PH 102

Physics II
Jan – Apr. 2009
 PH 102

Dates to remember Quiz-I February 13

Quiz-II March 19
End-sem April 24

Points to remember Attendance (seating pl.)

No proxy
Bring the Problem sheet and your
solutions to the Tutorial class
Assessment: 20 +20 +60 = 100
marks
 PH 102
Why electromagnetic field theory
(PH102) is important?
 PH 102

Syllabus
QUIZ - I

• Recap of electric fields and potentials

• Energy density
• Multipole expansion
• Polarization
• Dielectric susceptibility
• Electrostatic boundary conditions
• Biot-Savart’s law and Ampere’s law
 PH 102

Syllabus (Contd.)
Quiz - II

• Magnetic field due to surface currents

• Magnetic fields in matter
• Bound currents, auxiliary field
• Magnetic permeability and susceptibility
• Electromagnetic induction
• Boundary conditions
• Scalar and vector potentials
• Plane EM waves, Energy density
 PH 102

Syllabus (Contd.)
• Maxwell’s equations in free space and linear
conducting and non-conducting media
• Reflection and transmission of
electromagnetic waves
• Dispersion
• Guided waves
END SEM
 PH 102
Concept of Fields: What do we mean by a
FIELD?
Material particles interact with each other through the
various types of forces.
e.g. gravitational / electric / magnetic forces
Newton’s law of gravitation (1687 A. D)
action-at-a distance?
Faraday (1791-1867A. D) postulated the existence of
FIELDS: a field pervades the entire space. Fields are the
means of transmission of force from one particle to another.
 PH 102
What do we mean by FIELD….?
Fields cannot be visualized in MECHANISTIC terms
Intuition based on Newtonian mechanics is NOT
SUFFICIENT to understand fields
How does one get a “picture” of fields?
At best, through the LINES OF FORCE

Note: It is impossible to draw a field line of a vector field at

every point, to represent both the direction and magnitude
of the field at every point.
 PH 102

Fundamental Forces: Importance of Electromagnetic forces

Force Range Relative strength

Strong 10−15 m 1
Electromagnetic ∞ 10−2
Weak 10−17 m 10−5
Gravitational ∞ 10−39

Strong and Weak forces are realized in very low

dimensions whereas gravitational forces are realized
for very large masses
Most of the natural phenomena we see around us,
phenomena involving atoms and molecules and their
aggregations in various phases of matter, all chemical and
biological processes, and so on, are ultimately traceable to
electromagnetic interactions in one form or another.
 PH 102

Now, classical electrodynamics deals with electric and magnetic fields

and interactions due to the macroscopic distributions of charges and
currents

The electric and magnetic FIELDS due to a collection of

charges/currents, at a point away from the charges/currents

G
r P
Charge / current
distribution

The concepts of localized charges and currents assume the validity of

certain mathematical limiting processes wherein, the charge and
current distributions are assumed to be localized on infinitesimal
volumes.
 PH 102

On a microscopic scale, the spatial distribution of the charge and

current densities are to be considered along with quantum
corrections.

Charge / G
current r
P
distribution
 PH 102

Notations used in the course

G
ith Source charge qi rqQ Q
qi
JJG
Test charge Q ri ' G
r
Position vector of Q or
G
r
the point of interest
JJG O
Position vector of qi ri '
G
Vector from q to Q rqQ
 PH 102
Coulomb's law – Experimental observation,
1780 A.D.
Force on a test charge Q due to a point charge q located at
the origin

G ε 0 = 8.85 x 10 C2
F=
1 qQ
rˆ ε 0 - permittivity of -12
N .m 2
4πε 0 r 2 free space

Independent of the coordinate system

 PH 102
Coulomb's law

Force on a test charge Q due to a point charge q located at

the origin

G ε 0 = 8.85 x 10 C2
F=
1 qQ
rˆ ε 0 - permittivity of -12
N .m 2
4πε 0 r 2 free space

Independent of the coordinate system

G n G 1 ⎛ n qi ⎞
When there is a F = ∑ Fi = ⎜ ∑ 2 rˆqi Q ⎟ Q by the principle of
collection of discrete i =1 4πε 0 ⎜⎝ i =1 rqi Q ⎟
⎠ superposition
charges
G G 1 ⎛ n qi ⎞
Electric field E=F = ⎜ ∑ 2 rˆqi Q ⎟
Q 4πε 0 ⎜⎝ i =1 rqiQ ⎟⎠
 PH 102
G JG
The electric field at a point P(r) due to a point charge q at ( r ') is,
G G JJG
E=
1
G
q
JJ
G
4πε 0 r − r '
(
3 r −r' )
This can be extended to a collection of discrete charges

⎛ ⎞
G JJG'
( )
G n G 1 ⎜ n qi ⎟
E = ∑ Ei = ⎜∑ JJ
G r − ri ⎟
i =1 4πε 0 ⎜ i =1 rG − r ' 3
⎟⎟
⎜
⎝ ⎠
i

The principle of superposition is applicable only because of the form

of Coulomb’s law
 PH 102

Continuous charge distributions

Line charge Surface charge Volume charge

G
G
P( r )
P ( )
r G
( )
Pr
G JG G JG G JG
r −r' r −r' r −r'

da’ dV'
dl/

Line charge, λ Volume charge, ρ

Surface charge, σ
G λ dl ' G G' G G JG
E=
1
4πε 0 ∫ G JG 3 ( r − r ) E =
1
∫
σ da '
G JG 3 ( r −r' )
G
E=
1
∫
ρ dV ' G JG
(
G JG 3 r − r ' )
C
r −r' 4πε 0 S
r −r' 4πε 0 V
r −r'

Reference: D. J. Griffiths, Introduction to Electrodynamics

 PH 102

Caution:
Don’t confuse field point and source point!
 Basic Properties of Electrostatic Field
Field Lines or Lines of Force
For a single point charge, q,
Each field line
G G 1 q  is a directed line/curve
E (r ) = e − − − −(1) starts from +ve charge
4πε 0 r 2 r
terminates on –ve charge

The direction of E at any point

Field lines for a point charge (+ve) - tangent to the field line
at that point

Magnitude of E at every point:-

Field lines fall off like 1/r2
∝ no. of lines/unit area in the neighbourhood
 Basic Properties of Electrostatic Field
more on Field Lines…
G G 1 q 
E (r ) = e
4πε 0 r 2 r

Field lines cannot intersect!

Field must have unique direction and magnitude at all
points where it is non-singular
 Lines of Force for an electric dipole

Field lines for two identical positive charges

 Electric Flux φ E
S
da

θ
E

S
Flux is a scalar quantity

Flux through area element da is E. da

JG JG 
E.da = E.nda
Unit vector normal to the area element
 Electric Flux
da
S
E

θ
E
da

Flux through area element da is E. da. ∴ Total flux will be

JG G JG 
∫ E.da = ∫ E.nda
s S
Surface integral of E over S
JG  JG G
∫ E cos θ da = ∫ E.nda = ∫ E.da = FLUX φ E
s S s
Only the area in the plane perpendicular to E
For a point charge q at the origin, the flux of E through a sphere of radius r

G G 1 ⎛q ⎞ 2
(
∫ E ⋅ dA = ∫ 4πε 0 ⎜⎝ r 2 eˆr ⎟⎠ ⋅ r sin θdθdφeˆr ) =
1
ε0
q

Flux through any surface 1

enclosing charge q is = q
ε0 True for any surface
Suppose we have a bunch of charges

Superposition principle has to be employed

G n G
E = ∑ Ei
q2
q1
qi
i =1
Flux through the surface that encloses them all
G G n G G
∫ E ⋅ da = ∑ ∫ E i ⋅ da ( ) n
⎛1 ⎞
= ∑⎜⎜ qi ⎟⎟
i =1 i =1 ⎝ ε 0 ⎠
For any closed surface
G G 1
∫ E ⋅ da = Qenc
S
ε0
Gauss’s law

Qenc is the total charge enclosed within the surface

 E

2q q q

Field lines that originate on a positive A charge outside the surface

charge must either pass out through the will contribute nothing to the
Surface or else terminate on a negative flux, since its field lines pass
charge inside in one side and come out through
the other side

Gauss’s law

Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855 A.D.)

 G G 1
Gauss’s law in integral form
∫ E ⋅ d a = Q enc
S
ε0
Using Divergence theorem
G G G G
∫ E ⋅ da = ∫ ∇ ⋅ E dτ ( ) Qenc = ∫ ρdτ
V
S V
G G
( )
Gauss’s law becomes
⎛ρ⎞
∫
V
∇ ⋅ E dτ = ∫ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟dτ
ε
V⎝ 0 ⎠
This should hold true for any volume
G G 1
∇⋅E = ρ
ε0
This is “Gauss’ law in differential form”
 Divergence of the Electric Field
In the case of continuous charge distribution, with a volume charge density, ρ(r)
G ρ dV ' G JG
E=
1
4πε 0 ∫ (
G JG 3 r − r ' )
r −r'
V

G 1
Consider the vector function
v = 2 rˆ
r
At every location, v is directed radially outwards.
GG 1 ∂ ⎛ 2 1⎞ 1 ∂
∇.v = 2 ⎜ r 2 ⎟ = 2 (1) = 0
r ∂r ⎝ r ⎠ r ∂r
When r = 0, the vector function blows up, because r is in the
denominator. Thus ∇.v has a special property that it
vanishes except at the origin.
Similarity is the case of the density (mass per unit volume)
of a point mass
 Divergence of the Electric Field & Dirac Delta Function
G 1
v = 2 rˆ
r
GG 1 ∂ ⎛ 2 1⎞ 1 ∂
∇.v = 2 ⎜ r 2 ⎟ = 2 (1) = 0
r ∂r ⎝ r ⎠ r ∂r
Now if we take flux of G G ⎛ 1 ⎞ 2
the vector field over a v∫ v.da = v∫ ⎜⎝ R 2 rˆ ⎟ .( R sin θ dθ dϕ ) = 4π
⎠
sphere of radius R
Now if we apply Gauss theorem on this vector function

G G GG
v∫ v.da = ∫ ∇.vdV
⇒ 4π = 0 ???
 Divergence of the Electric Field & Dirac Delta Function

G G GG
v∫ v.da = ∫ ∇.vdV ⇒ 4π = 0 ??

L.H.S ≠ R.H.S.

The function v blows up at the point r=0. While the surface integral
on the right hand side is independent of r, the volume integral on the
right hand side includes the point r=0. So the value of 4π must be
arising due to the contribution from the point r=0.

This can not be explained by usual functions. Hence we make use of

Dirac Delta function.
 One Dimensional Dirac Delta Function
It is an infinitely high and infinitesimally narrow spike with
area unity.
⎧0, if x ≠ 0
δ (x) = ⎨
⎩∞ if x = 0
∞
and ∫−∞
δ ( x ) dx = 1
Technically δ(x) is not a function at all, since its value is not
finite at x=0. It is a generalized function or distribution.

δ(x)

Area=1

x
Some Properties of Dirac Delta Function
If f (x) is some ordinary function (continuous), then the
product f (x) δ(x) is zero everywhere except at x=0.

⇒ f ( x)δ ( x) = f (0)δ ( x)
Since the product f (x) δ (x) is always zero except at x=0, we
can replace f (x) by its value at origin.
∞ ∞
∫−∞
f ( x)δ ( x)dx = f (0)∫ δ ( x)dx = f (0)
−∞
Under an integral the delta function picks out the value of the
function at x=0. The limits of the integral need not be -∞ and
∞ but can extend from -ε and ε provided that this domain
extends across the delta function.
 Of course, we can shift the spike from x = 0 to x=a

⎧0 If x ≠ a δ ( x − a)
δ ( x − a) = ⎨
⎩∞ If x = a
∞

∫
−∞
f ( x) δ ( x − a ) dx = f (a)
a x
Three Dimensional Delta Function
The generalized 3-D Delta function is
G
JG
δ 3
()
r = δ ( x)δ ( y )δ ( z )
where r = xxˆ + yyˆ + zzˆ
is the position vector from origin to (x,y,z)
 ∞
Volume Integral
∫ δ ( x ) δ ( y ) δ ( z ) dxdxdz = 1
−∞
∞
G 3
Generalizing
∫ f (r ) δ ( r − a ) dτ = f (a )
−∞

Now we look back the paradox,

GG
∇.v = 4πδ 3 (r )
 eˆ r
Divergence of is zero everywhere except at the origin, and yet its
r2
integral over any volume containing the origin is a constant (4π )
G ⎛ eˆr ⎞ 3 G
∇ ⋅ ⎜ 2 ⎟ = 4πδ (r )
⎝r ⎠
or
G ⎛ eˆ R ⎞ G G G G
∇ ⋅ ⎜ 2 ⎟ = 4πδ ( R)
generally
R = r − r′
3

⎝R ⎠
Note that the differentiation is with respect to r, which r/ is held constant
 Divergence of E

G G/
1 σ (r )
E (r ) = ∫
/
ˆ
e da
4πε 0 allspace R 2 R

G G G
Noting that r-dependence is contained in R = r − r′
G G G ⎛ eˆ R ⎞
⎟ρ (r ′)dτ ′
1
∇⋅E =
4πε 0 ∫ ∇⋅⎜ 2
⎝R ⎠
G ⎛ eˆR ⎞ G
∇ ⋅ ⎜ 2 ⎟ = 4πδ R
3
()
Thus
⎝R ⎠
G G G G G 1 G
∇⋅E =
1
∫ 4πδ (r − 3
r ′ )ρ (r ′ )d τ ′ = ρ ( r )
4πε 0 ε0
Gauss’s law
 Applications of Gauss’s law
Q: Find the field outside a uniformly charged solid sphere of radius R
and total charge q.

R
Gaussian
surface r

G G G
∫ ∫S
q
E da = E da = E 4 π r 2
=
S ε0
or
G 1 q
E= ˆ
e
4πε 0 r 2 r
 If the charge distribution has …
Spherical symmetry - Gaussian surface is a concentric sphere

Cylindrical Symmetry - Gaussian surface is a coaxial cylinder

Planar symmetry - Gaussian surface will be a “pill box”

Gauss’s law is always true

But not always useful

It demands symmetrical charge

distributions

Reference: D. J. Griffiths, Introduction to Electrodynamics

 Review
G 1 qQ
• Forces F= ˆ
2 r
4πε 0 r
• Electrostatics G G
E =FQ
• Coulomb’s law
• Electric field JG 1 ⎛ n qi ⎞
E= ⎜ ∑ 2 rˆqi Q ⎟
– Discrete charges 4πε 0 ⎜⎝ i =1 rqiQ ⎟
⎠
– Continuous charge G ρ dV ' G JG
distributions E=
1
4πε 0 ∫ (
G JG 3 r − r ' )
r −r'
V

– Field lines
– Electric flux
JG G JG 
∫ E.da = ∫ E.nda
s S
 Review

• Gauss’s law For any closed surface

G G 1
• Divergence of E ∫ E ⋅ da = Qenc
S
ε0
– Dirac delta function
• Gauss’s law G 1
- Applications v = 2 rˆ
r
- Symmetry in charge
distributions G G 1
- is the quickest means ∇⋅E = ρ
to compute E ε0
 Applications of Gauss’s law#1
The field outside a uniformly charged solid sphere of radius R and total
charge q:-

R
Gaussian
surface r

G G G
∫ ∫S
q
E da = E da = E 4 π r 2
=
S ε0
or G 1 q
E= ˆ
e
4πε 0 r 2 r

as if all the charge has been concentrated at the centre

 Applications of Gauss’s law #2
An infinite plane carries a uniform surface charge σ

E
Gaussian pill box-extending equal distances
above and below A

Qenc = σA
G
By symmetry,
E
E points away from the axis

G G G 1
= σA
∫ E ⋅ da = 2 A E
ε0
G σ
E= nˆ
2ε 0 Note: doesn’t depend on how far away you are
 Applications of Gauss’s law #3
A long cylinder carries a charge density that is proportional to the distance
from the axis: ρ = kr, k - constant. Let us find electric field inside the cylinder.
E

l
r

Gaussian surface
Gaussian surface of length l and radius r
G G 1
Enclosed charge is ∫ E ⋅ da = Qenc ε0
Qenc = ∫ ρ dτ = ∫ ( kr ' )(s r ' dr ' dφ dz )
S

2
= 2π kl ∫ r ' dr ' = π klr
2 3

0
3
Symmetry dictates that E must point radially outward. So, for the curved
portion of Gaussian cylinder
G G G G G
∫ E ⋅ da = ∫ E da = E ∫ da = E 2π rl
By Gauss’s law

