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The Classical Educational Concepts of Socrates, Plato & Aristotle

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DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.33180.13449

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 Classical Educational Concepts of Socrates, Plato,
Aristotle
By

Martin Mares

‘'The unexamined life is not worth living for a human being.''

-Socrates (Plato, Apology 38a)

Let us start with a bold statement that it is necessary to realise that many
ancient scholars provided us with the knowledge that has been far beyond our
imagination for hundreds of years. I hold the view that contemporary culture starts
to discover that ancient philosophy is not a discipline that belongs to old libraries,
but it can be instead sifted through and used to implement specific concept into our
post-modern world. In this paper, I will discuss the concept of education presented
by three great philosophers and true masters of this wisdom-loving discipline. It
would be undoubtedly beneficial to analyse the ideas of Socrates, Plato and Aristotle
in greater depth to figure out what might be useful for contemporary concepts of
education. I will focus on the modern use of certain educational concepts in the
second part of this essay, and therefore we should start with explanation and
comparative analysis of these concepts as introduced by three great masters of
classical philosophy – Socrates, Plato and Aristotle.

Socrates’s Model of Education

In the beginning, it is necessary to mention that Socrates’ theories about
education are mainly preserved in Plato’s writings since Socrates did not write down
any of his teachings. Socrates was somehow unique and different compared to his
student Plato and Aristotle because Socrates believed that the education not a process
of learning. In the dialogue Meno, it is mentioned that Socrates believed that our
souls are immortal and same can be applied to our knowledge, but each time we are
born again, we lost all the knowledge, and therefore we must educate ourselves to
remind us of our lost knowledge (Plato, Meno 85b,c). Socrates emphasised that he is
not teaching, but he is merely reminding {maieutics} us of the truth, which is already
inside us (Plato, Theaetetus, 155d). To awaken the truth within us, we need to employ
question and answers. Unlike Plato in his Academia or Socrates in Lyceum, Socrates
did not teach people in an institution, school or one particular place. Socrates roamed
through streets, gardens, squares and agora in Athens with his followers and debated
about things such as justice, politics, and beauty, a way of life, law and so forth
(Plato, Apology, 22c,d,e). According to Socrates, everything is opened to question,

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answers and criticism (Plato, Gorgias 482c). Socrates was perhaps the most liberal and
unconventional compared to his student Plato and Plato’s student Aristotle. Socrates
claimed we should question a law, religion, politics and so forth (Plato, Apology
39c,d). Furthermore, Socrates highly rejected Sophists' idea that wisdom is a rational
knowledge which should serve primarily to self-centred interests. Consequently, it is
evident that Socrates' way of education was the most liberal one and without any
further order, examinations or regulations. It was merely about individual's
willingness to join and participate in the debate. Socrates employed a new method
called dialectic, which consists of the abovementioned questions, answers and critical
thinking. Socrates encouraged his followers to think critically to expand their
knowledge because it allows us to understand better the world that surrounds us
(Plato, Apology 30a,b). According to Socrates, we can educate ourselves by thinking
critically, questioning beliefs and finding answers. On the other hand, Socrates
claimed that philosophy is the far-reaching quest for wisdom, though this quest is
never-ending because we simply cannot find all answers such a question of the
afterlife, which Socrates himself reflected before he was executed (Plato, Apology
41d). Fortunately, Socrates’ ideas have survived in Plato’s Dialogs, although Plato
later followed significantly less liberal opinion when it comes to education.
Plato’s Scheme of Education

