hand, the actual measured pore pressure after drilling by RFT
shows 1.7 g/cc at 3407m. At 3514m, a rapid increase in pore pressure was noticed; it
came up to 1.76 g/cc at 3520m, the mud weight was 1.74 g/cc, the equivalent circulation
density (ECD) was 1.78 g/cc. The decision was taken to stop drilling and increase mud
weight from 1.74 g/cc to 1.92 g/cc, accordingly 7” casing was set at 3533m.
Below 7” liner casing, the pore pressure estimated from dxc shows a continuous
increase with occasionally jumped values which normally followed the evaporites
intervals; the maximum value was 1.96 g/cc at 3670m. A reversal pattern was noticed
after reaching this maximum where it dropped to 1.92 g/cc then 1.9 g/cc at 3700 and
3715m respectively. The last value was kept to the end of this hole at 734m.
5.7.7 The pressure-depth plot of the Sapphire Deep-1 well
The Sapphire Deep-1 well is an exploratory well drilled using a semi-submersible
rig between 21st January 2004 and 09th June 2004. The well was drilled as a vertical well
to a total measured depth of 4680m MD (-4650.1m TVDSS). The Sapphire Deep-1 is
located in the West Delta Deep Marine (WDDM) concession. It was primarily designed
to penetrate the Sapphire Deep channel system (Oligocene–Miocene age), secondary to
test (S-20 sands) and tertiary (S-50, S-60, S-80 sands) (Kafr El Sheikh Formation
Pliocene age).
The pore pressure is expected to be normal 1.03 g/cc from the surface up to the
top of El-Wastani Formation. The pore pressure starts to increase to 1.04 g/cc at 1408m,
then increases to 1.28 g/cc at 1670m, where pore pressure continues increase stepwise at
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Kafr El Sheikh Formation to reach 1.4 g/cc at 1933m. This was followed by the trend of
pressure regression due to crossing many sand layers. Started from top Sapphire 20 sand
at 2204m, the reservoir pressure indicated by the RFT was 1.38 g/cc. Below Sapphire
20 sand the pore pressure continue the reversal pressure. At the top of Sapphire 50 sand
at 2576m, the reservoir pressure measured from the RFT is 1.22 g/cc, continued with
same reservoir pressure gradient to be 1.16 g/cc at 2736m (Sapphire 80 sand). The
minimum pore pressure was 1.19 g/cc at 2786m. Below the top of Messinian
encountered at 2804m, the pore pressure has shown a significant increase with depth
within the Messinian, continue to reach 1.34 g/cc at 2797m which was confirmed by
RFT 1.34 g/cc at 2799m. Then pore pressure increases to 1.41 g/cc at 2840m which was
confirmed by connection gas 15.5% at 2855m. This requires increasing the mud weight
from 1.4 g/cc to 1.44 g/cc, hence, it was decided to set 13 3/8” casing, as shown in
Figure (5-17).
Below 13 3/8” casing the pore pressure shows a significant increase with depth
reaching 1.46 g/cc at 3076m, then it cut back within the sand layer to reach the
minimum 1.34 g/cc at 3163m, this is followed by severe pressure increase with depth
reaching a maximum of 1.69 g/cc at 3458m, hence, it was decided to set 11 3/4” casing.
Below 11 3/4” casing, there is slightly increase in pore pressure to 1.7 g/cc at
3470m, then slight regression followed by another pore pressure increases cycle with a
maximum of 1.67 g/cc at 3670m, then decreases to 1.64 g/cc at 3732m. Below the top
of Serravallian a trend of pressure increase to 1.73 g/cc at 3892m which required
increasing the mud weight from 1.73 g/cc to 1.74 g/cc at 3916m, it was decided to set 9
5/4” casing at 3992m. The pore pressure calculation from sonic show higher values
from 2850m to 3228 that is expected due to hole wash out and clay reach gas effect
(total gas reach 17.5% at 2557m).
Below 9 5/4” casing, the calculated pore pressure from resistivity increases to
1.74 g/cc at 4022m which was confirmed by pump of gas 2.5% at 4020m and
connection gas 2.3% at 4029m also by RFT 1.74 g/cc at 4089 in the main reservoir.
Below the main reservoir, the pore pressure increases to 1.7 g/cc at 4460m which was
confirmed by connection gas 5.6% and 25% at 4455m and 4468m respectively, which
required increasing the mud weight from 1.74 g/cc to 1.77 g/cc at 4485m. On the other
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hand, the calculated pore pressure from sonic give underestimation results in the
interval from 3982m to 4400m that is expected to be due to the shale becomes silty and
sandy with a disseminated carbonaceous matter in part, hence, the decision was taken to
set 7” liner casing.
Figure (5-17). Pore pressure depth plot of the Sapphire Deep-1 well, offshore western Nile Delta.
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5.7.8 The pressure-depth plot of the Mars-1 well

