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Eugen Bleulers Dementia Praecox or The Group of Schizophrenias 1911 A Centenary Appreciation and
Eugen Bleulers Dementia Praecox or The Group of Schizophrenias 1911 A Centenary Appreciation and
Eugen Bleulers Dementia Praecox or The Group of Schizophrenias 1911 A Centenary Appreciation and
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CENTENNIAL CELEBRATION
On the 100th anniversary of the publication of Eugen of Mental Disorders, First Edition (DSM-I) and DSM-II.4
Bleuler’s Dementia Praecox or the Group of Schizophrenias, At the time, psychiatry in the United States was strongly
his teachings on schizophrenia from that seminal book are psychoanalytic and easily assimilated Bleuler’s relatively
reviewed and reassessed, and implications for the current broad and psychologically based diagnostic category of
revision of the category of schizophrenia, with its emphasis schizophrenia, which did not emphasize psychotic symp-
471
A. Moskowitz & G. Heim
This ultimately led to the development of the DSM-III, Kraepelin and Bleuler—Deduction vs Induction?
published in 1980.12
Emil Kraepelin initially began formulating his ideas on
For the diagnosis of schizophrenia, the neo-
psychopathology in 1883 and found himself ‘‘bewil-
Kraepelinians, following Wing et al,7 relied heavily on the
dered’’ by the ‘‘wide differences in terminology and con-
teachings of the German psychiatrist, Kurt Schneider.8
ceptions’’ of mental disorders that faced him.10(p338) He
Schneider argued that certain types of psychotic symp-
attempted to bring some order to these observations, and
toms (so-called first rank symptoms) were strongly asso-
the result was the first edition of his compendium of psy-
ciated with schizophrenia. From the DSM-III through
chiatry (Kraepelin, 1883). From the beginning, Kraepelin
the DSM-IV (and also in the ICD-9 and ICD-10), only
strongly emphasized a somatic/biological etiology of
one of these symptoms (auditory hallucinations (AH)
mental disorders and strongly de-emphasized possible so-
commenting on one’s behavior or 2 or more AH convers-
cial or psychological causes.21 This may have been partly
ing with each other or bizarre delusions—described pri-
because of his close relationship with his brother, the re-
marily as delusions of control or thought-related
nowned biologist Karl Kraepelin, with whom he shared
delusions) was required to meet the schizophrenia symp-
a strong interest in biological systems of classification.22
tom criterion. However, it quickly became apparent that
Over the ensuing years, Kraepelin began to refine his
such symptoms were not unique to schizophrenia, occur-
concepts of diagnostic categories, initially (1886–1891) at
ring frequently in other psychoses13 and in dissociative
the University of Dorpat (Tartu) in what is now Estonia.
disorders14 and that they had no particular prognostic
His clinical work there required the use of translators as
or predictive value.15 Even so, these first rank symptoms
Kraepelin did not speak the native language. He then
continue to be emphasized in the diagnosis of schizophre-
went to Heidelberg, where the amount of clinical work
too much of an exaggeration to claim that Kraepelin pre- Bleuler, on the other hand, believed that he could
ferred to spend time with his Zählkarte instead of with his best develop concepts of mental disorders, particularly
patients; a colleague of his described him ‘‘fanatically’’ dementia praecox/schizophrenia, by carefully studying
working and reworking through thousands of his cards what his patients actually said and did and seeing how
as though they were ‘‘rare art objects.’’22 they responded to psychological tests, thus utilizing an
Eugen Bleuler’s attitude and working methods could inductive approach to nosology. He argued for consider-
not have been more different. In all likelihood, Bleuler able overlap between normal and schizophrenic behavior
was motivated to become a psychiatrist because of the and made great use of the unconscious and dissociative
frustration the local people of his Canton in Switzerland processes in his theorizing (see particularly Bleuler’s
felt toward the foreign (primarily German) doctors, who ‘‘Consciousness and associations’’27).
