2001 IEEE/ASME JOINT RAIL CONFERENCE
TORONTO, ONTARIO, CANADA
April 17-19,2001
ANALYSIS OF STRAY CURRENT, TRACK-TO-EARTH POTENTIALS
&SUBSTATION NEGATIVE GROUNDING IN DC TRACTION
ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEM
Kinh D. Pham, P.E.
Elcon Associates, Inc.
Portland, Oregon
Abstract:
In the first part of the paper, we will look at a
stray current model under the ideal conditions
with uniformly distributed track-to-earth
resistances and develop the track-to-earth
potentials and stray current relationships
within a segment of track. We then will
expand the model to include buried metallic
structures in the vicinity of the track using
field theory to calculate the potential
gradients generated due to flow of rail current
and show that a potential difference
experienced by a crossing or paralleling
underground structure that traverses these
gradients could cause stray current corrosion.
We will discuss the limitations of these
models with the actual conditions such as
non-uniform track-to-earth resistances,
non-uniform soil resistivities.
In the second part, we will look at the stray
current model when there are inadvertent
breakdowns in the track insulation. The
points of rail insulation breakdown may be
approximated using the spherical ground
electrode model and equipotential lines to
illustrate the flow of stray current. Common
grounding of the substation negative bus,
substation ac ground mat and electric utility
Ralph S.Thomas, P.E. & Walt E. Stinger, P.E.
LTK Engineering Services
Portland, Oregon
neutral will be examined and discussed.
PART 1: STRAY CURRENT MODEL WITH
U"0RMLY DISTRIBUTED TRACK-TO-
EARTH RESISTANCES
Introduction:
Historically, rails have been considered as the
least expensive negative return conductor for dc
traction electrification systems. Designers of
modem dc rail transit system must address the
following issues about rails:
0
Traction power engineers want to use the
rails as a continuous negative return
conductor for traction current and
possibly to ground the rails temporarily
when the high rail potential rise could
pose a danger to personnel and
passengers.
0
Signal engineers may want to isolate the
rails by section, and thus use them as
power frequency train control circuits for
track occupancy indication.
0
Corrosion engineers want to insulate
rails from ties and ballast to minimize
stray traction power currents as a cause
of corrosion.
141
These different and conflicting demands must
be dealt with and satisfied. To maintain
continuity for dc traction current and allow
rail isolation for track circuits, impedance
bonds will be used. Stray currents can be
mitigated effectively by increasing the track-
to-earth resistances. However, this could
elevate the track-to-earth voltages under
certain operating conditions.

This paper will mainly focus on stray current

control, track-to-earth potentials and
grounding of the traction power substation
negative. Various circuit models are
developed to analyze stray current and track- % : RESISTANCE OF NEGATNE R m R N CIRCUIT
R,, : RESISTANCE OF P O S l M CIRCUIT
to-earth potentials under various conditions.
R,. : TRACK-TO-EARTH RESISTANCE AT THE LOAD END '

R, : TRACK-TO-EARTH RESISTANCE AT M E SOURCE END

Basic Stray Current Model
I, : TRAlN OPERATlNG CURRENT

IN : CURRENT REI\IRN THROUGH M E RAILS

To illustrate the basic components affecting I, : LEAKAGE CURRENT TO EARTH AT M E LOAD END .
the levels of stray cunents generated by a dc I, : CURRENT RENRNING TO M E SUBSATION THROUGH EARTH
traction power system, a simple radial feed y : SUBSTATlON VOLTAGE

circuit model is shown in Figure 1. This %. : TRACK-TO-EARTH VOLTAGE AT THE Lon0 END
%s : TRACK-TO-EARTH VOLTAGE AT THE SUBSTATION LOCATION
model assumes that the resistance of the
v~ : VOLTAGE DEVELOPED ACROSS RN BY IN
overhead contact system to ground is very
high and there is no coupling between the
positive circuit and earth.

From this model, the three basic components

which control the level of leakage stray
Figure 1- Basic Stray Current Model
currents to ground are:
Although these three items are interrelated as
IT :The train current.
described later in subsequent parts of this paper,
VN :The voltage developed
each item must be considered separately.
across the negative circuit
resistance(RN).
. The.magnitude of the train current(IT)required
. RL&RS :The eflective resistance
to operate a light rail vehicle is power
between the negative circuit
dependent, Le., for a stated power requirement
and earth.
to provide for a certain acceleration under a
given set of conditions, the current required will
vary depending on the voltage. Hence, an

142
increase in operating voltage would allow a
proportional decrease in the current, and
would be a benefit to stray current limitation.
Most modern dc transit systems are designed
for the 600 to 800Vdc range. Seattle Sound
Transit Link light rail will be the first modem
light rail system that utilizes 1SOOVdc in
North America.