The Mars-1 well is an exploratory well drilled using a semi-submersible rig
between 26th February 2005 and 11th June 2005.The well was drilled as a vertical well
to a total measured depth of 4435m MD (-4406.01m TVDSS). The Mars-1 is located in
the West Delta Deep Marine (WDDM) concession. Mars-1 was the first well designed
to test a wholly Messinian aged prospect within WDDM.
The calculated pore pressure indicates a stepwise increase in pore pressure started
at 1485m through shale section of El Wastani Formation reaching 1.16 g/cc at 1825m.
This increase in pore pressure was followed by pressure fluctuation between 1.1-1.15
g/cc through the interval1650-2170m. A rapid build-up of pore pressure started from
2180m to be 1.18 g/cc at 2203m. This increase was reinforced by the increase in
background gas to 10% at 2235m and a connection gas 3.3% at 2223m, hence, it was
decided to set 16” casing at 2259m, as shown in Figure (5-18).
Below 16” casing, the calculated pore pressure shows a gradual increase through
the shale section of the Kafr El Sheikh Formation from 1.19 g/cc to 1.28 g/cc at 2566m;
followed by a cycle of the decrease reaching to 1.24 g/cc at 2637m. Without any
evidence of pressure increase, a decision was taken to increase mud weight from 1.33
g/cc to 1.39 g/cc at 3638m which leads to complete losses at 2643m; 17 days was lost as
a result of that losses. The pore pressure decreases to 1.22 g/cc at 2700m, hence, the
decision was taken to set 13 3/8” casing at 2704m. The background gas during drilling
this hole was relatively low, the average was 1.24% and also no connection gas was
recorded.
Below 13 3/8” casing the pore pressure shows a continual decrease through the
shale section of the Kafr El Sheikh Formation to 1.21 g/cc at 2979 which was followed
by a cycle of increase in pore pressure gradient reaching to 1.25 g/cc at 3030m which
was confirmed by RFT 1.24 g/cc at 3031m. The pore pressure then increases to 1.32
g/cc at 3258m followed by a cycle of the decrease in pore pressure gradient reaching to
1.22 g/cc at 3722m. This expected due to that the shale becomes silty and sandy, 11
3/4” casing set at 3825m. The background gas during drilling this hole was relatively
low averaging 0.99% and also no connection gas was recorded.
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Figure (5-18). Pore pressure depth plot of the Mars-1 well, offshore western Nile Delta.
Below 11 3/4” casing the calculated pore pressure shows a cycle of the decrease
in pore pressure gradient reaching to 1.19 g/cc at 3860m which was confirmed by RFT
1.19 g/cc at 3857m. The pore pressure then decreases to 1.18 g/cc at 3900m. On the
other hand, the RFT shows 1.09 g/cc at 3888m which reflects lateral drainage reservoir.
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The calculated pore pressure increases gradually reaching the maximum value of 1.48
g/cc at 4073m. This was followed by pressure cut back to reach 1.38 g/cc at 4101m. At
interval from 4117m to 4412m a body of Limestone has been drilled, the sonic and
resistivity model was unable to detect pore pressure in limestone. Thus, the dxc model
was used to calculate pressure while drilling which shows pressure between 1.37–1.38
g/cc. On the contrary, the RFT after drilling show pore pressure 1.175 g/cc at 4278m
and 1.12 g/cc at 4363m. Due to the absence of pore pressure calculation through the
limestone interval, the owner company uses blind mud weight which leads to complete
losses at 4390m. The decision was taken to decrease the mud weight from 1.55 g/cc to
1.49 g/cc. At 4413m start drilling claystone, the calculated pore pressure shows
increasing reach to 1.41 g/cc at 4430m. The background gas during drilling this hole
was relatively low averaging 1%, thus, no connection gas was recorded.
5.7.9 The pressure-depth plot of the Mathilde-1 well
The Mathilde-1well is an exploratory well drilled using a semi-submersible rig
between 26th December 2005 and 4th February 2006. It was drilled as a vertical well to a
total measured depth of 3688m MD (-3660m TVDSS). The Mathilde-1 is located in the
north east of the West Delta Deep Marine (WDDM) concession, and was designed to
test the pre-Pliocene targets in the north of WDDM.
Both the resistivity model and pore pressure VSP transit time model (recorded
every 15m) indicate a gradual increase in pore pressure with depth, starting at the
beginning of this hole section at 2042m through the shale section of El Wastani and
Kafr El Sheikh Formations, reaching 1.12 g/cc at 2550m. Hence, it was decided to set
16" casing at 2547m, as shown in Figure (5-19).
Below 16" casing, the calculated pore pressure from resistivity through the
interval from 2557m to 2800m show pore pressure ranged between 1.07 g/cc and 1.1
g/cc where the calculated pore pressure from VSP through the same interval show pore
pressure ranged between 1.1 g/cc and 1.15 g/cc. This difference was expected to be due
to the effect of the hole wash out which affect the resistivity reading and to change in
the formation fluid salinity, where the higher resistivity readings indicate lower pore
pressure estimation. Both models were matched through the interval from 2801m to
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3270m showing pore pressure range between 1.09 g/cc to 1.2 g/cc, 13 3/8" casing set at
3255m.
Figure (5-19). Pore pressure depth plot of the Mathilde-1 well, offshore western Nile Delta.
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Below 13 3/8" casing, the pore pressure calculated from resistivity shows 1.19
g/cc at 3280m and remain approximately the same through the lower section of the Kafr
El Sheikh Formation, the pore pressure calculated from VSP shows 1.19 g/cc at 3275m
gradual decreases with depth reaching to 1.11 g/cc at 3310m which was confirmed by
RFT of 1.09 g/cc at 3306m. Starting from the top of Qawasim Formation at 3368.5m,
the VSP calculation shows underestimation due to the presence of anhydrite and
limestone. The pore pressure calculated from resistivity indicates 1.14 g/cc at 3375m;
this was continued to the well TD with pore pressure fluctuation from 1.12 g/cc to 1.16
g/cc. The RFT indicates two different pressure regimes, the upper sand pressure shows
1.13 g/cc at 3457m, while the lower sand pressure shows 1.1 g/cc at 3589m.
5.7.10 The pressure-depth plot of the Memphis-1 well
The Memphis-1 well is a wildcat exploratory well drilled using a semi-
submersible rig between 26th March 2006 and 25th August 2006. The well was drilled as
a vertical well to a total measured depth of 4859m MD (-4831.47m TVDSS). The
Memphis-1 is located in the South East of the West Delta Deep Marine (WDDM)
concession. This well was drilled to confirm reservoir presence and hydrocarbon type
within Qantara Formation (Early Miocene), Tineh Formation (Late Oligocene) and
Eocene targets of deep stratigraphy which were not previously penetrated within the
West Delta Deep Marine.
The calculated pore pressure indicates a stepwise increase in pore pressure
starting from 1320m through shale section of El Wastani Formation reaching 1.22 g/cc
at 1620m. This was followed by a cycle of continual decreasing in pore pressure
gradient reaching to 1.13 g/cc at 1715m, followed by a gradual increasing in pore
pressure reaching to 1.23 g/cc at 1845m as shown in Figure (5-20); 18” casing set at
1850m. The background gas during drilling this section was averaging 3%. The sonic
calculation shows overestimation from 1470m to 1590m which is expected to be due to
hole wash out and shale reach gas; the maximum recorded gas in mud was 32% at
1584m.
Below 18” casing the pore pressure shows a cycles of up and down in pore
pressure, starting with 1.25 g/cc at 1874m, then increase to 1.39 g/cc at 2282m,
followed by decreasing to 1.33 g/cc at 2440m, and then by another increasing up to 1.4
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g/cc at 2544m. The pore pressure calculated from resistivity shows pressure go down to
1.37 g/cc at 2555m. On the other hand, the pore pressure calculated from sonic show
continual increase reaching to 1.46 g/cc at 2555m, and increases to a maximum of 1.48
g/cc at 2569m. Had a gas kick at 2570m expected to be from Rosetta fault gas hazard
which was killed by increasing mud weight from 1.44 g/cc to 1.48 g/cc. More than 3
days were lost dealing with the kick and aerated mud. The key to understand the kick
and the difference between sonic and resistivity pore pressure is mud logging especially
total gas and lithology description. The total gas trend shows an increase starting from
2544m so the gas effect from this depth leads to overestimate pore pressure from sonic
(by increasing transit time). On the other hand, the gas effect leads to underestimating
pore pressure from resistivity (by increasing formation resistivity). Also, the lithology
description shows clay silty and sandy which lead to underestimating sonic pore
pressure (by decreasing transit time). On the other hand, the clay silty and sandy lead to
underestimate resistivity pore pressure (by increasing formation resistivity). After the
kick, the calculated pore pressure shows decrease until it reaches 1.25 g/cc at the bottom
of this hole section at 2633m, 16” casing set at 2605m. The background gas during
drilling this hole was averaging 5% and the maximum was 38 % at 2166m and 15% at
2565m, the connection gas was 0.4% at 2143m and 2228m increased to 2% at 2285m.
Below 16” casing a gentle increase in the pore pressure trend starts from 1.25 g/cc
at 2706m till reaching the maximum of 1.38 g/cc at 2972m, followed by a slight pressure
decrease with depth to reaching 1.36 g/cc at section TD at 3068m. Despite off no
indication for pore pressure increases (e.g. hole condition and connection gas) had 20bbls
gain with a gas kick at 3027m which killed by increasing the mud weight from 1.44 g/cc
to 1.58 g/cc, this gas kick expected to be due local trapped gas at the top of Messinian
hazard, the decision was taken to set 13 5/8” casing at 3063m.
Below 13 3/8” casing the estimated pore pressure was expected to 1.36 g/cc
through the limestone section. The pore pressure trend show an increase until reaching
1.49 g/cc at 3395m then decreases to 1.45 g/cc at 3440m, and again gradually increases till
reaches 1.52 g/cc at 3560m. The pore pressure increases rapidly until it reaches 1.58 g/cc
at 3628. The decision was taken to set 11 3/4” casing at 3629m.
Below 11 3/4” casing through the interval 3632m-4000m, the pore pressure
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valued between 1.6-1.63 g/cc. At 4005m (Approximate top of Qantara).The pore

pressure shows rapid increase reaching the maximum of 1.79 g/cc at 4303m which
emphasized by many connection and pump off gases. The maximum connection gas
was 3.5% at 4298m, 9 7/8” casing set at 4307m. The calculated pore pressure from
sonic start to decrease and shows underestimation starts from 4130m until TD. This
significant decrease in the pore pressure starts at top of Early Miocene (at 4130m) and
was expected to be due to lithological effects where the shale becomes calcareous.
Below 9 7/8" casing through the interval 4312m-4379m the pore pressure values
between 1.76-1.79 g/cc and the maximum pore pressure 1.79 g/cc at 4350m, which was
emphasized by many connections and pump off gases increased with depth. The
maximum connection gas was 9.46% at 4368m, had a well flow at 4379m; which was
killed by increasing the mud weight from 1.83 g/cc to 1.87 g/cc. More than 10 days as a
result of the kick then losses and cement job. The decision was taken to set 7 1/4”
casing at 4384m, the last resistivity data while drilling was at 4370m and the end of this
phase at 4384m due to offset distance (15m) between the bit and the resistivity tool. On
the other hand, connection gas gives strong warning sign in order to increase mud
weight before kick occurred.
Below the 7 1/4” casing the corrected D exponent (dxc) while drilling was the
primary tool used through this hole section for the pore pressure evaluation as the
resistivity was not recorded while drilling. At 4512m drilling was stopped to run
intermediate wireline logs (Sonic, resistivity, and RFT) mainly for pore pressure
calibration. The pore pressure estimated from the drilling model (dxc) was in a good
matching with that calculated from the resistivity data. The pore pressure from
resistivity shows 1.79 g/cc at 4444m which was confirmed by RFT through Qantara
Sand 1.77 g/cc at 4455m. The pore pressure from dxc indicates a build-up through
Tineh shale from 1.81 g/cc to 1.85 g/cc at 4800m which was emphasized by many
connections and pump off gasses which were increased with depth reaching a maximum
of 4.5% at 4857m.
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Figure (5-20). Pore pressure depth plot of the Memphis-1 well, offshore western Nile Delta.
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5.8. Increasing geological information from pressure-depth plots

