WATER QUALITY AND STANDARDS

Dr. DIPANKAR PAL

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 WATER QUALITY STANDARDS
Conservation of water is encouraged by requiring consumers to
pay for metered water as well as wastewater.
Throughout developed world, directives exist to address water
quality at source and at destination ie. Quality of raw water and
treated potable water.
In EU, Category A1 water requires only simple physical
(filtration) and disinfection treatment. A2  normal physical,
chemical and disinfection treatment. A3 intense
Organoleptic parameters
Colour – Colour in water is caused by dissolved minerals, dyes
or humic acid from plants. Colour is measured in units of mg/L
on platinum cobalt scale or called Hazen scale.
Raw water is of good quality if value < 10 mg/L, acceptable at
100 mg/L, unacceptable at > 200 mg/L. disinfectants are most
3 effective when used on low turbidity water.
Turbidity  due to very fine suspended or clay particles, is
measure of water ability to scatter light. It is measured in
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Nephelopmetric Turbidity Units. Very good turbidity value if
 WATER QUALITY STANDARDS
Turbidity <0.1 NTU, acceptable if <1 NTU, unacceptable if >5
NTU. Colour of water best measured when no turbidity.
Odour and taste in water caused by presence of by-products of
plant and animal micro-organisms esp. H2S
Monitoring frequency :
The water quality parameters are required to be monitored in
different frequencies depending upon the source and quality of
raw water. Sampling and analysis increase with the population.
The three categories are : Minimum monitoring (C1), current
monitoring (C2), periodic monitoring (C3) and occasional
monitoring in special situations.

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 Presence of undesirable pathogens is due to human and animal
excreta. Raw water is not generally analyzed for bacteria,
viruses because of great variety. Generally indicator organisms
are used. Most of the time, it is sufficient to look at only 2 ;
total coliforms and faecal coliform (Escherichia Coli)
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 TREATMENT OF WATER
If raw water is of adequate quality – may be pumped
directly for standard treatment of coagulation etc.
Generally needed steps before these are
1 Screening Coarse screens – prevent large floating
material from entering treatment plant. If storage is not
provided, fine screens ( mesh with openings of about 6
mm) are fitted after coarse screens. If storage, at the
outlet of storage tanks.
2 Storage If raw water is from river, storage provided as a
safety line in case river becomes polluted. Also storage is
reservoirs in case of low flow. Generally 7-10 days of avg.
water demand  reduce pathogens by exposure to
sunlight, take care not to grow organisms
3 Aeration  it is used to
1 Release excess H2S gas which may cause undesirable
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taste
2 To release excess CO2 which has corrosive tendencies
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 TREATMENT OF WATER
To increase O2 content which may have negative taste due to
photosynthetic algae, Fe and Mn (to cause precipitation)
Aeration can be simple spraying of water into air.

4. Chemical pre-treatment: softening algae removal, pre-

chlorination
Chemical pre-treatment is more expensive that post-
treatment since some of chemical is masked and absorbed by
turbidity of water. Pre-chlorination is used on low-turbidity
water with a high coliform count. Cl oxidizes and precipitates
out Fe and Mn, kills pathogens, reduces color. Dose is 5 mg/L
(1 mg/L for post-chlorination). It is beneficial in reduction of
ammonia in both surface and groundwater supplies.
Activated carbon can be either powdered (PAC) or
granular (GAC).PAC has lower capital cost but also lower
20 efficiency than GAC.

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 TREATMENT OF WATER
In type I settling, (for discrete, non-flocculent particles in a
dilute suspension), a particle will accelerate vertically
downwards until drag force equals impelling force, thereafter the
particle settles at a constant velocity known as Stokes’ velocity
Vs = g*(Rhos-Rhow)*d^2/(18*mu) where d = diameter of sphere

For a rectangular tank Q/Ap=surface overflow rate = settling

velocity, same for circular tank. Ap = plan area, matter entering
at point a in diagram will settle at point f at the outlet, if settling
at velocity of Vs.