Plato started as a student of Socrates, and we can trace many Socratic

influences in Plato's philosophy, though Plato later shifts towards more utilitarian,
institutionalised and state-controlled education as opposed to Socrates' liberal and
all-encompassing search for the truth – Aletheia. His personal experiences
undoubtedly influenced Plato's ideas during the time of Spartan domination over
Athens. Even though Spartan domination was severely compromised the progress of
Athenian culture, Plato was able to observe Spartan methods of education and
implement certain aspects of Spartan order into his theories. First of all, Plato
introduced a concept of education which is closely tied to his more broad concept of
virtues such as prudence, courage, temperance and justice (Plato, Republic, Book V.
455c–456a). Justice is universal for all people, but other virtues are connected to
particular class or group of individuals based on their profession and desired
contribution to the society (Plato, Republic, book IV. 425b). Consequently, education
should teach the specific group of people to maintain the balance associated with
certain virtue such as a balance of temperance for artisans, prudence for political
leaders or courage for soldiers (Plato, Republic, Book II. 377a,b}. Furthermore, the
length of education is determined by a series of examinations each 10, respectively 15
years to decide which individual is capable of higher and higher studies up to an age
of fifty. Those that failed to pass examinations were automatically sent to participate
in activities and work associated with them, e.g. group of artisans (Plato, Republic,
Book III. 409a,b). Those who pass all examinations and finished their education at the
age of fifty were selected as ideal rules of the society (Plato, Republic, Book V. 473c).
Plato also believes that education is necessary to key to free individuals from
their primal state of ignorance and sensually driven {lower eros} being. People need
to be released from the clutches of such existence, and this can be achieved only

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through the education, which in Plato’s theory serves as a form of therapy to cure the
individual of his ignorance. In other words, education helps people to maintain self-
control and the healthy balance of virtues. This explanation can also be found in
Plato’s Allegory of Cave which emphasises the need to liberate people from prison full
of shadows and ignorance of the truth (Plato, Republic, Book VII. 516a–516b).
According to Plato, it is a task of the philosopher to liberate people from oblivion
through education (Plato, Republic, Book IX. 586a-b). Plato’s education is, therefore,
similar to something as the cure for the entire structure of the polis. The success of
such education relies on individual ability to embrace the truth. The most important
point is that Plato suggests that the education has a goal, and this goal is nothing less
than wisdom {episteme} and ability to introspect good and beauty in itself (Plato,
Republic, Book VII. 516c). In other words, wisdom for Plato is tied to contemplation
and wisdom does not represent quantification or aggregation of knowledge.
Subsequently, Plato emphasised the mutual dependence of virtue and knowledge,
while virtue in a Platonic sense can be explained as a configuration of mind to incline
to specific values such as soldiers’ mind inclination to the virtue of courage.
Consequently, it is the purpose of education to teach for instance soldier how to
maintain the healthy balance of courage to avoid cowardice or recklessness (Plato,
Republic, Book III). Furthermore, Plato believed that education should be controlled
by the state and should primarily serve to produce different classes of specialised
individuals in order to fulfil needs of the polis This view might differ slightly from
Socrates and his idea that individual should be able to self-educate himself per se
and therefore there is no need for institutionalised education. On the other hand,
Plato also opposed to the idea of private property, and he despised the idea that one
can pay for education and therefore the idea that one can buy the knowledge (Plato,
Republic, Book VIII. 552b). In conclusion, Plato's scheme of education is deeply
connected to another concept from Plato's theory such as the role and distribution of
virtues in the polis {society}. If we compare Socrates and Plato, we might see
significant difference in Socrates' liberal and free approach to education as being an
activity which helps us to follow the path of never-ending quest for wisdom, whereas
Plato's view of education revolves more around creating the best model of a city-state
based on precise social stratification, state-controlled education and producing the
ideal rulers – philosopher kings. In other words, Plato's education helps to create not
necessarily wisdom-loving society like in Socrates' theory or good-life in Aristotle's
concept, but Plato instead introduces a system of education that aims to create the
most useful theory for the utilitarian and slightly totalitarian polis.

Aristotle’s Educational System

Let us begin with the claim that education in Aristotelian philosophy is the
most crucial pillar of the polis because one can become ‘complete person' only when
he has educated the person (Aristotle, Book I, 1253a.2). Henceforth, education is
immensely valuable because of it the pillar of a prosperous society in the general
sense. In the beginning, one must be introduced and educated in the pure
philosophy of life. Unfortunately, such a concept is not that simple because it does