G 1 2
E 2π rl = π klr 3

ε0 3
G 1 2
E= kr r
3ε 0
H. W. Do it for a spherical Charge distribution
H.W. (Example problem in Griffiths)
Find the electric field a distance z above the mid point of a straight
line segment of length 2L, which carries a uniform line charge λ

Two symmetrically places pairs at ±x θ

horizontal components cancel !!! P

R
net field of the pair is dx X
-L
G 1 ⎛ λ dx ⎞ x
+L

dE = 2 ⎜ 2 ⎟ cos θ eˆ z
4πε 0 ⎝ R ⎠
z
cos θ = and
R
x limits are 0 and L
R= z +x 2 2
 2λz
L
1
E=
4πε 0 ∫ (z
0
2
+x )
2 3/ 2
dx

1 2λL
= It is in the êz direction
4πε 0 z z 2 + L2
2λ L
For points far from line (z >> L)
1
E≅
4πε 0 z 2
∞ 2λ 1
In the limit L
E=
4πε 0 z
 Curl of E G 1 q
A point charge at the origin E= eˆ
4πε 0 r 2 r

b G G z

∫ E ⋅ dl
a
rb
b

q
In spherical polar coordinates y
G
dl = dreˆr + rdθeˆθ + r sin θdφeˆφ
ra
x
a
b G G ⎛q q⎞
∫a E ⋅ dl = 4πε ⎜⎜ r − r ⎟⎟
1
0 ⎝ a b ⎠
 G G
∫ E ⋅ d l = 0
Applying Stokes’ theorem
G G
∇× E = 0
By superposition principle
G G G
E = E1 + E 2 + − − − − − −
G G G G G
∇ × E = ∇ × ( E1 + E 2 + − − −−)
G G G G
= ∇ × E1 + ∇ × E 2 + − − − − =0

applicable for any static charge distribution

 Electric potential
Any vector whose curl is zero is equal to the gradient of some scalar

(1) b
Line integral is independent of the path
G G Gr
V (r ) = − ∫ E ⋅ dl (2)
a
O
O is some standard reference point
V is the electric potential -- depends only on the point r
Potential difference between two points a and b
G G G G G
()
b a
G
V b − V (a ) = − ∫ E ⋅ dl + ∫ E ⋅ dl
b oG G O GO G b G G
= − ∫ E ⋅ dl − ∫ E ⋅ dl = − ∫ E ⋅ dl
O a a
Fundamental theorem of gradients states that
G G
()
b G
G
( )
V b − V (a ) = ∫ ∇V ⋅ dl
G G G
a
G
∫ (∇V )⋅ dl = −∫ E ⋅ dl
b b

a a
G G
E = −∇V
Units of potential- joule per coulomb
volt
 To Find the potential inside and outside a spherical shell of radius R, which
carries a uniform surface charge. Set the reference point at infinity

By Gauss’s law the field outside

G 1 q
E= eˆ
4πε 0 r 2 r P

r
The field inside is zero

For points outside r>R R

rG G 1
r
q
V (r ) = − ∫ E ⋅ dl = − ∫ dr ′
O
4πε 0 ∞ r ′ 2

=
1 q =
1 q
4πε 0 4πε 0 r
r′ ∞
Potential inside the sphere (r < R)

R r
V (r ) = − ∫
1
q
d r ′ − ∫ (0 )d r ′
4πε 0 ∞ r ′ 2
R
1 q
=
4πε 0 R
 Poisson’s equation and Laplace’s equation
G G
E = −∇V
G G 1 G G
∇⋅E = ρ
ε0 ∇× E = 0
G G G G
(
∇ ⋅ E = ∇ ⋅ − ∇V = −∇ V
2
)
ρ
∇ V =−
2

ε0
Poisson’s equation

In regions of no charge, Poisson’s eq. reduces to Laplace’s equation

∇ V =0 2
 Potential of a localized charge distribution
We need to write V in terms of charge densities

Setting reference point to infinity, the potential of a point charge q at the origin

−1
r P
q 1 q R
V (r ) =
4πε 0 ∫∞ r ′ 2 = 4πε 0 r
d r ′ q

In general, potential of a point charge is

q1 G G
V (r ) = R = r − r ′
4πε 0 R
By superposition principle, potential of a collection of charges is
n
1 q
V (r ) = ∑
4πε 0 i =1 Ri
 For a continuous charge distribution

G 1 1
V (r ) = ∫
4πε 0 r
dq
For a volume charge , it is
G
G 1 ρ (r ′)
V (r ) =
4πε 0 ∫ R
dτ ′

Corresponding equations for line and surface charges are

G G
G 1 λ (r ′) 1 σ (r ′)
V (r ) =
4πε 0 ∫ R
dl ′
4πε 0 ∫ R
d a ′
Example Problem

The potential of a uniformly charged spherical shell of radius R

P r

θ′
z R

1 σ
x
V =
4πε 0 ∫r da ′

Set the point P on z-axis

r = R + z − 2 Rz cos θ ′
2 2 2
An element of surface area on this sphere is R sin θ ′dθ ′dφ ′
2

R 2 sin θ ′dθ ′dφ ′

4πε 0V ( z ) = σ ∫
R 2 + z 2 − 2 Rz cos θ ′
π
sin θ ′
= 2πR σ ∫ 2
dθ ′
0 r = R + z − 2 Rz cosθ ′
2 2 2
π
⎛ 1 ⎞
= 2πR σ ⎜ 2
R + z − 2 Rz cos θ ′ ⎟
2 2

⎝ Rz ⎠0
=
2πRσ
z
2 2
(
R + z + 2 Rz − R + z − 2 Rz
2 2
)
2πRσ ⎡ 2⎤
=
⎢⎣
2
(R + z ) − (R − z ) ⎥⎦
z
 2πRσ ⎡ ⎤
= (R + z )
2
− (R − z ) 2

z ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦

(R − z )2
= R−z For points inside the sphere

(R − z ) 2
= z−R For points outside the sphere

Rσ Rσ 2
V ( z) = [(R + z ) − (z − R )] = outside
2ε 0 z ε0z
Rσ Rσ
V ( z) = [(R + z ) − (R − z )] = inside
2ε 0 z ε0
 Electrostatic boundary conditions

ρ
ρ G 1 eˆr
∫
1
V= ∫ r dτ E= ρdτ
4πε 0 4πε 0 r 2

G G ρ G G
−ρ
ε0 ∇ × E =0
∇.E =
∇V =
2

ε0
G
E = −∇V G
V
G G E
V = − ∫ E.dl
 Electrostatics-Recap

• Coulomb’s law • Gauss’s law

• Electric field • Divergence of E
Discrete charges – Dirac delta function
Continuous charge • Gauss’s law
distributions
(when symmetry
• Field lines permits)
• Electric flux • Curl of E (=0)
 Electrostatics - Recap
  z
• Electric potential  E  dl  0 b
rb
• Case study:-
 
 E  0

inside and outside a

  q
y
E  0 ra
spherical shell x
a
• Sensitive to  
surroundings E  V
 Electrostatics - Recap
Siméon-Denis Poisson
(1781-1840)

 
• Poisson’s equation E   V
 
 E  0
2 
• Laplace’s equation  V 
0
2
 V 0
Pierre-Simon Laplace
(1749-1827)
In Cartesian coordinates,
2 2 2
 V  V  V
2
 2
 2
0
x y z
Solutions to the Laplace equation are called Harmonic Functions.

Laplace Equation in one dimension

d 2V
The general solution is 2
0
dx
V ( x )  mx  b -----------a straight line with two undetermined constants
-

V V(x) is the average of V(x+a) and V(x-a) for any a

1
4
V ( x)  [V ( x  a)  V ( x  a)]
2
3

1
x
2 3 4 5
 Electrostatics –Relating , V and E


1   1 eˆr
V  r d E  2
d
4 0 4 0 r
    
 .E 
0   E 0
2
V 
0

V
  E
V    E.dl

E  V
 Electrostatic Boundary Conditions
An infinite plane carries a uniform surface charge 

E
Gaussian pill box-extending equal distances
above and below A

Qenc  A

By symmetry,
E
E points away from the axis

   1
   A
 E da 2 A E
0
 
E nˆ
2 0
 Electrostatic Boundary Conditions

When an electric field goes through a surface charge, it suffers a discontinuity


By how much is the discontinuity? E2
E2 
Consider a surface S of charges
with charge density   

S
The electric fields on either sides of the
E1 E1
sheet and very close to the sheet, are

Resolve them in to components parallel and perpendicular to the surface S

Now, consider a small pill-box of infinitesimal thickness , forming a

Gaussian surface over a small area A of the surface S (the parts of the
box above and below the surface S are shown separately).

From the Gauss’ law, the flux of the electric field, through the box, is
  qencl  A

pillbox
E  da 
0

0
 Electrostatic Boundary Conditions
In the limit of  tending to zero, the flux through the thickness of the
Gaussian surface can be neglected.
The electric field can be  A 
assumed to be uniform over  E2  E1  A    E2  E1  
A. Then, flux becomes,
0 0
The normal component of the electric field is discontinuous by 
0
When there is no charge on the surface, the normal component is continuous
 
We know that,

closed path
E  dl  0 Consider a loop of infinitesimal
thickness , as shown

The tangential component of the electric field

can be in any direction as long as it is parallel
to the sheet. Let it be parallel to the length l
of the loop. In the limit   0,
 

closed path
E  dl  E2l  E1l  0 E2  E1
 Electrostatic Boundary Conditions
The boundary conditions can be   
combined to obtain a single E 2  E1  nˆ
condition 0
 
r2

What about the potential? V (r2 )  V (r1 )    E  dl  0

r1
The potential is continuous across the surface or any boundary
 
Since E  V
  
V (r2 )  V ( r1 )   nˆ
0
Taking the dot product with vector n̂


ˆ

ˆ
V (r2 ).n  V (r1 ).n  
 
V2 V1
 
 
 V .n
0 n n 0
Normal derivative of V – or rate of change of V in the dirn. perpendicular to the surface
 Work and energy in Electrostatics

The work done to move a charge

a
The electric force on Q is
 
q1 q2
Q
F  QE qi
b

The force you must exert in opposition to this force is  QE
b  b    
Work W 
  F  d l   Q  E  d l  Q V (b )  V ( a ) 
a a
  W
V (b )  V (a ) 
Q
Potential difference between points a and b is equal to the work per
unit charge required to carry a particle from a to b.
If the charge is starting from infinity to a point r


W  QV (r )  V () 
or

W  QV (r )
Energy of a point charge distribution
q3
No work to bring in q1
r3
R23

Bring in q2 q2
R13
r2
Work = q 2V1 (r2 ) R12
q1
r1

1  q1 
W2  q 2  
4 0  R12 

Now bring in q3 Work = q 3V1, 2 ( r3 )
1  q1 q2 
W3  q3   
4 0  R13 R23 
 To bring in q4
1  q1 q2 q3 
W4  q 4    
4 0  R14 R24 R34 
Total work to assemble first four charges will be

1  q1 q 2 q1 q3 q1 q 4 q 2 q3 q 2 q 4 q3 q 4 
W       
4 0  R12 R13 R14 R23 R24 R34 
This can also be written as

1 n n qi q j
W
4 0

i 1 j 1 Rij
j i
 This can also be written as

1 n n qi q j
W
8 0

i 1 j 1 Rij
j 1
Pull out the factor qi
 
 n 1 
1 n
 q j 
W   qi 
2 i 1  j 1 4 Rij 
 0 
 j i 
Term in the bracket gives potential at ri due to all other charges
 1  n
W   qiV ri 
2 i 1
Energy of a continuous charge distribution
Volume charge density 

1
W   Vd
2
Now use Gauss’s law  
   0  E
0  
W   (  E )Vd
2
      
  ( fA)  f (  A)  A  (f )
0    
W
2

  E  (V )d     (VE )d 
0    
Use Gauss’ divergence theorem

W
2 

  E  (V )d   VE  da


V   E
0  
W   E d   VE  da
2

2V S
 0 2
W
2  E d
allspace

Energy does not obey superposition principle

Example

Find the energy of a uniformly charged spherical shell of total charge q and radius R

Solution 1 1
W   Vda
2
1 q
Potential at the surface of the sphere is
4 0 R
2
W 
1 q
da 
1 q
8 0 R 
8 0 R
Solution 2

Inside the sphere E = 0

outside  1 q 2
E eˆ 2 q
2 r E 
4 0 r 2 4
4 0  r
0  q2  2
Wtot   
 4  r sin drdd 
24 0 
2
outside  r 

 2
1 2 1 1 q
 2
q 4  2 dr 
32  0 R r 8 0 R
 Conductors
Basic properties +
+
1) E = 0 inside a conductor +
+
+
+
2)  = 0 inside a conductor +
E1
+
3) Any net charge resides on the surface +
+
4) A conductor has an equipotential surface +

5) E is perpendicular to the surface, just outside a conductor E0

Conductor E = 0
 Conductors
Basic properties +
+
1) E = 0 inside a conductor Only in electrostatics? +
+
+
+
2)  = 0 inside a conductor +
E1
+
3) Any net charge resides on the surface +
+
4) A conductor has an equipotential surface +

5) E is perpendicular to the surface, just outside a conductor E0

Conductor E = 0
Why would charges flow ALL THE WAY to the surface?

The answer lies in the electrostatic energy R is the radius of the sphere

When the charges are to be 1 q2

assembled on the surface, the
energy is 8 0 R
When the charges are to be 3 q2
assembled in the volume, the
energy is 20 0 R
2 2
1 q 3 q
8 0 R < 20 0 R
 + + + +
+ +
+ +
conductor + +
+ +
q
+ E0
+
+
+ E=0 +
+ +
+
+ + +
+ + + + +

Surface charge and the Force on a conductor

Field inside a conductor is zero

Boundary condition implies that field immediately out side

 
E  nˆ
0
 Surface charge and the Force on a conductor

Field inside a conductor is zero

Boundary condition implies that field immediately out side

 
E nˆ
0
In the presence of an electric field, a surface charge will experience a force
  n̂

Force per unit area is
F E

What is the
 E 
here???? 1
2
 0 Eother
E  E patch  E other 
1 patch
Force on the patch is entirely due to Eother  0
2
The discontinuity is entirely due the patch, which puts out a field /20 on either side
pointing away from the surface
  
E above  E other  nˆ
2 0
  
Ebelow  Eother  nˆ
2 0
 1   

E other  E above  E below  Eaverage
2

Average will be

n̂
 1 2
2 0 F  nˆ
2 0
This amounts to an outward electrostatic pressure on the surface
 Capacitors
Both E and V are proportional to Q

Capacitance is defined as Q
C
V
Measured in Farads: Coulomb per Volt

Capacitance is an intrinsically positive quantity

Work done to charge up a capacitor

Michael Faraday (1791-1867)
Let q be the charge on the positive plate at some instant

Potential difference is q/C

Work that must be done to bring in the next piece of charge dq
q
dW  qV  dq
C
Total work necessary then to go from q = 0 to q = Q
Q 2
q
  1 Q
W    dq 
0
C 2 C

Since Q = CV
1 2
W  CV
2
V is the potential of the capacitor
Example problem
Find the capacitance of two concentric spherical metal shells,
with radii a and b
 Potential due to collection of charges
q r+ P
 r
s
r-
-q
1 q q
The potential at P due to q and –q is V ( P)    
4 0  r r 
2 2
 s   s s 
r  r     rs cos   r 1  cos   2 
2 2 2
When r >> s,
2  r 4r 
1/ 2
1 1 s  1 s 
 1  cos    1  cos  
r r  r  r  2r 
1 1 s 1 qs cos 
Then,   2 cos  V ( P) 
r r r 4 0 r 2
 z
P

Ri
r
qi
i q2
ri
o y
qn
q1
 n
qi  
V (r )   where Ri  r  ri
i 1 4 0 Ri
x
In terms of the angle i between the directions of r and ri we can
1
write 2 2
R  (r  r  2rr cos ) 2
i i i i

 n
qi
V (r )   1
i 1 4 0 (r 2  ri 2  2rri cos i ) 2
 1 1

Ri r (1  t ) 1 2
2
 ri   ri 
where t  2  cos  i   
r  r 
Expand (1+t)-1/2 as a power series.
1 1 3 2 5 3
1  t  2  1 t  t  t 
2 8 16
Neglect all terms with powers more than 2
We get
2 2 2
1 1   ri   ri   3   ri   ri  
12
 1   2  cos i       2  cos i    
1  t  2   r   r   8   r   r  
2
 ri  1  ri 

 1    cos i    3 cos2  i  1 
r 2 r 
  1 n 1 n 1 n qi ri 2
V (r )  
40r i1
qi  2 i i
40r i1
q r cosi  3
40r i1 2
 3cos2
i 1 

monopole dipole quadrupole

This is called the multipole expansion of the potential.