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 TREATMENT OF WATER
In type II – To settle out flocculent particles in dilute
suspension, particles are assisted chemically to come together
and produce larger particles to settle. Coagulation  first step to
change particle charge, Flocculation  second step.
While particles are settling, they increase in size and mass, so to
determine settling rates, laboratory tests are carried out using
batch settling column which has opening at different points,
samples are withdrawn at regular time intervals and suspended
solids concentration is determined.

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 TREATMENT OF WATER
Coagulation
Because of very small size (10-7 to 10-1 mm)of particles,
suspended matter has negligible velocity. Before ideal
coagulation identification, properties of suspended matter
identified are its classification (whether it has affinity for water
adsorption (hydrophilic) or not (hydrophobic)) and its charge
(most particles are with negative charge which repel each other
and stay stable in suspension). Chemical coagulants added and
brief mixing (20 to 60 sec) carried out. After the microfloc is
formed, next it is subjected to flocculation at very small agitation
rate for 20-60 min. So flocculation basin is about 50 times larger
than rapid mixing unit. It may need addition of coagulant aid,
called as polyelectrolytes, which are more expensive than
coagulants.

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 TREATMENT OF WATER
Coagulation

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 TREATMENT OF WATER
Filtration
Slow sand filter (SSF): removal of impurities is thought to be in
the schmutzdecke layer, mechanisms are thought to be both
physical and biological, many microbiological parameters
improve significantly after passing through slow sand filter of
fine sand of size about 0.15-0.3 mm. Schmutzdecke layer consists
of both living and dead micro-organisms.

Rapid gravity filters (RGF): Filters chemically coagulated water,

filtration rate of 5-20 m/h vs. 0.2 m/h for SSF (filter runs on SSF
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are 2-6 months compared to RGF 20-60 hours). Cleaning is
achieved by agitating bed mechanically or with compressed air
and washing water upwards through the bed to surface from
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where it is decanted.
 TREATMENT OF WATER
RGF may be of three possible media types
Single medium – usually sand or anthracite
Dual medium – usual sand and anthracite
Multimedia – usually garnet, sand and anthracite

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 TREATMENT OF WATER
Disinfection refers to killing or rendering harmless pathogenic
microorganisms vs. sterilization (complete killing of all living
matter). Coagulation and filtration should remove >90% of
bacteria and viruses. Lime softening process is an effective
disinfectant due to high pH involved. Good disinfectant should
 Be toxic to microorganisms at well below threshold for humans
 Have a fast rate of kill
 Be persistent enough to prevent regrowth of organisms.
Low efficiency of disinfection is due to
 Resistant organisms (Giardia) – Viruses are more resistant
than bacteria and need more exposure time and higher conc.
 Turbidity
 Deposits of iron and manganese – can shield organisms and
use up disinfectant.
 High amount of organic material
 Oxidizable compounds
27 No disinfectant is perfect, all have advantages and
disadvantages for a given water.
The most commonly used industrial scale disinfectant are
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 TREATMENT OF WATER
Compared to chlorine, chlorine dioxide ClO2,
1. Disinfection efficiency is largely pH dependent.
2. Doesn’t react with ammonia
3. Formation of TriHalogen Methanes (THM) can be neglected
(although it forms toxic inorganics, ClO2- and ClO3- may
provoke methanoglobinemia)

Chloramines
When both chlorine and ammonia are present in water, they
react to form inorganic chloramines.
NH3(aq) + HOCl NH2Cl + H2O (monochloramine), similarly
reaction for dichloramine and trichloramine. Compared to Cl2 or
ClO2, they are
1. Less effective disinfectants
2. Efficiency heavily dependent on pH, higher efficiency at low
pH
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3. Do not react with organic material or phenols
4. Provide continued protection against regrowth in
distribution system.
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 TREATMENT OF WATER
Ozone – produced in a high strength electric field from oxygen.
Needs to be used immediately after production.
1. Especially useful in killing viruses
2. Improvement of odour and taste
3. Transformation of almost non-degradable substances into
easily degradable ones, regrowth of micro-organism within
water supply system due to it, hence treatment of water with
ozone as last step doesn’t occur very often
4. Largely pH dependent
5. No remaining residuals (of disinfectant), necessary to use
small amounts of chlorine after ozonization to provide
coninuous protection against regrowth in the distribution
system.