could not understand their dialect and were unfamiliar
with the local culture.24 He is also likely to have had
first-hand experience of this, as his elder sister was psy-
chiatrically hospitalized at Burghölzli, the psychiatric Four Myths About Bleuler’s (1911) Schizophrenia
hospital near Zürich, when he was a teenager (and Myth #1: Bleuler’s ‘‘Schizophrenia’’ and ‘‘Splitting’’
remained chronically ill throughout her life, living with Refer Narrowly to a Separation of Thought and Affect or
Bleuler and his family for most of her later years25). Ble- a Splitting of Associations
uler was driven by a desire to understand the patients he There has long been considerable discomfort in the psy-
worked with; he thought he could do this best by spend- chiatric world with Bleuler’s term schizophrenia and its
ing as much time as possible with them and taking copi- popular conception as a form of split personality. Psychi-
While Bleuler’s splitting of psychic functions has been the foremost Bleuler scholar, often used the term disso-
interpreted in contemporary circles as an ‘‘extreme sep- ciation interchangeably with splitting. For example, in an
aration of thought and affect’’ or a ‘‘splitting of associa- English language summary of Bleuler’s 1911 book,
tions,’’29(p201) this was not typically how Bleuler used the Manfred Bleuler stated, ‘‘He believed that the splitting
term. He most often refers to the splitting of ‘‘idea-’’ or (the dissociation of thoughts, of emotions, of attitudes
‘‘affect-laden’’ complexes and at other times refers simply and of acting) were close to ‘primary symptoms’’’.26(p663)
to the splitting of psychic functions. Occasionally, he Even more striking, in the same article, Bleuler goes on to
appears to use these terms interchangeably, as in: ‘‘the characterize his father’s concept of ambivalence as ‘‘the
affectively charged complex of ideas continues to become patient thinks, feels, and acts in many respects as if there
isolated and obtains an ever increasing independence were different souls in him, as if he consisted of different
(splitting of the psychic functions).’’2(p359) personalities, that he becomes ‘split’ to a psychotic
There is no evidence that Bleuler used the term splitting degree.’’26(p663)
(‘‘Spaltung’’) prior to his 1908 introduction of Schizo- Thus, in offering the name Schizophrenia in place of
phrenia. Rather, to that point, he appeared content to Dementia Praecox, Bleuler was arguing that the minds
use the term dissociation, which he did extensively in of these individuals were split in a substantial way—not
his 1905 article ‘‘Consciousness and associations’’ and only that their thinking and affect were segregated from
in his 1906 book Affectivity, Suggestibility, Paranoia30 each other (though that, in and of itself, could also be
(as did his close colleague Jung, in his 1907 On the Psy- considered a form of dissociation). His use of splitting
chology of Dementia Praecox31). He also occasionally of psychic functions is similar to both historical and con-
used it as a synonym for splitting in his 1911 book, as temporary uses of the term dissociation; while this does
associations. Secondly and significantly, Bleuler never mistranslation of an important chapter title from the
used the term ‘‘loose associations,’’ a phrase that is often 1911 book as ‘‘the train of thought-splitting,’’ instead of
attributed to him and refers narrowly to a specific dis- ‘‘the train of thought; Splitting’’ as both are covered sep-
turbance of speech or thought. Rather, he saw in the arately, contributed to this). Its central importance was
frequent disturbances of thought and speech in schizo- discussed above but is also illustrated with comments
phrenia strong evidence for loosening of associations, such as: ‘‘The splitting is the prerequisite condition of
an underlying psychological deficit or a predisposition most of the complicated phenomena of the disease. It
of sorts, which explained the exaggerated impact of the is the splitting which gives the peculiar stamp to the entire
emotions on the psychological functions in schizophrenia symptomatology.’’2(p362) At times, Bleuler appeared to
(‘‘The affective sway over the associations is far stronger vacillate between giving precedence to splitting or loos-
[in schizophrenia] than in the healthy’’).2(p364) The erro- ening of associations; sometimes, he even equated the
neous attribution of the term loose associations to Bleuler 2, as in the following discussion on the derivation of
is one of the main reasons he is inaccurately viewed as the secondary symptoms.