The monopole, dipole and quadrupole terms fall off as 1/r, 1/r2,
and 1/r3 respectively.
As we move farther away from the charge distribution the higher
order terms become less and less significant.
We can write the potential as
   
V ( r )  Vm ( r )  Vd ( r )  Vq ( r )  
Alternatively we can write the potential using Legendre
Polynomials Pl(x). Pl(x) are defined by the expression

1
1
  l
P ( x ) y l
x  1, y  1
1  2 xy  y 2 2 l 0
Pl(x) are the coefficients of yl in the sum. The first few terms are
1 2 1 3
P0 (x)  1 P1 (x)  x P2 (x)  (3x 1) P3 (x)  (5x  3x)
2 2
If we take x = cosi then we can write
The potential can be written as

 1 
1  n l 
V (r ) 
4 0

l 0 r
l 1   i i l
 i 1
q r P (cos i ) 


 1 n 1 n
1 n
qi ri 2
V (r )  
4 0 r i 1
qi  2 i i
4 0 r i 1
q r cos  i  3 
4 0 r i 1 2
 3cos 2
i  1  
 V at large distances
q r+ P
 r
s Electric dipole:-
r-
-q Potential at a far away point

1 q q
V ( P)    
4 0  r r 
octupole
dipole

1 1 qs cos 
1 1 1 V ( P) 
r r2 r3 r4 4 0 r 2
monopole quadrupole
 Dipole
• Physical Dipole
• Point Dipole or Pure dipole

s0

s is finite
 z
P

Ri
r
qi
i q2
ri
o y
qn
q1
 n
qi  
V (r )   where Ri  r  ri
i 1 4 0 Ri
x
In terms of the angle i between the directions of r and ri we can
write 2 1
2
Ri  (r  ri  2rri cos i ) 2

 n
qi
V (r )   1
2 2
i 1 4 0 ( r  ri  2rri cos  i ) 2
 1 1

Ri r (1  t ) 1 2
2
 ri   ri 
where t  2  cos  i   
r  r 
Expand (1+t)-1/2 as a power series
1 1 3 2 5 3
1  t  2  1 t  t  t 
2 8 16
Neglecting all terms with powers more than 2

2 2 2
1 1   ri   ri   3  r 
i  ri  
1 2  1   2   cosi      2   cosi    
1 t  2   r  r  8   r  r 
2
 ri  1  ri 

 1    cosi    3cos2 i 1
r 2 r 

  1 n 1 n 1 n qi ri 2
V (r )  
40r i1
qi  2 i i
40r i1
q r cosi  3
40r i1 2
 3cos2
i 1 
monopole dipole quadrupole
This is called the multipole expansion of the potential.
The monopole, dipole and quadrupole terms fall off as 1/r, 1/r2,
and 1/r3 respectively.
As we move farther away from the charge distribution the higher
order terms become less and less significant.
We can write the potential as
   
V ( r )  Vm ( r )  Vd ( r )  Vq ( r )  
Alternatively we can write the potential using Legendre
Polynomials Pl (x). Pl (x) are defined by the expression

1
1
  l
P ( x ) y l
x  1, y  1
1  2 xy  y 2
 2 l0
Pl (x) are the coefficients of yl in the sum. The first few terms are
1 2 1 3
P0 (x)  1 P1 (x)  x P2 (x)  (3x 1) P3 (x)  (5x  3x)
2 2
The other terms can be found by using the recursion relation
( l  1) Pl  1 ( x )  ( 2 l  1) xP l ( x )  lP l  1 ( x )
Pl (1)  1
If we take y = ri / r and x = cosi then we can write
 l
1 1  ri 
Ri

r

l0
Pl (cos  i )  
 r 
The potential can be written as
 1 
1  n l 
V (r ) 
4 0

l 0 r
l 1   i i l
 i 1
q r P (cos i ) 

We can eliminate  from the above expression using the relation
  
r  ri  ri  l x xi  l y y i  l z z i
cos  i   rˆ    
rri  ri  ri
Where lx, ly, and lz are the direction cosines of the position vector
r, of P and xi, yi, and zi are the rectangular coordinates of the
location of the charge qi.

Let us now consider the terms one by one for convenience.

Monopole term This is the dominant term in the potential. At far
n
away distance the whole charge distribution will

i 1
qi  Q
behave as if it is were a point charge.
 Q Q is called the monopole moment of the charge
Vm (r ) 
4 0 r distribution. 
For continuous charge distribution
Q    ( r ') d '
V'
Dipole term
n n

q r cos  q (l x  l
i 1
i i i
i 1
i x i y i y  l z zi )

     
 l x  qi xi   l y  qi yi   l z  qi zi 
 i   i   i 
 n 
 rˆ   qi ri 
 i1 
The term inside the bracket does not involve the location of the
field point and it is the property of the charge distribution only.
This term is called the dipole moment p.

 n 
p   qi ri
i 1
 n

 qi ri cos i  rˆ  p  l x p x l y p y  l z p z
i 1
  
 p  rˆ p r
Vd ( r )  2
 3
4  0 r 4  0 r
If the point is very far away and if the monopole moment
vanishes, then dipole moment will be the dominant term in
the expansion of potential.
  Electric Field of a Dipole
 p  rˆ p cos 
Vd (r )  2
 2 
4  0 r 4  0 r
To get the field, we take the negative gradient of V p r

V 2 p cos 
Er    3
r 4 0 r
1 V p sin 
E    3
r  4 0 r
1 V
E   0
r sin  
 p
E dip r ,    3
2 cos  eˆ r  sin  eˆ 
4 0 r
The Quadrupole term
This term is complicated
2
 2

ri 3 cos  i  1  3rˆ  ri   ri
2 2

2 2 2 2 2
 3(l x xi  l y y i  l z z i )  ri (l x  l y  l z )
Grouping the factors together
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
 l x (3 xi  ri )  l y (3 yi  ri )  l z (3 zi  ri ) 
6l x l y xi yi  6l y l z yi zi  6l z l x zi xi
Put this big term back in the main equation for potential
Rearrange the terms similar to this in a specific format

6l x l y xi y i  3l x l y xi y i  3l y l x y i xi
 You end up with a symmetric form of equation

 q r 3 cos
i
i i
2 2
 i  1 
2 2 2
lx  q (3x
i
i i  ri )  l x l y  qi 3 xi yi  l x l z  qi 3 xi zi 
i i
2 2 2
ly  q (3 y
i
i i  ri )  l y l x  qi 3 y i xi  l y l z  qi 3 y i z i 
i i
2 2 2
lz  q (3z
i
i i  ri )  l z l x  q i 3 z i xi  l z l y  qi 3 z i y i
i i

Each term in the expression is a product of something that depends only

on the field point (its direction) and a quantity that depends only on the
details of its charge distribution

We define here a new quantity Qjk, which are called the components of the
quadrupole moment tensor
 N

Q jk   qi 3 ji k i  ri  jk
2
  j , k  x, y , z 
i 1
j and k can independently be x, y or z

 jk is the Kronecker delta symbol

1 if j = k
 jk  if j # k
0
There a total of nine Qjk in our main equation in the previous page

Q xx   q i ri
2
3x i
2
 ri
2
 Qxy   qi 3xi y i
i
i
With this we can write the whole term in a compact form

 q r 3 cos  i  1 
2 2
i i
i
2
 l x Q xx  l x l y Q xy  l x l z Q xz 
2
l y Q yy  l y l x Q yx  l y l z Q yz 
2
l z Q zz  l z l x Q zx  l z l y Q zy
  l l Q
j  x, y , z k  x, y , z
j k jk

Incorporating this into the quadrupole term of the potential, we get

  1 1
VQ (r )  3
4 0 r 2
  
j  x, y ,z k  x, y ,z
l j lk Q jk

If the point P is very far away and if both monopole moment Q and dipole
moment p are zero, the above term will be the leading term in the expansion of
Potential and Quadrupole moment tensor Qjk will be the dominant feature of
The charge distribution
We can write the above in terms of coordinates rather than direction cosines

x y z
lx  ly  lz 
r r r
 1 1
VQ (r )  5
4 0 r 2
  
j x, y , z k  x, y , z
jkQ jk
 For a continuous charge distribution

/ / /

/2
Q jk    (r ) 3 j k  r  jk d /

V/
Although there were a total of nine Qjk , there are actually fewer
independent ones
We know Qxy = Qyx

Qkj  Q jk  j  k
Thus Quadrupole moment tensor is an example of symmetric tensor
Sum the diagonal components, those with j = k

 2 2
  2 2
 
Q xx  Q yy  Q zz   q i 3 xi  ri  3 y i  ri  3 z i  ri
2 2
 =0
i

Q xx  Q yy  Q zz  0
 If the charge distribution has sufficient symmetry, the number of independent
components reduce further
Consider the case of axial symmetry (cone, cylinder)..
Choose the z-axis to be along this axis an designate the elements in this
case by a
Q jk

For every charge q/ at (x/, y/, z/) there will be a charge of the same value
at (-x/, y/, z/)
a
Contribution of this pair to Qxy will be 3q x y   3q (  x ) y  =0
a
Since all of the charges can be paired in this manner Qxy =0
Same argument holds for the rest of the off-diagonal elements
a
Q jk  0
So , there are only three components.

Q xx  Q yy  Q zz  0
 There is no real distinction between x and y
a a
Q xx  Q yy
Therefore
a a
2Qxx  Q zz  0
or
a a 1 a
Q xx  Q xx   Q zz
2
So, there is only one independent component of the quadrupole moment
characteristic of the charge distribution
In this case quadrupole term will become

a
VQ (r ) 
Q a
 3l z
2
 1

a
 2
Q 3 cos   1 
4 0 4r 3
4 0 4r 3
 Effects of change in the origin zn
Monopole moment is a unique property for a point
charge at origin.
z yn
Dipole and quadrupole terms depend on the
xn
choice of the origin, rin

a
   ri
qi
rin  ri  a O y

x
New value of dipole moment is
     
p n   qi rin   qi ri  a  qi  p  Qa
 
i i i

pn  p
 Field of Pure Dipole

 p  rˆ p cos 
Vd (r )  2
 2 
4  0 r 4  0 r
To get the field, we take the negative gradient of V p r

V 2 p cos 
Er    3
r 4 0 r
1 V p sin 
E    3
r  4 0 r
1 V
E   0
r sin  
 p
E dip r ,    3
2 cos  eˆr  sin  eˆ 
4 0 r
  p
E dip r ,    3
2 cos  ˆ
e r  sin  ˆ
e  
4 0 r
 p
E dip r ,    3
3 cos  eˆr  (cos  eˆr  sin  eˆ ) 
4 0 r
p cos  êr
component along
z

 p sin  component along ê

therefore
 
 3 p  eˆr eˆr  p r
E 3 p

4 0 r y


x
Field due to a Dipole
s0

s is finite
 Electrostatics
R l
r
r

Gauss’s law

Coulomb’s law   1
  dV '    E  da  Qenc
E
1
    r  r ' S
3
0
4 0 V
r r' 1 
V
4 0  r d

E

Advantages of potential formalism in Electrostatics
  The electric field is a vector quantity and has three
E  V interrelated components whereas, the potential is a scalar

  Ex E y E y Ez Ex Ez

 E  0   ;  ; 
y x z y z x
1 
Thus electric field is a special kind of vector V
4 0  r d
In a region of 2 
charge density  V  Poisson’s equation
0
In a charge-free
region  2V  0 Laplace’s equation

Electrostatic potentials are harmonic functions

In Cartesian coordinates,
 2V  2V  2V
2
 2
 2
0
x y z
Solutions to the Laplace equation are called Harmonic Functions

Laplace Equation in one dimension

d 2V Pierre-Simon
The general solution is 2
0 Laplace
dx (1749-1827)
V ( x )  mx  b -----------a straight line with two undetermined constants
-

V (i) V(x) is the average of V(x+a) and V(x-a) for any ‘a’

1
4
V ( x)  [V ( x  a)  V ( x  a)]
2
3

2 (ii) No local maxima or minima

1

1
x
2 3 4 5
 Two dimensional Laplace’s Equation

 2V  2V Partial differential equation

2
 2 0
x y

Suppose the function have a simple maximum or minimum at a

point in the interior of a region in which it is harmonic. Then both

V2
 2V
and must be negative or positive
x 2
y 2

This is in contradiction with

2 2
2  V  V
 V ( x, y )  2  2  0
x y
 Two dimensional Laplace’s Equation

 2V  2V Partial differential equation

2
 2 0
x y
1
V ( x, y)  

2 R circle
Vdl

Laplace’s Equation in Three dimensions

2 2 2
 V  V  V
2
 2
 2
0
x y z
 Laplace’s Equation in Three dimensions

2 2 2
 V  V  V
2
 2
 2
0
x y z
1
V ( P) 
4 R 2 
sphere
Vda

The average V on the surface of the sphere = V due to q at the centre

 Laplace’s Equation

From the first property of the harmonic function we can find

the value of scalar field at any point from its values on the
boundary of a region centered about P

For one dimensional 1

V ( x)  V ( x  c)  V ( x  c) 
case 2

1
For two dimensional V ( x, y )  

2 R circle
Vdl
case
1
For three dimensional
case
V ( P) 
4 R 2 
sphere
Vda
 Boundary conditions and Uniqueness theorems

Laplace’s equation by itself does not gives V

A set of boundary conditions is needed

First Uniqueness theorem

The solution to Laplace’s equation in some region is uniquely determined

if V is specified on the boundary surface S

Proof
V specified in
V wanted in
this surface (S)
this volume
Suppose there were two solutions to
Laplace’s equation, then
2
 V1  0
2
 V2  0
 Let’s look at their difference

V3  V1  V2
This obeys Laplace’s equation

2 2 2
 V3   V1   V2 =0
It takes the value of zero on all boundaries

Laplace’s equation allows no local maxima or minima

Maxima and minima of V3 are both zero

V3 is zero everywhere

So V1 = V2
If the solution satisfies Laplace’s equation and it has correct values at the
boundaries, then it is right.
Suppose there is some charge density in the region

2  2 
 V1    V2  
0 0
Again look at the difference
V3  V1  V2
2 2 2
 V3   V1   V2 = 0
The difference V3 satisfies Laplace’s equation V wanted in
V3 is zero again at the boundary this volume

Corollary
The potential in a volume V is uniquely determined if
(a) the charge density throughout the region, and
(b) the value of V on all boundaries, are specified
 Conductors and Second Uniqueness theorem
If V is not specified at the boundary…..