One consideration in maintaining train
operating voltage within acceptable limits
and minimizing the generation of stray
currents as the vehicle moves away from the
power source is to keep the substation as
close to the point of maximum load as
possible. This may require the use of more
substations than otherwise would be
necessary.
The second factor requiring consideration is
the resistance of the negative return circuit,
referred to as RN in Figure 1. Stray current is
a function of the track circuit potential or
negative rail potential. This potential, V,, is
the voltage developed across the negative
return rail fiom the substation to the train and
it depends on the train current&) and RN.
There are two basic approaches to maintain
the voltage developed across the negative
return system within the desired limits,
assuming a given propulsion power
requirement: a) Increase the conductance of
the negative return circuit; b) Reduce the
maximum distance between the load and
power source as also noted above, which
means spacing between traction power
substations would need to be reduced, which
may result in an increase of the number of
substations.
The third factor affecting the stray current
magnitudes in the model of Figure 1 is the
negative circuit to earth resistance, referred to
143
as RL&R,. Theoretically, we could reduce the
stray current by increasing RL&R, to very high
values.
Stray Current Model Used For Computer
Simulation
The actual model generally used for computer
stray current studies is shown in Figure 2. The
actual dc powered transit system utilizes a
number of traction power substations that are
interconnected, and finite negative circuit to
earth resistance. The characteristics of the
negative return circuit or running rails are those
of a distributed network.with a unit length of
track(s) composed of longitudinal resistance of
the rail conductors and the track-to-earth
resistances.
Train movement and current draw is a
continuously changing situation in a transit
system. The model shown in Figure 2 is a
dynamic circuit model and one approach that we
have found very useful in analyzing stray
currents is to take snapshots of the dynamic
system with various train operating conditions,
different traction power substation locations,
varying the resistances within the negative and
positive circuits, changing the effective negative
circuit to earth resistances, etc.
This type of computer study provides the
information that can be used as the basis for
decisions regarding what level of stray currents
could occur under various loading and operating
conditions. This information provides a basis
for evaluating the stray current effects on
underground utility or other underground
metallic structures and decisions on trade-offs
between stray current control versus mitigation.

~~~
Figure 2-Computer Simulation Stray
Current Model
Stray Current Control
The following accepted rail industry
standards have been used in recent rail transit
system designs to achieve an electrically
isolated rail system to control stray currents:
a Insulating pads and clips on concrete
ties.
a Insulating direct fixation fasteners on
aerial structures.
Coating the rails and encasing the
track slab with an insulating
membrane where the rails are
embedded in the roadway areas.
a Minimizing the stray current leakage
path through raivballast contact by
maintaining the ballast at a minimum
of 1-inch below the bottom of the
rails.
0 Bonding 'railjumpers at mechanical
144
rail connections for special trackwork.
Cross-bonding between rails to maintain
equal potentials of all rails.
Insulating the impedance bond tap
connections fiom the housing case.
Insulating switch machines at the switch
rods.
Utilizing separate traction power
substations for the main line, yard and
shop. Shop tracks are solidly grounded
for maintenance personnel safety.
Installing rail insulators to electrically
isolate the mainline from the yard and
the yard from the shop.
Maintaining as close substation spacing
as practicable.
Maintaining electrical continuity in
tunnel liners and reinforcing steel.
Maintaining an on-going maintenance
program that monitors rail-to-earth
resistance values, keeps trackbed areas
clean and well-drained.
Track-to-Earth Voltages
As mentioned earlier, stray currents can be
controlled effectively by increasing the track-to-
earth resistance values. However, a well
insulated negative return system will also cause
the increased track-to-earth voltages.
The relationships between the voltages, V, ,V,
and VGs& shown in the basic circuit model of
Figure 1 are summarized below:
The profile of negative rail potential with
respect to distant earth is shown in Figure 3,
with an isolated substation negative bus.
LOAD SUBSTATION
Figure 3- Negative -to-ground potential
profile
The main concem which relates to this
voltage is the human body’s safety fiom
touch potential. The rail transit industry has
not standardized the acceptable limits of
negative return rail potential with respect to
ground. Each transit agency has set its own
limits. Based on our past experiences, the
maximum limit ranges from 60 volts to 90
volts dc.
Voltages alone are not harmful. It is the
electric current passing through the human
body that gives an electric shock and
discomfort, not the voltage.
-
Human Body Curent Electrical Circuit
Model
The human body electrical circuit include the
feet contact resistance, RI, and the intemal
body resistance, R2.A foot contact resistance
is equal to 3p, ohms, where ps is the surface
resistivity in ohm-meters underneath the foot.
For two feet in parallel, the contact resistance
145
R, is equal to 1 . 5 ~ ~ .