arguing for schizophrenia as a primary disorder of think-
The weakening of the logical functions results in relative pre-
ing. While he did at times use loosening of associations in dominance of the affects. Unpleasantly-toned associations
a descriptive sense to characterize odd speech, Bleuler are repressed at their very inception (blocking); whatever
primarily considered loosening of associations to be conflicts with the affects is split off. This mechanism leads
the core psychological deficit underlying most of the to the logical blunders which determine (among other
other characteristic symptoms of schizophrenia. things) the delusions; but the most significant effect is the
splitting of the psyche in accordance with the emotionally-
Karl Abraham, a Burghölzli psychiatrist and close ally of Furthermore, there are considerable similarities
Freud’s who attended Bleuler’s 1908 talk in Berlin in between the core deficits of schizophrenia—loosening
which the concept was introduced. Abraham told Freud of associations—and psychasthenia—reduction in psy-
afterward that Bleuler ‘‘had avoided anything related to chological tension. ‘‘Lockerung’’ can be translated not
psycho-analysis’’ in his discussion of schizophrenia.39(p19) only as ‘‘loosening’’ but also as a ‘‘slackening,’’ or a ‘‘re-
Perhaps the clearest indication of Bleuler’s disagree- laxation of tension’’ and Bleuler2 frequently referred to
ment with Freud can be seen in his review40 of Freud’s a weakening (pp354, 367) or a deficit in synthesis
(1911) analysis of the Schreber case (Freud’s most de- (p371) in relation to loosening of associations. Interest-
tailed consideration of psychosis). Bleuler questioned ingly, in a later article, Bleuler (1919) referred to the
Freud’s need to posit sexuality, as opposed to any ‘‘un- central disturbance of schizophrenia not as Lockerung
pleasant affect’’ as driving repression and argued against but as ‘‘Störung der Assoziations-spannung,’’ which
the withdrawal of libido as being necessary for the devel- can be translated as ‘‘disturbance of the tension of
opment of delusions. Pointedly, he wondered ‘‘Couldn’t associations.’’44
it be that (Schreber’s) recurrent fantasy of the end of the The distance from Freud, and affinity to Janet, is per-
world developed through the loss of the usual coherence haps most apparent in consideration of the second major
of perceptions and memories, which certainly plays a role component of Bleuler’s definition of schizophrenia—
in schizophrenia, rather than through the retraction of complexes (‘‘If the disease is marked, the personality loses
libido?’’40(p347) ‘‘Loss of the usual coherence of percep- its unity; at different times different psychic complexes
tions and memories’’ clearly refers to loosening of asso- seem to represent the personality’’).2(p9) What did he
ciations, which Bleuler prefers over Freud’s libido-based mean by this? Bleuler received the concept of complexes
extent to which dementia praecox itself (and not just its tanced himself from Freud’s contemporaneous theories
symptoms) might be psychologically caused. While Jung of infantile sexuality and libido.
thought it could be, Bleuler disagreed (throughout his
professional life, Bleuler rarely wavered from his insis-
Conclusions
tence that schizophrenia must have an organic basis,
though he was unsure what it might be). However, The advent of the neo-Kraepelinian movement over the
Bleuler did not suggest that his concept of complexes past 40 years, with its attendant lionization of Kraepelin,
was in any way different from Jung’s. has led to a relative neglect and misunderstanding of Ble-
Such a concept bears strong similarities to Pierre uler’s essential teachings on schizophrenia. The neo-
Janet’s notion of traumatically based ‘‘fixed ideas’’ Kraepelinians’ concern with diagnostic reliability led to
(‘‘spheres of consciousness’’ formed around ‘‘memories an overemphasis on psychotic symptoms, particularly
of intensely arousing experiences, which .organize cog- Schneider’s first rank symptoms, producing a diagnostic
nitive, affective and visceral elements of the trauma while category of questionable validity strikingly dissimilar
simultaneously keeping them out of conscious aware- from the one proposed by Bleuler a century ago. This
ness’’46(p1532) but are a far cry from Freud’s ideas.47 trend to emphasize psychosis in schizophrenia diagnostic
Jung seemed to recognize this early on, noting that the criteria is now being criticized by well-established schizo-
idea of a ‘‘feeling-toned complex’’ went ‘‘a little beyond phrenia researchers (‘‘Psychotic experience is to the diag-
the scope of Freud’s views’’31(p38) and characterizing his nosis of mental illness as fever is to the diagnosis of
1911 article ‘‘On the doctrine of complexes’’ in a letter to infection – important, but non-decisive in differential
Freud as ‘‘a stupid thing you had better not see.38’’ Fur- diagnosis’’19 (p2081)) as well as those from the phenome-
disagreed, as the following quote indicates. It also illus- 12. American Psychiatric Association.Diagnostic and Statistical
trates that, while Bleuler typically held schizophrenia to Manual of Mental Disorders. 3rd ed. Washington, DC: Au-
thor; 1980.
be organically based, even he sometimes wondered about
13. Carpenter WT, Strauss JS. Cross-cultural evaluation of
environmental influences, a topic of considerable concern Schneider’s first-rank symptoms of schizophrenia: a report
today. from the International Pilot Study of Schizophrenia. Am J
Psychiatry. 1974;131:682–687.
The stronger the affects, the less pronounced the dissociative
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ple personality disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 1987;144:293–298.
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outcome in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1974;30:
caused the marked mental impairment; but in milder cases,
117–120.
the acute episodes may have been released by powerful
affects. And not infrequently, after a careful analysis, we 16. American Psychiatric Association.DSM-5 Development
Committee Recommendations for Schizophrenia http://www.
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