Pore pressure data display, analysis, and interpretation can be vital at all stages of
drilling in exploration, development and production situations with implications for
safety, well control, casing, and predrill exploration planning. Pressure-depth plots
provide a fast, method to visualize the data and aid interpretation (Swarbrick et al.,
2006).
Pressure-depth plots applications include:
1) Evaluation of fluid density, type and hydrocarbon-water contact.
2) Evaluation of trap seal integrity and overpressure lateral transfer.
3) Giving rapid display of pore pressure risking.
4) Well planning and casing design.
Pressure gradients vary with fluid density. Water-wet sediments fall within the
range of pressure gradients for fresh water to fully saturated brines (gradients 0.434
psi/ft to 0.52 psi/ft for fluids with density range of 1.00 to 1.20 g/cc). Typical pressure
gradients at standard temperature and pressure conditions for medium oils (30-48º
gravity) are 0.88 to 0.78 g/cc and for dry gases are 0.3 to 0.23 g/cc. Wet gases-
condensate gradients typically plot between gas and oil gradients (Swarbrick et al.,
2006).
In the Temsah field, the serravallian sand layers of turbidity origin are the main
reservoir, the Tortonian sand layers are the secondary reservoir, which was not in the
production of Temsah field (Nashaat, 1998).
In order to verify the hydraulic continuity throughout the field, the RFT pressure
measurements of all availble wells have been plotted on pressure-depth diagram Figure
(5-21). Most of the data lie along a line whose slope reflect the gas density, water
density and helped in delineating the different fluid contacts.
In Wakar Formation (Tortonian reservoir), the average hydrostatic pressure
gradients for the gas bearing zone is 0.0314 kg/cm2/m, then increases to 0.117
kg/cm2/m below the gas water contact (GWC) at 3546m TVDSS.
In Sidi Salem Formation (Serravallian reservoir) the average hydrostatic pressure
gradients for the gas bearing zone is 0.032 kg/cm2/m, then increases to 0.114 kg/cm2/m
below the GWC at 3962m TVDSS. On the other hand, well T NW-2 (Serravallian
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reservoir) showed higher pressure values than other Temsah wells which reflect
hydraulic separation from the main reservoir.
A higher values were associated to overcharge in well T-5 a part from 6 points in
Wakar Formation at 3340m to 3600m TVDSS, 3 points in Sidi Salem Formation which
represent the pore pressure of an islated sand body. Also, in well T NW-1 a part from
3707m to 3710m TVSS represents the pore pressure of an isolated sand body.
In Sidi Salem Formation, the recorded pressures data highlight a hydraulic
communication between the main reservoir. In fact, for some wells (T-7, T NW-6, and
T NW-7) which were drilled after the field start-up, some pressure depletion was
recorded.
Interpretation of the pressure profile using 7 wells in the Temsah field using
available RFT, kicks, estimated pore pressure, overburden, and mud weight Fig (5-22).
The estimated pore pressure, overburden, and mud weight are from well T-4
(central of the field)
In order to verify the hydraulic continuity throughout the field, RFT pressure
measurements of all availble wells have been plotted on pressure-depth diagram Figure
(5-21). Most of the data lie along a line whose slope reflect the gas density, water
density and helped in delineating the different fluid contacts.
The RFT in the main reservoir reflects hydraulic communication of lateral
drainage reservoir. The RFT of T-9 and T-10 was recorded in 2005 after production
which reflects the depletion in the main reservoir due to the production. The T-7 and T-
8 kicks and RFT illustrate the dangers of the super charged sand which should be taken
into consideration for future wells mud weight plan.
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3400
T OR T ON IAN
3500
GWC at 3546m
TVDSS
3600 T ORT ONIAN

Gas Gradient:
0.0314 kg/ cm2/ m
0.314 g/ cc
W ater Gradient:
0.117 kg/ cm2/ m
1.17 g/ cc
SERR AVALLIAN
3700 Gas Gradient:
0.032 kg/ cm2/ m
0.32 g/ cc
SER R AVALLIAN
W ater Gradient:
0.114 kg/ cm2/ m
1.14 g/ cc
3800
T3
T4
T5
3900 T7
T8
T E-1 GWC at 3962m

TVDSS
T NW-1
4000 T NW-2
T NW-3
T NW-6
T NW-7
4100
600 610 620 630 640 650
Pressure (kg/ cm2)
Figure (5-21). Pressure-depth plot derived from 11 Temsah wells, illustrate the gas gradient, water
gradient and GWC for the serravallian and Tortonian sandstones.
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Figure (5-22). Interpretation of the Temsah field pressure profile using the available data of the RFT,
kicks, pore pressure estimation, overburden and mud weight.
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CHAPTER SIX SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
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CHAPTER SIX
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Offshore Mediterranean Sea exploration in Egypt is getting more and more