Consider:
R, = 1Sp, = 1.5 x 1OOohms = 150 ohms, based
upon ps = 100 ohm-meters for surface resistivity
of wet concrete floor.
R2= 1000 ohms( intemal body resistance for an
average person)
The current passing through the body is:
I= E amperes
1 I50 ohms
where E is the touch potential.
I = 2.Oma(minimumperception), E = 2.3 V
I = 60.Oma(maximumthreshold), E = 69.OV
I = 80.0 ma(maximum allowable), E = 92.0V
Personnel safety can be enhanced by limiting
the electric current passing through the human
body. There are two ways to achieve this:
e Reduce the touch potential, E, to the
lowest practical values such as 70V or
less.
e Increase contact resistance for foot and
hand.
The following should be taken into
considerations for personnel safety in designing
dc tiaction power system:
e Substation ac switchgear and other ac
equipment enclosures including the pre-
fabricated substation building enclosure
should be connected to a substation ac
ground mat designed per IEEE std 80.
0 Rectifier and dc switchgear
equipment enclosures should be
insulated from ground and connected
to a dc ground mat through either a
high-resistance or a low-resistance
grounding system. Refer to reference
[2] for additional discussions on high
versus low resistance grounding.
0 Adequate clearance and isolation
should be provided between the
grounded ac equipment and the
insulated dc equipment.
Use high resistivity materials such as
granite edging, surface coatings, tile
surfaces, etc. to increase passenger
station platform surface resistance.
Earth Potential Gradient Model and Stray
Current Effects on Buried Metallic
Structures.
The earth potential gradient model measures
the potential developed between two points in
the earth and the magnitude of this potential
will have direct stray current effects on
buried utility structures. Refer to figure 4, the
earth potential gradient is calculated from the
following equation:
Where:
P Soil resistivity, ohm-cm
*.
I :Currentfiom source, amperes
dl :distancefiom source to structure
:distancefiom source to structure
d2
I :length of current source(paralle1
rail), cm
146
This equation can be used to calculate the
potential difference between any two points in
earth that will be traversed by the underground
pipe or other buried structure. It should be noted
that this equation has some limitations: a) soil
resistivity, p , in the areas within the given
length, E, of the pipe is assumed to be uniform;
b) theoretically, the presented equation has no
limit, however, the maximum calculated earth
potential gradient produced by stray current
cannot exceed the track-to-earth potential at a
given location along the rails; c) assume that the
earth potential gradients between at any two
points are unchanged and will not get distorted
due to the presence of pipes .
Figure 4 illustrates the potential difference
between two points on an uncoated underground
pipe. As shown in this figure, the pipeline is
modeled as a distributed resistance network.
Past experience has indicated that earth potential
gradients at 50mv or below generally introduce
acceptable stray current levels on most uncoated
underground pipes or buried structures.
-
RAILS. AT LOAD. ACTlNC AS
r A SOURCE OF CURRENT
’
I \ ------ I UNDERGROUND Pl?E
WrrH ITS DISTRIBUTED
RESISTANCE N E M R K I
II
Yooa
EOUlPOiEMlAL LINES
-
Figure 4 Earth Potential Gradient Model
Substation Negative Return Grounding
Negative system grounding at the substation
is employed by some modem rail transit
authorities to limit the rail-to-earth potentials.
This is accomplished by diode grounding,
contactor/switchgrounding, or thyristor
grounding.
When there is a ground fault between the
OCS and ground, the area in the vicinity of
the fault could subject to a high voltage of
750 Vdc. Since the return circuit back to the
traction power substation is closed via the
earth to track because the substation negative
bus is isolated, the ground fault current can
be relatively low and the time it takes for the
dc feeder breaker to clear the fault will be
unduly long. A diode grounding device will
provide a return path from the ground to the
substation negative bus and thus enable faster
fault clearing. However, the grounding
diodes will also allow system leakage current
to return to the substationsthus creating a
lower resistance path for stray current leaving
the rails.
Contactors equipped with voltage sensing
relays are also used for negative bus
grounding. The voltage sensing relays will
detect the high track-to-earth voltage
situations and close the grounding contactor
to connect the negative bus to ground
temporarily for personnel safety.
The third negative grounding method is using
the floating negative automatic grounding
switch which consists of dc potential and
current monitoring circuits and two thyristors
connected to provide bidirectional control of
current flow between the negative bus and
ground. The circuitry monitors the potential
between the negative system and ground. In
147
the event the potential exceeds a predetermined
voltage and time setting, the corresponding
thyristor (depending upon the polarity) will
activate thus clamping the negative bus to
ground. Once activated, the thyristor will
continue to conduct until the current reduces to
zero or until the polarity reverses across the
thyristor.
In an underground system, there is no direct
metallic connections between earth and the
rectifier negative bus. This system obviously
has least stray leakage current but could have
high negative potential to ground. More on
substation negative return grounding is
discussed in the second part of this paper.
