Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Cosmetic Liposomes
Cosmetic Liposomes
net/publication/284754922
CITATIONS READS
13 3,329
2 authors:
Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:
All content following this page was uploaded by Francisca Bastos on 09 December 2015.
To cite this article: Francisca Casanova & Lúcia Santos (2015): Encapsulation of cosmetic
active ingredients for topical application – a review, Journal of Microencapsulation, DOI:
10.3109/02652048.2015.1115900
Article views: 1
REVIEW ARTICLE
topical application;
offers an ideal and unique carrier system for cosmetic active ingredients, as it has the potential to respond to controlled release; critical
all these requirements. The encapsulated agent can be released by several mechanisms, such as mechanical aspects
action, heat, diffusion, pH, biodegradation and dissolution. The selection of the encapsulation technique
and shell material depends on the final application of the product, considering physical and chemical
stability, concentration, required particle size, release mechanism and manufacturing costs.
Introduction both industrial and academic sectors are urging to explore this area,
namely, in the fields of cosmetics and personal care products for
Microencapsulation has been widely explored by the pharmaceut-
topical application (Durand, 1995; R.P. Scherer Corporation, 1996;
ical, food, cosmetic, textile, personal care, agricultural, chemical,
biotechnology, biomedical and sensor industries. There are numer- L’Oreal, 1998; Sunsmart, Inc. and Sibmicro Encapsulation
ous possibilities to use microencapsulation as a technique to obtain Technologies, Inc., 1998; Maybelline Intermediate Company, 1999;
products with high added value and therefore widespread interest Shaklee Corporation, 2001; Coreana Cosmetics Co. Ltd, 2001;
has developed in microencapsulation technology (Benita, 2005; Capsutech Ltd., 2009; Conopco Inc. and D/B/A Unilever, 2010).
Ghosh, 2006; Wesselingh et al., 2007; Dubey et al., 2009; Hammad This article reviews current research on encapsulation
et al., 2011). approaches for cosmetic and personal care applications, focussing
The cosmetics and personal care products sector is a multi-billion on microencapsulation applied to cosmetics for topical use.
dollar international market and has shown great expansion. To be Examples of reviewed cosmetic ingredients include antioxidants,
successful in such a competitive and demanding sector, the sun filters, fragrances, moisturisers and anti-aging, tanning and
products must differentiate, which can be achieved by means of whitening agents. Recent and future developments in this field are
using emergent technologies, such as microencapsulation (Michael, addressed, some of the challenges are identified and the import-
2009; Euromonitor, 2011; Martins et al., 2014). Cosmetic and ance of various factors involved in the formulation and stabilisation
personal care products often contain biologically active substances of topical preparations are discussed.
that are unstable and sensitive to temperature, pH, light and
oxidation. These substances may undergo undesired reactions that
Microcapsules and encapsulation techniques
lead to the reduction or loss of their effectiveness or even lead to
the degradation of the cosmetic product. Thus, microencapsulation Microencapsulation is a process of encapsulating a material
technologies have been proposed to increase stability, to protect containing an active ingredient (core material), in a shell of a
against degradation, and also to direct and control the release of second material (shell/wall material), permanently or temporarily.
active ingredients used in cosmetic products. In addition, the topical This results in small capsules with many useful properties, termed
and transdermal delivery of cosmetic active ingredients requires safe microcapsules (Figure 1a). Such capsules have diameters between
and non-toxic means to reach the target destination sites within the one micron and a few millimetres. Microcapsules whose diameter is
skin. Microencapsulation has been used in the development of in the nanometre range are referred to as nanocapsules (Benita,
cosmetic formulations that are more stable, more effective and with 2005; Jyothi et al., 2010; Kaur et al., 2013). The small size of these
improved sensory properties, having found an increasing number of capsules provides a large surface area that is available for sites of
applications in this market (Gallarate et al., 1999; Lumsdon et al., adsorption and desorption, chemical reactions, light scattering, etc.
2005; Rosen, 2005; Sinko, 2006; Soest, 2007; Pardeike et al., 2009). This is one positive and important feature of microcapsules (Gutcho,
Published patents in the area of microencapsulation suggest that 1976; Arshady, 1999).
CONTACT Lúcia Santos lsantos@fe.up.pt LEPABE, Departamento De Engenharia Quı́mica, Faculdade De Engenharia Da Universidade Do Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto
Frias, Porto, 4200-465, Portugal
Figure 1. (a) Scheme of a microcapsule. (b) Morphology of microcapsules (Adapted from Ghosh, 2006).
Core materials in microcapsules may exist in the form of a solid, representation of the solvent evaporation process is presented in
liquid or gas phase. Depending on the application, a wide variety of Figure 2. In this method, a water insoluble polymer is dissolved in a
core materials can be encapsulated. The size of the core material water immiscible volatile organic solvent, like dichloromethane or
plays an important role for diffusion, permeability and controlled chloroform, into which the core material is also dissolved or
release. The shell material can be permeable, semi-permeable or dispersed. The resulting solution is added dropwise to a stirring
impermeable. Compatibility of the core material with the shell is an aqueous solution having a suitable stabiliser to form small polymer
important criterion for enhancing the efficiency of the microencap- droplets containing the encapsulated material. The core material
Downloaded by [Francisca Casanova] at 03:22 02 December 2015
sulation (Ghosh, 2006; Hammad et al., 2011; Estevinho et al., 2013a). can also be dispersed or dissolved in this aqueous solution instead.
The morphology of the internal structure of a microcapsule With time, the droplets are hardened to produce the corresponding
depends largely on the selected shell materials and the micro- polymer microcapsules. This hardening process is accomplished by
encapsulation methods that are employed. Microcapsules can be the removal of the solvent from the polymer droplets either by
classified as mononuclear, polynuclear or matrix type (Figure 1b) solvent evaporation (by heat or reduced pressure), or by solvent
(Ghosh, 2006; Dubey et al., 2009; Chhotalal et al., 2013). extraction (with a third liquid which is a precipitant for the polymer
Microcapsules are usually characterised mainly by particle size and miscible with both water and solvent) (Freitas et al., 2005; Li
and shape and encapsulation efficiency. Microcapsules zeta poten- et al., 2008; Dubey et al., 2009; Hung et al., 2010; Giri et al., 2012; Sri
tial, drug loading, solvation, bulk density, tap density, compressibil- et al., 2012).
ity index, Hausnner’s ratio (an index of flow ability of microcapsules) Spray drying is one of the most common methods used for
and the angle of repose can also be determined (Hammad et al., microencapsulation (Estevinho et al., 2013a,b). This process has
2011; Estevinho et al., 2013a). The size and shape of the prepared some advantages over other methods, such as large equipment
microcapsules can be determined by light and scanning electron availability, possibility of employing a wide variety of encapsulating
microscope. Encapsulation efficiency (content of core material agents, potentially large-scale production, simple equipment, good
effectively encapsulated) depends on several variables, such as the efficiency, reduced storage and transport costs and low process
chemical nature of the core (molecular weight, chemical function- cost. Moreover, the process is adaptable to a wide range of
ality, polarity and volatility), shell material properties and the chosen feedstock and product specifications, as it can be used with
microencapsulation technique (Gander et al., 1995; Jyothi et al., solutions, suspensions, slurries, melts and pastes.
