Inter- and intraspecific parasitism The major types of organism-organism

interactions
Dik Heg
1. Competition
- Interspecific competition (competition between different species)
- Intraspecific competition (competition within the same species)
2. Predation
- Interspecific predation (predator-prey interactions)
- Intraspecific predation (cannibalism, infanticide)
3. Cooperation
- Interspecific cooperation (mutualism, symbiosis)
- Intraspecific cooperation (kin selection, reciprocal altruism)
4. Parasitism
- Interspecific parasitism (host-parasite interactions, e.g.
ectoparasites, endoparasites, viruses, pathogens)
- Intraspecific parasitism (within-species brood parasitism, e.g. egg
dumping, sneaking)

Interspecific parasitism: definition

Parasite (pathogen) = organism that obtains its nutrients from one Parasitism
or a very few host individuals, causing harm* but not
causing host death immediately.

Parasitoid = egg to larval organism that obtains its nutrients from a single host
individual, causing host death in the end (incl. parasitic Hymenoptera O
and Diptera insects). Commensalism
´Host´ Co-species (always benefit) Interaction
Cost parasite Parasitism
No cost, no benefit commensalist Commensalism
Benefit mutualist or symbiont Mutualism or
Symbiosis Mutualism or Symbiosis
Cost and benefits in terms of fitness: life expectancy (age) * reproductive success/age step

* harm = fitness of host is reduced, though perhaps only in appropriate circumstances (e.g. a
sufficient number of parasites or when the host is in poor body condition)
Interspecific parasitism 1. Interspecific parasitism 2.

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 Example of the effect of a parasite on survival, The diversity of interspecific parasites
growth and fecundity of a host
Microparasites = multiply directly within
their host (usually within the host cells):
bacteria, viruses, protozoa, fungi.

Trypanosoma brucei (sleeping sickness,

Schlafkrankheit)

Macroparasites = grow in their host, but

Parasitic mite multiply by producing infective stages
Hydraphantes
tenuabilis
which are released from the host to
infect new hosts (or intermediate hosts).
Water bug
Hydrometra cestode worms Schistocephalus solidus in
myrae stickleback

Brood parasites = use resources of the host

(e.g. food, shelter), and/or they feed on
larvae or eggs. Often mimicry involved
(e.g. chemical, tactile, morphological).
Special case: slave-making ants.
Interspecific parasitism 3. Interspecific parasitism 4.

The malaria cycle in liver in blood

Microparasites:
1. Directly transmitted from host to host:
a. immediate transfer: e.g. venereal
diseases, influenza, measles
b. dormant period: e.g. amoebic
dysentry, plant pathogen spores in soil
Entamoeba histolytica trophozoites (amoebic
dysentry, Amüben-Ruhr)

2. Indirectly transmitted via some other

species (vector or intermediate
host(s))

Vector: anopheline mosquito Plasmodium falciparum (malaria)

within red blood cells
in mosquito
Interspecific parasitism 5. Plasmodium vivax, after Vickerman & Cox 1967 Interspecific parasitism 6.

2
Macroparasites: Interspecific brood parasites
platyhelminth worms Brood parasites = use resources of the host (e.g. food,
(tapeworms, trematodes)
shelter), and/or they feed on larvae or eggs.
acanthocephalans
(intestinal) nematodes
Many examples in insects, but also some examples
lice, fleas, ticks, mites, Dactylogyridae worm of fish
in birds and fish. Most important taxon:
fungi Hymenoptera, e.g. parasitoid wasps

1. Directly transmitted from Cleptoparasite = idem,

host to host
only uses resources.
Example: Parastizopus armaticeps with
2. Indirectly transmitted via cleptoparasite Eremostibes opacus
some other species (vector (tenebrionid beetles from the Kalahari desert)
or intermediate host(s))

Interspecific parasitism 7. Interspecific parasitism 4.

Example brood parasites: Atemeles pubicollis Example brood parasites: ant parasites
Beetle larvae
produce glandular
secretion which
Limulodid beetle Nicoletiid silverfish
induces grooming.
Paralimulodes Trichatelura manni
Larva begs to
wasmanni on on Eciton sp.
Staphylinid beetle obtain regurgated
Neivamyrmex
Atemeles pubicollis food
nigriscens
enters colony of
Formica rufa

Mite Circocylliba Mite Macrocheles

sp. on Eciton sp. rettenmeyeri on
Eciton dulcius

Mite Histerid beetle

Antennequesoma Euxenister caroli
sp.on army ant on Eciton burchelli

Interspecific parasitism 9. Interspecific parasitism 10.