PART 2: USING SPHERICAL ELECTRODE
MODEL TO ANALYZE STRAY CURRENTS
WHEN THERE ARE INADVERTENT
BREAKDOWNS IN TRACK INSULATION
Introduction:
The Basic Stray Current Model and the
Computer Model discussed in the first part of
this paper have the limitation that they only
apply when the track-to-earth resistance is
relatively uniform, or put another way, the total
resistance of the track is distributed evenly over
its length. It cannot be used to predict the
behavior of the traction electrificationreturn
system, rails and rail isolation if there is a
ground on the return rails.
The traction electrificationdesign engineer is
interested in predicting the behavior of the
traction electrificationsystem under all
conditions, including where grounds are present
on the return rails when the rails are used as the
negative return, as in modem light rail and
trolley systems.
In this second part of the paper, we would
like to present a method of calculating stray
currents through earth, using grounding
theory developed in IEEE Standard 80 -
1986l.
Why use the spherical electrode model in
analyzing stray currents? There are several
reasons:
e When we discuss currents flowing
through earth, a better understanding
will be gained by using Ohms law
quantified in terms of electric field
potential strength, soil resistivity, and
current density (e=ir).
e Resistance to earth is concentrated in
shells closely surrounding a ground
electrode, so a discussion of the
electrode itself is important to
understanding how currents flowing
fiom it through earth behave.
e By varying the radius of electrodes,
we can simulate varying resistances-
to-earth and we can model and
explore how the system behaves when
the track is grounded, and explore
many other topics related to design
such as:
1. Does grounding the substation
negative bus 'through a diode,
contactor, or thyristor increase
stray currents?
2. Does connecting the utility
grounding system to the
'Portions of this discussion and accompanying figures
are taken directly h m IEEE Std 80 Appendix H,and reprinted
here with permission. Copyright 1986 IEEE. All rights reserved.
148
traction power substation ac
ground system increase stray
currents?
3. If the substation negative return
is grounded through a diode,
contactor, or thyristor, should a
separate dc grounding mat be
used, and if so, what separation
through ground will be sufficient
to attenuate flow of stray current
from the dc system to the utility
grounding system?
Spherical electrode analysis with this type of
approach requires track-to-earth resistances to
be lumped and concentrated at an equivalent
electrode. Secondly, it will be necessary to
convert earth resistance to electrode radius in
meters, as we shall see.
We have chosen the spherical ground electrode
as a beginning point to represent a solid ground
anywhere on the rails since it is the simplest to
analyze. Another consideration is that even
though the magnitude of the resistance to earth
is determined by the type and size of electrode,
once the distance fiom the electrode exceeds
several times the radius of the electrode, the
resistance of the earth to the flow of current
becomes negligible. We could have as easily
chosen a driven rod as an electrode, however we
are not primarily interested in the characteristics
of the electrode itself, rather how we may define
a ground on the rail system that might represent
conveniently as possible an actual physical rail
to earth connection, and provide a mathematical
basis for modeling the results of such a
connection.
 where: E= Potential (volts)
I=Total current (amps)
e=electric_fieldstrength (volts)
p=soil resistivity (ohm-meter)
B=radius of spherical electrode(meters)

The relationshipbetween electric field strength,

voltage, and distance, can be shown graphically,
Fig 5 - Spherical Electrode
as in Figure 6.
The surface area of a sphere is given as 4 d .
Consider a sphere with only the lower
hemisphere buried in earth with uniform
I SURFACE LAYER
VOLTAGE
POTENTAL
resistivity as shown in Figure 5, such that the
area in contact with earth is given by 2 d . If
a current I flows through this electrode to
ground, the current density i is evenly
distributed over the surface of the sphere, and
at a distance x from the center of the
hemisphere is given by:
I -ELECTRODE

I-- Fig 6 - Potential Versus Distance in Surface Layer

Where i=current density (ampheter)

According to Ohms law, an electric field of The total voltage between the spherical
intensity e (see Figure 6 ) is generated when electrode and distant earth (where x = a)can be
such a current flows through soil with a derived from equation (3):
resistivity p.
1
(4) E=p-
I 2 d
e=p-
2m2 From this expression, the resistance of the
electrodeto distant earth can be computed:
The voltage E can then be computed as the
line integral of the field strength from the
surface of the conducting sphere of radius B (5)
to the distance x.

149

Example:
As a hypothetical example, typical track
gauge is 4 feet 8-112 inches, or approximately
1.43 meters. We can approximate a ground
on the rails by assuming an electrode with
radius of 1.43 / 2 = 0.71 meters. For soil
resistivity of 100 ohm-meters, the ground
resistance of this electrode will be:
R =- lo* =22.4 ohms
2 ~ 0 . 17
In practice, this approximation may represent
an abnormal condition where a section of rail
has been solidly grounded inadvertently, or
perhaps a failure of the rail isolation system.