2010; Martins et al., 2010; Selvaraj et al., 2012). Microencapsulation by spray drying is thus a simple and low cost
Although a variety of techniques have been reported for commercial process that has been used to encapsulate mainly
microencapsulation, no single process is adaptable to all core flavours (Estevinho et al., 2013b), enzymes (Estevinho et al.,
materials or product applications. The choice of the most suitable 2012,2014a,b), oils and pigments, but also thermo-sensitive prod-
method depends on the application of the microsystem, particle ucts, such as microorganisms and essential oils, since the required
size required, physical and chemical properties of the core and the
high temperature is only applied for a very short period of time. A
shell, release mechanism intended, production scale and costs. Thus,
schematic representation of the spray drying process is presented in
appropriate combination of starting materials and synthesis
Figure 3. The ingredient to be encapsulated is added to the carrier
methods can be chosen to produce encapsulated products with a
(the ratio of core to carrier can be optimised for each individual
wide variety of compositional and morphological characteristics,
ingredient) and the mixture is homogenised. An emulsifier may also
and the microencapsulation process must be custom-tailored in
be added at this stage. This mixture is then fed into the spray dryer
order to provide a satisfactory outcome, considering the intended
with circulating hot air and atomised, which can be made by
application. Microencapsulation techniques can be broadly divided
different types of atomisers: pneumatic atomiser, pressure nozzle,
into two main categories, namely chemical and physical, with the
spinning disk, fluid nozzle and sonic nozzle. The solvent (water) is
latter being further subdivided into physico-chemical and physico-
evaporated by the hot air and the shell material encapsulates the
mechanical techniques (Silva et al., 2014; Wilson and Shah, 2007).
core. Small particles are deposited in the collection vessel where
Table 1 outlines common methods used to encapsulate ingredients
they are collected (Bodmeier and Chen, 1998; Wilson and Shah,
and the size of produced particles. Such methods have been
described by Dubey et al. (2009), Ghosh (2006), Silva et al. (2014), 2007; Yin and Yates, 2009; Chávarri et al., 2012).
Wilson and Shah (2007) and Fairhurst and Loxley (2008).
Solvent evaporation/extraction is one of the most commonly Microencapsulation in cosmetics
used encapsulation techniques at laboratory scale, as it is a simple
technique suitable for the preparation of microcapsules loaded with Delivery systems and microcapsules play an important role in the
different kinds of cores, both hydrophobic and hydrophilic. cosmetics and personal care industries nowadays. They offer an
However, this method is not easily applicable on a large scale, ideal and unique carrier system for active ingredients, allowing the
and thus is not widely used for industrial applications. A schematic controlled and targeted release, isolation and protection of the
JOURNAL OF MICROENCAPSULATION 3
Table 1. Usual methods for encapsulation and respective particle sizes (Ghosh, 2006).
Type of methods Methods Particle size (mm) References
Chemical process Emulsion polymerization 0.5–1000 Fairhurst and Loxley, 2008; Ghosh, 2006; Hirech et al., 2003
Suspension polymerization 0.5–1000
Interfacial polymerization 0.5–1000
Physico-chemical process Coacervation/Phase separation 1–1000 Ciriminna and Pagliaro, 2013; Di Marco et al., 2010;
Solvent evaporation/extraction 0.5–1000 Chen et al., 2009; Cocero et al., 2009;
Sol–gel encapsulation 2–20 Martins et al., 2009; Nguyen-Ngoc and Tran-Minh, 2007;
Supercritical fluid-assisted 0.5–500 Gander et al., 2006; Kas, 2000; Madan, 1978
microencapsulation
Layer-by-layer assembly 0.5–20
Physico-mechanical process Spray-drying 1–500 Shinde et al., 2014; Anwar et al., 2010;
Spray-cooling 20–500 Fairhurst and Loxley, 2008; Lakkis, 2007
Co-extrusion 250–2500
Spinning disk 5–1500
Fluidized-bed coating 20–1500
Melt solidification 5–1000
Polymer precipitation 5–1000
Downloaded by [Francisca Casanova] at 03:22 02 December 2015
Figure 2. Schematic overview over the four principal process steps in microsphere preparation by solvent extraction/evaporation (Adapted from Freitas et al., 2005).
active compounds, improved stability and efficacy, safe administra- products, in response to human needs and desires (Barel et al., 2001;
tion, to mask undesirable properties of the active components, such Suraweera et al., 2014).
as their odour, and also the improvement of the tactile and visual
appearance of a variety of cosmetic and personal care products.
Controlled release technologies are used to deliver compounds at Delivery systems for topical application
prescribed rates, together with improved efficacy, safety and A delivery system is a method of holding, carrying and transporting
convenience. In these industries, there is a constant look for new an active ingredient. It is any type of vehicle that takes an active
and novel delivery systems to safely incorporate many of the new ingredient to a target site. A delivery system can control the release
and sensitive active ingredients of the cosmetic products. rate of an active ingredient from a formulation at an optimal rate. A
Development of new delivery systems can allow an easier and number of pathways are possible for the transportation of
simpler use and development of critical emulsion systems. Often in molecules through the skin. The intercellular route occurs at the
these systems sensitive active ingredients must be added in a interface between cells through the lipid bilayers, following a
special and difficult way under very controlled conditions (e.g. tortuous permeation pathway. In contrast, transcellular pathways
temperature and water/oil content). Microencapsulation has the can occur directly through the cells. Transportation via the hair
potential of delivering active ingredients in some difficult systems, follicles or sweat ducts is also possible (Moghimi et al., 1999; Flynn,
e.g. containing glycolic acid, alpha hydroxy acids, salicylic acid, high 2002; Wiechers, 2008).
alcohol content or critical water-in-oil or silicone emulsions. They Topical application of cosmetic formulations often requires the
can be used to deliver active ingredients into the skin, in a safe, successful delivery of active ingredients through the skin’s barriers
targeted, effective and not painful manner, to protect fragrances or to reach the target skin layer. The main resistance to transdermal
volatile compounds from evaporation, to protect compounds such transport lies in a layer of cells joining the epidermis to the stratum
as antioxidants from oxidation, to protect from degradation caused corneum, which itself limits the transport. The stratum corneum has
by heat, light and moisture, or to control the release rate (Rosen, a highly impermeable nature and permeability through this layer
2005; Soest, 2007; Pardeike et al., 2009; Martins et al., 2010). has remained one of the major challenges in effective transdermal
Microencapsulation can be used in cosmetic applications such as delivery. While the lipophilic stratum corneum contains about 13%
production of shower and bath gels, lotions and creams, hair water, the inner skin epidermis layers become significantly more
products, sunscreens and tanning creams, makeup, perfumes, soaps, hydrophilic, containing 50% water, while the dermis contains 70%. It
exfoliants, tooth pastes and more. Microencapsulation may help in should also be noted that there are wide variations in permeability
the improvement of the cosmetic and personal care industries, as it at different body sites (e.g. face versus legs versus palms) which
brings innovation and allows the production of high added value together with factors such as age and external environment can
4 F. CASANOVA AND L. SANTOS
Figure 3. Schematic illustration of the process of micro-encapsulation by spray-drying. (Adapted from Chávarri et al., 2012).