Second Uniqueness theorem

In a region containing conductors and filled with a specified charge
density, , the electric field is uniquely determined if the total charge on each
Conductor is given (The region as a whole can be bounded by another
Conductor or else unbounded)

Q4
Integration surfaces
Q3

 Q2
specified
Q1 V

S
 Proof
Suppose there are two fields satisfying conditions of the problem
Both E1 and E2 satisfies Gauss’s law in the space between the conductors

     
  E1    E2 
0 0
Both obey Gauss’s law in integral form for a Gaussian surface enclosing
each conductor
  1   1

 E1  da  Qi
0 
 E2  da  Qi
0
ith conducting ith conducting
surface surface
For the outer boundary

  1   1
E1  da  Qtot  E2  da  Qtot

outer
0 outer
0
boundary boundary

Examine the difference again Q4

Integration surfaces
    Q
Q3
2
E3  E1  E 2 Q
specified
V
 
1
This obeys S
  E3  0 In the region between conductors
and  
 E 3  d a  0
over boundary surface
 Each conductor is an equipotential
Hence V3 is constant over each conducting surface

Using the product rule

     
   
  V3 E3  V3   E3  E3  V3  E3 
2
 
Integrating this over the entire region between the conductors and

  
applying divergence theorem

   V3 E3 d    V3 
E 3  da     E 3 
2
d
V S V
V3 is a constant and if the outer boundary is infinity, it is zero out there

2
  E 3  d  0  
Therefore E3 is zero everywhere

V E1  E 2
 Separation of Variables
To solve Laplace’s equation directly
Tool for solving partial differential equations
Potential or charge densities specified at the boundaries of some regions,
we need to find the potential in the interior
Look for solutions that are products of functions, each of which depends on only
one of the coordinates
Cartesian coordinates
Two infinite grounded metal plates lie parallel to the xz plane, one at y = 0, the
other at y = a. The left end, at x = 0. is closed off with an infinite strip insulated
from the two plates and maintained at a specific potential V0(y). Find the
Potential inside this “slot”.
Configuration is independent of z
We need to solve

 2V  2V
2
 2 0 (1)
x y
Subject to the boundary conditions
(i) V = 0 when y = 0
(ii) V = 0 when y = a
(iii) V= V0(y) when x = 0
(iv) V → 0 as x → 

Since the potential is specified on all boundaries, the potential should be

uniquely determined
First step is to look at the solution in the form of products
V(x,y) = X(x) Y(y) (2)
Substitute (2) in (1)
 2 2
d X d Y
Y 2
X 2 0
dx dy
Next step is the separation of variables

2 2
1 d X 1d Y
2
 2
0
X dx Y dy
We have an equation of the form

f ( x)  g ( y )  0
For this to be true both f and g must be constant
2 2
1 d X 1d Y
2
 C1 2
 C2
X dx Y dy
If C1 is positive and C2 will be negative
 2 2
d X 2
d Y 2
2
k X 2
 k Y
dx dy
These are ordinary differential equations which have the following
general solutions
kx  kx
X ( x)  Ae  Be
Y ( y )  C sin ky  D cos ky


V ( x, y )  Ae  Be kx  kx
C sin ky  D cos ky 
appropriate separable solution to Laplace’s equation
One has to apply boundary conditions to get the constants
V ( x, y )  Ae  Be  kx  kx
C sin ky  D cos ky 
(i) V = 0 when y = 0
(ii) V = 0 when y = a
(iii) V= V0(y) when x = 0
(iv) V → 0 as x → 

Condition (iv) requires A to be zero

Absorbing B into C and D,

V ( x, y )  e  kx
C sin ky  D cos ky 
Condition (i) require D equal to zero
 kx
V ( x, y )  Ce sin ky
Condition (ii) yields sin ka  0
Which means n 
k  ( n= 1,2,3,…. )
a
The separation of variables has given an infinite set of solutions
(one for each value of n) and none by itself satisfies the boundary
condition at x = 0 Laplace equation is a linear equation and hence
if V1, V2, V3 ……. satisfy it then any linear combination of these
also will satisfy the equation.
V  1V1   2V2  3V3  ...........
where, 1, 2, 3,..... are arbitrary constants.
2 2 2
 V  1 V1  2 V2  ........  01  02  .....  0
So the general solution can be written as

 n x / a
V ( x, y )   n
C
n 1
e sin( n y / a )

This satisfies 3 boundary conditions but still doesn’t satisfy the

boundary condition at x = 0 since the value of Cn is not known. A
proper choice for Cn has to be made to satisfy this boundary
condition.
 
V (0, y )   C n sin(ny / a)  V0 ( y )
n 1
Since this is nothing but a Fourier sine series, we can determine
Cn using a Fourier technique
Multiply the above equation both sides sin (ny/a) (where n is a
positive integer) and integrate from 0 to a.
 a a

C  sin(ny / a) sin(ny / a)dy  V ( y) sin(ny / a)dy

n1
n 0
0 0
a
 0, if n   n
0 sin( n y / a ) sin( n  y / a ) dy   a
, if n   n
2
Thus all the terms in the series drop out except the one for
which n=n a
2
C n   V0 ( y ) sin(ny / a)dy
a0
 Last Class
First Uniqueness theorem
The solution to Laplace’s equation in some  2V  2V  2V
2
 2  2 0
region is uniquely determined if V is specified on x y z
the boundary surface S
1
V ( x)  V ( x  c)  V ( x  c) 1D
2
V specified in
this surface
1
V wanted in V ( x, y )  

2 R circle
Vdl 2D
this volume

1
Corollary
V ( P) 
4 R 2 
sphere
Vda 3D

The potential in a region is uniquely determined if

(a) the charge density throughout the region, and
(b) the value of V on all boundaries, are specified
 Last Class
Second Uniqueness theorem
In a region containing conductors and filled with a
specified charge density, , the electric field is
uniquely determined if the total charge on each
conductor is given (The region as a whole can be
bounded by another conductor or else unbounded)
Q4
Integration surfaces
Q3

 Q2
specified
Q1 V

S
 Separation of Variables
Tool for solving partial differential equations
To solve Laplace’s equation
Potential or charge densities specified at the boundaries of some regions,
we need to find the potential in the interior
Look for solutions that are products of functions, each of which depends on only
one of the coordinates
To solve Laplace’s equation -Cartesian coordinates
Two infinite grounded metal plates lie parallel to the xz plane, one at y = 0, the
other at y = a. The left end, at x = 0. is closed off with an infinite strip insulated
from the two plates and maintained at a specific potential V0(y). Find the
Potential inside this “slot”.
Configuration is independent of z
We need to solve

 2V  2V
2
 2 0 (1)
x y
boundary conditions
(i) V = 0 when y = 0
(ii) V = 0 when y = a
(iii) V= V0(y) when x = 0
(iv) V → 0 as x → 

Since the potential is specified on all boundaries, the potential should be

uniquely determined
First step is to look at the solution in the form of products
V(x,y) = X(x) Y(y) (2)
Substitute (2) in (1)
 2 2
d X d Y
Y 2
X 2 0
dx dy
Next step is the separation of variables

2 2
1 d X 1d Y
2
 2
0
X dx Y dy
Thus, we have an equation of the form

f ( x)  g ( y )  0
For this to be true both f and g must be constant
2 2
1 d X 1d Y
2
 C1 2
 C2
X dx Y dy
If C1 is positive and C2 will be negative
 2 2
d X 2
d Y 2
2
k X 2
 k Y
dx dy
These are ordinary differential equations which have the following
general solutions
kx  kx
X ( x)  Ae  Be
Y ( y )  C sin ky  D cos ky


V ( x, y )  Ae  Be kx  kx
C sin ky  D cos ky 
Is appropriate separable solution to Laplace’s equation
One has to apply boundary conditions to get the constants
V ( x, y )  Ae  Be  kx  kx
C sin ky  D cos ky 
(i) V = 0 when y = 0
(ii) V = 0 when y = a
(iii) V= V0(y) when x = 0
(iv) V → 0 as x → 

Condition (iv) requires A to be zero

Absorbing B into C and D,

V ( x, y )  e  kx
C sin ky  D cos ky 
Condition (i) require D equal to zero
 kx
V ( x, y )  Ce sin ky
Condition (ii) yields sin ka  0
Which means n 
k  ( n= 1,2,3,…. )
a
The separation of variables has given an infinite set of solutions
(one for each value of n) and none by itself satisfies the boundary
condition at x = 0 Laplace equation is a linear equation and hence
if V1, V2, V3 ……. satisfy it then any linear combination of these
also will satisfy the equation.
V  1V1   2V2  3V3  ...........
where, 1, 2, 3,..... are arbitrary constants.

2V  1 2V1   22V2  ........ 01  0 2  .....  0

So the general solution can be written as

 nx / a
V ( x, y )  C
n 1
n e sin( n  y / a )

This satisfies 3 boundary conditions but still doesn’t satisfy the

boundary condition at x = 0 since the value of Cn is not known. A
proper choice for Cn has to be made to satisfy this boundary
condition.
 
V (0, y )   C n sin(ny / a)  V0 ( y )
n 1
Since this is nothing but a Fourier sine series, we can determine
Cn using a Fourier technique
Multiply the above equation both sides sin (ny/a) (where n is a
positive integer) and integrate from 0 to a.
 a a

C  sin(ny / a) sin(ny / a)dy  V ( y) sin(ny / a)dy

n1
n 0
0 0
a
 0, if n   n
0 sin( n y / a ) sin( n y / a ) dy   a2 , if n n
Thus all the terms in the series drop out except the one for
which n=n a
2
Cn   V0 ( y) sin(ny / a)dy
a0
 Laplace’s Equation in Spherical Polar coordinates

2
1   2 V  1   V  1 V
2 r  2  sin  2 2 2
0
r r  r  r sin     r sin  
Let us assume that the problem has azimuthal symmetry, so that V is
independent of .

  2 V  1   V 
r   sin   0
r   r  sin      
Let V ( r ,  )  R ( r )  ( )
Substituting this in the above equation and dividing throughout by V, we get

1 d  2 dR  1 d  d 
r   sin  0
R dr  dr   sin  d   d 
Since the first term depends only on r and the second term depends only on ,
it follows that each must be a constant.

1 d  2 dR  1 d  d 
r   l ( l  1),  sin     l ( l  1)
R dr  dr   sin  d   d 
We have written the constant in a specific manner l(l+1) to infer that the solution
for the angular equation can be expressed as Legendre Polynomials.
The radial equation d  2 dR 
r   l (l  1) R
dr  dr 
has the general solution l B
R ( r )  Ar 
r l 1
where, A & B are two arbitrary constants.

The angular equation, d  d 

 sin     l ( l  1) sin  
d  d 
is not simple. The solution for this is given in terms of Legendre Polynomials.
 ( )  Pl (cos  )
Pl (x) is defined by the Rodrigues formula

l
1  d  2
Pl ( x )  l   ( x  1) l
2 l !  dx 
The first few Legendre Polynomials are

P0 ( x )  1
P1 ( x )  x
P2 ( x )  ( 3 x 2  1 ) / 2
P3 ( x )  ( 5 x 3  3 x ) / 2
P4 ( x )  ( 35 x 4  30 x 2  3 ) / 8
P5 ( x )  ( 63 x 5  70 x 3  15 x ) / 8
Pl (x) is a lth order polynomial in x and it contains only even powers if l is even
and odd powers if l is odd.

The factor (1/2l l !) was chosen to make Pl (1) = 1

The Rodrigues formula works only for non-negative integer value of l and
provides only one solution though equation being second order should
posses two independent solutions. But the other solutions blow up at  =0 and
= and hence discarded on physical grounds.
The most general, separable solution to Laplace’s equation is

 l B 
V ( r ,  )   Al r  l 1  Pl (cos  )
 r 
The general solution is a linear combination of separable solutions.


 l Bl 
V ( r ,  )    Al r  l 1 Pl (cos  )
l 0  r 
 Method of Images
The field of a positive charge above a flat conducting
grounded surface, found by the method of images.

One should know

How much is the induced charge?
How it is distributed?
 Method of Images
z
What is the potential above a infinite, grounded x
q
conducting plane where a point charge +q is
kept at a distance d above the plane? d

One need to consider how induced charges will y

be arranged, and also solve the Poisson’s
equation in region z>0.

The boundary conditions we have are V=0

1. V=0 at z=0, since the conducting plane is grounded.
2. V goes to zero for r>>d

Since now potential at all the boundaries above the plate is known and also the
charges/charge density inside the region are known, from the Uniqueness
theorem, this should have unique solution for the potential.

In the method of images one does consider a different charge configuration

(image charge) which gives the same boundary conditions in the region of
interest and also keeping the same charge density of the original problem.
 Method of Images
In the present case, consider a image charge –q at z= - d in addition to a charge q
at z=d. This case will have the identical boundary conditions for the upper region
though the conditions for the lower region is changed. Therefore the upper region
potential can be given as what will this two charges configuration will give, which
is
1  q q 
V ( x, y , z )    
4 0 2 2
 x  y  ( z  d ) 2
x 2  y 2  ( z  d )2 
Verify the boundary conditions
Induced surface charge density can be now obtained by using

V V qd
   0     0  
2 3/ 2
n z z 0
2  x  y  d
2 2

One can easily calculate total induced charge
This will be -q
 Method of Images
Force on the charge q due to induced charge:
Since the potential around the point charge q is same as in the analogous image
problem, so also is the field, therefore the force can be given as

 q 2
F 2
eˆz
4 0  2d 
Is there everything identical in the two cases? The answer is no, the energy stored
is not same in both systems

With two point charges and no

q 2
W 
conductor, the energy stored is 4 0 2d
But for the single charge and conducting plane the energy is half of this value.

Method of images not only works for a point charge but also for a
charge distribution and a conducting plane.
 1   1 eˆr
V
4 0  r d E
4 0  r 2 d

Electrostatics in
Free space

2    
V  .E 
0 0
Electrostatics in
Matter
 Polarization
Dielectrics  
Induced Dipoles p  E
 Is the atomic polarizability

Some molecules polarize more readily in some directions than others

-q
d
-q +q +q
a

E
Field at a distance d from the centre of a uniformly charged sphere is
1 qd
Ee 
4 0 a 3
At equilibrium E = Ee

p  qd  4 0 a 3 E 
3
  4 0 a  3 0
CO2 has a polarizability of 4.5x10-40C2m/N when field is along the axis
of the molecule, and 2x10-40 when field is perpendicular

O C O

  
p    E    || E ||
p x   xx E x   xy E y   xz E z Polarizability tensor

p y   yx E x   yy E y   yz E z
p z   zx E x   zy E y   zz E z
 Water Molecule is a Polar Molecule

Dipole moment of water is unusually large : 6.1 x 10-30 C-m

Electric fields in matter
What happens when a dipole is kept in an electric field E
F+
+q
If the field is uniform, forces acting are
O d

  F -q
E
F  qE -

  Cancels each other

F   qE
    
Torque
  
N  r  F  r  F 
 
    
 d  qE   d   qE  
 
2
 
2
 qd  E  p  E
 If the field is non-uniform
     

F  F  F  q E   E   q E   

E difference in field at the plus and minus ends


Small change in Ex

E x  E x   d
Together with corresponding formulas for Ey and Ez
  
E  ( d   ) E
  
F  ( p  ) E
 Polarization

What happens when a piece of dielectric is placed in an electric field

Material becomes polarized

A measure of this effect is

P = dipole moment per unit volume called polarization

 The field due to a polarized object
Bound charges R

Dipole moment per unit volume is P

For a single dipole p P

ˆ 
 1 R p
V (r )  2
4 0 R
  /
For each volume element
p  Pd 
Total potential is  /
 1 Rˆ  P(r ) /
V (r )   2
d
4 0 V R
 We know that  1  eˆ R
    2
R R
Integrating with respect to source coordinates

 1   1 /
V (r )   P    d
4 0  R
Integrating by parts

1  P / 1  
V  /
      d      P d 
4 0 
 
R 
R 
Use divergence theorem

1 1  1 1  /
V
4 0 S R P  da  
4 0  R  P d
 1 1  1 1  /
V
4 0 S R P  da  
4 0  R  
  P d 
  
 b  P  nˆ  b    P
1 b  1 b /
V   da    R d
4 0 S R 4 0

Potential of a polarized object is the same as that produced by a volume

charge density b plus that produced by a surface charge density b

Bound charges
Physical Interpretation of Bound Charges

- +- +- +- +- +- -+ +- +

- +

n̂ 

P
A Aend
d

A
p  P(Ad )
 p  qd  q  P A
q
b   P
A
A  Aend cos 
q 
b   P cos   P  nˆ
Aend
The net bound charge  b d  in a given volume is equal and

opposite to the amount of charge that has been pushed out
through the surface.


 b d    P  da      P d
V s V
 
 b    P

+
+ +

- - -
+ - - +
- - -

+ +
+
 The Electric Displacement
Gauss’s law in the presence of dielectrics

Effect of polarization is to produce accumulation of bound charges

   
b  Pn  b    P
Field attributed to bound charge and that due to everything else

Free charge: any charge that is not a result of polarization

Within the dielectric then the total charge density is

  b   f
 
Gauss’s law states that
 
 0  E     b   f  .P   f
E is now the total field, not just that portion generated by polarization
    
 0  E  .P   f
  
.( 0 E  P)   f

Term in the bracket is replaced by D
  
D  0E  P
  called the electric displacement

D  f
In the integral form  
 D  da Q fenc
Q f enc is the total free charge enclosed in the volume
 Uniformly polarized sphere

A sphere of radius a has constant polarization P

z
Choose z axis to be the direction of P
nˆ 
and origin at the center of the sphere /
 a
P  Pzˆ P O

P is a constant and hence volume bound

charge is zero

But have a finite surface bound charge


 b ( )  P.nˆ   P cos 
  + + +
z

 b ( )  P.nˆ   P cos  + +

For simplicity we find the potential and field

+
+
on points on the z axis and for positive z
O
- -
1
 2 2
R  z  a  2 za cos    2 -
- - -
-
z

Potential is r R

1  b ( )da  / r/
 ( z)  
4 0 R a
O
 1  b ( )da 
 ( z) 
4 0  R
2  2
1 P cos    a sin  d d 
   1