Choosing the radius of the electrode will
determine the resistance to earth of the
electrode. If we wanted to represent the
direct connection to earth of one failed rail
fastener, the effective radius would be
approximately one-half the width of the rail.
For a single electrode, the resistance to earth
is concentrated in the proximity of the
electrode as shown in Figure 6. Indeed, half
of the voltage drop caused by the current
injection into the grounding electrode would
appear within one diameter of the electrode.
Earth is a relatively poor conductor with a
resistivity about 1 billion times that of
copper. The resistance to earth may be
imagined to consist of equal thickness
concentric spherical shells about the
electrode. The inner shell will represent the
largest incremental value of resistance, since
the resistance is inversely proportional to the
distance fiom the electrode, and will
therefore drop the largest voltage. After
several electrode diameters, the resistance to
150
distant earth becomes negligible for all practical
purposes.
Definition: “Distant earth ’’may be thought
of theoretically as an imaginary
sphere an infinite distance fiom
the electrode, and at zero
potential
Flow of Current Between Two Electrodes
In order to explore the relationships between
various grounds such as the utility grounding
system and the traction electrification negative
return system, and in particular between utility
ground and the traction power substation ground
mat, we are interested in the special case where
current flows between two electrodes. It is
possible to construct a network using two
electrode systems, and this will give us a tool to
model a system, by simply knowing the voltage
between electrodes, and the resistivity of the
soil.
I
Fig 7 - Two Electrode System
Refer to Figure 7. Assume that we have two
spherical electrodes of different radii B and by
each with one hemisphere buried in
homogenous earth with uniform resistivity.
These electrodes could represent any two points
on the rail, a grounded negative return, or a
ground on the electric utility.
Definition: “Sphere of Influence” means
an imaginary surface at which
the electricfield potential
surrounding an electrode
becomes zero. (For purposes
of this paper we will dejine the
sphere of influence to extend
to where theJieIdstrength has
been reduced by 95%fiom
maximum)
Assume that a voltage is applied such that a
current flows into the first electrode, through
earth, and returns through the second
electrode. Assume also that the two spheres
are separated by a distance x, which is chosen
to locate the electrodes far enough apart so as
to be outside of the sphere of influence of
each other. At this distance, the voltage E
will be independent of the distance x between
the electrodes.
By application of equation (3) to both
electrodes, an expression may be derived
which gives the resistance of the path
between the two electrodes.
Note that this equation is not valid if
electrodes are arranged in parallel or located
within each other’s sphere of influence.
Grounded Negative Return Model
One of the models we would like to develop
depicts a substation with a grounded negative
return bus such as through a diode, and relate
151
that to another ground on the negative system.
The rail-to-earth isolation for modem electric
railways is typically tested to 500 ohms per
1000 feet of single direct fixation track under
worst case conditions. Under ideal conditions,
given dry high resistivity soil, this value can be
much larger, in the range of 1000 ohms per 1000
feet of single track or higher. This leakage
resistance is usually considered to be distributed
throughout the length of the track. These values
are achieved through the use of appropriately
designed insulating track fasteners. (See
Appendix A Table 1 and Table 2 for rail
resistances and track-to-earth resistances used in
this paper).
-
Figure 8 Grounded Negative Model
Where RL=track-to-earthelectrode resistance at
the load end (to distant earth)
R,=track-to-earth electrode resistance at
the source end (to distant earth)
R,=resistance of negative return circuit
Consider Figure 8, above. Here we define a
traction electrificationsystem consisting of a
single traction power substation (TPSS), with
the retum current flowing though the rails of a
single direct fixated track. We define the
resistance of the negative return to be &.
We also define a low resistance ground
electrode RLon the track at a distance x from
the substation, and the voltage on the track at
this point is defined to be V, . The voltage
V,=O when referenced to the rail, but since
we are interested in earth potentials we note
that the potential fiom V, to distant earth may
not be zero.
The substation negative return bus is
intentionally diode grounded by an electrode
of resistance R,, and an ammeter inserted in
the grounding lead so that we may measure
the current which returns to the TPSS
through earth. For our purposes, we assume
that both electrodes can be modeled as
spheres. Further, we assume that the soil is
homogeneous, of constant resistivity,
“distant earth” is at zero potential, and all
current flowing through the rail electrode will
return to the substation electrode through the
ammeter and the TPSS grounding electrode.
rp b x]
Note that where the distances between the two
electrodes is large enough to be outside of the
sphere of influence of either, the term 2/x
becomes negligible. Rewriting the above
expression in terms of the train current and
resistance of the negative return, this expression
becomes:
I,= 2WN
.I-+---
1 1 21
r[B b x]
The magnitude of leakage (stray) current 4, can
also be expressed as a function of the distance
fiom the substation x along the rails:

The voltage V, - VIat any point on the track

a distance x fiom the TPSS is then the
product of rail return current I,, and the
resistance of the single track RNbetween the
point x and the TPSS. This equation can be The potential distribution across the surface of
expressed as follows: the earth caused by stray current leaving one
electrode and flowing into the second electrode
can be shown to be similar to Figure 9, below:

where r, is the rail resistance fiom Table 2

expressed in ohms per meter.