important due to gas reserve discovers in Temsah, Port Fouad, Baltim, and Rosetta
Fields. Egypt's government is released a revised estimate of proven natural gas
reserves. It shows that the offshore Mediterranean in Egypt is the most important gas-
proven which share 78% of gas proven in Egypt.
The present thesis deals with studying the mud logging real-time data while
drilling to improve the quality of the gathered data and propose a new early kick
detection method. In addition, focusing on pore pressure prediction while drilling
using mud logging data and measurements while drilling (MWD) in order to compare
the obtained results with the calculated pore pressure after drilling using wireline data
and repeated formation tester (RFT).
The investigated area lies in the offshore Nile Delta concessions of Petrobel
Company and Rashpetco Company between the latitudes 31° 38' 50.958" and 32° 22'
06.46" N longitudes 30° 16' 42.06" and 32 10' 15.352" E.
Mud logging quality control was done to the currently used gas trap in the
offshore Nile Delta. The analyzed gases from the gas trap were affected by gas trap
position and mud flow change while wash and ream. In addition, the gas trap motor
was air motor type with variable rpm which affects the amount of gas separated and
well to well correlation.
Comparisons of three mud logging company systems were achieved as follow:
time database comparison, depth database comparison and gas chromatograph
comparison. The depth database comparison illustrated that the company (A) archives
data on the server every 0.25m while the companies (B) and (C) archives every 1m.
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The time interval comparison showed that the company (A) archives data on the
server every 5 seconds while the companies (B) and (C) archive every 30 seconds. On
the other hand, the gas chromatograph comparison illustrated that the company (C)
analyses gas sample (cycle interval) every 30 seconds. Whereas the gas
chromatograph (A) and (B) have cycle interval every 60 and 90 seconds, respectively.
The gas chromatograph (C) has an advantage over chromatograph (A) and (B), it can
analyzes both hydrocarbon and non-hydrocarbon gases in 30 seconds.
Applications of the gas chromatograph (wetness ratio and balance ratio) provides
immediate evaluation and identifying of lithology change and hydrocarbon bearing
zone while the reservoir is being drilled.
The mud logging real-time data provides several parameters that can be used
for kick detection. In the offshore Nile Delta, shale acts as a source of overpressure as
well as a seal rock. Due to the low permeability of shale, pore pressure gradually
increases with depth until underbalanced drilling is reached without strong significant
kick sign. This leads to unsuccessful early kick using conventional well control
procedure. The proposed advanced early kick detection method uses additional
accurate flow check utilizing trip tank. Moreover, in the case of zero or small
pressure readings while shut-in well, the proposed method recommends opening the
pre-added two additional high accuracy pressure sensors in order to measure low
pressure values. The proposed method has a great advantage not only that it can
detect the small kick early, but also it can detect the near-balance drilling prior kick
occur by circulateing bottom's up to check the presence of CG and POG or an
increase of the BG at the hole bottom. The studied cases show that small kick and the
near-balance state can be detected early using the proposed advanced early kick
detection method.
The study of the overpressure has been undertaken in the offshore Nile Delta.
The formation pore pressure of the studied area has been evaluated through the
integration of the mud logging and petrophysical data to deduce overpressure zones.
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The gamma ray data in well logs was used to draw shale base lines then compare with
the wellsite sample descriptions from mud logs. Shale points are transferred to the
sonic log for pore pressure analysis. Pore pressure gradient is calculated for the shale
points from sonic log or Vertical seismic profile (VSP) interval velocity transit time
from the adapted Eaton's sonic velocity using the normal compaction trendline
(NCTL) obtained with the following parameters: for Temsah field wells ∆tm=70
µs/ft, ∆tml=200 µs/ft and c= 0.000164. In Offshore Rosetta Concession and West
Delta Deep Marine (WDDM) concession parameters are ranged between ∆tm=65 to
70 µs/ft, ∆tml=200 to 220 µs/ft and c= 0.000144 to 0.000164, that range expected to
be due to water depth variation (from 18m to 932m) and wide extension of the two
concessions. The pore pressure estimated from resistivity log using the Eaton's
resistivity method, with the NCTL was determined with the following parameters:
R0=1.4 ohmm, b=0.000033. In addition, the trend line was calibrated to the water
conductivity (CW) from the available formation fluid samples and shale surface cation
exchange capacity (BQ) using pressure prediction program.
The output pore pressure which was calculated using adapted Eaton's methods
in addition to the formation tops and associated lithology are presented in a vertical
pressure-depth plot. This is to evaluate the pore pressure of the studied wells on the
light of the petrophysical and mud logging parameters.
The studied pore pressure methods can be summarized in the following:
1) Traditional methods (D Exponent and Sigma log) have limitations due to the
use of indirect pore pressure indications from drilling parameters rather than
measuring formation properties directly.
2) The pore pressure estimated from resistivity is affected by the change in the
formation fluid salinity especially in top hole section and around top Rosetta
Formation (evaporites). So the trend line needs to be shifted when data affected by
formation fluids salinity change.
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3) The proposed sonic method gives better pore pressure calculations in both
shallow and deep depths compared to modified Eaton's sonic method.
4) The vertical seismic profile (VSP) data was recorded every 102m in Temsah
NW-9 giving the average velocity of this interval. This big interval gives low quality
pore pressure estimations compared to well Temsah-13 where VSP shot was every
15m.
5) The calculated pore pressure from sonic affected by the calcareous shale in
the Early Miocene and read underestimation in the West Delta Deep Marine
concession. To overcome this problem, it is recommended to build adapted sonic
trend line to the calcareous shale in each field.
Recommendations
Gas trap quality control recommendations
1) The gas trap position should be close to the flow line as much as possible to
minimize gas escaping from mud before the gas trap.
2) The time required to move the gases from the gas trap to the total gas and
gas chromatograph in order analyze gases should be minimized as much as possible
by increasing the suction pump efficiency and/or move the total gas system and gas
chromatograph near the gas trap.
3) The gas trap type and specifications should be kept constant for better
meaningful analysis and well to well correlation.
4) The gas trap air motor type should be replaced by an explosion proof
electrical motor.
5) The agitation speed of motor should be calibrated and kept constant all the
time.
6) The mud level surrounds the gas trap should be kept constant as much as
possible to avoid change in the quantity of the mud agitated by gas trap per minute.
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7) Mud should not be discharged from the trap exit port in an intermittent
manner but should exit in a continuous flowing manner.
8) Exit port side pipe should be in the form of (L- Shape) to minimize the wind
effect.
9) Using the new generation gas trap which minimizes the change in gas
readings due to fluid fluctuations. This new generation called the constant volume gas
trap (CVT) or the constant volume extractor (CVE) that provides a steady flow of
drilling mud from the flow line to the gas trap a using suction pump with constant
flow rate.
Advanced early kick detection recommendations
1) Two high accuracy pressure sensors (ranged from 0 to 2000 psi) should be
added in order to measure the SIDP and SICP in the case of zero or small pressure
readings.
2) The traditional wide range pressure sensors as well as the additional accurate
pressure sensors with small pressure values 100, 300 and 500 psi before drilling new
section to check accuracy.
3) Additional flow check in the case of static visual flow check using a trip
tank should be carried out for two reasons: a)-flow check using a trip tank is more
accurate than visual flow check especially in the case of suspected small kick. B)-
flow check using trip tank can be seen from mud logging real-time chart which shows
the amount of mud increase per minute.
4) Slightly flow must be considered, do not consider the slightly flow as an
effect of U-tube, do the safe action, close the well and record the pressure (if no
pressure is recorded, do not continue drilling. Apply another SIDP and SICP
measurements using the additional pressure sensors.
5) The drilling operator and the higher decision maker when kick suspected
should take into consideration the error range in the SIDP and SICP pressure
readings, visual flow check, and the pore pressure predicted method used.
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6) While drilling high-temperature high-pressure well make at least one