Downloaded by [Francisca Casanova] at 03:22 02 December 2015
influence the skin’s barrier function (Rein, 1924; Elias, 2004; Harding, (Barry, 2002; Flynn, 2002; Rosen, 2005; Kaur et al., 2007; Chanchal
2004; Wiechers, 2008; Forster et al., 2009; Lam and Gambari, 2014). and Swarnlata, 2008; El Maghraby et al., 2008; Fairhurst and Loxley,
It is generally reported that the transport of molecules through 2008; Puglia et al., 2008; Wiechers, 2008 ; Pardeike et al., 2009; Kristl
the epidermis is restricted to molecules of low molecular mass et al., 2010).
(5500 Da) and moderate lipophilicity (partition coefficients log Kow
values between 1 and 3), having enough solubility in the lipid
domain of the stratum corneum, while still having sufficient Encapsulating materials for cosmetic applications
hydrophilic nature to allow partitioning into the skin inner layers.
The correct choice of the shell material is essential according to the
As some active cosmetic substances are too hydrophilic to pass
intended application, as it influences the encapsulation efficiency
through the stratum corneum or too lipophilic to partition into the
and stability of the microcapsules. Factors to be considered while
epidermis, encapsulation techniques with the appropriate shell
selecting a wall material for topical applications include toxicity,
materials can overcome this problem by delivering the level of
biocompatibility, stability, viscosity and mechanical properties,
lipophilicity needed for the desired application. Mathematical
compatibility between the active ingredient and the wall material,
models can be used to predict skin permeability, which are
release of the active ingredient from the vehicle into the skin,
generally based on quantitative structure–permeability relationships
enhancement of active penetration into the stratum corneum,
(QSPR), diffusion mechanisms or combinations of both. At the same
intended particle size and microscopic properties of the surface of
time, the compound should still have the lipophilic or hydrophilic
the microparticles and processing and economic factors. Since most
characteristics that allow its solubilisation in the cosmetic itself and
ensure its stability during formulation, storage and application of encapsulating materials do not have all the required properties, a
the product (Barry, 2002; Müller et al., 2000, 2002; Wiechers 2005; common practise involves a combination of wall materials (Abla and
Jain et al., 2006; Forster et al., 2009; Ammala, 2013). Banga, 2013; Estevinho et al., 2013a; Silva et al., 2014).
Critical aspects should be considered when delivering a cosmetic Encapsulating materials can be selected from a wide variety of
active ingredient through the skin, such as the right site of action of natural and synthetic polymers. The protection of cosmetic active
the cosmetic ingredient, the right concentration of the components agents in micro-sized carriers with the purpose of controlled release
and the correct application time of the product on the skin. It should over a certain period of time has been a question of considerable
be considered the influence of the formulation type, formulation research. The most commonly used shell materials in cosmetics
polarity, stratum corneum polarity, skin lipid organisation and the include polysaccharides (gums, starches, celluloses, cyclodextrines
influence of droplet size on skin delivery. The cosmetic delivery and chitosan), proteins (gelatin, casein and soy proteins), lipids
should also avoid undesirable transdermal delivery and keep the (waxes, paraffin and oils) and synthetic polymers [acrylic polymers,
functional molecule in a specific skin layer (Fu et al., 2005; Wiechers, polyvinyl alcohol and poly(vinylpyrrolidone)]. Inorganic materials,
2008). Common functional ingredients used in topical application such as silicates, clays and polyphosphates, can also be used as
cosmetics are UV filters, antioxidants, moisturisers, skin lightening second polymers (Matsuda and Arima, 1999; Wille, 2006; Pedro et al.,
ingredients and molecules with anti-aging properties, acting either 2009; Cattaneo, 2010; Pawar, 2010; Tarimci, 2011; Lee and Mooney,
on the surface of the skin or in specific layers within the skin. 2012).
Several skin delivery systems used in cosmetic products have Biopolymers (natural polymers) and biodegradable polymers,
already been reported (Barry, 2002; Rosen, 2005; Wiechers, 2008). such as chitosan and aliphatic polyesters like poly(lactic acid) (PLA)
These include skin delivery from emulsions, vesicles, liposomes, and copolymers of lactic and glycolic acids (e.g. PLGA – poly(lactic
solid–lipid nanoparticles (SLN), nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC), co-glycolic acid), are the encapsulating materials with greater
phytosomes, transferosomes, nanocrystals and cubosomes. interest for applications in the field of skin delivery systems. These
However, micro- and nano-encapsulation of actives for cosmetic materials are natural, non-toxic, non-reactive when in contact with
and pharmaceutical applications have shown a wider range of the human tissues and can be broken down or metabolised and
applications, since the advantages of different encapsulation removed from the body via normal metabolic pathways, while other
technologies were made evident, as discussed in this review compounds can potentially accumulate in body tissues and cause
JOURNAL OF MICROENCAPSULATION 5
irritation. Their properties (such as degradation rate and mechanical different release mechanisms of encapsulated materials provide
properties) are strongly defined by structural characteristics, like the controlled, sustained or targeted release of the core material and
composition of the co-polymer, molecular weight and nature of the the release mechanism depends on the nature of application (Nack,
chain end groups, and these polymers can be chemically 1970; Dubey et al., 2009).
functionalised for improved properties (Stevanovic et al., 2007;
Haddadi et al., 2008; Mishra et al., 2008; Ammala, 2013). Chitosan,
for example, is insoluble in water and organic solvents, only Cosmetic active ingredients encapsulated for topical
being soluble in acidic solutions, which frequently limits its application
application (Silva et al., 2014). It is possible, however, to modify Studies on the use of encapsulation techniques for the delivery and
chitosan structure in order to produce water soluble chitosan, controlled release of cosmetic active ingredients for topical appli-
which is easily soluble in neutral aqueous solutions, increasing cation cosmetics are presented in Table 2 and are discussed.
the range of applicability of this compound (Estevinho et al., 2014a, Retinol or vitamin A (VA), in cosmetics for topical application
2013a,b). (creams, skin serums and anti-aging products), acts as an antioxidant
The core material encapsulated is the active ingredient to be and enhances the appearance of dry or damaged skin by reducing
used and depends on the final cosmetic product where the capsules flaking and restoring suppleness. Jenning et al. (2000) encapsulated
will be incorporated and the desired function. Commonly used core VA in glyceryl behenate SLN through a melt solidification method,
materials in cosmetic products for topical application are reviewed
to evaluate the potential use of SLN in dermatology and cosmetics.
in the ‘‘Cosmetic active ingredients encapsulated for topical
These were tested with respect to their influence on ingredient
application’’ section.
penetration into the skin and the release profiles were studied using
Downloaded by [Francisca Casanova] at 03:22 02 December 2015
Table 2. Continued
Table 2. Continued
a-Tocopherol or vitamin E (VE) is widely used as a strong only RA. These results suggest that RA may be stably and efficiently
antioxidant in many medical and cosmetic applications, but is encapsulated into polycaprolactone microspheres.