3
 Example brood parasites: slave-making ants
Slave-maker ant Epimyrma
stumperi enters nest and
strangles, kills....
.... Host queen ant
Leptothorax
tuberum
This slave-maker ant Formica
subintegra has a large Dufour´s gland
for the production of ´propaganda
substances´ that will scatter the slave-
ants (also from the genus Formica)
during raids.
It is contrasted with the Dufour´s
gland of F. subserica, which is an
ordinary ant.
Interspecific parasitism 11.
Directly transmitted microparasites:
determinants of Rp
Rp = average number of new cases of the disease that arise from each infected host
Rp = β * N * ƒ * L
Where:
β = transmission rate of the disease
= frequency of host contact * probability that host contact leads to infection
(0.0 – 1.0)
N = density of (susceptible) hosts (0.0 - ∞)
ƒ = fraction of hosts that survive long enough to become infectious themselves
(0.0 – 1.0)
L = average period of time over which the infected host remains infectious (>0 - ∞)
Interspecific parasitism 13.
Population dynamics of directly
transmitted microparasites
Basic reproductive rate:
R0 = Σ lx * mx
lx = proportion of individuals surviving until age x
mx = average number of offspring produced
per individual at age x
Example
Phlox drummondii: R0 = 2.41
For parasites usually Rp is used:
Rp = average number of new cases of the disease that arise from each infected host
Rp = 1: the transmission threshold
Rp < 1: disease will die out
Rp > 1: disease will spread
Interspecific parasitism 12.
Directly transmitted microparasites:
determinants of Rp
Rp = average number of new cases of the disease that arise from each infected host
Rp = β * N * ƒ * L
Proportion of alive infectious hosts * time alive
Number of new hosts getting infected
Note: in most biotrophic parasites L is the period of the host`s life when it is
infectious, but for necrotrophic parasites and some biotrophs, the parasite may
remain infectious long after the host has died (and decomposed)
Interspecific parasitism 14.
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 Directly transmitted microparasites: Vector-transmitted microparasites:
determinants of Rp determinants of Rp
Rp = 1: transmission threshold

⇒ Nt = 1 : density threshold Both the life cycle of the host h and the vector v has to be taken into account:
β*ƒ*L

So if parasites (diseases) are highly infectious (large β), or are unlikely to kill their
host (large ƒ), or give rise to long periods of infectiousness (large L), they will have
Rp = β2 * Nv * ƒv*ƒh * Lv*Lh
high Rp values and can persist in small populations (Nt is small). Nh
Note: β is squared, because when the vector bites, it both can get infected by the
host itself, or pass the infection to a new host when it is already infected itself.
Hosts acquiring immunity against
parasite versus mutant parasites
arising or influx of new hosts
=> cycles of parasite incidence.

Interspecific parasitism 15. Interspecific parasitism 16.

Vector-transmitted microparasites: Directly transmitted macroparasites:

determinants of Rp determinants of Rp
Rp = 1: transmission threshold For macroparasites it is possible to determine the reproductive success and life
expectancy of a single individual parasite = the sum of offspring produced that
⇒ Nv = 1 : the ratio-of-densities threshold themselves survive to produce offspring.
Nh β2 * ƒv * ƒh * Lv * Lh Rp = average number of new cases of the disease that arise from each infected host

Rp = (λ*ƒa*La) * (β*N*ƒi*Li )
Hence, disease control measures are
usually aimed directly at reducing the Reproductive adult infective stage
numbers of vectors, and only indirectly at contribution of:
the parasite. This reduces the likelihood
λ = rate of egg production per adult parasite
that the final host (e.g. man) will get
ƒa = proportion of parasites in the host that attain sexual maturity
infected, so less direct treatments of the
La = expected life span of adult parasite
parasite in the final host are necessary.
β = transmission rate
N = host density
ƒi = proportion of the parasite transmission stage that become infective
Li = expected life span of the infective stage outside the host
Interspecific parasitism 17. Interspecific parasitism 18.