4 0 0 0 z 2  a 2  2 za cos  2
2 1

Pa d

2 0 1 z 2  a 2  2 za 12
 
1 1
This turns out to be

z 2 2
 2 2
 a  za z  a  2 za  2

2 2
3z a -1
 1 1


z 2

 a 2  za z 2  a 2  2 za  2

3z 2 a 2 -1
1
 
 2 2 z 2  a 2  z  a  z  a   za  z  a  z  a 
3z a

(1)
We have to discuss two situations
1.Outside the sphere

Here z > a za  za

(1) Becomes 2a / 3z2

Pa 3
o ( z )  2
3 0 z
Electric field
 0 2 Pa 3
E zo ( z )   
z 3 0 z 3
We can express the same in terms of the total dipole moment of the sphere

 4 3
p  a Pzˆ
3
p
o ( z )  2
4 0 z
2p
E zo ( z )  3
4 0 z
Inside the sphere

Here z < a, so that za  az

(1) becomes 2z 2
3a
Potential becomes Pz
i ( z ) 
3 0
and field i P
E zi ( z )   
z 3 0
E is a constant inside the sphere
 + ++
Field in the region of overlap between two spheres ++ + + +
+
 +
 1 qd -
d -
-
E --
--
- -- --
- -
4 0 R 3

  4 3
p  qd   R  P
3 
 1 
E P
3 0
The Electric Displacement

Gauss’s law in the presence of dielectrics

Effect of polarization is to produce accumulation of bound charges

   
b  Pn  b    P
Field attributed to bound charge and that due to everything else

Free charge: any charge that is not a result of polarization

Within the dielectric then the total charge density is

  b   f
 
Gauss’s law states that
 
 0   E     b   f  .P   f

E Is no the total field, not just that portion generated by polarization
    
 0  E  .P   f
  
.( 0 E  P)   f

Term in the bracket is replaced by D
  
D  0E  P
is the electric displacement
 
D  f
In the integral form  
 D  da Q fenc
Q f enc is the total free charge enclosed in the volume
A long straight line carrying uniform line charge , is surrounded by rubber
insulation out to a radius a. Find the electric displacement
L

Gaussian surface of radius s and length L.

a
 s

D 2 sL    L
 
D sˆ
2s
This equation holds good for both inside and outside the rubber insulation

Outside P = 0  1  
E D sˆ for s > a
0 2 0 s
Inside the rubber electric field cannot be determined, since we do not know P
 D and E
There is no coulomb’s law for D
Curl E is always zero, but Curl D is not
      

  D    0E  P    P  It will depend on P

Boundary conditions

D  above  D  below   f
|| || || ||
D above D below P above P below

Corresponding boundary conditions for E are

  
E above E below 
0
|| ||
E above E below 0
 Linear Dielectrics
For many substances polarization is proportional to the field, provided
the field is not too strong
 
P   0 e E
e is the electric susceptibility
Materials that obey this equation are called linear dielectrics

In linear media
     
D   0 E  P   0 E   0  e E   0 1   e E
 
So D is also proportional to
E
 
D  E    0 1   e  is the permittivity of the
materials
    0 1   e  
r   1   e 
0
is the relative permittivity or dielectric constant of the material

example

A metal sphere of radius a carries a charge Q. It is surrounded , out to

radius b, by linear dielectric material of permittivity . Find the potential
At the center (relative to infinity)

Free charge here is Q b

Q
The arrangement if spherically symmetric. a

 Q
D eˆ
2 r
for r > a
4r
Inside the metal sphere, E = P = D = 0
Once D is know, it is easy to find E
 Q
 4r
eˆ
2 r
for a < r < b

E
Q
eˆ
2 r
for r > b
4 0 r
Potential at the center is
 0   b
 Q  a
 Q 
0
V    E  dl     dr   
2  2 
dr   0 dr
   4 0 r  b  4r  a

Q  1 1 1
    
4   0 b a b 
   0  0Q
P   0 0 E  2
ˆ
e r
4r
  
Volume bound charge b =0 b    P  0
 0  0Q
at the outer surface
  4b 2
b  Pn 
  0  0Q at the inner surface
2
4a
Note the – sign at the inner surface

Can curl of D vanish if we are dealing with linear dielectrics?

P1
Mat 1

Mat 2
P2
 P1
Mat 1

Mat 2
P2

   
If the space is filled with a homogeneous linear dielectric, then

D  f  D  0
In this case D can be found from the free charge as though the
dielectric was not there  
 D   0 Evac
Evac is the field the same free charge would produce in the absence of
any dielectric
+
+
 1  1  +

E  D  Evac +
 r +

+ +
+
 In a homogeneous linear dielectric the bound charge density is
proportional to the free charge density

    e    e 
b    P      0 D      f
    1  e 
Unless free charge is embedded in the material,  = 0
Within such a dielectric the potential obeys Laplace’s equation
Energy in Dielectric systems

0 2
W   E d
2
Work done on the incremental free charge

W   (  f )Vd 
   
D  f 

 f  

  
D
 W   (   (  D )) Vd 
     
      
   D V    D V  D   V  
Integrating by parts
   
  
W     D V d    D  E d   
 The divergence theorem turns the first integral into a surface integral, which
vanishes if we integrate over all space

 
W    
 D  E d

If the medium is a linear dielectric
D  E
so
1   1    
2
 2
 2
   
 D  E   E   E  E  D  E  
1   
Thus
W    D  Ed 
2 
Hence the total work done
1  
W   D  Ed
2
Magnetostatics
 current
Magnetostatics When a
Two parallel current
current carrying flows
conductors repel through a
each other when straight
the currents are in conductor,
the same magnetic
direction and field is
attract each other generated
when the currents circumferent
are in opposite I ially
directions. I
+-

v
B

F
Wire 1
Wire 2
 Magnetic forces

Magnetic force in a charge Q, moving with a velocity v in a magnetic field is

  
Fmag  Q v  B   (1)

known as Lorentz force law

In the presence of both E and B, the net force on Q would be

   
F Q E vB  
Equation (1) is a fundamental axiom of the theory, whose justification is
found in experiments
Examples

Cyclotron motion y

2
v v
QvB  m or p  QBR R
x
R
p is the momentum of the particle F
B
Cyclotron formula
z
If the particle has an additional speed v||
to B, then the particle will moves in a helix
z E
Cycloid motion

O
y
x B
 Magnetic forces do no work y
 
If Q moves by an amount dl  v dt R v
x
     F
dWmag 
 Fmag  dl  Q v  B .vdt  0  z
B

Magnetic forces may alter the direction in which a particle moves, but
cannot speed it up or slow it down

Current
Charge per unit time passing a given point

Negatively charged electrons moves around-opposite to the direction

of electric current
1 Ampere = 1 C / sec
 A line charge  traveling down a wire at speed v constitutes a current

I  v vt
v

 P

Magnetic force on a segment of current-carrying wire is

      

F mag   v  B dq    
v  B dl   I dl  B  
Typically current is constant along the wire
  
Fmag  I  dl  B  
 When the charge flows over a surface, it is described by
surface current density K

dI
K
dl 
lo w
F
K is the current per
unit width perpendicular
to the flow
K
dl 

If surface charge density
is  and velocity v 
K  v
  
Magnetic force on surface current is
 
Fmag    
v  B  da    K  B da 
Volume current density J

 dI
J da

da  J

J 
is the current per unit area-perpendicular to flow
 Flow

J  v
The magnetic force on a volume current is therefore

    

Fmag   v  B d     J  B d 
Example: Uniform current distribution over a wire of circular cross section

a I
I
J 2
a
sd
Suppose Current density in the wire is proportional
ds to the distance from the axis

J  ks
Current
dI  Jda
3
2 ka
da  sdsd I
3
Current crossing a surface S can be written as
 
I   Jda    J  da
S S
Total charge per unit volume leaving a volume V is
   

 J  da     J d 
S V

Because the charge is conserved

  d 
 
  J d    d    d
dt V t
V    V
J   Continuity equation
t
Stationary charges --- constant electric fields: electrostatics
Steady currents --- constant magnetic fields: magnetostatics


0 in magnetostatics
t
 
 J  0
The Biot-Savart Law r
I
Magnetic field of a steady line current is
 R
  0 dl  Rˆ
B (r )  I 2
4 R
Constant 0 is called permeability of free space
0 = 4 x 10-7 N / A2

Integration is along the current path, in the direction

of the flow. dl/ is an element along the wire and R
is the resultant vector

Biot-Savart law plays a role analogous to Coulomb’s law in electrostatics

 Lecture - 13

Magnetostatics

Biot-Savart law
-Field of a solenoid

Divergence and Curl of B

Ampere’s Law
- Example
 Axial induction of an ideal solenoid
dz0
N is the number of turns

Equivalent to N circular filamentary

currents of radius a
a
Value of B at P – sum up the 1 2
Contribution of each turn
P z
z0
Small portion dz0 located at
a distance z0 from one end zp
nN
L
no. of turns per unit length L
dN = ndz0 is the number of circular rings in the small section, each
approximately z = zp-z0 from the field point P
2
 Ia ndz
0 0
dB  3

2 a  z  z
2
p 0 
2 2
 Total value of B at P will be

L 2 2 Lz p
 0 Ia ndz 0  0 Ina dz 
B   3
2a  z 
3
0
2
p  z0
2 2 2 zp a 2
 z 2
 2

used z  z0  z p
 L  z p  zp 
 0 In  
   1 

 
2  a 2  L  z 2
p 
1
2
a 2
 zp
2
 2


In terms of angles in the figure

1
B   0 nI cos 1  cos  2 
2
For a solenoid of infinite length
B   0 nI
Infinite plane of uniform current sheet K/
y
Constant current density K/
da/ x
Current sheet lies in the xy plane and

K   K eˆ y r/ R

r  xeˆ x  yeˆ y  zeˆ z
 O
r   xeˆx  yeˆ y r
P (x,y,z)

R   x  x  eˆx   y  y  eˆy  zeˆz
  x  x    y  y 
2 2 2 2 z
R z
da   dx dy 
 
K   R  K zeˆ x  x   x eˆ z 
Use Biot-Savart law for a surface current density and integrate
 0 K '  
 zeˆx   x  x  eˆz  dxdy
B  3
4  
  x  x  2 2
  y  y   z 2
 2

 

0 K  zeˆ x  X eˆ z dX dY 
  3
2

4  X   Y   z 2 2 2

X   x  x Y   y   y
z-component will vanish because the integrand is an odd function of X/

 1 1 z
B    0 K eˆ x   0 K  eˆ x
2 2 z
The Divergence and curl of B

  0 I 0 I
 B  dl   2s dl  2s dl 
 0 I
If we use cylindrical coordinates (s, , z) with current along z axis
 0 I
B eˆ
 2s
dl  dseˆ s  sdeˆ  dzeˆ z
  0 I 1 0 I
 B  dl  2  s sd  
2  d  0 I
 I5
Bundle of straight wires I1 I2
I3
Each wire that passes through
the loop contributes
0 I
  I4

 B  dl  0 I enc
If the flow of charge is represented by a volume charge density J
 
I enc   J  da Integral taken over the surface bounded by the loop

Applying stokes’ theorem

    
 
  B  da   0  J  da
 
  B  0 J
Above derivation is restricted by the condition that we need infinitely
straight line currents
 Divergence and curl of B

Biot-Savart law for a volume current distribution is  x, y , z 

 
   0 J (r )  Rˆ R
B (r )   2
d 
4 R d 

B is a function of  x, y , z  x, y , z 
J is a function of  x , y , z 

R   x  x eˆ x   y  y eˆ y  z  z eˆ z
d   dx dy dz 
Integration is done over the primed coordinates
Divergence and curl is done over the unprimed coordinates
Applying divergence to the magnetic field B due to a volume charge distribution

  0    Rˆ 
B      J  2 d 
4  R 
        
  
  A B  B    A  A   B   
   Rˆ  Rˆ      Rˆ 
 
   J  2   2    J  J     2 
R  R R 
  


 J  0 because J does not depend on unprimed coordinates
 Rˆ
and  2  0
R
 
 B  0
 Applying curl to the magnetic field B due to a volume charge distribution
   0    Rˆ 
 B      J  2 d 

4  R 
              
     
  A  B  B   A  A   B  A(  B )  B (  A)
   Rˆ    Rˆ    Rˆ
   J  2
R

 J    2 
  J  2
  (a)
   R  R
The terms involving derivatives of J is dropped since J does not depend on (x,y,z)
The second term in (a) integrates to zero
 Rˆ 3

  2  4 ( R )
R
  0   3    
 B   J ( r ) 4 ( r  r )d    0 J (r )
4
How does the other term vanish?

Since r depends only on difference  

between the coordinates and hence f ( x  x )   ' f ( x  x' )
'

x x
Because the derivative acts only   Rˆ   Rˆ
on R term, we can switch to  
 J   2  J   2
R
 R

Consider the x-component
   x  x    ( x  x)    ( x  x)   
 
J    3      3
J  3

   J 
 R   R   R 
We are dealing with steady currents, hence second terms in zero
  Rˆ   ( x  x)  
 R

 J   2     3
J
 R 
Contribution to the integral from this term is
  ( x  x )   ( x  x )  
V    R 3 J d   S R 3 J  da
We are integrating over the source region that include all the current.
On the boundary the current is zero and hence the surface integral vanishes
 Ampere’s law
  
  B  0 J
is called Ampere’s law (in differential form)

Using Stokes’ theorem

      
 
  B  da   B  dl   0  J  d a
 
 J  da is the total current passing through the surface-- Ienc
 
 B  dl  0 I enc
Ampere’s law in integral form

Which way to integrate? Direction of positive current?

Use the Right-hand rule

 Ampere’s law have the same role as Gauss’s law in electrostatics

Appropriate symmetry

Example:
Find the magnetic field a distance s from a long straight wire carrying a
steady current I

Direction of B is circumferential

By symmetry, the magnitude of B is constant around an amperian loop of radius s

  Amperian loop
 B  dl  B  dl  B 2s   0 I enc   0 I
s

0 I I
B B
2s
 Example 2

Magnetic field of an infinite uniform surface current K  Keˆ x
flowing over the xy plane

The field cannot have an x- component

It also cannot have a z-component


K
B can only have a y-component
It points towards the left above
the plane and towards the
right in the plane below

 
 B  dl  2 Bl   0 I enc   0 Kl Amperian loop

l
 0 
B   K
 2 
 Example 3
Magnetic field of a very long solenoid consisting of n closely wound turns per
unit length on a cylinder of radius R and carrying a steady current I

K  nI

Amperian loop

It cannot have a radial component

It also will not have circumferential component s
B would be constant around the amperian loop
concentric to the solenoid
 
 B  dl  B 2s    0 I enc  0
 So the magnetic field of an infinite solenoid runs parallel to the axis
It points upward inside the solenoid and downward outside
b
 
Loop1

 B  dl  B(a)  B(b)L   0 I enc  0 a

B (a)  B (b)
Field outside does not depend on the L
distance from the axis!!
But field will go to zero at large s 1
2
Hence it will be zero everywhere!!!