rapidly degraded due to its light, heat and oxygen sensitivity Yerba mate (Ilex paraguariensis) is a plant which presents a high
(Poljsak et al., 2013; Oresajo et al., 2012). Thus, a-tocopherol content of caffeoyl derivatives and other phenolics. Some of the
formulations have to avoid contact with light, heat or air. Drug pharmacological properties attributed to yerba mate, such as anti-
loaded carriers are an attractive opportunity, particularly if they are inflammatory and anti-aging, have been related to this high content
made of biocompatible macromolecules. Duclairoir et al. (2002) of polyphenols. Harris et al. (2011) prepared chitosan nanoparticles
investigated and characterised lipophilic drug loading capacities of and microspheres for the encapsulation of natural antioxidants
gliadin nanoparticles loaded with vitamin E and generated by a extracted from yerba mate. Nanoparticles were prepared by ionic
desolvatation method. The optimum encapsulation efficiency was gelation of chitosan hydrochloride and sodium tripolyphosphate
close to 80%. and microspheres were prepared by the spray-drying method. The
Catechins are major antioxidants in green tea (Camellia sinensis or effect of the encapsulating systems on the active compound
Camellia assamica), but as they do not permeate well into the skin, stability and its release properties was investigated. The encapsu-
the application of green tea in cosmetic products has so far been lation efficiency was near 100% and 45–90% of polyphenols was
limited (Peres et al., 2011). Wisuitiprot et al. (2011) evaluated the delivered from ILE (Ilex paraguariensis extract) microspheres after
cutaneous absorption of catechins from an extract of green tea and 4 h, depending on the conditions studied (namely, the pH). The
from green tea extract-loaded chitosan microcapsules. The results products obtained in the mentioned and in other studies allowed to
suggested that chitosan microcapsules significantly improve the control the release of natural antioxidants and therefore these
ability of catechins to permeate skin and effectively prevented encapsulating methods are a promising technique for cosmetic
applications (Barroso et al., 2014).
Downloaded by [Francisca Casanova] at 03:22 02 December 2015
suggesting the importance of functionalization in stabilising organic corneum layer, showing that the lipid microcapsules should
molecules within silica pores. preserve the UV filter efficacy and limit potential toxicological
Linoleic acid (LA) or vitamin F is an unsaturated fatty acid used as risks. Studies have been performed for other sunscreens, such as
an emollient and thickening agent in cosmetics. There is some octyl methoxycinnamate (OMC), octyl salicylate, butyl methoxydi-
research showing it to be effective in cell regulation and skin-barrier benzoylmethane (BMDBM) and titanium dioxide (Alvarez-Román
repair, as well as an antioxidant and an anti-inflammatory. Linoleic et al., 2001; Bennat and Müller-Goyman 2001; Jiménez et al., 2004;
acid is also known to have a whitening effect on hyper-pigmented Gogna et al., 2007; Scalia and Mezzena, 2009; Vettor et al., 2010).
skin. This component is often encapsulated in liposomes for topical Essential oils are volatile and liquid aromatic compounds existing
application due to its low solubility in aqueous solution. Yasutami in natural sources, usually plants. They are mainly used in cosmetic
et al. (2004) evaluated the effect of liposomalization on the applications as fragrances, but some essential oils can also be used
whitening activity of linoleic acid towards UV-stimulated hyper- for relaxation and healing skin applications. These compounds can
pigmented skin. Liposomal LA (0.1%) showed a whitening effect be encapsulated for protection from evaporation or oxidation
similar to 10.0% non-liposomal LA, indicating that liposomal caused by heat, light and moisture. Anchisi et al. (2006) evaluated
formulations are favourable for the transdermal application of the stability and release of chitosan beads loaded with volatile
linoleic acid since this compound showed to be more effective molecules of Mentha piperita essential oil in a cosmetic formulation.
when encapsulated and thus lower concentrations are needed for Properties such as morphology, size, swelling ability, encapsulation
the same whitening effect. efficiency and stability in time of Mentha piperita essential oil were
Lycopene, a lipophilic carotenoid, has been known as an effective assessed during the use phase of the cosmetic formulation. Other
antioxidant in supporting the cutaneous defence system. Lycopene fragrances can also be encapsulated for cosmetic application.
is also a pigment and can be used for delivering a desirable skin
Downloaded by [Francisca Casanova] at 03:22 02 December 2015
chitosan microspheres are not able to control glycolic acid release method of applying capsules to the substrate and the need to avoid
even after crosslinking. adverse effects of substrate on capsule stability. Adverse effects of
Salicylic acid has been widely used in the treatment of dry skin cosmetic formulation on the stability of the capsule should be
conditions and also helps reduce acne symptoms. However, it has avoided, namely, the use of solvents or other substances that tend
the disadvantages of being a mild to strong irritant. Hence, its to leach core material through the capsule or intrude through the
control can be achieved through encapsulation in liposomes. shell before and during the application period, or that might
Bhalerao and Harshal (2003) prepared liposomes entrapping interfere with subsequent capsule release. Cosmetic formulations
salicyclic acid by the thin film hydration technique. The results must be designed so that the capsule contents and shell remain
showed the formation of bilayered liposomes in the particle size intact during the time the product is formulated, transported and
range of 0.2–0.8276 mm with a maximum entrapment efficiency of stored prior to consumption (Nack, 1970).
42.6%. Microcapsules employed in cosmetics may need to be easily
Benzoyl peroxide (BPO) is commonly used in topical formulations crushed on the skin during application for core release, but they also
for the treatment of acne and as an anti-bacterial agent (Dreno, need to have sufficient rigidity so that their structure is not modified
2004). However, skin irritation is a common side effect, and it has during manufacture, storage or transport of the cosmetic formula-
been shown that controlled release of BPO to the skin could reduce tion, since sufficient active core material must remain encapsulated
this problem. Nokhodchi et al. (2005) and Jelvehgari et al. (2006) at the desired time release (Handjani et al., 1993).
examined whether the type of topical formulation (cream, gel and The capsules and products containing capsules are stored at
lotion) can affect the release behaviour of BPO from microsponges widely varying conditions. Factors of concern include temperature,
with the aim to prepare suitable controlled release formulations for humidity, pressure, light or other forms of radiation and air
BPO. Microcapsules were prepared using an emulsion solvent pollutants. Capsules containing volatile materials or certain reactive
Downloaded by [Francisca Casanova] at 03:22 02 December 2015
diffusion method and it was shown that the drug:polymer ratio, chemicals must be protected from excess temperature to avoid
stirring rate and volume of the dispersed phase influenced the premature evaporation or decomposition of the core contents. If the
particle size and drug release behaviour of the formed micro- core is hygroscopic capsules may absorb water from a high humidity
sponges, and that the presence of an emulsifier was essential for atmosphere to the point of wall rupture in some cases. Conversely,
microsponge formation. The release data showed that the highest capsules containing some water in the core may lose water by
release rate was obtained from lotions containing BPO microcap- evaporation in a low humidity environment, thereby reducing the
sules and the lowest was obtained from cream formulations, which reactivity of the capsular system. Excessive pressure on capsules in
are therefore preferred for lower irritation effects due to the gradual storage, such as certain slow release fertilisers, may cause blocking
release. or welding together of the capsules so that the product is no longer
The studies reported in this section revealed the potential of free-flowing. Stacking of capsule-containing products may cause
microencapsulation for cosmetic purposes, showing that cosmetic premature rupture of capsules in the bottom layers of the stack.