3
not work in the way of accumulation of knowledge, but it rather works on principles
that emphasised the cultivation of thorough understanding of ethics and politics. In
addition to previous steps, a learner can maintain a deeper understating of morality
through the process of education itself. This is the crucial point since Aristotelian
view tells us that higher morality of people helps them to get rid of selfish or
egotistical and make them better members of the polis {society}. Subsequently, the
deeper sense of morality helps people to distinguish what is just correct and what is
truly good, which results in better cooperation and well-organised society that can
achieve goals for the common good (Aristotle, Book VII, 1323b.1). It is evident that
Aristotle saw an inseparable connection between the welfare of individuals and the
welfare of the polis {society]. Consequently, the Aristotelian model of learning should
produce the perfect unity of physical, intellectual and moral education. However,
morality seems to be more complicated in the Aristotelian principle, since Aristotle
argued that being the good man is not the same thing as being the good citizen.
Being good citizen means that one knows the difference between civic virtues and
vices, although this does not automatically mean that one has to be the moral man at
the same time (Aristotle, Book III, 1276b.34). In conclusion, Aristotelian education
aims to make one a good citizen of the polis and therefore the education is tailored to
make citizens good and happy because only good citizens can create a good society –
the good city-state. Furthermore, it is crucial to focus on Aristotle's division of
education regarding its usefulness for the Athenian city-state – polis (Aristotle, Book
III, 1280b.30–1281a.3). It is important to realise that Aristotle's education provides the
model which helps to maintain the balance between body, mind and soul or
synthesis of theoretical, practical and technical tasks. In conclusion, one should study,
e.g. dancing, physical exercise, rhetoric, natural sciences and philosophy to maintain
the perfect balance in education.

On the other hand, learners should not rely exclusively on education based
on reason revealing causes of things, but students should also cultivate their learning
through habits (Aristotle, Book I, 1094b.24). We can explain learning through habits as
performing the same actions to strengthen the quality which is attached to specific
noble actions such as performing speeches regularly will lead to better rhetoric. In
conclusion, the education in the Aristotelian sense is a combination of learning
through the reason and habits as well. However, Aristotle emphasised that such type
of education should last for the entire life, though certain disciplines should be
learned during the specific age such as gymnastics should be introduced to learners
at the early age and so forth. Also, it also provides the opportunity to study as long
as one is willing to study after the last phase of Aristotle’s model. This point shows a
remarkable difference from Plato's methods of education since Plato argued that only
the most gifted ones are aspiring to become ideal rulers- philosopher kings should be
allowed to study after they successfully pass specific examinations each 10,
respectively 15 years. Plato clearly defined those specific professions needed the
particular portion of the educational process, and if they failed to pass the
examination for higher level, they should leave the education and began to practice
assigned occupation such as businessman or clergyman for instance. Aristotle did not

4
agree with limitations when it comes to education in a general sense, though it is
worth mentioning that women, servants and other inferior groups should not be
educated according to Aristotle. However, if one could be educated according to laws
of polis, Aristotle clearly emphasised that opportunity to study further as long as
one is willing to study should be supported by polis and other citizens producing
exceptional scholars is beneficial for the entire society, though such outstanding
individuals must act in favour of the community and polis (Aristotle, Book II, 1273b.
5). Aristotle's concept is not based on the challenge or rivalry that is pushing us
forward, but his theory revolves rather around the formation of a well-balanced
group of people through diverse and colourful educational disciplines. We can
observe a significant difference from Plato since Plato argued for the gradual
examination of learners throughout the process of education to decide if certain
learners should finish the education or continue to higher levels. It is evident that
Plato's model of education is explicitly tailored to contribute more or less to Plato's
concept of virtues tied to the specific class of people contributing to the welfare of
polis {society}. I dare to say that there is an underlying idea beneath Aristotelian
concept of education, and this idea is a nothing less than the creation of harmonious
society through education (Aristotle, Book I, 1098a].
Aristotelian model of education should be regarded as an excellent theoretical
concept of learning, though Aristotle established his school Lyceum in Athens during
the later years of his life, it is not clear if he we ever try to introduce such model of
education to his students because unfortunately a large number of Aristotle's
writings on education had been lost. In conclusion, I believe that Aristotelian model
of education is arguably the most compelling in comparison to Plato or Socrates
because Aristotle introduced to us the system of education which is well-balanced in
theoretical, practical and moral principles. This perfect unity of above-mentioned
three educational fields has a potential to produce versatile individuals, cultivate the
sense of community and cooperation, though it has a potential to create the
harmonious society without any limitations imposed or social stratifications during
the educational process as opposed to Plato's concept.

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 Works cited
Plato Complete Works. Ed. John M. Cooper, D.S. Hutchinson, Cambridge transl.
Hackett Publishing. Cambridge 1997.
Complete works of Aristotle. Ed. Jonathan Barnes. The Oxford transl. Oxford
University Press. Oxford 1984

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