Resonance Circuits

Engr. Philip Caesar L. Ebit

OBJECTIVES
• Identify the formulas for determining capacitive and inductive reactance.
• Identify how AC current and voltage react in capacitors and inductors.
• Determine the reactance of a series circuit, and identify whether it is
capacitive or inductive.
• Define the term impedance.
• Solve problems for impedance that contain both resistance and
capacitance or inductance.
• Discuss how Ohm’s law must be modified prior to using it for AC circuits.
• Solve for 𝑋𝐶 , 𝑋𝐿 , 𝑋, 𝑍, and 𝐼𝑇 in RLC series circuits.
• Solve for 𝐼𝐶 , 𝐼𝐿 , 𝐼𝑋 , 𝐼𝑅 , and 𝐼𝑍 in RLC parallel circuits.
• When the reactance of the inductor equals the
reactance of the capacitor, it forms a resonant circuit.
Resonant circuits are used in a variety of circuits in
electronics.
Reactance in Series Circuit
• A series circuit (Figure 17–1) DC
voltage is generally supplied by a
battery. The value of the amount
of current flowing in a circuit may
be determined by Ohm’s law,
which uses the battery voltage
and resistance of the circuit.
Reactance in Series Circuit
• When an AC voltage source
is applied to a circuit (Figure
17–2), the instantaneous
value of current flowing
through the resistor varies
with the alternating output
voltage applied.
Reactance in Series Circuit
• Ohm’s law applies to the AC
circuit just as it does with the
DC circuit. Peak current may
be calculated from the
source’s peak voltage, and
rms current from the rms
voltage.
Reactance in Series Circuit
• Figure 17–3 shows a graph of
one cycle of AC. It shows that
when the voltage reaches a peak,
the current also reaches a peak.
Both the voltage and the current
crosses the zero line together.
The two waveforms are said to
be in phase.
Reactance in Series Circuit
• The effects of pure inductance or capacitance cause the
voltage or current of a circuit to be 90 degrees out of phase.
• This situation becomes more complex when both reactive
and resistance components are combined—a condition that
is typical of an AC circuit.
Reactance in Series Circuit
• In Figure 17–4, the components
are shown connected in a series
circuit, and the current flows
equally through both
components.
Reactance in Series Circuit
• These voltages appear to be
incorrect because they total
more than the supply voltage of
120 volts.
• This occurs because the voltage
across the resistor is out of phase
with the voltage across the
inductor.
Reactance in Series Circuit
• Voltage and current are in phase
in the resistive portion of the
circuit. In the inductive portion of
the circuit, voltage leads the
current by 90 degrees.
• Because the current at all points
in a series circuit must be in
phase, 𝐸𝑅 and 𝐸𝐿 are out of
phase.
Reactance in Series Circuit
• A way to represent voltage and
current in circuits, such as the
one in Figure 17–4, is to use
vectors.
Reactance in Series Circuit
• Vectors are arrows that start
at the origin of a coordinate
system and point in a
particular direction (Figure
17–5).
• The length of the arrow
indicates the magnitude—
the longer the arrow, the
larger the value.
Reactance in Series Circuit
• The angle the arrow makes
with the x-axis indicates its
phase in degrees.
• The positive x-axis is zero
degrees and the degrees
increase as the arrow is
moved in a counterclockwise
direction.
Reactance in Series Circuit
• In Figure 17–4, the current flows
through both components with
the same phase. The current
vector is used as the zero degree
reference and will lie on the x-
axis. Voltage 𝐸𝑅 is in phase with
the current and its vector is also
placed on the x-axis.
Reactance in Series Circuit
• The voltage across the
inductor, 𝐸𝐿 , is 90 degrees ahead
of the current. Therefore, its
vector points straight up, or 90
degrees from the x-axis.
• Each vector is drawn to scale.
The source voltage vector (𝐸𝑇 ) is
started at the origin and ends at
the maximum values of 𝐸𝑅 and
𝐸𝐿 , as shown in Figure 17–5.
Reactance in Series Circuit
• The angle of the vector (𝐸𝑇 ) is
the phase between the source
voltage and current, and its
length indicates the voltage’s
magnitude.
Reactance in Series Circuit
• The base voltage diagram
may be rearranged to form a
right triangle, with the
hypotenuse representing the
longest vector (Figure 17–6).
Reactance in Series Circuit
• Scale drawings are not needed to
determine magnitude because
the Pythagorean Theorem states:

𝐸𝑇 = 𝐸𝑅2 + 𝐸𝐿2
• This formula may be used to
calculate any vector when the
other two legs are known.
Reactance in Series Circuit
• Vector representation also
allows the use of
trigonometric functions to
determine voltage when only
one voltage and the phase
angle is known.
Reactance in Series Circuit
• It also determines the phase angle
when the two voltages are known.
These relationships are:
𝐸𝐿
sin 𝜃 =
𝐸𝑇

𝐸𝑅
cos 𝜃 =
𝐸𝑇

𝐸𝐿
tan 𝜃 =
𝐸𝑅
Reactance in Series Circuit
Experimenting with different values of 𝐸𝐿 and 𝐸𝑅 will reveal several
useful tips to remember:
• When a circuit is purely resistive, the phase angle is zero because
voltage and current are in phase.
• As the inductive reactance increases, the phase angle becomes
greater until it reaches 45 degrees when the resistance and the
reactance are equal in value. As the inductive reactance increases
further, the angle will approach 90 degrees.
• When a circuit contains pure reactance with no resistance the phase
angle will increase to 90 degrees.
Reactance in Series Circuit
• The combined effect of resistance and reactance is called
impedance and is represented by the symbol Z.
• Impedance must be used to calculate the current in a
reactive circuit when the supply voltage is known.
• Dividing the source voltage by the resistance added to the
reactance will yield an incorrect answer because the voltages
involved are not in phase with each other.
Reactance in Series Circuit
• Vectors may be used to
describe the circuit
impedance (Figure 17–7).
Reactance in Series Circuit
• The series RC circuit in Figure 17–8A is described by the vector
diagrams in Figure 17–8B and 17–8C.
Reactance in Series Circuit
• Again, the current is used as the zero-degree reference point, with 𝐸𝑅
at 0 degrees since it is in phase with the current.
Reactance in Series Circuit
• Remember, in a capacitive circuit, the voltage lags 90 degrees behind
the current, so its voltage vector (𝐸𝐶 ) is drawn downward.
Reactance in Series Circuit
• The phase angle of such a circuit is sometimes given a negative value,
although it is just as acceptable to specify “leading” or “lagging”
instead.
Reactance in Series Circuit
• All the same trigonometric equations and the Pythagorean Theorem
may be applied to the vectors.
Example Problem
Reactance in Parallel Circuits
• Parallel circuits containing inductors and capacitors
may also be analyzed with vector diagrams.
• However, the vectors used are current vectors
because the voltage across each component must be
equal and in phase with each other.
Reactance in Parallel Circuits
• Figure 17–10 shows a parallel RL circuit and its resulting vector
diagram. The vector for the resistor current is placed at 0 degrees.
Reactance in Parallel Circuits
• It is a simple matter to plot the vector for the inductor’s current, 𝐼𝐿 .
The current through the inductor lags behind the voltage by 90
degrees, so the vector is drawn downward.
Reactance in Parallel Circuits
• Figure 17–11 shows the vector diagram for a parallel RC circuit.
Notice that the capacitive and inductive vectors (Figure 17–10) for
parallel circuits are drawn in the opposite direction to those of a
series circuit. Remember, in parallel circuits current is examined, not