UV radiation
1. No residual, effective in disabling both bacteria and viruses
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2. Photo-oxidation of compounds may occur
3. No odour or taste problems
4. No chemicals added
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 TREATMENT OF WATER
Chlorination – Most widely used procedure for treatment of
surface water. High doses develop carcinogenic/mutagenic produc
In water, Chlorine reacts as
Cl2+H2OH++Cl-+HOCl,(hypochloric acid)
Depending on pH, HOCl H++OCl-
HOCl and OCl- are primary disinfectant
Mechanism of pathogen kill is considered to be
 Penetration into cell of micro-organism with subsequent
blocking of an essential enzyme
 Destruction of cell wall
Factor affecting the process
 pH, concentration, temperature
 Chemical form of chlorine
 Contact time, type of organism, suspended solids
Due to safety reasons, hypochlorites are mainly used in highly
populated areas. Redox potential measures relation of both
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oxidizing and reducing compounds, so it gives reliable estimate of
still available disinfection power within water.
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 TREATMENT OF WATER
Chlorine is used as an oxidizing agent to break down many
inorganic/organic materials, this type of chlorination is called as
‘breakpoint’ chlorination. Requires high doses of chlorine.

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The by products of organics oxidized by chlorine are often

undesirable. Products like THM which carry carcinogenic risk to
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human health, their reduction is undesirable.
 TREATMENT OF WATER
Advanced water treatment processes
Fe and Mn removal – Fe conc in water is generally greater than
Mn. Bacteria use oxygen in water to make food. So a raindrop
gradually loses oxygen through soil on its way. After using all
oxygen, micro-organisms scavenge oxygen from commonly
occuring metal oxides like Fe2O3 and MnO2. Iron in water is not
harmful but unacceptable on aesthetic grounds. Also gives rise to
iron bacteria which produces slimes. The principal method of
removing iron is oxidizing ferrous ion to ferric ion.
If the amount of iron in water is low, it is removed by pressure
filter containing usual bed of sand but sometimes incorporating a
layer of proprietary material such as polarite or an iron core
which acts as catalyst. As the amount of oxygen required is small,
it is provided merely by introducing air into the space of filter
shell. If chemical coagulation precedes sand filter, faster rate of
filtration. Semi-calcined dolomite limestone as filter medium is
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alternative for sand filter.
If amount of iron is high, a coagulation step is provided before
sand filter. Multimedia filtration, with filter containing several
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layers of different materials is effective.
 TREATMENT OF WATER
Removal of Manganese
The pH has to be 9 or 10, achieved by strongly alkaline filter
materials before oxidation by oxygen takes place. Mn can occur in
different oxidation states (II, III, IV naturally, V, VI, VII
produced artifically). For removal of Mn2+, KMnO4 solution is
added as conditioning agent before filtration step without
changing the pH.

Hardness of water (softening by chemical precipitation)

Hardness (mg/L as /description
CaCO3)
0-75 Soft
75-150 Moderately hard
150-300 Hard
>300 Very Hard
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Lime treatment is used for water softening.

Ion exchange- Process are reversible and direction of reaction

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depened on conc. And level of saturation of sodium resin.
 TREATMENT OF WATER
Adsorption
Typical Adsorbents used in industry are
 Activated carbon, PAC or GAC
 Activated alum, clay colloids, hydroxides, adsorbent resins
PAC can be fed to water stream at coagulation stage or prior to
filtration. PAC produces additional sludge and is not available for
regeneration. Significant properties are bulk density (higher
densities have higher adsorption capacities) and filterability (they
will be filtered out in sand filter backwash)
GAC is used as final filter bed after sand filtration. Significant
properties are hardness (harder the particle less is lost by
attrition) and particle (smaller the particle, greater availability of
macropore space and less head is required).

Chemical oxidation
Oxidants are used for
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 Oxidation of Iron, Manganese
 Improvement of odour and taste
 Colour removal
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 Flocculent aid
 TREATMENT OF WATER
Alternatives to chlorine (because of THM) are
Chloramines, ozone, Potassium permanganate, Chlorine dioxide

Membrane techniques

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