dummy connection while drilling every stand in order to check the hole condition, the
presence of POG and CG in the static state, in order to detect near-balance case
before reaching underbalance state.
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REFERENCES
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Abdel Halim, M., 2001. Future hydrocarbon potential in the Nile Delta offshore and
onshore, Delta, Modern and Ancient, First International Symposium on the
Deltas. March 13-19,1999, Cairo, Egypt, pp. 159-174.
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‫‪ -٤‬ﺗﻐﻴﺮ ﻣﻮﻟﺪ ﺣﺮآ ﺔ ﺻﺎﺋﺪ اﻟﻐﺎزات ﻣﻦ ﻧﻮع ﻣﺎﺗﻮر اﻟﻬﻮاء اﻟﻲ ﻧﻮع ﻣﺎﺗﻮر اﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎء ﻣﺎﻧﻊ اﻻﻧﻔﺠﺎر‪.‬‬
‫‪ -٥‬ﺳﺮﻋﺔ اﻟﺪوران داﺧﻞ ﺻﺎﺋﺪ اﻟﻐﺎزات ﻳﺠﺐ ان ﺗﻌﺎﻳﺮ ﻓﻰ ﺑﺪاﻳﺔ اﻟﺤﻔﺮ وﺗﻈﻞ ﺛﺎﺑﺘﻪ‪.‬‬
‫‪ -٦‬ﻣﺴﺘﻮي ﺳﻄﺢ اﻟﻄﻔﻠﺔ ﺣﻮل ﻃﺎﺋﺪ اﻟﻐﺎزات ﻳﺠﺐ ان ﺗﻈﻞ ﺛﺎﺑﺘﺔ ﻗﺪر اﻻﻣﻜﺎن ﻟﺘﺠﻨﺐ اﻟﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﻓﻰ آﻤﻴﺔ‬
‫اﻟﻄﻔﻠﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﺤﺪث ﻟﻬﺎ ﺗﻘﻠﻴﺐ‪.‬‬
‫‪ -٧‬ﻳﺠﺐ ان ﺗﺨﺮج اﻟﻄﻔﻠﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻓﺘﺤﺔ ﺻﺎﺋﺪ اﻟﻐﺎزات ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻣﺴﺘﻤﺮ و ﺗﺠﻨﺐ اﻟﺨﺮوج اﻟﻤﺘﻘﻄﻊ‪.‬‬
‫‪ -٨‬ﻓﺘﺤﺔ ﺧﺮوج اﻟﻄﻔﻠﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺻﺎﺋﺪ اﻟﻐﺎزات ﻳﺠﺐ ان ﺗﻜﻮن ﻋﻠﻲ ﺷﻜﻞ )‪(L‬ﻟﺘﻘﻠﻴﻞ ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ اﺗﺠﺎة اﻟﺮﻳﺎح‪.‬‬
‫‪ -٩‬اﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﺠﻴﻞ اﻟﺤﺪﻳﺚ ﻣﻦ ﺻﺎﺋﺪ اﻟﻐﺎزات اﻟﺬى ﻟﺔ ﻗﺪرة ﻋﻠﻲ ﺗﺜﺒﻴﺖ ﻣﻌﺪل ﺗﺪﻓﻖ اﻟﻄﻔﻠﺔ ﻋﻦ ﻃﺮﻳﻖ‬
‫ﻣﻀﺤﺔ ﺳﺤﺐ ﻟﻬﺎ ﻣﻌﺪل ﺛﺎﺑﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ب‪ -‬ﺗﻮﺻﻴﺎت اﻟﻜﺸﻒ اﻟﻤﺒﻜﺮ ﻋﻦ ﻓﻮران اﻟﺒﺌﺮ‪.‬‬
‫‪ -١‬إﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﺣﺴﺎﺳﻰ ﺿﻐﻂ ﺑﺪﻗﺔ ﻋﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻓﻰ اﻟﻘﻴﺎس ﻣﻦ ‪ ٠‬اﻟﻲ ‪ ٢٠٠٠‬رﻃﻞ ﻋﻠﻲ اﻟﺒﻮﺻﺔ اﻟﻤﺮﺑﻌﺔ‬
‫‪ -٢‬اﺧﺘﺒﺎر ﺣﺴﺎﺳﻲ اﻟﻀﻐﻂ اﻟﺘﻘﻠﻴﺪى ﻣﻊ ﺣﺴﺎﺳﻲ اﻟﻀﻐﻂ اﻟﺪﻗﻴﻖ وذﻟﻚ ﻟﻠﻮﻗﻮف ﻋﻠﻲ ﻣﺪى اﻟﺪﻗﺔ ﻗﺒﻞ‬
‫ﺑﺪاﻳﺔ اﻟﺤﻔﺮ‪.‬‬
‫‪ -٣‬ﻋﻤﻞ اﺧﺘﺒﺎر ﺗﺪﻓﻖ اﺿﺎﻓﻰ ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ ﺧﺰان اﻟﺮﺣﻠﺔ‪.‬‬
‫‪ -٤‬ﻋﺪم اهﻤﺎل اي ﺗﺪﻓﻖ ﺑﺴﻴﻂ ﻟﻠﻄﻔﻠﺔ ﻇﻨ ًﺎ ان ذﻟﻚ ﺑﺴﺒﺐ اﺧﺘﻼف اﻻوذان داﺧﻞ ﻋﻤﻮد اﻟﻄﻔﻠﺔ‪.‬‬
‫‪ -٥‬ﻋﻠﻲ ﻣﺴﺌﻮل اﻟﺤﻔﺮ و ﻣﺘﺨﺬي اﻟﻘﺮار ﻓﻰ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ اﻟﺸﻚ ﻓﻰ ﺣﺪوث اﻟﻔﻮران ان ﻳﺎﺧﺬوا ﻓﻲ اﻻﻋﺘﺒﺎر‬
‫ﺑﻨﺴﺒﺔ اﻟﺨﻄﺄ ﻓﻰ ﻗﻴﺎس ﺿﻐﻂ اﻟﺒﺌﺮ و آﺸﻒ اﻟﻔﻮران و ﺣﺴﺎب ﺿﻐﻂ اﻟﻄﺒﻘﺎت‪.‬‬
‫‪ -٦‬اﺛﻨﺎء ﺣﻔﺮ اﻵﺑﺎر ذات اﻟﺤﺮارة و اﻟﻀﻐﻂ اﻟﻤﺮﺗﻔﻌﻴﻦ ﻳﻔﻀﻞ ﻋﻤﻞ ﺗﻮﺻﻴﻞ وهﻤﻲ ﻟﻠﺘﺄآﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﻗﺎع‬
‫اﻟﺒﺌﺮ‪.‬‬
‫‪٤‬‬
‫وﻳﻨﺎﻗﺶ اﻟﻔﺼﻞ اﻟﺮاﺑﻊ اﻟﻜﺸﻒ اﻟﻤﺒﻜﺮ ﻟﺤﺪوث ﻓﻮران اﻵﺑﺎر اﺛﻨﺎء اﻟﺤﻔﺮ اﻟﺬى ﻳﻜﺘﺴﺐ اهﻤﻴ ﺔ آﺒﺮى‬
‫ﻟﻤﻨﻊ او ﻟﺘﻘﻠﻴﻞ ﺧﺮوج اﻟﻐﺎزات اﻟﺴﺎﻣﺔ واﻟﺤﺎرﻗﺔ اﺛﻨﺎء اﻟﺤﻔﺮ اﻟﺘﻰ ﺗﺸﻜﻞ ﺧﻄﺮًا ﻋﻠﻲ ﺣﻴﺎة اﻻﻓﺮاد وﺳﻼﻣﺔ‬
‫اﻟﻤﻌﺪات‪.‬‬
‫وﻗﺪ ﺗﻤﺖ دراﺳ ﺔ اﻟﻜﺸﻒ اﻟﻤﺒﻜﺮ ﻟﺤﺪوث ﻓﻮران اﻵﺑﺎر ﻋﻦ ﻃﺮﻳﻖ ﺗﺴﺠﻴﻼت اﻟﻄﻔﻠﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻌﻄﻰ ﺳﺒﻌﺔ ﻣﻌﺎﻣﻼت‬
‫هﺎﻣﺔ ﻟﻠﻜﺸﻒ اﻟﻤﺒﻜﺮ‪.‬‬
‫وﻗﺪ أﻇﻬﺮت اﻟﺤﺎﻻت اﻟﻤﺪروﺳﺔ ﻟﻠﻜﺸﻒ اﻟﻤﺒﻜﺮ ﻟﺤﺪوث اﻟﻔﻮران ﻗﺼﻮر اﻟﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ اﻟﺘﻘﻠﻴﺪﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﺑﺎﻟﺒﺌﺮ وذﻟﻚ‬
‫ﻟﻌﺪم دﻗﺔ ﻣﺘﺎﺑﻌﺔ ﻣﺴﺘﻮي اﻟﻄﻔﻠﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺒﺌﺮ وﻟﻌﺪم دﻗﺔ ﺟﻬﺎزي ﻗﻴﺎس اﻟﻀﻐﻂ اﺛﻨﺎء اﻏﻼق اﻟﺒﺌﺮ وﺧﺼﻮﺻﺎ ﻋﻨﺪ ﻗﻴﺎس‬
‫اﻟﻀﻐﻮط اﻟﻘﻠﻴﻠﻪ‪ .‬وﻗﺪ اﻇﻬﺮت اﻳﻀﺎ اﻟﺘﺴﺠﻴﻼت اﺛﻨﺎء اﻟﺤﻔﺮ ﻗﺼﻮرًا ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﺑﻌﺪ اﻟﺤﺴﺎس ﻋﻦ ﻗﺎع اﻟﺒﺌﺮ ﺑﻤﺴﺎﻓﺔ‬
‫ﺗﺼﻞ اﻟﻲ ‪ ١٤‬ﻣﺘﺮ وآﺬﻟﻚ ﻋﺪم اﻻﺧﺬ ﻓﻰ اﻟﺤﺴﺒﺎن ﻧﺴﺒﺔ اﻟﺨﻄﺄ أﺛﻨﺎء اﻟﺘﻨﺒﺆ ﺑﻀﻐﻂ اﻟﻄﺒﻘﺎت‪ .‬وﻋﻠﻲ اﻟﺠﺎﻧﺐ‬
‫اﻻﺧﺮ اﻋﻄﺖ اﻟﺰﻳﺎدة ﻓﻲ ﻗﻴﻢ اﻟﻐﺎزات إﺷﺎرات ﺗﺤﺬﻳﺮﻳﺔ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺣﺪوث ﻓﻮران اﻟﺒﺌﺮ ﺑﻔﺘﺮة آﺎﻓﻴﺔ ‪ .‬وﺑﻨﺎءًا ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺎ‬
‫ﺳﺒﻖ ﻓﻘﺪ ﺗﻢ ﻋﻤﻞ ﻃﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﻣﺒﺘﻜﺮة ﻟﻠﻜﺸﻒ اﻟﻤﺒﻜﺮ ﻟﺤﺪوث اﻟﻔﻮران‪.‬‬
‫وﻗﺪ اهﺘﻢ اﻟﻔﺼﻞ اﻟﺨﺎﻣﺲ ﺑﺪراﺳﺔ ﺿﻐﻮط اﻟﻄﺒﻘﺎت ﻟﻌﺸﺮة اﺑﺂر ﺑﻤﻨﻄﻘﺔ اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ اﻋﺘﻤﺎدًا ﻋﻠﻲ‬
‫)ﺗﺴﺠﻴﻼت اﻟﻄﻔﻠﺔ ‪ ،‬ﺗﺴﺠﻼت اﺛﻨﺎء اﻟﺤﻔﺮ ‪ ،‬ﺗﺴﺠﻴﻼت اﻵﺑﺎر(‪ .‬وﺗﻢ ﻋﻤﻞ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﻟﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ إﻳﺘﻮن ﻟﺘﺘﻨﺎﺳﺐ ﻣﻊ اﺑﺂر‬
‫اﻟﻤﻴﺎة اﻟﻌﻤﻴﻘﺔ واﻟﻀﺤﻠﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ دراﺳﺔ ﺿﻐﻮط اﻟﻄﺒﻘﺎت ﻳﻤﻜﻦ أن ﺗﻠﺨﺺ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﻨﺎﺻﺮ اﻵﺗﻴﺔ‪:‬‬
‫‪ -١‬ﺿﻐﻂ اﻟﻄﺒﻘﺎت اﻟﻤﺤﺴﻮب ﻣﻦ ﻃﺮﻳﻘﺔ اﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﻳﺘﺄﺛﺮ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﻓﻰ ﻣﻠﻮﺣﺔ ﺳﻮاﺋﻞ اﻟﻄﺒﻘﺎت‪.‬‬