Loop 2
  Amperian
loops
 B  dl  BL   0 I enc   0 nIL
  0 nIzˆ Inside the solenoid
B
 0 Outside the solenoid
Like Gauss’ law, Ampere’s law is always true. Not always useful
Importance of symmetry
Electrostatics Magnetostatics

 
1  dl '   '   0 dl  Rˆ
E
4 0 
C   3  r  r  B (r )  I Biot-Savart law
r r'
Coulomb’s law
4 R2
  1  
E   Gauss’s law
B  0
0   
    B   0 J Ampere’s law
 E  0

B
 Electrostatics Magnetostatics
 
1  dl '   '   0 dl  Rˆ
E    3  r  r  B (r )  I
4 0 C
r r'
Coulomb’s law
4 R 2 Biot-Savart’s law
  1  
E   Gauss’s law
B  0
0   
    B  0 J
 E  0 Ampere’s law

B
 Magnetic vector potential
 
B  0 (a)
If we combine this with divergence theorem
 
S
 B  da  0 Flux through any closed surface is always zero

Equation
  towrite B in terms on potential, similar to what we did for E
 (a) helps 
B ( r )    A( r ) Divergence of a curl is always zero
 
A(r ) is the vector potential
         
   2
  B      A     A   A  0 J 
We can add to magnetic potential any function whose curl vanishes, with
no effect on B
 We use this freedom to eliminate the divergence of A
 
. A  0
Suppose our original potential A0 is not divergenceless. We can add to it gradient of
of function       
A  A0   2
  A    A0   
2
 
     A0
2 
V  Poisson’s equation
0
If  tends to zero at infinity, the solution
to Poisson’s equation is
1 
V   d  
4 0 R
 2
 
     A0
Similarly if   A0 goes to zero at infinity, then
 
1   A0
  d 
4 0 R
So, the new vector potential is divergenceless

         
  2
  B      A     A   A  0 J 
2
 
 A   0 J This again is Poisson’s equation
 
   0 J (r )d 
A(r ) 
4 V
Solution of which is
R
 
  0 dl   Rˆ
B(r )  I 2
4 R
    
dl   Rˆ   1    dl     dl      dl  
2
  dl               

R  R   R  R  R 
  0 dl   Rˆ
B(r )  I 2
Substitute in this eq.
4 R
 
 0 I  dl     0 I dl  
B        
 C R 
4 C  R  4
  
For a filamentary current we can define vector potential as

   0 Idl 
A(r ) 
4 C R
 Corresponding vector potential produced by volume and surface currents are
 
   0 J (r )d 
A(r )  
4 V  R
 
and    0 K (r )da
A(r )  
4 V  R
Divergence of A
 
      0 Idl   0 I  dl  
  A(r )         
C  R  
 4 
C
R 
 4

 dl     1  1    1 
  
R
 
  dl        dl      dl 

  R R R
    0 I   1  
  A(r )       dl 
4 C   R 
 o I     1  
         da  =0
4 S    R 

Example

Vector potential of an infinite solenoid with n turns per unit length, radius R
and current I

We cannot use    0 Idl 
A(r ) 
4 C R
as current itself extends to infinity
       
 A  dl   
  A  da   B  da  
This is similar to Ampere’s law
 
 B  dl  0 I enc
If symmetry permits, we can determine A from flux.
  

J  0 J  Rˆ
 0 J
B
4  R 2 d
A   d  
4 R B  0
2
    
 A   0 J
  B  0 J
   
B   A
 
 A  0

A 
 1 B  Rˆ
B
A  2
d
4 R
 Magnetostatic Boundary Conditions
  B  above
B  0  
This in the integral form
 B  da  0
  A
B above B below 

K 
  B below

 B  dl  B||
 ||
above B abovel  0 Kl 
|| || B|| above
B above B above  0 K l
Component of B parallel to the surface B|| below
But perpendicular to the current is
discontinuous

   K

Babove  Babove  0 ( K  nˆ )
 Like scalar potential, vector potential is continuous across any boundary
 
Aabove  Abelow
 
  A  0 Guarantees the normal component is continuous
   
 A  dl   B  da  
Tangential components are continuous since the flux through an Amperian
loop of vanishing thickness is zero. But the derivative of vector potential is
discontinuous
 
Aabove Abelow
   0 K
n n
 Definition of Magnetic vector potential
 
B  0
Divergence of a curl is always zero
    
B ( r )    A( r )
 
where A(r ) is the vector potential
Then, Ampere’s law becomes
         
  
2
  B      A     A   A  0 J 
Just as we can add any function whose gradient is zero (i.e. a constant)
to V without altering E, we can add to magnetic potential any function
whose curl vanishes (i.e. gradient of any scalar), with no effect on B
 We use this property to eliminate the divergence of A
 
. A  0
If the original potential A0 is not divergenceless. We can add to it gradient of
  
of any scalar function
   
A  A0   2
  A    A0   
2
   
If
     A0 then . A  0
2 
V  Poisson’s equation
0
If  tends to zero at infinity, the solution to Poisson’s equation is
1 
V   d 
4 0 R
 2
 
     A0
Similarly if   A0 goes to zero at infinity, then
 
1   A0
  d 
4 0 R
It is always possible to make the vector potential is divergenceless

         
 2
 
  B      A     A   A  0 J 
2
 
 A   0 J This again is Poisson’s equation
 
   0 J (r )d 
A(r ) 
4 V
Solution of which is
R
 
  0 dl   Rˆ
B(r )  I 2
4 R
    
dl   Rˆ   1    dl     dl      dl  
2
  dl               

R  R   R  R  R 
  0 dl   Rˆ
B(r )  I 2
Substitute in this eq.
4 R
 
 0 I  dl     0 I dl  
B 

4 C 
   
R
 
 4 C R 

For a filamentary current we can define vector potential as

   0 Idl 
A(r ) 
4 C R
Corresponding vector potential for volume and surface currents are

 
   0 J (r )d 
A(r ) 
4 V R
and
 
   0 K (r )da
A(r ) 
4 V R
  

J  0 J  Rˆ
 0 J
B
4  R 2 d
A   d  
4 R B  0
2
    
 A   0 J
  B  0 J
     
 A  B   A  0

A 
 1 B  Rˆ
B
A  2
d
4 R
 2
 
 A   0 J Poisson’s equation in Magnetostatics
 Magnetostatic Boundary Conditions
  B  above
B  0  
This in the integral form
 B  da  0
  A
B above B below 

K 
  B below

 B  dl  B||
 ||
above B abovel  0 Kl 
|| || B|| above
B above B above  0 K l
Component of B parallel to the surface B|| below
but perpendicular to the current is
discontinuous

   K

Babove  Babove  0 ( K  nˆ )
Vector potential is continuous across any boundary
 
Aabove  Abelow
 
  A  0 So, the normal component is continuous
  
since  A  B
   
 A  dl   B  da  
Tangential components are continuous since the flux through an Amperian
loop of vanishing thickness is zero.

But the derivative of vector potential is discontinuous

 
Aabove Abelow
   0 K
n n
 Multipole expansion of Vector potential
z
P
R

J r
/
d/
  r/
y
   0 J (r )d 
A(r )   V/
4 V  R x
1
2 2
Ri  (r  r   2rr  cos ) 2

We take the condition r > r/ at all the time

       
A(r )  AM (r )  AD (r )  AQ (r )  ........
0   0   

4 V  J (r )d   4r 2 V
 J ( r )( rˆ  r ) d   
0 1    2
3 
4r V  2
J ( r ) 3( ˆ
r r )  r  2

d   .......
Magnetic monopole term is always zero since
  
 J (r )d    I j  dl j  0
V j Cj

Consistent with No magnetic monopoles concept

Therefore, the dominant term is always the Dipole term

   0   
A dip ( r ) 
4 r 2  J ( r )( rˆ  r ) d  
V

  0 1    
AD (r )  2   r   J (r )d   rˆ
4r 2 V 
  
 0 m  rˆ  0 m  r
 2
 3
4 r 4 r
 1    is the dipole moment of the current
m   r   J (r ) d  distribution
2 V

Filamentary currents
 
Jd  will be replaced by  I 
Idl  m  r   dl 
 2 V
  I  
m   r   dl  da/
2 V
C/

I O
For plane current
r/

dl/
m=Ia

Magnetic dipole moment is independent of the choice of the origin

Magnetic dipole field
  
0 m  rˆ
Adip (r )  2
4 r z

Let m be at the origin and point in the z-direction

 r
  0 m sin  m
Adip (r )  2
eˆ y
4 r 
Magnetic field is x
    0 m
Bdip ( r )    A  3
2 cos eˆr  sin eˆ 
4r
p
3 
Field due to electric dipole  2 cos  eˆr  sin  eˆ 
4 0 r
 Influence of Magnetic Field on a dipole
Torque z

m
Force on the two 
B
sloping sides cancel
each other
I y

a b
 x z
N  aF sin  eˆx
F B m
F  IbB 

 a 
y

N  IabB sin  eˆx  mB sin  eˆx F

  
N  m B
 Force on a dipole
In a uniform field the net force on a current loop is zero.

 
F  I  (dl  B)  I  dl  B  0
Short Solenoid - Fringe field will have radial component.
A current loop placed above the solenoid experiences a net downward force.
B

I F  2  IRB cos 
B I B

R

F F

  
F  (m  B)
to refresh …
 
       0 J (r )dV 
 A  0  A  B A(r ) 
4  R
     V

 B  0   B  0 J   
Babove  Babove  0 ( K  nˆ )
   
 A  dl   B  da  
  1     I  
m   r   J (r )d  m   r   dl 
2 V 2C

     
 N  m  B F  (m  B)

 Effect of a Magnetic field on Atomic orbitals ẑ
The orbit is a circle of radius R
2R
period T  v
v
e ev R
-e
I  
T 2R
Orbital dipole moment is
 2 1
m  I ( R ) eˆ z   ev R ê z
2 m
The negative sign accounts for the negative charge of the electron
What happens when this dipole is kept in a magnetic field?
The electron speeds up or slow down, depending on the orientation of B
Centripetal acceleration is sustained by electrical forces alone
2 2
1 e v
2
 me
4 0 R R
There is an additional force due to the magnetic field, B
B
  B B
evB 
Let B be perpendicular to the plane of the orbit +e
R

1 e2 v2 -e v
2
 ev B  me
4 0 R R

The new speed v is greater than v

me
ev B 
me 2

v  v2   v  v v  v 
R R
assuming v  v  v to be very small

eRB
v 
2 me
When the magnetic field B is turned on, the electron speeds up
(the acceleration is not due to magnetic field).
Due to change in orbital speed, the orbital dipole moment also
changes

 1 e2 R 2 
m   e( v ) Rê z   B
2 4 me

The change in m is opposite to the direction of B.

In general the electron orbits are randomly oriented and
the orbital moments cancel out.
But in the presence of a magnetic field, each atom picks up
an extra dipole moment and they are all aligned antiparallel
to the field, giving rise to diamagnetism.
 Magnetic Fields in Matter
Types of Magnetic Ordering

Diamagnetism
 present in every material.
 due to change in orbital speed of the electron
 orbital dipoles align in a direction opposite
to the applied field

Paramagnetism
 dipoles associated with the spins of unpaired electrons
experience torque in an applied field
 the dipoles tend to align along the direction of the field.
Ferromagnetism
 strong exchange interaction between neighboring dipoles
 neighboring dipoles tend to align in the same direction
 they exhibit a domain structure; within the domain
the dipoles are aligned in the same direction.
the domains are oriented randomly.

 Antiferromagnetism

 Ferrimagnetism
 Magnetization
Certain materials get magnetized in the presence of a magnetic field.
Tiny dipoles in matter get aligned along the field direction

The state of magnetic polarization of a material is represented by a

vector quantity called magnetization
M  magnetic dipole moment per unit volume

M is analogous to the polarization vector P in electrostatics

The magnetization due to paramagnetism and diamanetism is very

weak and M in these cases has a small value

The magnetization of ferromagnetic materials is stronger by a factor

104 to 105 compared to dia or paramagnetic materials
 Field inside a magnetic material

Concept of Bound Currents

Consider a piece of magnetized material with magnetization M

m
dV’
The magnetic Vector potential

  0 m  ˆ
R
A(r )  2
4 R
If M is the magnetization then the magnetic dipole moment for a volume
element d = M dV’

  
Total vector potential 0 M ( r )  Rˆ
A( r ) 
4  R 2 dV 
Using the vector identity
1 Rˆ
    2
R R

  0     1 
we can write A(r )    M ( r  )       dV 
4  R 
 
  0  1    M (r )  
A(r )      M (r )  dV        dV 
4  R  R  
  0 1   0 1   
A( r ) 
4   R

   M ( r ) d   
4

s R M ( r )  da  
The first term resembles the potential of a volume current
  
Jb    M Jb : Volume bound current density

The second term appears to be the potential due to a surface current

  
K b  M  nˆ K : Surface bound current density
b

n̂ is the unit normal vector to the surface

   
  0 J b ( r ) 0 K b ( r )
 A( r )   d   s R da 
4 V R 4
 the magnetic field due to a uniformly magnetized rotating sphere
   
z J b    M  0 K b  M  nˆ
 M sin  eˆ
r
 A rotating spherical shell of uniform surface
M y charge density , corresponds to a surface
current density

 
K   v   R sin  eˆ
x

 2  Uniform field inside the sphere (like a

B   0M uniformly polarized sphere
3
 4 3

m  R M Same as that of a pure dipole
3 (analogous to electric dipole)
Physical interpretation of bound currents
M

t M
m  Mat a
t
I
m  Ia I  Mt

Kb  I M
t  
K b  M  nˆ
 z

Mz(y) Mz(y+dy)

Non-uniform magnetization in the z-direction

dy
y
M z
I x  M z ( y  dy )  M z ( y )dz  dydz
y
M z
x J b x 
y
Non-uniform magnetization in the y-direction
M y
J b x  
z
 M z M y
J b x  
y z
  
Taking contributions from all directions

Jb    M
Like any other steady current
 
  Jb  0
 The Auxiliary Field H
  
Total current J  Jb  J f
1        


 B  
J  Jb  J f  J f    M 
  1   
   B  M   J f
 0    
 H  J f
 1  
H BM Ampere’s law
0  
 H  dl  I fenc
Example

A long copper rod of radius R carries a uniformly distributed (free) current I.

Find H inside and outside the rod
H, M, B
For s < R
s 2
R H (2s )  I f enc I
R 2
 I
s
H  2
seˆ
2R I
Jb
I  I Kb

For s  R H eˆ
2s
Outside M = 0
  0 I
B  0 H  eˆ
2s
 
B  0
Divergence of H is in general not zero
      
 H  J f   H    M

Boundary conditions

H  
 H below   M above  M
above   
below 
 ||  || 
H above  H below  K f  nˆ

 
B above B below 0
 ||  || 
B above  B below   0 K f  nˆ  
 Linear Magnetic Materials
Magnetic susceptibility and Permeability

For most substances, the magnetization is proportional to the field

 
M  m H (linear media)

m is the magnetic susceptibility is positive for paramagnets and

negative for diamagnets

    
 
B   0 H  M   0 1   m H  H

   0 1   m  is the permeability of the material

PH102
L#17

Magnetostatics in Matter
continued…
 The Auxiliary Field H

1        
0
 
  B  J  J f  Jb  J f    M  
  1   
   B  M   J f
 0 
 1     
H BM  H  J f
0
  Ampere’s law in magnetic material

In integral form
 H  d l  I f enc
Total ‘free’ current
enclosed

H reminds D of electrostatics !
 B and H

    
 H  J f  H  d l  I f enc

Units
1T = 10,000 Gauss
(Earth’s field = 0.5 Gauss)

H reminds D of electrostatics !
 Example
A long copper (weak diamagnetic) rod of radius R carries a
uniformly distributed (free) current I. Find H inside and outside
the rod.
H, B
M
R

s
I
Jb Kb
I
For s < R 2
s
H (2s )  I f enc I 2
R
 I 
H  2
s ˆ
e B?
2R
 I
For s  R
H eˆ
2s
Outside, M = 0

  0 I
B  0 H  eˆ
2s
 Boundary conditions
 
B  0
   
Divergence of H is in general not zero   H    M

 
 
H above  H below   M above  M below
 ||  || 


ˆ  
H above  H below  K f  n   H  J 
  f
B above  B below  0
 ||  || 
B above  B below   0 K f  nˆ 
 Materials in magnetic field
Electrons
orbit around nuclei
Spin about their own axes
On the application of magnetic field,
dipoles get aligned
“Magnetized” M = m/volume

Diamagnets
Paramagnets
ordered Ferromagnets
Antiferromagnets
Ferrimagnets
 Magnetic susceptibility and Permeability

For most substances, the magnetization is proportional to the field

 
M  mH linear media

m is the magnetic susceptibility is positive for paramagnets

and negative for diamagnets
    
 
B   0 H  M   0 1   m H  H
   0 1   m  is called the permeability of the material

 
P   0eE
 Example
An infinite solenoid (n turns per unit length, current I) is filled with linear
material of susceptibility m. Find the magnetic field inside the solenoid.
Since B is partly due to bound currents - cannot compute in directly.
Symmetry ---- Ampere’s law

H  nIeˆ z

B   0 1   m nIeˆ z
If the medium is paramagnetic, the field is enhanced 
if it is diamagnetic, the field will be reduced
Bound surface current
  
 
K b  M  nˆ   m H  nˆ   m nIeˆ
Same direction as I , if the material is paramagnetic m  0
Opposite direction as I, if the material is diamagnetic  m  0
Volume bound current density in a homogeneous linear material is
proportional to the free current density

     

Jb    M    mH  m J f 
  (t)
Time dependent sources… J J(t)

Current density J is proportional to force per unit charge, f

  1
J  f conductivity 
 resistivity

    
forces that drive the charges are electromagnetic G. S. Ohm
 1787-1854


J   E  v  B J  E 
Ohm’s law
 small
vCu  4.8 x103 cm / sec 1 mm dia wire, I = 1 A
 A V = IR Familiar form of Ohm’s
I  JA  EA  V law
L E
A

L
For two long cylinders (radii a and b) separated by material of conductivity σ
 
E eˆ s E
2 0 s a
Current b
    
I   J  da    E  da  L L
0  
b
 b
Potential difference between the cylinders is V    E  dl  ln 
2 0  a 
2L a
I V
ln b
a
 
  
Ohm’s law J  E
For steady current and uniform conductivity,

 1 
 E   J = 0

Laplace equation holds within a homogenous ohmic material carrying a
steady current.
  