In order to develop an expression for the

“stray” current I, returning to the TPSS fiom
the rail electrode through the ammeter, we
can then combine equations 6 and 7, and
solve for current I,:

152

Fig 9 - Surface Potential between Two Electrodes.
The currents flowing between the two
electrodes distribute themselves as shown in
Figure 10, below:
>--
L CURRENT PATHS
THROUGH EARM
Fig 10 - Current Paths Through Earth Between
Electrodes
Example: Given a constant flow of train
retum current of 1000 amperes through a
single track (2 rails), using 115 RE rail with a
resistance of 1.55 x OhmsMeter, and a
track-to-earth resistance of 500 ohms/l 000 ft
(304.8 Meter), uniform soil resistivity of 100
Ohm-Meter, a TPSS electrode of radius 10
meters, and a rail electroderadius of 0.1
Meter, what will be the magnitude of the
stray current flowing through the ammeter
shown in Figure 8?
153
Solution: We can substituting directly into
equation (9) and the solution is:
274 1000)(0.0000155)(304.8~
I=
-+---
1 1 2
10 0.1 304.8
I=0.02939 Ampere
Expanding the use of Spherical Electrodes on
the Traction Electrification System
In Part 1 of this paper, we discussed the Basic
Stray Current Model, and the Computer
Simulation Model. We would now like to
expand the concept of using spherical electrodes
to model more than two grounded points on the
negative return system. The premisses are:
The negative return system can be
modeled using spherical electrodes to
represent connections to earth, either
intentional or inadvertent
Theflow of current through earth@om
one grounded node on the track of
higher potential to another grounded
node on the track of a lower potential
may be calculated howing the potential
to distant earth of each point, the
resistivity of the soil, and the eflective
size of each electrode.
Currents may be added by superposition
to calculate the total currentflowing
into or out or nodes on the track
Consider Figure 11, below:
 TPI

Fig 11- Basic Stray Current Model using Spherical Fig 12 - Nodal Circuit Diagram
Electrodes

Note that in this simplified diagram, distant

Here, we have drawn the circuit, developed
fiom Figure 8, to indicate distant earth as a
separate node, and the various nodes
associated with the circuit. We have
defined paths for current to flow fiom points
on the single track (2 rails) to and fiom
distant earth, which represents connections to
ground on the system.
earth is not shown, but has been accounted for
in the development of the equations. For a three
node network we can represent each node as a
spherical earth electrode, and calculate the stray
currents flowing between each pair of nodes
using equation (9):

However, we can re-draw the circuit as

shown in Figure 12, using only 3 nodes and
equation (9),and calculate all the currents
flowing through earth among nodes.

For ease in notation, we again label the nodes

as 1,2,3, respectively. The current among
nodes are given as 13*,IZ1,131. We may
calculate either an exact solution, or an
approximate solution. Since the expected
magnitude of the train current is expected to
be 1000- 10,000 times greater than the
currents flowing through earth, for simplicity
and approximate analysis we may neglect
subtracting the stray currents fiom the train
current at the node junctions, and treat IT as a
constant. The resulting circuit is shown in Where:
Figure 12, below:
b,,b, b, = radius of each node electrode

154
 respectively (meters)
I,=Total Train Current (Amps)
r,,=resistance of rail between
po ints(ohms)
x=distance between nodes (meters)
By using superposition and Kirchoff s laws,
we can find the currents flowing into or out
of each node:
This approach permits easy exploration of
topics such as determining the magnitudes of
stray currents caused by grounding the
negative return through a diode. We can also
explore whether a separate dc grounding mat
should be used to ground the negative bus,
and if so, what separation through ground
will be sufficient to attenuate flow of current
fiom the dc system to the electric utility
grounding system.