‫‪ -٢‬ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﻃﺮﻳﻘﺔ إﻳﺘﻮن اﻋﻄﻰ ﻧﺘﺎﺋﺞ اآﺜﺮ دﻗﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻃﺮﻳﻘﺔ إﻳﺘﻮن اﻟﺘﻘﻠﻴﺪﻳﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻵﺑﺎر اﻟﻤﻴﺎة اﻟﻌﻤﻴﻘﺔ واﻟﻀﺤﻠﺔ‪.‬‬
‫‪ -٣‬اﻟﻘﻄﺎع اﻟﺴﻴﺰﻣﻰ اﻟﺮاﺳﻲ ذو اﻟﻔﺎﺻﻞ اﻟﻜﺒﻴﺮ ﻳﻌﻄﻰ ﻧﺘﺎﺋﺞ ذات ﺟﻮدة ﻗﻠﻴﻠﺔ ﻟﻀﻐﻂ اﻟﻄﺒﻘﺎت‪.‬‬
‫‪ -٤‬ﺣﺴﺎب ﺿﻐﻂ اﻟﻄﺒﻘﺎت ﻣﻦ ﺗﺴﺠﻴﻼت اﻟﺼﻮت ﻳﺘﺎﺋﺮ ﺑﻮﺟﻮد اﻟﻄﻴﻦ اﻟﺠﻴﺮي ‪ ،‬وﻟﻠﺘﻐﻠﺐ ﻋﻠﻲ هﺬة اﻟﻤﺸﻜﻠﺔ‬
‫ﻳﻨﺼﺢ ﺑﻌﻤﻞ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﻟﺨﻂ اﻻﺗﺠﺎة ﻓﻰ اﻟﻄﻴﻦ اﻟﺠﻴﺮي ﻟﻜﻞ ﺣﻘﻞ ﻋﻠﻲ ﺣﺪي‪.‬‬
‫وﻳﻌﺮض اﻟﻔﺼﻞ اﻟﺴﺎدس ﻣﻠﺨﺺ ﺳﺮﻳﻊ ﻟﻠﺮﺳﺎﻟﺔ اﺧﺘﺘﻢ ﺑﻤﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺘﻮﺻﻴﺎت ﻧﻮﺟﺰهﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻷﺗﻲ‪:‬‬
‫أ‪ -‬ﺗﻮﺻﻴﺎت ﺗﺤﺴﻴﻦ ﺟﻮدة ﺻﺎﺋﺪ اﻟﻐﺎزات‪.‬‬
‫‪ -١‬ﻣﻮﺿﻊ ﺟﻬﺎز ﺻﺎﺋﺪ اﻟﻐﺎزات ﻳﺠﺐ ان ﻳﻜﻮن ﻗﺮﻳﺐ ﻗﺪر اﻻﻣﻜﺎن ﻣﻦ ﺧﻂ ﺧﺮوج اﻟﻄﻔﻠﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﻘﻠﻴﻞ ﻣﻦ‬
‫هﺮوب اﻟﻐﺎزات ﻣﻦ اﻟﻄﻔﻠﺔ ﻗﺒﻞ اﻟﻮﺻﻮل ﻟﺼﺎﺋﺪ اﻟﻐﺎزات‪.‬‬
‫‪ -٢‬اﻟﻮﻗﺖ اﻟﻤﻄﻠﻮب ﻟﻨﻘﻞ اﻟﻐﺎزات ﻣﻦ ﺻﺎﺋﺪ اﻟﻐﺎزات اﻟﻲ ﺟﻬﺎز ﺗﺤﻠﻴﻞ اﻟﻐﺎزات ﻳﺠﺐ ان ﻳﻘﻞ ﻗﺪر‬
‫اﻹﻣﻜﺎن وذﻟﻚ ﺑﺰﻳﺎدة ﻗﺪرة ﻣﻀﺨﺔ ﺳﺤﺐ اﻟﻐﺎزات او ﺗﻘﺮﻳﺐ ﺟﻬﺎز ﺗﺤﻠﻴﻞ اﻟﻐﺎزات ﻣﻦ ﺻﺎﺋﺪ اﻟﻐﺎزات‪.‬‬
‫‪ -٣‬ﻧﻮﻋﻴﺔ وﻣﻮاﺻﻔﺎت ﺻﺎﺋﺪ اﻟﻐﺎزات ﻳﺠﺐ ان ﺗﺒﻘﻰ ﺛﺎﺑﺘﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﻘﺎرﻧﺔ اﻟﺠﻴﺪة ﺑﻴﻦ ﺑﺌﺮ واﺧﺮ‪.‬‬
‫‪٣‬‬
‫اﻟﻤﻠﺨﺺ اﻟﻌﺮﺑﻲ‬
‫ﺗﺤﺴﻴﻦ ﺟﻮدة ﺗﺴﺠﻴﻼت اﻟﻄﻔﻠﺔ واﻟﺘﻨﺒﺆ ﺑﻀﻐﻂ اﻟﻄﺒﻘﺎت ﺑﻤﺴﺎﻋﺪة اﻟﺒﻴﺎﻧﺎت اﻟﺠﻴﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺔ‬
‫واﻟﺠﻴﻮﻓﻴﺰﻳﻘﻴﺔ ﻟﺤﻘﻮل ﻣﺨﺘﺎرة دﻟﺘﺎ اﻟﻨﻴﻞ ‪ -‬ﻣﺼﺮ‬
‫اﻟﺘﻨﻘﻴ ﺐ ﻓ ﻰ ﻣﻴ ﺎة اﻟﺒﺤ ﺮ اﻷﺑ ﻴﺾ اﻟﻤﺘﻮﺳ ﻂ ﺷ ﻤﺎل ﻣﺼ ﺮ ﻳ ﺰداد اهﻤﻴ ﺔ ﻳﻮﻣ ًﺎ ﺑﻌ ﺪ ﻳ ﻮم ﺑﺴ ﺐ اﻷزدﻳ ﺎد اﻟﻤﻄ ﺮد ﻓ ﻰ‬
‫اﻷﺣﺘﻴﺎﻃ ﺎت اﻟﻤﺆآ ﺪة ﻣ ﻦ اﻟﻐ ﺎز ﻓ ﻰ ﺣﻘ ﻮل اﻟﺘﻤﺴ ﺎح وﺑﻮرﻓ ﺆاد وﺑﻠﻄ ﻴﻢ ورﺷ ﻴﺪ‪ .‬وﺣﺴ ﺐ دراﺳ ﺎت اﻟﻬﻴﺌ ﺔ اﻟﻌﺎﻣ ﺔ‬
‫ﻟﻠﺒﺘ ﺮول ﻓ ﺄن اﻷﺣﺘﻴﺎﻃﻴ ﺎت اﻟﻤﺆآ ﺪة ﻣ ﻦ اﻟﻐ ﺎز ﻓ ﻰ اﻟﻤﻴ ﺎة اﻟﻤﺼ ﺮﻳﺔ ﺑ ﺎﻟﺒﺤﺮ اﻟﻤﺘﻮﺳ ﻂ ﺗﺸ ﻜﻞ ‪ %٧٨‬ﻣ ﻦ‬
‫اﻷﺣﺘﻴﺎﻃﻴﺎت اﻟﻤﺆآﺪة ﻣﻦ اﻟﻐﺎز ﻓﻰ ﺟﻤﻬﻮﻳﺔ ﻣﺼﺮ اﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴ ﺔ‪ .‬وﻋﻠﻴ ﺔ ﻓﻘ ﺪ ﺗ ﻢ اﺧﺘﻴ ﺎر ﻧﻄﺎﻗ ﺎت اﻣﺘﻴ ﺎز اﻟﺘﻤﺴ ﺎح وﺷ ﻴﺪ‬
‫‪/‬‬
‫اﻟﺒﺤﺮي وﻏﺮب اﻟﺪﻟﺘﺎ اﻟﻌﻤﻴ ﻖ اﻟﺒﺤ ﺮي آﻤﻨﻄﻘ ﺔ ﻟﻠﺪراﺳ ﺔ وﺗﻘ ﻊ ﻓ ﻰ اﻟﺒﺤ ﺮ اﻟﻤﺘﻮﺳ ﻂ ﺑ ﻴﻦ ﺧﻄ ﻲ ﻃ ﻮل ‪١٦ °٣٠‬‬
‫‪ //١٥.٣٥ /١٠ °٣٢ ، //٤٢.٠٦‬ﺷﺮﻗًﺎ وﺧﻄﻲ ﻋﺮض ‪ //٠٦.٤٦ /22 °٣٢ ، //٥٠.٩٦ /٣٨ °٣١‬ﺷﻤﺎ ً‬
‫ﻻ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﺘﻨﺎول اﻟﺮﺳﺎﻟﺔ ﺗﺤﺴﻴﻦ ﺟﻮدة ﺗﺴﺠﻴﻼت اﻟﻄﻔﻠﺔ واﻟﻜﺸﻒ اﻟﻤﺒﻜﺮ ﻋﻦ ﻓﻮران اﻟﺒﺌﺮ وﺣﺴﺎب ﺿﻐﻂ اﻟﻄﺒﻘﺎت‬
‫ﺑﺈﺳﺘﺨﺪام ﺗﺴﺠﻴﻼت اﻵﺑﺎر وﺗﺴﺠﻴﻼت اﻟﻄﻔﻠﺔ و ﺗﻘﺎرﻳﺮ اﻟﺤﻔﺮ اﻟﻤﺘﺎﺣﺔ ﻟﻌﺪد ﻋﺸﺮة ﺁﺑﺎر ﻣﻮزﻋﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺣﻘﻮل‬
‫ﻣﺨﺘﺎرة ﺑﺎﻟﺒﺤﺮ اﻟﻤﺘﻮﺳﻂ وذﻟﻚ ﻓﻲ ﺳﺘﺔ ﻓﺼﻮل ﻧﺴﺘﻌﺮﺿﻬﺎ ﺑﺈﻳﺠﺎز ﻓﻴﻤﺎ ﻳﻠﻲ‪:‬‬
‫ﺗﻨﺎول اﻟﻔﺼﻞ اﻷول اﻷهﻤﻴﺔ اﻟﻜﺒﺮى ﻟﻠﺒﺤﺮ اﻟﻤﺘﻮﺳﻂ ﻓﻰ اﻟﺘﻨﻘﻴﺐ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻘﺒﻠﻰ ﺑﺴﺐ ﺗﻌﺎﻇﻢ اﻷﺣﺘﻴﺎﻃﻴﺎت‬
‫اﻟﻤﺆآﺪة واﻟﻤﺸﻜﻼت اﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﻮاﺟﻬﻬﺎ اﻟﺤﻔﺮ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ زﻳﺎدة ﺿﻐﻂ اﻟﻄﺒﻘﺎت واﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺤﺘﺎج ﻟﺘﻨﺒﺆ دﻗﻴﻖ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل ﺗﺤﺴﻦ‬
‫ﺟﻮدة ﺗﺴﺠﻼت اﻟﻄﻔﻠﺔ وﺗﺴﺠﻼت اﺛﻨﺎء اﻟﺤﻔﺮ وﺗﺴﺠﻴﻼت اﻵﺑﺎر‪.‬‬
‫وﻗﺪ اهﺘﻢ اﻟﻔﺼﻞ اﻟﺜﺎﻧﻲ ﺑﺪراﺳﺔ اﻟﺴﺤﻨﺎت اﻟﺼﺨﺮﻳﺔ واﻟﻮﺿﻊ اﻟﺘﺮآﻴﺒﻲ ﻟﺸﻤﺎل دﻟﺘﺎ اﻟﻨﻴﻞ ﻣﺼﺮ‪ .‬وﻳﻠﻌﺐ‬
‫ﺻﺪع اﻟﺒﺮدوﻳﻞ وﺻﺪع اﻟﻘﻄﺎرة واﻟﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﻓﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﻮى ﺳﻄﺢ اﻟﺒﺤﺮ ﻓﻰ ﺷﻤﺎل اﻟﺪﻟﺘﺎ ﻋﺎﻣﻼ رﺋﻴﺴﻴ ًﺎ ﺗﺤﻜﻢ ﻓﻲ ﺗﻜﻮﻳﻦ‬
‫اﻟﺮواﺳﺐ واﻟﺴ ﺤﻨﺎت اﻟﺼﺨﺮﻳﺔ ﺑﻤﻨﻄﻘﺔ اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ‪.‬‬
‫وﺗﺪل اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ ﺗﺤﺖ اﻟﺴﻄﺤﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﻨﻄﻘﺔ أن ﺑﺪاﻳﺔ ﻇﻬﻮر اﻟﺰﻳﺎدة ﻓﻲ ﺿﻐﻂ ﻣﺴﺎم اﻟﻄﺒﻘﺎت ﻳﻘﻞ آﻠﻤﺎ اﺗﺠﻬﻨﺎ ﺷﻤﺎﻻ‬
‫ﺣﺘﻲ ﻳﺼﻞ اﻟﻲ ‪ ٢٠٠٠‬ﻗﺪم ﻓﻲ اﻟﺒﺤﺮ اﻟﻤﺘﻮﺳﻂ‪.‬‬
‫وﻳﺘﻨﺎول اﻟﻔﺼﻞ اﻟﺜﺎﻟﺚ ﺗﺤﺴﻴﻦ ﺟﻮدة ﺗﺴﺠﻴﻼت اﻟﻄﻔﻠﺔ اﺛﻨﺎء اﻟﺤﻔﺮ ﺑﻤﻘﺎرﻧﺔ ﺛﻼﺛﺔ اﻧﻈﻤﺔ ﻟﺸﺮآﺎت‬
‫ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ وﺗﻘﻴﻢ ﺟﻮدة ﺟﻬﺎز ﻣﺼﻴﺪة وﺗﺠﻤﻴﻊ اﻟﻐﺎزات وﺟﻬﺎز ﻓﺼﻞ وﺗﺤﻠﻴﻞ اﻟﻐﺎزات ﺧﻼل ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺎت اﻟﺤﻔﺮ‬
‫اﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﻪ‪.‬‬
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١
‫جامعة المنصورة‬
‫كلية العلوم‬
‫قسم الجيولوجيا‬
‫صفحة المحكمين‬
‫عنوان الرسالة ‪ :‬تحسين جودة تسجيالت الطفلة والتنبؤ بضغط‬
‫الطبقات بمساعدة البيانات الجيولوجية والجيوفيزيقية لحقول مختارة‬
‫دلتا النيل ‪ -‬مصر‬
‫اسم الباحث‪ :‬أحمد صبري عالء الدين عبدالعظيم خلف‬