active ingredients may be stably and efficiently encapsulated and Both fungal and bacterial degradation can be a problem in cosmetic
suggesting the need to explore new delivery systems to be applied formulations using biodegradable materials. Sometimes it is there-
topically to overcome the limitations of topical delivery and fore necessary to add preservatives to extend the shelf life, but their
effectiveness of some compounds. Different kinds of studies are undesired influences should be considered and controlled. Natural
crucial to determine whether encapsulating formulations are preservatives, such as tea tree oil and grapefruit seeds oil, have
favourable for the transdermal application of cosmetic active proven to be effective. Low levels of benzalkonium chloride may
ingredients. Studies on the characterisation of microcapsules and also be added, serving a dual purpose of anti-microbial agent and
emulsifier (Nack, 1970; Ammala, 2013).
microencapsulation efficiency and loading capacity using appropri-
Cosmetic ingredients and delivery systems are quickly introduced
ate encapsulation methods are central and the starting point to
and removed from the market. Therefore they need to carry strong
evaluate the efficacy of the microencapsulation approach for the
innovations, visible to consumers if possible and perceived by them
desired cosmetic ingredient. Release studies and skin permeation
as a real innovative material. New encapsulation technologies have
studies are also essential to determine the efficacy of the
emerged, which need to be quickly adaptable to any new active
microsystem for the intended application. Studies of the microcap-
compounds in a very simple and dynamic way. The technical and
sules incorporated in cosmetic formulations to evaluate core
economic aspects should be taken into consideration while select-
stability and activity are crucial as well, since only then will be
ing the appropriate type of delivery system to enhance the safety,
possible to evaluate the real efficacy of microencapsulation for
stability, extended efficacy and to enhance the aesthetic appeal of
cosmetic application.
the final product. Perhaps the most important criterion for judging
the overall performance of a capsular product relates to economics.
Critical aspects It is important to understand if the consumer is willing to pay for the
extra cost of microencapsulation. It should be taken into consider-
Critical aspects should be considered when delivering a cosmetic ation the production costs of the product, as well as marketing,
active ingredient through the skin using a microencapsulation consumer education, distribution patterns and price consciousness
system. Technical, quality, ethical and economic issues should be costs. After all, a product is effective and successful only if it appeals
considered when the mass production of cosmetics using micro- to a consumer who is willing to use it and pay for it. Unfortunately,
encapsulation technology is implemented. One of the bigger there are no direct answers to this problem, and it is evident that
challenges involves the scale-up of the microencapsulation process such a situation calls for careful product development and market
to achieve the high reproducibility of the microencapsulated studies (Patravale and Mandawgade, 2008; Perrier, 2012).
cosmetic formulations (Lam and Gambari, 2014). Safety is also essential to assure product’s sustainability in the
Although there are instances where capsules produced are used market and repeated purchase. The cosmetic products need to be
directly in a product, in most cases the capsules must be fastened to perfectly known in terms of composition and traces of undesirable
a substrate or suspended in a medium for proper functioning in the components, such as heavy metals and traces of compounds that
end use. Here, two problems are encountered: the need for a proper could be perceived as dangerous by consumers, they have to be
12 F. CASANOVA AND L. SANTOS
demonstrated to be toxicologically safe, they should not use animal pigments microcapsules) (Pellets, 2015). Natural Odours and
tests that are banned for the cosmetic industry and they should be Polymers, Pvt, Ltd. developed SpheraÔ Microcapsules, which
proposed in a way that will not be the subject of media and/or non- allow the delivery of vitamins, essential oils and fragrances etc. in
governmental organisation attacks. These products have to fulfil form of a fine powder for personal care cosmetics (Natural Odours
cosmetic regulations for all the countries where such materials are and Polymers Pvt. Ltd., 2015).
introduced through cosmetic formulations. Legal and safety
responsibilities of cosmetics and skin delivery systems as well as
the marketing and dermatological perspectives of these responsi- Perspectives
bilities should be taken into account. Special attention should be Despite the fact that the use of the presented delivery systems for
made to European Cosmetic Regulation 1223/2009, which introduces cosmetics of topical administration is a promising application area, a
new rules for the use of nanomaterials in cosmetic products. lot remains to be elucidated about the encapsulation methods
Nanomaterials must be explicitly authorised and must be labelled discussed. At this stage, only the first level of technical and scientific
in the list of ingredients with the word ‘‘nano’’ in brackets following needs of encapsulation applied in the cosmetic field have been
the name of the substance. Products containing nanomaterials not addressed. Further research needs to be carried out for a better
otherwise restricted by the Cosmetics Regulation will be the object of understanding of the reasons for materials modifications, effects
a full safety assessment at EU level if the Commission has concerns and transitions at every stage, since the product production to its
(Wiechers, 2008; Perrier, 2012; European Commission, 2013). final topical application. Moreover, a better understanding is needed
of how such systems modify the diffusion of actives into the skin,
how the particles interact with the lipids of the stratum corneum
Commercial products
Downloaded by [Francisca Casanova] at 03:22 02 December 2015
product performance and formulators aiming for a greater com- microcapsules and liposomes – Preparation and chemical appli-
petitive advantage in cosmetic and personal care markets. cations, Vol. 1. UK: Citus Book Inc., pp. 11–45.
Microencapsulation has been applied in a wide variety of products Aurapan S, Supason W, Natchanun L, Teerakiat K, Sunatda A. High
from different areas, and studies have shown an enormous potential loading fragrance encapsulation based on a polymer-blend:
to provide the core with advantageous features, resulting in Preparation and release behavior. Int J Pharm, 2010;
superior quality products, including in the cosmetic industry. 391(1–2):267–73.
Through the efforts of the cosmetic industry, nano and microparticle Banjare L, Ghilare N. Development of biocompatible nanoparticles
formulations for the skin have definitively been an economic for sustained topical delivery of Rutin. Int J Pharm Biol Arch,
success. Encapsulation of cosmetic and personal care products 2012;3(2):326–32.
ingredients has become very popular, attractive and technologically Barel A, Paye M, Maibach H. 2001. Handbook of cosmetic science
feasible, consequences of the added value associated with the and technology. New York: Marcel Dekker.
generated products, but also because compound’s functionality can Barroso MR, Barros L, Dueñas M, Carvalho AM, Santos-Buelga C,
be effectively preserved or even enhanced. The efforts made to Fernandes IP Barreiro MF, Ferreira ICFR. Exploring the antioxidant
obtain a better understanding concerning the mechanisms of the potential of Helichrysum stoechas (L.) Moench phenolic com-
novel formulations at the molecular and supramolecular level have pounds for cosmetic applications: Chemical characterization,
led to new formulation processes and could open new prospects in microencapsulation and incorporation into a moisturizer. Ind
the area of active delivery by means of encapsulated systems. Crops Prod, 2014;53:330–6.