Grounding the Electric Utility to the
Traction Power Substation Negative
Return
We would like to discuss one special
condition where the Traction Power
Substation features a single ground bus and
ground mat, and both the serving electric
utility and the traction power substation
negative return are grounded to this same
mat. Consider Figure 13, below:
155
PHASE CONDUCTORS 7
-rSURG
MAT
Fig 13 - Electric Utility Grounding System
The electric utility grounding system is a multi-
point grounded system. The utility distribution
network provides power to many individual
electrical services or substations, each of which
has at least one grounding electrode. Within a
residence or industrial or commercial building,
the electric grounding electrode is connected to
the water pipe, and structural steel and even
concrete reinforcing steel, if present. Most
modem distribution three phase medium voltage
systems carry a grounded conductor with the
phase conductors, often as a concentric neutral
wound around each phase conductor. The
grounded conductor provides a low impedance
return path for the circuit's ground fault
protective device. Since most metallic electrical
appliances within a building or residences are
also grounded to this system, it also provides
some measure of protection to people against
electric shock fiom potential differences.
The electric utility multi-point grounded system
provides a major problem for electric railroads if
there is a connection from the substation
negative return to the utility ground, thus
effectively establishes another negative return
system in parallel with the tracks and in direct
contact with other underground metallic
structures. Modern corrosion control
methods seek to minimize possible potentials
between the tracks and underground utilities
by using track insulating systems, and
isolating metallic underground utilities by
coating, or changing materials fiom metallic,
to non-metallic. In some cases, utilities will
choose to protect their metallic systems by
passive means, such as sacrificial anodes, or
active means, such as impressed current.
The electric utility system does not lend itself
easily to modeling, since by definition, its
grounding electrodes are randomly placed,
and tied together through grounded
conductors and system neutral conductors,
and these are in turn tied to underground
piping. For this reason, we need to approach
this problem in a qualitative way.
For a moment, let us return to the two
electrode model. We know that a difference
in potential between two points on the
surface of the earth will cause a flow of
cment through earth fiom a point of higher
potential to lower potential. We also know
that in order for one electrode to be
considered “isolated” fiom the other, each
must be located outside of the others sphere
of influence. When we tie the negative return
to the electric utility grounding system, either
directly and solidly by using a conductor, or
indirectly, by locating the electric utility
ground within the sphere of influence of the
dc ground mat, we may expect increased
stray current to flow since the electric utility
ground system is widely distributed and well
within the sphere of influence of many
underground metallic structures . Worse,
since the utility return is now in parallel with
the negative return, we may expect that under
certain conditions not only will the utility
carry stray current fiom the dc traction
156
system, but the rails may carry currents
generated by the utility system, and this may
happen in a way that is difficult to predict or
analyze. It is possible that utility currents
flowing over the rails can also cause
abnormalities in the train protection signal
system, which is a fundamental safety concern.
In conclusion, it appears qualitatively desirable
that the design engineer isolate the utility
ground system fiom the negative return as far as
practical by not grounding the utility neutral to
the negative return, and by not placing the dc
grounding electrode within the sphere of
influence of the utility grounding system. In
addition, care must be taken if the utility neutral
is connected to the substation ac ground mat, to
isolate the dc grounding electrode by locating it
outside the sphere of influence of the ac mat.
CONCLUSIONS:
One common misconception we have
encountered is a belief that there is a
relationship between current flowing through
earth between electrodes, and the distance apart
the electrodes are spaced. We can see that the
magnitude of current flowing between two
electrode points is a function of soil resistivity,
the potential between the electrodes, and the
size of the electrodes ,as long as each electrode
is located out of the sphere of influence of the
other. Space does not permit discussion in this
paper of all aspects of dc traction power
grounding. However, further effort is needed to
explore related topics: types of grounding
systems and traction electrification grounding
system design philosophy, lightning arrester
grounding, stray current monitoring systems,
track-to-earth monitoring and protection, ground
fault sensing and protection and the use of high
speed circuit breakers for mitigating the effects
of touch and step potentials,.
REFERENCES: BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES

IEEE Guidefor Safety in AC Walt E. Stinger, Jr. is a senior systems engineer

Substation Grounding, ANSIAEEE
Standard 80-1986
Kinh D. Pham, “Grounding of
Traction Power Substations”,
proceedings of the 1989, APTA Rapid
Transit Conference, Pittsburgh, PA.
Ralph S . Thomas, Kinh D. Pham,
“Design of Grounding Systemsfor
Tri-Met Portland Westside Light Rail
TractionPower Substations”,
proceedings of the 1999 IEEEIASME
Joint Rail Conference, Dallas, TX.
Ray E. Shaffer, “Design
Considerationsfor DC Powered Rail
Rapid Transit Systems to Minimize
Stray Currents”,proceedings of the
1982 International Corrosion Forum,
Houston, TX.
S.D. Jacimovic, “SubstationSpacing
for DC LRT Systems Based on Rail
Potential and Stray Current Limits”,
proceedings of the 1986 Rapid Transit
Conference, Miami,FL.
with LTK Engineering Services. He has worked
on numerous rail transit projects for the past 36
years. A registered professional engineer, Walt
received his BSEE degree fiom Drexel
University in 1964.