‫إشــراف‪:‬‬
‫التوقيع‬ ‫الوظيفة‬ ‫االسم‬ ‫م‬
‫أستاذ الرسوبيه المتفرغ بقسم الجيولوجيا‬ ‫‪ 1‬أ‪.‬د‪ .‬عمر عبدالرحمن محمد حجاب‬
‫‪ -‬كلية العلوم‪ -‬جامعة المنصورة‬
‫مدرس الجيوفيزياء بقسم الجيولوجيا ‪-‬‬ ‫‪ 2‬د‪ .‬مـحـمد عـوض أحـمد أحـمد‬
‫كلية العلوم‪ -‬جامعة المنصورة‬
‫مدير عام االستكشاف بشركه رشيد‬ ‫‪ 3‬د‪ .‬محمد نشأت محي الدين يوسف‬
‫للبترول سابقا‬
‫المحكمون‪:‬‬
‫أستاذ الرسوبيه المتفرغ بقسم الجيولوجيا‬ ‫‪1‬‬
‫‪ -‬كلية العلوم‪ -‬جامعة المنصورة‬ ‫أ‪.‬د‪ .‬عمر عبدالرحمن محمد حجاب‬
‫أستاذ الجـيوفـيزياء ‪ -‬كلية العلوم‪ -‬جامعة‬