Microparticle formulations have proved to be innovative and Barry BW. 2002 Transdermal drug delivery. In: Aulton ME, ed.
effective cosmetic delivery systems and successful in improving Pharmaceutics: The science of dosage form design, Chapter 33.
London: Churchill Livingstone, pp. 499–533.
Downloaded by [Francisca Casanova] at 03:22 02 December 2015
Chen AZ, Li Y, Chau FT, Lau TY, Hu JY, Zhao Z, Mok Estevinho BN, Rocha F, Santos L, Alves A. Using water soluble
DKW. Microencapsulation of puerarin nanoparticles by poly(L- chitosan for flavour microencapsulation in food industry. J
lactide) in a supercritical CO(2) process. Acta Biomater, Microencapsul, 2013b;30:571–9.
2009;5(8):2913–19. European Commission. 2013. Growth, Internal Market, Industry,
Chen GL, Kashappa G, Andhyun X-GC, Park J. Linolenic acid-modified Entrepreneurship and SMEs. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/
chitosan for formation of self-assembled nanoparticles. J Agric growth/sectors/cosmetics/legislation. Accessed on 28 April 2015.
Food Chem, 2005;53:437–41. Euromonitor. 2011. Beauty and personal care 2011: Corporate
Chhotalal AK, Chavda JR, Soniwala MM. To study effect of polymer, strategies in and beyond the BRICs. London: Euromonitor
core ratio on yield & size distribution of microcapsules. Int J International.
Pharm India 2013;1(2):281–90. Fairhurst D, Loxley A. 2008. Chapter 17: Micro- and nano-encapsu-
Ciriminna R, Pagliaro M. Sol-gel microencapsulation of odorants and lation of water- and oil-soluble actives for cosmetic and pharma-
flavors: Opening the route to sustainable fragrances and aromas. ceutical applications. Bethlehem, PA: Particle Sciences Inc.
Chem Soc Rev, 2013;42(24):9243–50. Flynn GL. 2002. Cutaneous and transdermal delivery-processes and
Cocero M, Martin A, Mattea F, Varona S. Encapsulation and co- systems of delivery. In: Banker GS, Rhodes CT, eds. Modern
precipitation processes with supercritical fluids: Fundamentals pharmaceutics, Chapter 8. New York: Marcel Dekker, pp. 293–360.
and applications. J Supercrit Fluids, 2009;47:456–555. Freitas S, Merkle H, Gander B. Microencapsulation by solvent
Conopco, Inc., D/B/A Unilever. 2010. Topical composition compris- extraction/evaporation: Reviewing the state of the art of micro-
ing coloring antioxidants. Patent US 20090162306 A1. sphere preparation process technology. J Control Release,
Coreana Cosmetics Co., Ltd. 2001. Cosmetic material containing 2005;102(2):313–32.
triple-encapsulated retinol. Patent US 6908625. Forster M, Bolzinger MA, Fessi H, Briançon S. Topical delivery of
Downloaded by [Francisca Casanova] at 03:22 02 December 2015
Di Marco M, Shamsuddin S, Razak KA, Aziz AA, Devaux C, Borghi E, cosmetics and drugs. Molecular aspects of percutaneous absorp-
Levy L, Sadun C. Overview of the main methods used to combine tion and delivery. Eur J Dermatol , 2009;19:309–23.
proteins with nanosystems: Absorption, bioconjugation, and Fu X, Ping Q, Gao Y. Effects of formulation factors on encapsulation
encapsulation. Int J Nanomedicine, 2010;5:37–49. efficiency and release behaviour in vitro of huperzine A-PLGA
Dong-Gon K, Young-Il J, Changyong C, Sung-Hee R, Seong-Koo K, microspheres. J Microencapsul, 2005;22:57–66.
Mi-Kyeong J, Jae-Woon N. Retinol-encapsulated low molecular Gallarate M, Carlotti ME, Trotta M, Bovo S. On the stability of ascorbic
water-soluble chitosan nanoparticles. Int J Pharm, 2006; acid in emulsified systems for topical and cosmetic use. Int J
319(1–2):130–8. Pharm, 1999;188(2):233–41.
Dreno B. Topical antibacterial therapy for acne vulgaris. Drugs, Gander B, Blanco-Prı́eto MJ, Thomasin C, Wandrey C, Hunkeler D.
2004;64(21):2389–97. 2006. Coacervation and phase separation. In: Swarbrick J, Boylan J,
Dubey R, Shami TC, Bhasker Rao K. Microencapsulation technology eds. Encyclopedia of pharmaceutical technology. New York:
Marcel Dekker.
and applications. Defence Sci J, 2009;59(1):82–95.
Gander B, Merkle HP, Nguyen VP, Ho NT. A new thermodynamic
Duclairoir C, Orecchioni A, Depraetere P, Nakache E. Alpha-tocoph-
model to predict protein encapsulation efficiency in poly(lactide)
erol encapsulation and in vitro release from wheat gliadin
microspheres. J Phys Chem, 1995;99(43):16144–8.
nanoparticles. J Microencapsul, 2002;19(1):53–60.
Ganza-González A, Anguiano-Igea S, Otero-Espinar FJ, Mendez JB.
Durand M. 1995. Method for the protection of dihydroxyacetone, a
Chitosan and chondroitin microspheres for oral-administration
dihydroxyacetone protected by this method, and a cosmetic
controlled release of metoclopramide. Eur J Pharm Biopharm,
product containing such a protected dihydroxyacetone. Patent US
1999;48(2):149–55.
5458872 A.
Ghosh SK. 2006. Functional coatings and microencapsulation: A
El Maghraby GM, Barryc BW, Williams AC. Liposomes and skin: From
general perspective. In: GhoshSK, ed. Functional coatings: By
drug delivery to model membranes. Eur J Pharm Sci, 2008;
polymer microencapsulation. Weinheim, FRG: Wiley-VCH Verlag
34(4–5):203–22.
GmbH & Co. KGaA, pp. 2–25.
Elias PM. The epidermal permeability barrier: From the early days at
Giri TK, Choudhary C, Ajazuddin AA, Badwaik H, Tripathi DK.
harvard to emerging concepts. J Invest Dermatol, 2004;
Prospects of pharmaceuticals and biopharmaceuticals loaded
122(2):36–9. microparticles prepared by double emulsion technique for
Eric Perrier LVMH. 2012. Editorial of Bioencapsulation Innovations. controlled delivery. Saudi Pharm J, 2012;21(2):125–41.