voltage.
Reactance in Parallel Circuits
• Just as the resistance of a parallel circuit is always less than
the value of the smallest resistor, the impedance of a parallel
RL or RC circuit is smaller than both the individual resistance
or reactance.
• Vectors may be used to determine parallel circuit
impedance; however, the reciprocal values of R, X, and Z
must be used.
Reactance in Parallel Circuits
• Inductive Circuit:
1 1 1
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝑅2 + 𝐼𝐿2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = +
𝑍 𝑅 𝑋𝐿
Reactance in Parallel Circuits
• Capacitive Circuit:
1 1 1
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝑅2 + 𝐼𝐶2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = +
𝑍 𝑅 𝑋𝐶
Example Problem
Power
• The power consumption of a purely resistive AC circuit is
easy to determine. Calculate the product of the rms current
and rms voltage to obtain the average power.
Power
• Figure 17–13A shows a graphical method in which instantaneous
power consumption may be calculated by plotting current and
voltage on the same axes and then performing successive
multiplications to plot the power curve.
Power
• The same principle may be applied to the reactive circuit
(Figure 17–13B). Remember that a circuit containing just
pure inductance shows current lagging voltage by 90
degrees.
Power
• During the positive portion of the waveform, the inductor takes
energy and stores it in the form of a magnetic field.
• During the negative portion of the waveform, the field collapses and
the coil returns energy to the circuit.
Power
• A similar situation occurs with pure capacitance, except the
capacitor stores energy as an electrostatic field and the
voltage current phase relationship is reversed.
Power
• As resistance is introduced to a circuit, the phase angle becomes less
than 90 degrees and the power curve will shift to a more positive
value, showing that the circuit is taking more energy than it is
returning.
Power
• However, the capacitive or inductive part of the circuit still stores and
releases energy and consumes no power.
• The power loss is due entirely to the resistance. Remember, only the
resistive part of the circuit consumes power.
Power
𝑍= 𝑅12 + 𝑋𝐶2 = 1002 + 502 = 111.8 Ω
Power
• Using Ohm’s law, this would allow a current of approximately 1 amp
to flow in the circuit. The voltage drop across the resistor would be
100 volts, so the true power dissipated by the resistor would be
approximately 100 watts.
Power
• The capacitive part of the circuit consumes no power, yet multiplying
the source voltage by circuit current yields an answer of 112 watts.
The difference is accounted for by the difference in phases between
the various voltages.
Power
• As opposed to true power, the figure obtained by multiplying the
source voltage and current is known as apparent power, and it is
specified as 112 VA or 112 voltamperes.
Types of Power Calculated in AC Circuits
True Power
• The power which is actually consumed or utilized in an AC
Circuit is called True power or Active Power or real power. It
is measured in kilo watt (kW) or MW. It is the actual
outcomes of the electrical system which runs the electric
circuits or load.