Metals E  J 0

As expected for a conductor

Since V is the work done per unit charge and I is the charge flowing
per unit time, the power delivered is

2
P  VI  I R
Joule heating law
The Electromotive Force (EMF)
 
J  f +
+
I out

+
+
+ + E
+ +

Iin

  
Battery
f  fs  E


   f  dl   f s  dl   E  dl  0 
 Motional EMF
Move a wire through a magnetic field

b c

x h R v

a
d
    f mag  dl  vBh
v
Charges in segment ab
Vertical velocity u
u Horizontal velocity v
fm w
ag  
vB f mag  quB To the left

uB is perpendicular
fpull to the motion of charge

f pull  uB is perpendicular to the wire

 h 
 f pull  dl  (uB)  sin   vBh  
 cos  
 Flux
   B  da  Bhx
d dx
 Bh   Bhv
dt dt
d Flux rule for
  Motional EMF
dt
b c b c

h h/cos

a a d
a d
Integration path for emf calculation Integration path for calculating the work done
 Surface S
Loop at time t

Ribbon

da

dl
P
vdt

P
Loop at time (t+dt)

d    (t  dt )   (t )   ribbon   B  da
ribbon
v be the velocity of the wire and u be the velocity of a charge down the wire

  
w v u is the resultant velocity

Infinitesimal area element of area on the ribbon

  

da  v  dl dt 
d   
dt
  B  v  dl 
  
since w v u and u is parallel to dl

d   
dt

  B  w  dl 
      
   
B  w  dl   w  B  dl
d   
   w  B  dl
dt
 

w B  Is the magnetic force per unit charge

d  
   f mag  dl Flux rule for
dt Motional EMF
RHS is nothing but the emf

d
 
dt
 Electromagnetic Induction
Faraday’s Experiment

v
v
I I

B B

I d
 
B
dt
Change in
magnetic field
A changing magnetic field induces an electric field

  d
   E  dl  
dt

   B 
 E  dl   t  da  Faraday ' s law
or

 B
 E  
t
 A long cylindrical magnet of length L and radius a carries a uniform
magnetization M parallel to its axis. It passes at constant velocity v
through a circular wire ring of slightly larger diameter. Show the
variation of emf induced in the ring as a function of time.

The magnetic field is the same as that of a long solenoid with surface current,
K b  M eˆ
The field inside is
B  0M
The flux through the ring is zero when the magnet is far away and it
builds up to a maximum value of 2
   0 Ma
It drops back to zero as the trailing end emerges out of the ring. The
emf is the derivative of flux  with respect to time ad hence it
consists of two spikes.

0Ma2

L/v t


t
Lenz’s Law
The induced current will flow in such a direction that the flux it
produces tends to cancel the change
The induced emf depends only on the change in flux. The induced current may
not exactly balance the change in flux but its’ direction will always be to oppose
the original change in flux.

Example
Jumping ring
Iron Core
Solenoid
When the circuit Is switched ON, the ring
jumps
When current flows in the solenoid the flux through
the ring changes and the ring moves away to cancel
this flux change
 Induced Electric
 Field
 B
E  
t
The electric field induced by change in magnetic field can be obtained
from the analogy between Faraday’s Law and Ampere’s Law.

 
  B  0 J

But a vector field has to be defined by it’s divergence also. If E is a

pure Faraday field (produced only by change in magnetic field) then

E  0 Analogous to the magnetic field

B  0
If symmetry exists, then one can use the integral form
 
 B  dl  0 I enc.
  d
 E  dl   dt

Faraday’s Law in integral form

 A uniform magnetic field B(t), pointing straight up, fills the shaded circular region
as shown in Fig. If B is changing with time, what is the induced electric field?

E points in the circumferential direction, just

like the magnetic field inside a long straight
wire carrying a uniform current density.
Draw an Amperian loop of radius  and
apply Faraday’s law in integral form
Amperian loop of radius 
  d d 2 dB
2
 E  dl  E (2 )   dt   dt  B(t )   dt 
  dB
E   eˆ
2 dt
A line charge  is glued onto the rim of a wheel of radius b, which is the
suspended horizontally as shown in Fig. so that it is free to rotate. The spokes of
the wheel are non-conducting. In the central region, out of a radius a, there is a
uniform magnetic field B0, pointing up. If the field is now turned off, what
happens?
B0
The changing magnetic field induces
an electric field, curling around the
axis of the wheel. The electric field
a E
b exerts a force on the charges at the
Rotation
rim, and the wheel starts to turn.
direction dl According to Lenz’s law, it will

rotate in such a direction to produce
a field that will restore the upward
flux
 
  d 2 dB
 E  dl   dt   a dt

Torque on a line segment dl
  
d   r  F  b  Edl eˆ
Total torque on the wheel,

dB
  b   Edl   b  a 2

dt
This gave rise to an angular momentum,

0
2 2
  dt    a b  dB   a bB0
B0

Quasi-static
An infinitely long straight wire carries a slowly varying current I(t). Determine
the induced electric field, as a function of distance  from the wire.
l

Amperian
Loop
0  I
In the quasistatic approximation the magnetic field is (0I/2) and it circles around
the wire. Like the B – field of a solenoid, E runs parallel to the axis. Applying
Faraday’s law to the rectangular Amperian loop shown in Fig.
  d  
 E  dl  E ( 0 )l  E (  )l   dt  B  da

0l dI 1  0l dI

2 dt   d    2 dt (ln   ln 0 )
0

   0l dI  Where K is independent of 
 E( )   ln   K  eˆz but may be a function of t
 2 dt 
 B1 Loop 2
Inductance
B1
Let 2 be the flux of B1 through loop2 B1

 Loop 1
 0 dl1  Rˆ
B1  I1  2
I1
4 R
 
 2   B1  da 2 Thus 2  M 21 I1
M 21 Is the mutual inductance of the two loops

      
 
 2   B1  da 2     A1  da 2   A1  dl 2
  
  0 I 1 dl1
A1  dl2
4
 R
 0 I1  dl1  
2     dl 2
4  R  R
 
2  M 21 I 1
  
0 dl1  dl 2 dl1
M 21   
4 R
Neumann formula

M21 is a purely geometrical quantity

Flux through loop 2 when we run a current I around loop 1 is

M21 = M12 Identical to the flux through loop 1 if we run the same current
through 2
 A short solenoid (length l and radius a, with n1 turns per unit length) lies on the
axis of a very long solenoid (radius b, n2 turns per unit length). Current I flows
in the short solenoid. What is the flux through the long solenoid?

If I flows in outer one,

B   0 n2 I
Flux through a single loop is l
2 2
Ba   0 n 2 Ia
2
   0a n1 n2 lI
There are n1l turns, hence total flux

2
M   0a n1 n 2 l
 Suppose the current in loop 1 is varied

Flux through loop 2 will be changing and this will induce an emf in loop 2

d 2 dI 1
2    M
dt dt
A changing current not only induces an emf on nearby loop, it also induces
an emf in the source loop itself B1 Loop 2
B1
  LI B1
Loop 1
L is the self inductance or inductance of the loop I
1
If the current changes, emf induced in the loop is

dI
  L Unit of Inductance: Henry
dt
 Energy in Magnetic Fields
The work done on a unit charge, against the back emf, in one trip around
the circuit is -
The amount of charge per unit time passing down the wire is I. So, the
total work done per unit time is
dW dI
dt  I  LI dt
If we start from zero current to a final value I, the work done is
1 2
W  LI 2
      
 B.da   (  A).da   A.dl
S S
  p

LI   A.dl
 
W  12 I  A.dl
 1
W  12  ( A.I )dl W  CV 2
2
  
W  12  ( A.J )d 1
W    dV
   2
  B  0 J
  
1
W

2 0

 A.(  B)d
   
A.(  B )  B.B  .( A  B)
    
Using .( A  B )  B.(  A)  A.(  B )

 
W 1
2 0

 B 2
d   
  
.( A  B ) d 
 1
2 0

 B 2

d   
S
( A  B ).da 
 1 2
W 2 0  B d
all space

1 0 2
Welec  2  (V )d   E d
2

  2
Wmag  12  ( A.J )d  1
2 0  d
B
 Electrodynamics before Maxwell…..


.  10 
E Gauss’s law


B
. 0
 
  E   Bt Faraday’s law

 
  B  0 J Ampère’s law

(1831 - 1879)

Published in young age of 14

 Amperian loop

 
 B.dl  0 I enc
Capacitor I

Battery

  
   
.(  E )  . tB   t .B =0
 
 
.(  B )   0 .J  0
How Maxwell fixed Ampère’s law?
 
 
.J   t   t ( 0.E )  .( 0 E
t )
  
  B   0 J   0 0 Et
A changing electric field induces magnetic field (1831 - 1879)

 
This extra term is called
E
Jd  0 t displacement current
 Amperian loop

Capacitor I

Battery
1 1 Q
E 0  0 A

E 1 dQ
t   0 A dt   01A I
  
 B.dl  0 I enc  0 0   
E
t .da
  
  E   Bt Faraday’s law

  
E
  B   0 J   0 0 t
Ampère -Maxwell law

1 0 2
Welec  2  (V )d   E d
2

  2
Wmag  12  ( A.J )d  1
2 0  d
B
 Maxwell’s equations in free space


.E  10  Gauss’s law


.B  0 Law of No magnetic
monopoles
 
B
  E   t Faraday’s law
  
E
  B  0 J   0 0 t Ampere-Maxwell’s law
 Maxwell’s equations in Matter
Inside polarized matter there will be “bound” charges and currents
It will be nice to formulate Maxwell’s equations in terms of the charges
we control: “free charges”

Electric polarization P produces the bound charge density

 
 b    P
Magnetic polarization M results in bound current density
  
Jb    M
Any change in electric polarization involves a flow of bound charge (Jp),
which must be included in the total current b
-b
Polarization introduce a charge density b at da┴
P
one end and -b at the other end
If P is increased a bit, the charge on each end increases,
-b b
giving a net current
da┴
P
 b P
dI  da   da 
t t 
 P
Corresponding current density is Jp 
t
Polarization current: nothing to do with bound current

  P     b
Jp    (  P)  
t t t
Total charge density can be separated into two parts
 
   f  b   f    P
Total current into three parts 
      P
ˆ M 
J  J f  Jb  J p  J f  
t
We know     
D  f D  0E  P
Ampere’s law becomes
 
     P  E
  B   0  J f    M     0 0

 t  t
 1  
H BM
0

   D
or
 H  J f 
t
 Maxwell’s equations in Matter

 
D  f
 
.B  0
   In terms of free charges and currents
  E   Bt

   D
 H  J f 
t
 1861 A. D


.E  10  Gauss’s law


.B  0 Law of No magnetic
monopoles
 
  E   Bt Faraday’s law
  
E Ampere-Maxwell’s
  B  0 J   0 0 t law

   

F  q E vB  Classical Electrodynamics
 Maxwell’s equation in integral form

D  da  Q 
S f enc 
Over any closed surface S

SB  da  0 
d 
pE  dl    B  da 
dt s  for any surface S
 bounded by the closed
d  loop p

pH  dl  I   D  da
f enc
dt s 
 a D1

   
D1  a  D2  a   f a
f  
D  D2   f
1
D2
Similarly
Boundary Conditions  
B  B2  0
1
 n

    d  
l
E1  l  E2  l    B  da
dt s
 
 E1  E2  0
Similarly
   
Kf
H1  l  H2  l  I fenc
   
I fenc  K f  (nˆ  l )  (K f  nˆ)  l
Boundary Conditions
   
 H1  H2  K f  nˆ
 For Linear media
 
  
1 E   2 E2   f
1 E1  E2  0
  1  1   
B  B2  0
1 B1  B2  K f  nˆ
1 2
If there is no free charge or free current at the
interface
 
 
 
1 E1   2 E2  0 E1  E2  0
  1   1  
B1  B2  0 B1  B2  0
1 2
Theory of reflection and refraction
 Poynting’s theorem
Work necessary to assemble a static charge distribution

0 2
We  2  E d
Work required to get the currents going

1 2
Wm  2 0  B d
Total energy stored in electromagnetic field is

1  2 1 2
U em     0 E  B d
2  0 
A given charge and current distribution gives rise to E and B (at time t).
Work, dW done by the electromagnetic forces in the interval dt
 According to Lenz’s law, the work done on a charge q is
       
 
F  dl  q E  v  B  v dt  qE  v dt
 
q  d v  J
So the rate at which work is done on all the charges in a volume V is

dW  
  ( E  J )d
  dt V
EJ is the work done per unit time, per unit volume or
power delivered per unit volume

 
J can be replaced by fields using Ampere-Maxwell law

E
  B   0 J   0 0 t 
  1     E
EJ  E  (  B)   0 E 
0 t
        
  ( E  B )  B  (  E )  E  (  B )
  
Using Faraday’s law
  E   Bt
    B   
E  (  B)   B     ( E  B)
t
 
 B 1  2  E 1  2
B  (B ) E  (E )
t 2 t t 2 t

  1     E
EJ  E  (  B )   0 E 
0 t
1  2 1 2 1   
 ( 0 E  B )   ( E  B)
2 t 0 0
 dW  
  ( E  J )d
dt V
dW d 1 2 1 2 1   
   ( 0 E  B )d   ( E  B)  da
dt dt V 2 0 0 S
Poynting’s theorem- Work energy theorem in electrodynamics

The work done on the charges by the electromagnetic fields is equal to

the decrease in energy stored in the field, less the energy that flowed out
through the surface
The energy per unit time per unit area transported by the fields is called the
Poynting vector  1  
S ( E  B)
0
 
S  da is the energy flux or energy flux density
 dW dU em  
   S  da
dt dt S
The work W done on charges will increase their mechanical energy
(kinetic, potential.). If we let umech denote the mechanical energy density
dW d
  u mech d
dt dt V
Uem is the energy density of the fields

1 2 1 2
u em  ( 0 E  B )
2 0
d    
 (u mech  u em )d    S  da    (  S )d
dt V S V
hence
  
(u mech  uem )    S
t
Differential version of Poynting’s theorem

John Henry Poynting

(1852–1914)
   
(u mech  uem )    S
t
Poynting’s theorem

This is similar to the continuity equation

 
   J
t
Poynting’s theorem describes the energy flow in the same way as
continuity equation describes the flow of charge.
 Maxwell’s equations in free space

  B
  E  0 (i )   E    (iii )
t

  E
  B  0 (ii )   B   0 0  (iv)
t

These are a set of coupled first order partial differential equations for E & B
The can be decoupled by taking curl on (iii) and (iv)
 
  2
  B 
  (  E )  (  E )   E      
  t 
  2
 E
  (  B)   0 0 2
t t 
  2
  E 
  (  B)  (  B)   E     0 0 
  t 
  2 B
 0 0 (  E )   0 0 2
t t
 
But   E  0 and   B  0
 
2
  E 2
2
  B 2

 E   0 0 2  B  0 0 2
t t

These are separate second order equations for E & B

In free space (vacuum), each Cartesian component of E and B
satisfies the three dimensional wave equation
2
2 1  f
 f  2 2
v t
So Maxwell’s equations imply that free space supports the
propagation of electromagnetic waves traveling at a speed

1
v  3 108 m / s  c
 0 0
Velocity of light in free
space
 Light is an electromagnetic wave
 The general wave equation:
The ‘disturbance’ f travels as a wave with a velocity v

The space and time variations of f are given by

1 ∂ f 2
∇ f = 2 2
2

v ∂t
In free space (vacuum), each Cartesian component of E and B satisfies
the three dimensional wave equation (given above)

The electromagnetic wave equation

G G
G ∂ E 2 G ∂ B 2
∇ E = μ 0ε 0 2 ;
2
∇ B = μ 0ε 0 2
2

∂t ∂t
 G G
G ∂ E 2 G ∂ B
2
∇ E = μ0ε 0 2 ; ∇ B = μ0ε 0 2
2 2

∂t ∂t
The wave equation can be written in a compact form using
wave operator, also known as
d’Alembertion operator , defined as

∂ 2
, ≡ ∇ − μ 0ε 0 2
2

∂t
so that we can rewrite the EM wave equations in a very simple form

G G
, E = 0 and , B = 0
 G G
G ∂ E 2 G ∂ B
2
Solution to the wave equations ∇ E = μ 0 ε 0 2 ; ∇ B = μ 0ε 0 2
2 2

∂t ∂t
(plane wave solution)

For monochromatic plane wave traveling in z direction, the solutions are

G G i ( kz −ωt ) G G i ( kz −ωt )
E ( z , t ) = E0 e , B( z , t ) = B0 e where
G k G k 1
B 0 = (ez × E0 ); B0 = E0 = E0
ˆ
ω ω c
General solution to the wave equation
for waves traveling in arbitrary directions

G G G i ( kG ⋅rG −ω t )
E ( r , t ) = E0 e nˆ
G G 1 G i ( kG ⋅rG −ω t ) ˆ 1 ˆ G
B ( r , t ) = E0 e ( k × nˆ ) = ( k × E )
c c
EM waves are transverse; nˆ ⋅ kˆ = 0
 The simplest solution to the wave equation:
Plane monochromatic electromagnetic waves
G G GG
E (r , t ) = E0 nˆ cos(k .r − ωt + δ )
G G GG
B(r , t ) = B0 n cos(k .r − ωt + δ )
ˆ ' '

sinusoidal waves propagating in a direction specified by wave vector k.