Bioencapsulation Research Group. Gogna D, Jain SK, Yadav AK, Agrawal GP. Microsphere based
Estanqueiro M, Conceição J, Amaral H, Lobo J. Solid lipid improved sunscreen formulation of ethylhexyl methoxycinna-
nanoparticles and nanostructured lipid carriers in moisturizing mate. Curr Drug Deliv, 2007;4(2):153–9.
cosmetics. Nanotechnol Deliv, 2014;9(5):43–7. Gutcho M. (1976) Microcapsules and microencapsulation techniques
Estevinho BN, Damas AM, Martins P, Rocha F. Study of the inhibition (Chemical technology Review). USA: Noyes Data Corp.
effect on the microencapsulated enzyme b-galactosidase. Environ Haddadi A, Aboofazeli R, Erfan M, Farboud ES. Topical delivery of
Eng Manag J, 2012;11:1923–30. urea encapsulated in biodegradable PLGA microparticles: O/W
Estevinho BN, Damas AM, Martins P, Rocha F. The influence and W/O creams. J Microencapsul, 2008;25(6):379–86.
of microencapsulation with a modified chitosan (water sol- Hammad U, Hemlata N, Asif M, Nainar M. Microencapsulation:
uble) on b-galactosidase activity. Drying Technol J, 2014a; Process, techniques and applications. Int J Res Pharm Biomed Sci,
32:1575–86. 2011;2(2):474–81.
Estevinho BN, Damas AM, Martins P, Rocha F. Microencapsulation of Handjani RM, Kauffmann M, Huguenin F. (L’Oreal). 1993. Process for
b-galactosidase with different biopolymers by a spray-drying the preparation of alginate capsules, apparatus for producing said
process. Food Res Int J, 2014b;64:134–40. capsules and cosmetic compositions containing said capsules. US
Estevinho BN, Rocha F, Santos L, Alves A. Microencapsulation with patent 5204111.
chitosan by spray drying for industry applications – A review. Harding CR. The stratum corneum: Structure and function in health
Trends Food Sci Technol J, 2013a;31:138–55. and disease. Dermatol Ther, 2004;17:6–15.
JOURNAL OF MICROENCAPSULATION 15
Harris R, Lecumberri E, Mateos-Aparicio I, Mengı́bar M, Heras A. Lee KY, Mooney DJ. Alginate: Properties and biomedical applica-
Chitosan nanoparticles and microspheres for the encapsulation of tions. Prog Polym Sci, 2012;37(1):106–26.
natural antioxidants extracted from Ilex paraguariensis. Carbohydr Lee MH, Oh SG, Moon SK, Bae SY. Preparation of silica particles
Polym, 2011;84(2):803–6. encapsulating retinol using O/W/O multiple emulsions. J Colloid
Herman A. Caffeine’s mechanisms of action and its cosmetic use. Interface Sci, 2001;240:83–89.
Skin Pharmacol Physiol, 2013;26(1):8–14. Li M, Rouaud O, Poncelet D. Microencapsulation by solvent
Hirech K, Payan S, Carnelle G, Brujes L, Legrand J. evaporation: State of the art for process engineering approaches.
Microencapsulation of an insecticide by interfacial polymerisation. Int J Pharm, 2008;363(1–2):26–39.
Powder Technol, 2003;130(1–3):324–30. Lipo Technologies. 2015. Available at: http://www.lipotechnol
Hofmeister I, Landfester K, Taden A. pH-Sensitive nanocapsules with ogies.com. Accessed on 12 May 2015.
barrier properties: Fragrance encapsulation and controlled Lumsdon SO, Friedmann TE, Green JH. 2005. Encapsulation of oils by
release. Macromolecules, 2014;47(16):5768–73. coacervation. WIPO Patent WO/2005/105290.
Hung LH, Teh SY, Jester J, Lee AP. PLGA micro/nanosphere synthesis Luxsuwong D, Indranupakorn R, Wongtrakul P. Preparation of
by droplet microfluidic solvent evaporation and extraction vesicles entrapped lycopene extract. J Oleo Sci, 2014;63(6):
approaches. Lab Chip, 2010;10(14):1820–5. 645–52.
Itoh Y, Matsusaki M, Kida T, Akashi M. Enzyme-responsive release of Madan PL. Microencapsulation: Phase separation or coacervation.
encapsulated proteins from biodegradable hollow capsules. Drug Dev Ind Pharm, 1978;4(1):95–116.
Biomacromolecules, 2006;7(10):2715–8. Marcato P, Caverzan J, Rossi-Bergmann B, Pinto EF, Machado D,
Jain S, Tiwari AK, Jain NK. 2006. Topical products. In: Jain NK, ed. Silva RA, Justo GZ, Ferreira CV, Durán N. Nanostructured
Pharmaceutical product development, Chapter 7. New Delhi: CBS polymer and lipid carriers for sunscreen. Biological
Downloaded by [Francisca Casanova] at 03:22 02 December 2015
Nguyen-Ngoc H, Tran-Minh C. Sol–gel process for vegetal cell Selvaraj S, Karthikeyan J, Saravanakumar N. Chitosan loaded
encapsulation. Mater Sci Eng C Biomimetic Supramol Syst, microspheres as an ocular delivery system for acyclovir. Int J
2007;27(4):607–11. Pharm Pharm Sci, 2012;4(1):125–32.
Nichols JA, Katiyar S. Skin photoprotection by natural polyphenols: Shaklee C. 2001. Improved stable topical ascorbic acidcompositions.
Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and DNA repair mechanisms. Arch Patent EP 1096922 A1.
Dermatol Res, 2010;302:71–83. Shinde T, Sun-Waterhouse D, Brooks J. Co-extrusion encapsulation
Nokhodchi A, Jelveghari M, Siahi M, Dastmalchi S. The effect of of probiotic Lactobacillus acidophilus Alone or together with
formulation type on the release of benzoyl peroxide from apple skin polyphenols: An aqueous and value-added deliv-
microsponges. Iran J Pharm Sci, 2005;1(3):131–42. ery system using alginate. Food Bioprocess Technol,
Oresajo C, Pillai S, Manco M, Yatskayer M, McDaniel D. Antioxidants 2014;7(6):1581–96.
and the skin: Understanding formulation and efficacy. Dermatol Silva P, Fries L, Menezes C, Holkem A, Schwan C, Wigmann E, Bastos
Ther, 2012;25:252–9. J, Silva C. Microencapsulation: Concepts, mechanisms, methods
Pardeike J, Hommoss A, Müller R. Lipid nanoparticles (SLN, NLC) in and some applications in food technology. Ciência Rural,
cosmetic and pharmaceutical dermal products. Int J Pharm, 2014;44(7):1304–11.
2009;366(1–2):170–84. Sinko PJ. 2006. Chemical kinetics and stability. In: Sinko PJ, ed.
Patravale VB, Mandawgade SD. Novel cosmetic delivery systems: An Martin’s Physical Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chapter
application update. Int J Cosmet Sci, 2008;30:19–33. 14. Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, pp. 318–55.
Pawar KR, Babu RJ. Polymeric and lipid-based materials for topical Soest JJGV. 2007. Encapsulation of fragrances and flavours: A way to
nanoparticle delivery systems. Crit Rev Ther Drug Carrier Syst, control odour and aroma in consumer products. In: Berger RG, ed.
2010;27(5):419–59. Flavours and fragrances – Chemistry, bioprocessing and sustain-
Downloaded by [Francisca Casanova] at 03:22 02 December 2015
Pedro AS, Cabral-Albuquerque E, Ferreira D, Sarmento B. Chitosan: ability. Germany: Springer, pp. 439–55.