‫أسيوط‬ ‫‪ 2‬أ‪.‬د‪ .‬عوض عبدالخالق عمران‬
‫أستاذ الجيولوجيا ‪ -‬كليه العلوم ‪ -‬جامعة‬ ‫‪3‬‬
‫الملك سعود‬ ‫أ‪.‬د‪ .‬عبدالعزيز محمد البسام‬
‫عميد الكلية‬ ‫وكيل الكلية لشئون الدراسات العليا‬ ‫رئيس مجلس قسم الجيولوجيا‬
‫أ‪.‬د‪ .‬عزة إسماعيل عثمان‬ ‫أ‪.‬د‪ .‬السيد إبراهيم الدسوقي‬ ‫أ‪.‬د‪ .‬حسني حسن غزاله‬
‫جامعة المنصورة‬
‫كلية العلوم‬
‫صفحة المشرفين ومساعديهم‬
‫عنوان الرسالة ‪ :‬تحسين جودة تسجيالت الطفلة والتنبؤ بضغط‬

‫الطبقات بمساعدة البيانات الجيولوجية والجيوفيزيقية لحقول مختارة‬
‫دلتا النيل ‪ -‬مصر‬
‫اسم الباحث‪ :‬أحمد صبرى عالءالدين عبدالعظيم خلف‬
‫إشــراف‪:‬‬
‫أستاذ الرسوبيه المتفرغ بقسم الجيولوجيا‬ ‫‪ 1‬أ‪.‬د‪ .‬عمر عبدالرحمن محمد حجاب‬
‫مدرس الجيوفيزياء بقسم الجيولوجيا ‪-‬‬ ‫‪ 2‬د‪ .‬مـحـمد عـوض أحـمد أحـمد‬
‫كلية العلوم‪ -‬جامعة المنصورة‬
‫مدير عام االستكشاف بشركه رشيد‬ ‫د‪ .‬محمد نشأت محي الدين يوسف‬ ‫‪3‬‬
‫للبترول سابقا‬
‫عميد الكلية‬ ‫وكيل الكلية لشئون الدراسات العليا‬ ‫رئيس مجلس قسم الجيولوجيا‬
‫أ‪.‬د‪ .‬عزة إسماعيل عثمان‬ ‫أ‪.‬د‪ .‬السيد إبراهيم الدسوقي‬ ‫أ‪.‬د‪ .‬حسني حسن غزاله‬
‫كــلـيـة الـعـلـــوم‬
‫تحسين جودة تسجيالت الطفلة والتنبؤ بضغط‬

‫الطبقات بمساعدة البيانات الجيولوجية‬
‫والجيوفيزيقية لحقول مختارة دلتا النيل ‪ -‬مصر‬
‫رسالة مقدمة‬
‫من‬
‫أحمد صبرى عالءالدين عبدالعظيم خلف‬
‫ماجستري علوم يف الچيولوچيا ‪-‬چيوفيزياء تطبيقية‬
‫للحصول على درجة دكتوراة الفلسفة‬

‫في العلوم ‪ -‬چيولوچيا (چيوفيزياء تطبيقية)‬
‫تحت إشراف‬
‫األستاذ الدكتور‬
‫عمر عبدالرحمن محمد حجاب‬
‫أستاذ الرسوبيه المتفرغ بقسم الجيولوجيا‬
‫الدكتور‬ ‫الدكتور‬
‫محمد نشأت محي الدين يوسف‬ ‫مـحـمد عـوض أحـمد أحـمد‬
‫مدير عام االستكشاف بشركه رشيد للبترول‬ ‫مدرس الجيوفيزياء بقسم الجيولوجيا‬
‫سابقا‬ ‫‪ -‬كلية العلوم‪ -‬جامعة المنصورة‬
‫‪6102‬‬
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MUD LOGGING QUALITY CONTROL AND PORE PRESSURE PREDICTION USING

Thesis · July 2016

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

MUD LOGGING QUALITY CONTROL AND

Emeritus Professor of Sedimentary Rock,

I hereby declare that I am the author of this thesis.

GRATEFULLY AND RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED

My children Omar, Aya, and Moaz

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER TWO: GEOLOGICAL SETTINGS

CHAPTER FOUR: EARLY KICK DETECTION

CHAPTER SIX: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 99

Table 4-1 The used mud logging terms. 38

A Parameter obtained from calibrating regional offset velocity versus

1.3. Overpressure regimes global examples

1.4. The Nile Delta overpressure regime and exploration

Exploration in the offshore Nile Delta is getting more significance according

Figure (1-3) Proven natural gas reserves in Egypt (Sabry, 2008).

1.5. Historical overview on the exploration activities

1.6. The study materials and methods

1.7. The aims of the study

c) Detect kick from mud logging real-time data.

The Qawasim Formation

The Qawasim Formation upper boundary is difficult to be determined

31° 30' 32° 00' 32° 30'

The Abu Madi Formation

entrenched channels confined by topographic and structural highs (El-Heiny and

2.3.2. The North Delta Basin

MUD LOGGING QUALITY CONTROL

Figure (3-1). Mud logging data acquisition and exchange configuration.

Figure (3-3). Quantitative gas measurement trap (Wright et al., 1993).

Hook position (ft) Total gas (unit)

Mud logging company (A) (B) (C)

Every 0.25 meter

Figure (3-6). A Comparison between two gas chromatographs analysis charts.

3.6. Applications of gas chromatograph

Balance ratio (Bh) is a direct comparison of light to heavy hydrocarbons

Bh inversely related to Wh, where it decreases as the fluid density increases.

Table (4-1). The used mud logging terms.

4.6.1. Offshore Nile Delta case studies

4.6.1.1. Case study#1

Total Gas Measured Depth

4.6.1.2. Case study#2

4.7. Proposed advanced early kick detection method

Kick detection Conventional well control

An additional and accurate flow check using

Using a wide range pressure

Able to detect near-balance state by circulating

Pick up of bottom, space out,

Recommendation for near-

Prepare to If CG or POG appear, discuss

4.8. Advanced early kick detection recommendations

5.3. The determination of the overburden stress gradient

5.4. Pore pressure prediction methods

where vp = velocity at a given depth, vml = surface compressional velocity in the

where Pulo is the pore pressure in the case of unloading.