The wave number k (the magnitude of wave vector k) is related to the
wavelength λ=2π/k.

unit vector specifying the direction of electric field

n̂ and denoting the polarization of the plane waves
E0 is the amplitude of the wave

δ arbitrary phase angle G Gwavefront:

ν=
ω k .r = constant
frequency
(2π ) Equation of a plane
 Wave forms
General solutions involve
many wavelengths (and hence many frequencies)
as well as
wave fronts that are not planes but more complex, like spherical,
elliptic or cylindrical

ME are linear equations and solutions corresponding to different

wavelength, direction, and amplitude can be superimposed to form
general wave packets of requisite properties.
Conversely, a given wave packet is decomposed in terms of plane
monochromatic waves.
(Such a technique of waveform analysis, Fourier series expansion, is
adapted usually in most of the branches of Science and Engineering).

G G GG G G GG
i ( k .r −ωt )
E (r , t ) = E0 nˆ cos(k .r − ωt + δ ) ⇒ E (r , t ) = Re( E0 ne ˆ )
G G G G G GG
B(r , t ) = B0 nˆ ' cos(k .r − ωt + δ ' ) ⇒ B( z , t ) = Re( B0 nˆ 'ei ( k .r −ωt ) )
 E0 and B0 are complex numbers
iδ '
E0 = E0 e iδ
B0 = B0 e

the general solutions can be in the form

G G GG G G GG
E (r , t ) = E0 ne
ˆ i ( k . r −ω t ) B (r , t ) = B0 nˆ 'ei ( k .r −ωt )

Real parts of the solutions represent the physical fields.

MEs, partial differential equations for the fields, become ordinary

algebraic equations for the amplitudes.

This happens essentially because the derivative of an exponential is

again an exponential.
 ∂ − iωt
e = −iω e − iωt
∂t
GG G ikG .rG GG G GG

∇e ik .r
= ike ∇.(ne
ˆ ik .r
) = (ik .nˆ )e ik .r

GG G GG
∇ × (ne
ˆ ik .r
) = (ik × n)e
ˆ ik .r

we can effectively use the following replacements

in ME when dealing plane wave solutions.

G ∂
→ −iω
∇ → ik ∂t
 using these replacements in the wave equations

G G
G ∂ E 2 G ∂ B 2
∇ E = μ 0ε 0 2
2
and ∇ B = μ0ε 0 2
2

∂t ∂t

1
μ0ε 0ω − k = 0
2 2
ω = ck where c ≡
μ 0ε 0

or ω / k ≡ νλ ≡ c
relation between frequency and wavelength : dispersion relation

This is rather complicated in media; for example, a glass prism

can disperse white light into its component colors
 Important features of wave propagation
1. EM waves propagate in free space with speed c

substituting the plane wave forms

in divergence equations,
G G '
k .nˆ = 0 k .nˆ = 0
2. EM waves are transverse waves:
both the electric field and the magnetic field
are normal to the direction of propagation

substituting the plane wave forms in curl equations

G E0 (kˆ × nˆ )
E0 (k × nˆ ) − ω B0 nˆ ' = 0 ⇒ = B0 nˆ '
c
G '
B0 (k × nˆ ) + ωμ0ε 0 E0 nˆ = 0 ⇒ B0 c(nˆ ' × kˆ) = E0 nˆ
 for plane EM waves,

3. Electric and magnetic field are mutually orthogonal

4. E, B and k form a right handed triad of vectors

in such a wave, at all times.

5. The phases of the electric and magnetic waves are the same.

6. The amplitudes of electric and magnetic field

are not independent, but related to each other
 G G GG
E ( r , t ) = E0 nˆ cos( k .r − ω t + δ )
G G ( kˆ × nˆ ) GG
B ( r , t ) = E0 cos( k .r − ω t + δ )
c

for plane monochromatic wave solutions to ME in free space

kˆ.nˆ = 0 ω = ck
Wave vector k gives direction of propagation and the wavelength.
The polarization n̂ gives direction of electric field (polarization)
The complex number E0 specifies the amplitude and the phase of the
electric field.

All other quantities can be deduced from the above

 1 ⎛ 1 2⎞
U em = ∫ ⎜ ε 0 E +
⎜ 2
B ⎟⎟dτ
2 ⎝ μ0 ⎠
For the plane electromagnetic waves

1 2 GG
B2 = E ⇒ B = μ0ε 0 E ⇒ U em = ε 0 E = ε 0 E 0 cos (k .r − ω t + δ )
2 2 2 2 2
c2
Contributions from electric and magnetic fields are equal

Energy flux density in a plane wave

G 1 G G GG
S= ( E × B ) = cε E cos (k .r − ωt + δ )eˆ
2 2
μ0 0 0 z

EM field carries not only energy, but also momentum,

the momentum density stored in the field is given by
G 1 G 1
℘= 2 S = U em eˆz
c c
In the case of light, the wavelength is so sort and period is so brief
(typically fs) that a macroscopic measurement encompasses many
cycles, so all we want is average value

G G 1
U em = ε 0 E 0 cos (k .r − ωt + δ )
2 2 ⇒ U em = ε 0 E0 2
2

G 1 G 1
⇒ S = cε 0 E0 2 eˆz = I (Intensity) ℘ = ε 0 E0 2 eˆz
2 2c
 Consider Maxwell’s equations in free space
G G G G
∇ × E ≠ 0 in gen. ; but ∇ ⋅ B = 0 always; hence B(r , t ) = ∇ × A(r , t )
G G
G ∂B G G ⎡ ∂A ⎤
∇ × E = − ; B = ∇ × A; Hence ∇ × ⎢ E + ⎥ = 0
∂t ⎣ ∂t ⎦
G
⎡ ∂A ⎤
Thus ⎢ E + ⎥ can be written as a gradient of some scalar potential
⎣ ∂t ⎦
G
G ∂A(r , t ) Electric on both Φ and A
E (r , t ) = −∇Φ
using , t ) − replacements
(rthese ; in thefield
wavedepends
equations
∂t
G
∂ (∇ ⋅ A) ρ First ME; Reduces to Poisson’s equation
∇Φ +
2
=− ;
∂t ε0 in the case of electrostatics
G
⎛ ∂ A
2 G
2 ⎞ ⎛ G ∂Φ ⎞ Ampere’s Law
⎜ μ 0 ε 0 2 − ∇ A ⎟ + ∇ ⎜ ∇ ⋅ A + μ 0ε 0 ⎟ = μ0 J These 2 equations
⎝ ∂t ⎠ ⎝ ∂t ⎠
Contain 4 ME!
 1 1
we know c = in vcuum and v = in a medium.
μ 0ε 0 με
με
c n=
define refractive index n =
v μ 0ε 0

for most materials permeability is i.e. μr ≈ 1

very close to its value for vacuum,

ε
Remember μ =μ0 μr n= = εr
ε0
Since relative permittivity is always greater than one, EM
waves and light travel slower in matter than in vacuum
Gamma rays originate from transitions between nuclear energy levels;
X-rays from transitions between inner electron levels;
visible light from transitions between outer electronic levels;
microwave and IR from molecular levels and radio waves originate from antenna,
which can be considered as collections of molecules.
 …
um
t r
e c
sp
EM
he
t t
ee
m
e
w
re
he
W
“Tat saviturvarenyam, bhargodevasya dheemahi…….”
Meaning: ”Meditate on the great EM spectrum from the sun,
which may ‘enlighten’ us”
 Potential Formulation of Maxwell’s Equations

In Electrostatics, In electrodynamics,
   
 E  dl  0  E  0
      
 E  0 B ( r )    A( r )
   
E  V  B   A 
 E     E    0
t  t 
In magnetostatics, 
    A  can be written as a
B  0 E  
 t  gradient of some scalar potential

 A( r , t )
E (r , t )  V (r , t ) 
t
 Using this in Gauss’s Law 2  
 (. A) 
 V  t  (1)
0
This reduces to Poisson’s Equation in static case

Ampere-Maxwell’s Law becomes

     V 
  (  A)  0 J  0 0 t   0 0 2 A
t 2
Using the vector identity
      2 
  (  A)  (. A)   A
2      
  2
A
  V
 A  0 0 t 2   . A  0 0 t   0 J  (2)

These two equations contain all the information of ME

 Gauge Invariance

Since Maxwell’s equations do not define the potentials uniquely, it is

possible to impose extra conditions without affecting the fields
 
A  A   and V ' V   Gauge freedom

These potentials have to yield the same electric and magnetic fields.

The set of potentials (A’, V’) and (A, V) give rise to same electric and magnetic
Fields if

   
A  A    and V ' V 
t

For any scalar function , we can add  to the vector potential to get the same
electric and magnetic field provided simultaneously we add -/t to the potential
V - Principle of Gauge Invariance
Potentials in Electrodynamics
  Set V = 0 at infinity, 1 
B  0 V  r d
     4 0
B ( r )    A( r )
  Can potential everywhere be determined
by the charge distribution at that instant of time??
. A  0
“No message can travel faster than c” (says STR)
“Coulomb Gauge” 
 A(r , t )
2   E ( r , t )  V (r , t ) 
 (. A)  t
 V  t 
0

While the scalar potential changes due to a change in the charge

density, the vector potential and hence the field changes after
sometime only.
 2  
 (. A)
 V  t   “Lorentz Gauge”
0
2         V
  2

 
A 

V
 A  0 0 t 2   . A  0 0 t   0 J set   A    0 0
t
Then, the ME equations in terms of vector and scalar potentials
become

2
  A  2
2
2
V 
 A  0 0 2   0 J and  V  0 0 2  
t t 0
   2
 A  0 J and  V 
2 2 
 2   0 0 2   2
0 t
Wave operator resembles Laplacian operator

In electrodynamics, for a given J and , all one has to do is to solve above two
equations.
Electrodynamics and Relativity
The principle of Einstein’s relativity:
The laws of Physics apply in all inertial reference systems.

The universal speed of light

The speed of light in vacuum is the same for all inertial
observers, regardless of the motion of the source

Implications:

Space and time are not absolute but relative;

In fact they get “mixed up”

No favored reference frame! – no absolute state of rest!

 Lorentz transformations

Consider two mutually inertial frames S and S’,

the later moving at a speed u with respect to the former.

'
x  x;
'
y  y;
where
'
z   ( z  ut ); 
u  ueˆz ;   u / c;
'
t   (t   z / c )   1/ (1   2 )  1/ (1  u 2 / c 2 )

Space and time coordinates are “mixed up” with each other
 The set of Lorentz transformations
The full set of arbitrary rotations of spatial co-ordinates
as well as velocity transformations (boosts) to frames that
move with u < c in any direction.
two successive rotations : another rotation
Resultant of two successive boosts in two different directions
:- a boost plus a rotation.
Postulate:
Square of the interval between two events in two inertial frames
is Lorentz-invariant.
2   ' 2 ' '
(ct )  r  r  (ct )  r  r
This is called the square of the “interval between two events” in 4D
just as [(x1-x2)2 + (y1-y2)2 + (z1-z2)2 ] in 3D
 Physical laws must be form-invariant under Lorentz transformations.
So they must be expressed in terms of four dimensional
counterparts of the usual 3-D scalars and vectors.

These are called “Lorentz scalars” or “four-scalars”;

“Lorentz vectors” or “four-vectors” etc.

“Henceforth, space by itself and time

by itself are doomed to fade away
into mere shadows and only a kind of
union of the two will preserve an
independent reality”
Hermann Minkowski in 1908
 First of all, what is a vector?
A vector is a set of three quantities that transform,
under the rotations of coordinate axes,
exactly as the set of coordinates itself transforms


we know how the set of coordinates ( x, y , z ) that denotes the vector r

transforms to the set ( x ', y ', z ') that denotes the vector r '

( Ax , Ay , Az ) = A denotes a vector, if under a rotation of the axes,
' ' '  
the new set ( Ax , Ay , Az ) = A ' is related to A
 
precisely in the same way in which r ' is related to r

Scalar quantities are those which DO NOT change

under a rotation of a coordinate axes.
e.g. dot products of vectors
 Lorentz vectors or four-vectors
Definition:
A four-vector is a set of four quantities that changes
under a Lorentz transformation in exactly the same
way as the set of four space-time coordinates changes.

Four-vectors have space-like and time-like parts;

the latter are listed first within the brackets.
Examples for four-vectors

1) the space - time coordinate x  (ct , x, y, z )  (ct , r )

Space and time combine to form the components of the same four-vector
 Examples for four-vectors

2) the energy - momentum four - vector p  ( E c , p )

Energy and momentum combine

to form the components of the same four-vector


3) the four - current density J  c , J 
The sources of electric and magnetic Fields,
namely, charge and current, are now unified


4) the four - vector potential A   / c, A 
The vector and scalar potentials are unified as the space-like and time-like
components of the same four-vector


5) the four - gradient operator    / {ct},   
Derivatives with respect to space and time are unified
as components of the same four-vector-operator.
 How to take the scalar product of two four-vectors?
u1 and u2

 
u1  u2  (product of time - like parts)  u1  u2
Note the negative sign
between the products of the corresponding time and space components

Example
The scalar product of the four-vector
space-time coordinate x with itself
  2  
x  x  (ct , r )  (ct , r )  (ct )  r  r
This is called the square of the “interval between two events” in 4D
just as [(x1-x2)2 + (y1-y2)2 + (z1-z2)2 ] in 3D
 Defenition of Lorentz scalars or four-scalars
quantities unchanged under a Lorentz transformation
Example : the scalar product of two four-vectors

The scalar product of the four-vector x with itself: interval

  2  
x  x  (ct , r )  (ct , r )  (ct )  r  r
whereas the scalar product of the vector r with itself is a positive definite,
the scalar product of a four-vector with itself can be
positive, zero or negative.

In general, a four-vector u is called

space-like if u.u < 0 ; time-like u.u > 0
and light-like if u.u = 0
 Some interesting scalar products of four-vectors
scalar product of the four - gradient with itself
1 
    2 2   2   (d' Alembertian)
c t
     is a Lorentz scalar operator in 4D,
Thus just as   = 2 is a scalar operator in 3D
“Lorentz Gauge”
1 V   V  
 A  2    A  0 0   A  V
c t t But   A    
0 0
t
 
Condition for Coulomb gauge   A  0
Condition for Lorentz gauge A  0
Advantage of Lorentz gauge over Coulomb gauge
is that it is invariant under Lorentz transformations
i.e. invariant for mutually inertial reference frames
  (ct )     
x   r  4 J  +  J  0
 (ct ) t
Equation of continuity
i.e. the four-D divergence of the four-current density vanishes
We have seen that ME can be written as two equations in A and 
 
 (  A)   2
 A 
2    V 
2 V   ;  
 0 0 2   A       A   
0 0   0 J
t 0  t   t 
Now that
1  V  
    2 2  2     A  0 0   A  0 in Lorentz Gauge
c t t
The 4 ME can be written as a single equation in a very compact form

 A  0 J in the Lorentz gauge   A  0

E and B together have six components.
So these are neither Lorentz scalars nor Lorentz vectors.

We know that an antisymmetric tensor of rank two in 3D

has 3 independent components. In 4D, it will be 6.

Actually, the components of E and B together constitute

the six nonvanishing components of an antisymmetric
Lorentz tensor of rank 2 called the EM field Tensor