Ralph S. Thomas is a senior systems engineer
with LTK Engineering Services. He has worked
on rail transit projects since 1981. Ralph is a
registered professional engineer in Oregon and
four other states. He received his BSEE degree
from Portland State University in 1977.
Kinh D. Pham is a principal electrical engineer
with Elcon Associates, Inc. He has worked on
rail transit projects since 1981. Kinh is a
registered professional engineer in Oregon and
seven other states. He received his BSEE degree
from Portland State University in 1979 and
earned his MSEE degree fiom the University of
Portland in 1982 and has completed his Ph.D
course work in electrical engineering at PSU.

K. J. Moody, “Stray Current Control

and Platform Voltages”,proceedings
of the 1989 APTA Rapid Transit
Conference, Pittsburgh, PA.

Dev Paul, “Operational Safety and

Maintenance Considerationsfor
People Movers’ DC Grounding
System”, proceedings of the 1988
APTA Rapid Transit Conference ,
Buffalo, NY.

157
 APPENDIX A
Rail-to-Earth Resistance, Rail Resistance, and Average Soil Resistivity:

Track Type English Units Metric Units

Direct Fixation 500 1.5 x 105
Single Track (2 Rails) Ohms/l 000 ft OhmsMeter

r Direct Fixation
Double Track (4 Rails)
0.75 x 105

Embedded (Paved)
Double Track [ 4 Rails)
0.3 x io5
I
Timber Tie & Ballast 50 0.15 x 105
Double Track (4 Rails) Ohms/l 000 ft OhmsMeter

Rail Type English Units Metric Units

Single Rail (New) 0.05 3.1 x 10-5
Ohms/mile OhmsMeter
Single Track (New) 0.025 1.55 x 10-5
Ohms/mile OhsMeter

I ~~~
Type of Soil
I p, Ohm-
meters

Wet Organic Soil 10

Moist Soil 1o2
Dry Soil 103

Bed rock io4

158
 APPENDIX B
Factors Limiting Uniform Soil Resistivity

Throughout this paper we have assumed uniform soil resistivity as a basis for our mathematical models,
which implies homogenous composition of the soil. Such is not the case in the real world. The resistivity of a
single soil type varies with its composition - whether it is clay, sandy, or loamy (see Table 3), and with how various
types of soil are distributed throughout the earth. The geologic strata we find in nature are likely to vary widely, not
only over the surface of the earth, but also in depth. Consider the following Figure B-1 ,taken directly from IEEE
80-19862,below, which shows the great variance in soil types in a typical geographical area:

Figure B-1 Subsoil Strata under Main Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts

The soil resistivity of a particular sample depends not only upon the soil composition, but with the moisture content,
temperature, humidity, and chemical composition. Some of these factors will vary with weather conditions. Hence,
taken together, these limiting factors suggest that rigorous, precise, mathematical analysis of how currents flow in
earth over large areas is not practical, nor would it necessarily result in a high degree of accuracy. It follows that
such an analysis might also not be economically feasible and justify the intense labor required. It does suggest that
a less rigorous analytical approach using abbreviated mathematical models coupled with data from a soil resistivity

Portions of this discussion and accompanying figuresare taken directly fiom IEEE Std 80 Appendix H, and reprinted here with
permission. Copyright 1986 IEEE. All rights reserved.

159
 field investigation together could result in
the most practical and cost effective
analysis for large geo,gaphical areas, such
as a rail line. It also suggests that when
calculating much smaller site-specific
problems related to earth currents, such as
sizing substation ground mats, that the
soil resistivity be determined from local
site investigation.

~
.. We would like to touch very briefly upon
I one other constraint affecting earth
-
calculations underground metallic
Figure B-2: Long Pipe in Extended Ground Field utilities. Borrowing again from IEEE SO',
Figures B-2and B-3 depict a long pipe
buried in an extended ground field, and a
short pipe buried in an extended ground field. We have added the track to the figures to establish orientation of the
track to the electric field. Note that a buried pipeline parallel to the track establishes a region of conductivity, and
this is depicted as a different resistivity fiom surrounding earth, adding a complexity to calculating underground
currents. When the pipe becomes short or irregular, the complexity increases as the flow of current and electric
potential field is distorted.

In summary, when making calculations involving underground currents, be aware that there are limiting factors
which restrict the degree of accuracy which may be obtained by calculations.

I I
I TRACK I

I I
Figure B-3: Short Pipe in Extended Ground Field

Portions of this discussion and accompanying figures are taken directly fiom IEEE Std 80 Appendix €and
I,reprinted here with
permission. Copyright 1986 IEEE. All rights reserved.

160