.
Types of Power Calculated in AC Circuits
Reactive Power
• The power which flows back and forth that mean it moves in
both the direction in the circuit or react upon itself, is called
Reactive Power. The reactive power is measured in kilo volt
ampere reactive (kVAR) or MVAR.
Types of Power Calculated in AC Circuits
Apparent Power
• The product of root mean square (RMS) value of voltage and
current is known as Apparent Power. This power is measured
in kVA or MVA.
 𝑺 = 𝑽𝑰
𝑸 = 𝑽𝑰 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝑷 = 𝑽𝑰 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
Power factor
• The ratio of true power in
watts to apparent power in
volt-amps is called the power
factor.

𝑃 𝑅
𝑝𝑓 = =
𝑆 𝑍
𝑝𝑓 = cos 𝜃
Power Triangle Impedance Triangle
Power factor
• Power factor is an important
consideration in heavy
industrial power distribution
where the cables must be
capable of handling the
apparent power load.

𝑃 𝑅
𝑝𝑓 = =
𝑆 𝑍
𝑝𝑓 = cos 𝜃 Power Triangle Impedance Triangle
Types of Power factor
• Unity pf – the voltage and current are in phase.
• Lagging pf – the current lags the voltage by an acute angle 𝜃.
• Leading pf – the current leads the voltage by an acute angle 𝜃.
• Zero pf – if the voltage and current are out phase by exactly 90°.
• Example: From the circuit shown below,
calculate the apparent, true, and reactive power.
Also, state the power factor of the circuit.
Complex Impedance Equivalents of R,L, & C
Circuit Elements Impedance Equivalents
R R
L 𝑗𝑋𝐿
C −𝑗𝑋𝐶
Series RL 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿
Series RC 𝑅 − 𝑗𝑋𝐶
Series LC 𝑗 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶
Series RLC 𝑅 + 𝑗 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶
Introduction to Resonance
• In electronics, resonant circuits pass desired frequencies and reject all
others. The ability of a series or parallel combination of 𝑋𝐿 or 𝑋𝐶 to
produce resonance provides a number of unique applications.
• Resonant circuits make it possible for a radio or television receiver to
tune in and receive a station at a particular frequency.
• The tuning circuit consists of a coil of wire in parallel with a capacitor.
Parallel tuned circuits have maximum impedance at resonant
frequencies. Tuned circuits are vital to a variety of types of
communication equipment, from radios to radar.
Introduction to Resonance
• Resonance occurs when a circuit’s inductive and capacitive reactance
are balanced.
• Previously, it was mentioned that inductive reactance increases with
frequency, and capacitive reactance increases with frequency.
• If both inductive and capacitive components are in an AC circuit, at
one particular frequency their reactances will be equal but opposite.
This condition is referred to as resonance.
• A circuit that contains this characteristics is called a resonant circuit.
Both inductance and capacitance must be present for this condition
to occur.
Introduction to Resonance
• The value of inductance and capacitance determines the specific
frequency of resonance of a circuit.
• Changing either or both will result in a different resonant frequency.
Typically, the larger the value of inductance and capacitance, the
lower the resonant frequency.
• Therefore, the smaller the value of inductance and capacitance, the
higher the resonant frequency.
Introduction to Resonance
• Above and below the resonant frequency of any LC circuit, the circuit
behaves as any standard AC circuit.
• Resonance is desired with radio frequencies in tuning receivers and
transmitters, certain industrial equipment, and test equipment.
• It is undesired in audio amplifiers and power supplies. Resonant
circuits are not used in the audio bands of frequencies.
Resonance frequency
1
𝑓𝑟 =
2𝜋 𝐿𝐶
Where:
𝑓𝑟 = resonance frequency
𝐿 = inductance
𝐶 = capacitance
Workout Problem
1. A circuit with 0.1 henry inductance and 20 ohms resistance in series
is connected across 100-volt 25-cycle mains. Determine (a)
impedance; (b) current; (c) voltage across the resistance; (d) voltage
across the inductance; (e) angle by which voltage leads current.
Workout Problem
2. A capacitance of 20𝜇𝐹 and a resistance of 100 ohms are connected
in series across 120-volt 60 cycle mains. Determine (a) impedance of
the circuit; (b) current; (c) voltage across resistance; (d) voltage across
capacitance; (e) angle between voltage and current; (f) true power; (g)
power factor.
Workout Problem
3. A series circuit with a resistance of 50 ohms, a capacitance of 25𝜇𝐹, and
an inductance of 0.15 henry is connected across 120-volt 60-cycle mains.
Determine
(a) impedance of the circuit;
(b) current;
(c) voltage across resistance;
(d) voltage across inductance;
(e) voltage across capacitance;
(f) phase angle of circuit;
(g) power factor of the circuit;
(h) power given to circuit
Workout Problem
4. A resistance of 10 ohms, an inductive reactance of 8 ohms, and a
capacitive reactance of 15 ohms are connected in parallel across 120-
volt 60-cycle main. Determine (a) total current; (b) circuit power factor;
(c) power.
Workout Problem
5. A circuit has a resistance of 20 ohms, an inductance of 0.3 henry, a
capacitance of 20𝜇𝐹, and the current is 5.0 Amp. Determine (a)
frequency at which circuit will be in resonance; (b) line voltage; (c)
voltage across inductance; (d) voltage across capacitance; (e) power to
circuit.