An option for development of essential oil delivery systems for Soto ML, Falqué E, Domı́nguez H. Relevance of natural phenolics
oral cavity care. Carbohydr Polym, 2009;76(4):501–8. from grape and derivative products in the formulation of
Pellets: Cosmetic and Oral Care. 2015. Available at: http://www. cosmetics. Cosmetics, 2015;2:259–76.
pellets.com.cn. Accessed on 13 May 2015. Sri J, Seethadevi A, Prabha K, Muthupsasanna P, Pavitra P.
Peres I, Rocha S, Gomes J, Morais S, Pereira C, Coelho M. Preservation Microencapsulation: A review. Int J Pharma Biosci, 2012;13(1):
of catechin antioxidant properties loaded in carbohydrate 509–531.
nanoparticles. Carbohydr Polym, 2011;86:147–53. Stevanovic M, Savic J, Jordovic B, Uskokovic D. Fabrication, in vitro
Perugini P, Genta I, Pavanetto F, Conti B, Scalia S, Baruffini A. Study degradation and the release behaviours of poly(dllactide-co-
on glycolic acid delivery by liposomes and microspheres. Int J glycolide) nanospheres containing ascorbic acid. Colloids Surf,
Pharm, 2000;196(1):51–61. 2007;59(2):215–23.
Poljsak B, Dahmane R, Godic A. Skin and antioxidants. J Cosmet Sunsmart, Inc., Sibmicro Encapsulation Technologies, Inc. 1998.
Laser Ther, 2013;15:107–113. Composite UV sunblock compositions. Patent US 5733531 A
Puglia C, Blasi P, Rizza L, Schoubben A, Bonina F, Rossi C, Suraweera RK, Pasansi HGP, Herath HMDR, Wickramaratne
Ricci M. Lipid nanoparticles for prolonged topical delivery: DBM, Sudeshika SHT, Niyangoda D, Sakeena MHF. Formulation
An in vitro and in vivo investigation. Int J Pharm, 2008; and stability evaluation of ketoprofen loaded virgin coco-
357(1–2):295–304. nut oil based creamy emulsion. Int J Pharm Pharm Sci, 2014;6
R. P. Scherer Corporation. 1996. Topical application emulsions. (8):249–54.
Patent US 5587149 A. Tagra Biotechnologies. 2015. Available at: http://www.tagra.com.
Rein H. Experimental electroendosmotic studies on living human Accessed on 12 May 2015.
skin. Z Biol J, 1924;81:125–40. Tarimci N. 2011. Cyclodextrins in the cosmetic field. In: Bilensoy, E.
Rosen M. 2005. Delivery system handbook for personal care (ed.) Cyclodextrins in pharmaceutics, cosmetics, and biomedicine:
and cosmetic products: Technology, applications and formula- Current and future industrial applications. Hoboken, New Jersey:
tions, personal care and cosmetic technology. Norwich: William John Wiley & Sons, Inc., pp. 131–44.
Andrew. Vela-Soria F, Ballesteros O, Zafra-Gómez A, Ballesteros L, Navalón A.
Santo S, Matteo M. Incorporation of quercetin in lipid microparticles: A new method for the determination of benzophenone-UV filters
Effect on photo- and chemical-stability. J Pharm Biomed Anal, in human serum samples by dispersive liquid-liquid microextrac-
2009;49(1):90–4. tion with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry.
Scalia S, Marchetti N, Bianchi A. Comparative evaluation of different Talanta, 2014;121:97–104.
co-antioxidants on the photochemical- and functional-stability of Vettor M, Bourgeois S, Fessi H, Pelletier J, Perugini P, Pavanetto F,
epigallocatechin-3-gallate in topical creams exposed to simulated Bolzinger MA. Skin absorption studies of octyl-methoxycinnamate
sunlight. Molecules, 2013;18:574–87. loaded poly(D,L-lactide) nanoparticles: Estimation of the UV filter
Scalia S, Mezzena M. Co-loading of a photostabilizer with the distribution and release behaviour in skin layers. J Microencapsul,
sunscreen agent, butyl methoxydibenzoylmethane in solid lipid 2010;27(3):253–62.
microparticles. Drug Dev Ind Pharm, 2009;35(2):192–8. Wesselingh JA, Kill S, Vild ME. 2007. Design & development of
Scalia S, Mezzena M, Ramaccini D. Encapsulation of the biological, chemical, food and pharmaceutical products.
UV filters ethylhexyl methoxycinnamate and butyl methoxydi- Chichester, UK: Wiley.
benzoylmethane in lipid microparticles: Effect on in Wiechers J. 2005. Optimizing skin delivery of active ingredients from
vivo human skin permeation. Skin Pharmacol Physiol, 2011; emulsions: From theory to practice. In: Rosen MR, ed. Delivery
24(4):182–9. system handbook for personal care and cosmetic products –
Scognamiglio I, Stefano D, Campani V, Mayol L, Carnuccio R, Technology, applications, and formulations, Chapter 20. Norwich,
Fabbrocini G, Ayala F, Rotonda M, Rosa G. Nanocarriers for topical New York: William Andrew, Inc.
administration of resveratrol: A comparative study. Int J Pharm, Wiechers J. 2008. Science and applications of skin delivery systems.
2013;440(2):179–87. Carol Stream: Allured Publishing Corporation.
JOURNAL OF MICROENCAPSULATION 17
Wille JJ. 2006. Thixogel: A starch matrix encapsulation technology Yang JH, Lee SY, Han YS, Park KC, Choy JH. Efficient transdermal
for topical drug and cosmetic delivery. In: Wille JJ, ed. Skin penetration and improved stability of L-ascorbic acid. Bull Korean
delivery systems: Transdermals, dermatologicals and cosmetic Chem Soc, 2003;24(4):499–503.
actives . Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, pp. 223–45. Yasutami S, Hiromichi I, Hideya A, Atsuko R, Naoto O,
Wilson N, Shah NP. Review paper: Microencapsulation of vitamins. Naomichi B, Taketoshi M. Skin whitening effect of linoleic acid is
ASEAN Food J, 2007;14(1):1–14. enhanced by liposomal formulations. Biol Pharm Bull, 2004;
Wisuitiprot W, Somsiri A, Ingkaninan K, Waranuch N. In vitro human 27(4):591–4.
skin permeation and cutaneous metabolism of catechins from Yin WS, Yates MZ. Encapsulation and sustained release from
green tea extract and green tea extract-loaded chitosan micro- biodegradable microcapsules made by emulsification/freeze
particles. Int J Cosmet Sci, 2011;33(6):572–9. drying and spray/freeze drying. J Colloid Interface Sci, 2009;
Yamamoto I, Tai A, Fujinami Y, Sasaki K, Okazaki S. Synthesis 336(1):155–61.
and characterization of a series of novel monoacylated ascorbic Yusuf N, Irby C, Katiyar SK, Elmets CA. Photoprotective effects of
acid derivatives, 6-O-acyl-2-O-alpha-D-glucopyranosyl-L-ascorbic green tea polyphenols. Photodermatol Photoimmunol Photomed,
acids, as skin antioxidants. J Med Chem, 2002;45(2): 462–8. 2007;23:48–56.
Downloaded by [Francisca Casanova] at 03:22 02 December 2015