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 Density-dependence within the host is crucially
Parasitoids
important for the reproductive rate of macroparasites

Parasitoid = egg to larval organism that obtains its nutrients

from a single host individual, causing host death in the
end (incl. parasitic Hymenoptera and Diptera insects).

extremely numerous group of organisms, since an estimated

25% of the world species are parasitoids (since most
insect species host at least one parasitoid, and some
λ = rate of egg production per
adult parasite
parasitoids host parasitoids themselves =
ƒa = proportion of parasites in superparasitism by same parasite species, or
the host that attain sexual hyperparasitism by other parasite species)
maturity
La = expected life span of adult
parasite
Interspecific parasitism 19. Interspecific parasitism 20.

Parasitoids hyperparasitism web

Effects of parasites on behavioural ecology:
case study barn swallow

♀ ♀
♂
♂

Interspecific parasitism 21. Interspecific parasitism 22.

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 Effect of barn swallow parasites on fitness

Barn swallow parasites

Interspecific parasitism 23. Interspecific parasitism 24.

Effect of barn swallow parasites on fitness

Brood parasitism

Fish: 2-3 species

Birds: ~1% of all species (50% of the cuckoos, two genera of
finches, five cowbirds, and a duck)

Interspecific parasitism 25. Interspecific parasitism 26.

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 Brood parasitism by Catfish Synodontis multipunctatus
Brood parasitism by catfish Synodontis
catfish from Lake
Tanganyika: multipunctatus
Number of
Simochromis babaulti & broods examined:
S. diagramma
Host´s eggs and
offspring are
consumed by the

% with catfish
Pseudosimochromis
curvifrons
catfish offspring....
Mouthbrooding
Tropheus moorii
cichlids

Gnathochromis pfefferi

Ctenochromis horei
Interspecific parasitism 27. Interspecific parasitism 28.

Brood parasitism by birds: cuckoo Cuculus canorus

References:
N.B. Davies
and others (1987-2003)
M. & B.Taborsky et al.

Interspecific parasitism 29.

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 Cuckoo Cuculus canorus: mimicry of host eggs Cuckoo Cuculus canorus
host cuckoo model

Individual females specialize

Robin (Erithacus rubercula)
on specific host species, e.g.
(Motacilla alba) Reed warbler Acrocephalus
Pied wagtail
scirpaceus
Dunnock (Prunella modularis) Meadow pipit Anthus pratensis
Dunnock Prunella modularis
(Acrocephalus scripaceus)
Reed warbler

(Anthus pratensis)
Meadow pipit

(Acrocephalus arundinaceus)
Great reed warbler

Interspecific parasitism 31. Gibbs et al. 2000. Nature

Cuckoo Cuculus canorus

Cuckoo Cuculus canorus

1985-86 1985-86

Hosts-parasite co-evolution 1.
1997

1997
0 week 10

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 Cuckoo Cuculus canorus Cuckoo Cuculus canorus

Hosts-parasite co-evolution 2 (Lotem et al. 1995. Animal Behaviour 49: 1185-1209). Hosts-parasite co-evolution 3.

Host strategy Probability of event Payoff to host The payoff of an accepter will be equal to that of a
Accept p parasitized 0 rejecter when:
1-p non-parasitized X
(1-p)X = p(1-e)(X+1) + (1-p)(1-e)X + (1-p)e(X+1)

p parasitized 1-e rejects cuckoo X – 1***

⇒ Rejection error e = (p-pX)
Reject e rejects own offspring* 0
1-p non-parasitized 1-e no error X (2p-pX-1)
e rejects own offspring** X-1
X = number of host offspring Natural parasitism level p is ~3%,
so low rejection error level of ~7-8%
* = mistakingly rejects own offspring instead of cuckoo offspring! would make payoff accepter = rejecter!
** = mistakingly rejects own offspring, despite there is no cuckoo in the nest!!
*** = if the host kills own offspring by removing the parasite (e.g. breaks own eggs), term will be X – 2 ..
Interspecific parasitism 36.

Intraspecific parasitism:
Intraspecific parasitism: definition
sperm competition

Conspecific individual using the brood care of other Females: egg dumping virtually equivalent with
individuals, without providing brood care interspecific brood parasitism.
themselves. Males: sperm competition plays an important role in the
relative success of extra-pair copulations or sneaker
Females: egg dumping. spawnings.
Males: extra-pair fertilizations, sneaker spawning.
Sperm competition = the likelihood that sperm of a particular
male will fertilise the ova, depending on the sperm of other
male(s) in the reproductive tract of the female

Intraspecific parasitism 1. Intraspecific parasitism 1.

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